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Baroque music

May 18, 2023

Baroque music (UK: /bəˈrɒk/ or US: /bəˈroʊk/) refers to the period or dominant style of Western classical music composed from about 1600 to 1750.[1] The Baroque style followed the Renaissance period, and was followed in turn by the Classical period after a short transition, the galant style. The Baroque period is divided into three major phases: early, middle, and late. Overlapping in time, they are conventionally dated from 1580 to 1650, from 1630 to 1700, and from 1680 to 1750. Baroque music forms a major portion of the "classical music" canon, and is widely studied, performed, and listened to. The term "baroque" comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning "misshapen pearl".[2] The works of George Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach are considered the pinnacle of the Baroque period. Other key composers of the Baroque era include Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Scarlatti, Alessandro Scarlatti, Alessandro Stradella, Antonio Vivaldi, Tomaso Albinoni, Johann Pachelbel, Henry Purcell, Georg Philipp Telemann, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Arcangelo Corelli, François Couperin, Johann Hermann Schein, Heinrich Schütz, Samuel Scheidt, Dieterich Buxtehude, and others.

Painting by Evaristo Baschenis of Baroque instruments, including a cittern, viola da gamba, violin, and two lutes.

The Baroque saw the creation of common-practice tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key; this type of harmony has continued to be used extensively in Western classical and popular music. During the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. Baroque concerts were typically accompanied by a basso continuo group (comprising chord-playing instrumentalists such as harpsichordists and lute players improvising chords from a figured bass part) while a group of bass instruments—viol, cello, double bass—played the bassline. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite. While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed purely for listening, not for accompanying dancers.

During the period composers experimented with finding a fuller sound for each instrumental part (thus creating the orchestra),[2] made changes in musical notation (the development of figured bass as a quick way to notate the chord progression of a song or piece), and developed new instrumental playing techniques. Baroque music expanded the size, range, and complexity of instrumental performance, and also established the mixed vocal/instrumental forms of opera, cantata and oratorio and the instrumental forms of the solo concerto and sonata as musical genres. Dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously (a popular example of this is the fugue), was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works. Overall, Baroque music was a tool for expression and communication.[1]

Etymology and definition

The etymology of baroque is likely via the French baroque (which originally meant a pearl of irregular shape), and from the Portuguese barroco ("irregular pearl"); also related are the Spanish barrueco and the Italian barocco. The term is of uncertain ultimate origin, but possibly from Latin verrūca ("wart") or possibly from Baroco, a technical term from scholastic logic.[3]

The term "baroque" is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of about 150 years.[1] Though it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[4]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as well as philosopher, wrote in 1768 in the Encyclopédie: "Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by logicians."[5] Rousseau was referring to the philosophical term baroco, in use since the 13th century to describe a type of elaborate and, for some, unnecessarily complicated academic argument.[6][7]

The systematic application by historians of the term "baroque" to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflin's theory of the Baroque systematically to music.[8] Critics were quick to question the attempt to transpose Wölfflin's categories to music, however, and in the second quarter of the 20th century independent attempts were made by Manfred Bukofzer (in Germany and, after his immigration, in America) and by Suzanne Clercx-Lejeune (in Belgium) to use autonomous, technical analysis rather than comparative abstractions, in order to avoid the adaptation of theories based on the plastic arts and literature to music. All of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer and Paul Henry Lang.[1]

As late as 1960, there was still considerable dispute in academic circles, particularly in France and Britain, whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of Jacopo Peri, Domenico Scarlatti, and Johann Sebastian Bach under a single rubric. Nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music.[1] It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding (Renaissance) and following (Classical) periods of musical history.

History

Throughout the Baroque era, new developments in music originated in Italy, after which it took up to 20 years before they were broadly adopted in rest of the Western classical music practice. For instance, Italian composers switched to the galant style around 1730, while German composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach largely continued to write in the baroque style up to 1750.[9][10]

Phases of Baroque music[9][10]
Subperiod Time In Italy Elsewhere
Early baroque 1580–1650
Middle baroque 1630–1700
Late baroque 1680–1750

Early baroque music (1580–1650)

Further information: Transition from Renaissance to Baroque in instrumental music

The Florentine Camerata was a group of humanists, musicians, poets and intellectuals in late Renaissance Florence who gathered under the patronage of Count Giovanni de' Bardi to discuss and guide trends in the arts, especially music and drama. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical (especially ancient Greek) musical drama that valued discourse and oration.[11] Accordingly, they rejected their contemporaries' use of polyphony (multiple, independent melodic lines) and instrumental music, and discussed such ancient Greek music devices as monody, which consisted of a solo singing accompanied by a kithara (an ancient strummed string instrument).[12] The early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peri's Dafne and L'Euridice, marked the beginning of opera,[13] which was a catalyst for Baroque music.[14]

Concerning music theory, the more widespread use of figured bass (also known as thorough bass) represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony.[15] Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a visual representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as harpsichord players or pipe organists (or lutenists). The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the keyboard player what intervals are to be played above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note.[16] Composers began concerning themselves with harmonic progressions,[17] and also employed the tritone, perceived as an unstable interval,[18] to create dissonance (it was used in the dominant seventh chord and the diminished chord). An interest in harmony had also existed among certain composers in the Renaissance, notably Carlo Gesualdo;[19] However, the use of harmony directed towards tonality (a focus on a musical key that becomes the "home note" of a piece), rather than modality, marks the shift from the Renaissance into the Baroque period.[20] This led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality.[citation needed]

By incorporating these new aspects of composition, Claudio Monteverdi furthered the transition from the Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period. He developed two individual styles of composition—the heritage of Renaissance polyphony (prima pratica) and the new basso continuo technique of the Baroque (seconda pratica). With basso continuo, a small group of musicians would play the bassline and the chords which formed the accompaniment for a melody. The basso continuo group would typically use one or more keyboard players and a lute player who would play the bassline and improvise the chords and several bass instruments (e.g., bass viola, cello, double bass) which would play the bassline. With the writing of the operas L'Orfeo and L'incoronazione di Poppea among others, Monteverdi brought considerable attention to this new genre.[21] This Venetian style was taken handily to Germany by Heinrich Schütz, whose diverse style also evolved into the subsequent period.

Idiomatic instrumental textures became increasingly prominent. In particular, the style luthé—the irregular and unpredictable breaking up of chordal progressions, in contrast to the regular patterning of broken chords—referred to since the early 20th century as style brisé, was established as a consistent texture in French music by Robert Ballard,[22][23] in his lute books of 1611 and 1614, and by Ennemond Gaultier.[24] This idiomatic lute figuration was later transferred to the harpsichord, for example in the keyboard music of Louis Couperin and Jean-Henri D'Anglebert, and continued to be an important influence on keyboard music throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries (in, for example, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach and Frédéric Chopin).[23]

Middle baroque music (1630–1700)

The rise of the centralized court is one of the economic and political features of what is often labelled the Age of Absolutism, personified by Louis XIV of France. The style of palace, and the court system of manners and arts he fostered became the model for the rest of Europe. The realities of rising church and state patronage created the demand for organized public music, as the increasing availability of instruments created the demand for chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble of instrumentalists.[25]

One pre-eminent example of a court style composer is Jean-Baptiste Lully. He purchased patents from the monarchy to be the sole composer of operas for the French king and to prevent others from having operas staged. He completed 15 lyric tragedies and left unfinished Achille et Polyxène.[26] Lully was an early example of a conductor; he would beat the time with a large staff to keep his ensembles together.

Musically, he did not establish the string-dominated norm for orchestras, which was inherited from the Italian opera, and the characteristically French five-part disposition (violins, violas—in hautes-contre, tailles and quintes sizes—and bass violins) had been used in the ballet from the time of Louis XIII. He did, however, introduce this ensemble to the lyric theatre, with the upper parts often doubled by recorders, flutes, and oboes, and the bass by bassoons. Trumpets and kettledrums were frequently added for heroic scenes.[26]

The middle Baroque period in Italy is defined by the emergence of the vocal styles of cantata, oratorio, and opera during the 1630s, and a new concept of melody and harmony that elevated the status of the music to one of equality with the words, which formerly had been regarded as pre-eminent. The florid, coloratura monody of the early Baroque gave way to a simpler, more polished melodic style. These melodies were built from short, cadentially delimited ideas often based on stylized dance patterns drawn from the sarabande or the courante. The harmonies, too, might be simpler than in the early Baroque monody, to show expression in a lighter manner on the string and crescendos and diminuendos on longer notes. The accompanying bass lines were more integrated with the melody, producing a contrapuntal equivalence of the parts that later led to the device of an initial bass anticipation of the aria melody. This harmonic simplification also led to a new formal device of the differentiation of recitative (a more spoken part of opera) and aria (a part of opera that used sung melodies). The most important innovators of this style were the Romans Luigi Rossi and Giacomo Carissimi, who were primarily composers of cantatas and oratorios, respectively, and the Venetian Francesco Cavalli, who was principally an opera composer. Later important practitioners of this style include Antonio Cesti, Giovanni Legrenzi, and Alessandro Stradella, who additionally originated the concerto grosso style in his Sonate di viole.[27]

Arcangelo Corelli is remembered as influential for his achievements on the other side of musical technique—as a violinist who organized violin technique and pedagogy—and in purely instrumental music, particularly his advocacy and development of the concerto grosso.[28] Whereas Lully was ensconced at court, Corelli was one of the first composers to publish widely and have his music performed all over Europe. As with Lully's stylization and organization of the opera, the concerto grosso is built on strong contrasts—sections alternate between those played by the full orchestra, and those played by a smaller group. Fast sections and slow sections were juxtaposed against each other. Numbered among his students is Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works based on the principles in Corelli's trio sonatas and concerti.[28]

In contrast to these composers, Dieterich Buxtehude was not a creature of court but instead was church musician, holding the posts of organist and Werkmeister at the Marienkirche at Lübeck. His duties as Werkmeister involved acting as the secretary, treasurer, and business manager of the church, while his position as organist included playing for all the main services, sometimes in collaboration with other instrumentalists or vocalists, who were also paid by the church. Entirely outside of his official church duties, he organised and directed a concert series known as the Abendmusiken, which included performances of sacred dramatic works regarded by his contemporaries as the equivalent of operas.[29]

France:

Late baroque music (1680–1750)

The work of George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach and their contemporaries, including Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Tomaso Albinoni, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Georg Philipp Telemann, and others advanced the Baroque era to its climax.[34]

  • a.k.a. High Baroque

Onset

Italy:

 
Marc-Antoine Charpentier

France:

Wider adoption

Italy:

Proliferation:

France:

Central Europe:

Transition to Classical era

Galant music:

Bach's elder sons and pupils:

Mannheim school:

Timeline of composers

See also: List of Baroque composers
Giovanni Battista PergolesiBaldassare GaluppiCarlos SeixasJohann Adolf HasseRiccardo BroschiJohann Joachim QuantzPietro LocatelliGiuseppe TartiniLeonardo VinciJohann Friedrich FaschFrancesco GeminianiNicola PorporaSilvius Leopold WeissGeorge Frideric HandelDomenico ScarlattiJohann Sebastian BachJohann Gottfried WaltherJean-Philippe RameauJohann David HeinichenGeorg Philipp TelemannJan Dismas ZelenkaAntonio VivaldiTomaso AlbinoniJohann Caspar Ferdinand FischerAntonio CaldaraFrançois CouperinAlessandro ScarlattiHenry PurcellMarin MaraisArcangelo CorelliJohann PachelbelHeinrich Ignaz BiberDieterich BuxtehudeMarc Antoine CharpentierJean-Baptiste LullyJean-Henri d'AnglebertJohann Heinrich SchmelzerBarbara StrozziJohann Jakob FrobergerGiacomo CarissimiAntonio BertaliWilliam LawesFrancesco CavalliSamuel ScheidtHeinrich SchützGirolamo FrescobaldiGregorio AllegriClaudio MonteverdiJan Pieterszoon SweelinckJacopo Peri

Instruments

Main article: Baroque instruments
See also: List of period instruments

Strings

 
Double-manual harpsichord by Vital Julian Frey, after Jean-Claude Goujon (1749)
 
Individual sheet music for a seventeenth-century harp.[36]

Woodwinds

Brass

Keyboards

Percussion

Styles and forms

Dance suite

See also: Suite (music) § Dance suite
 
A large instrumental ensemble's performance in the lavish Teatro Argentina, as depicted by Panini (1747)

A characteristic of the Baroque form was the dance suite. Some dance suites by Bach are called partitas, although this term is also used for other collections of pieces. While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were intended for listening, not for accompanying dancers. Composers used a variety of different movements in their dance suites. A dance suite commonly has these movements:

  • Overture – The Baroque suite often began with a French overture ("Ouverture" in French), a slow movement followed by a succession of principally four different types of dances:
  • Allemande – Often the first dance of an instrumental suite, the allemande was a very popular dance that had its origins in the German Renaissance era. The allemande was played at a moderate tempo and could start on any beat of the bar.[37]
  • Courante – The second dance is the courante, a lively, French dance in triple meter. The Italian version is called the corrente.[citation needed]
  • Sarabande – The sarabande, a Spanish dance, is the third of the four basic dances, and is one of the slowest of the baroque dances. It is also in triple meter and can start on any beat of the bar, although there is an emphasis on the second beat, creating the characteristic 'halting', or iambic rhythm of the sarabande.[37]
  • Gigue – The gigue is an upbeat and lively baroque dance in compound meter, typically the concluding movement of an instrumental suite, and the fourth of its basic dance types. The gigue can start on any beat of the bar and is easily recognized by its rhythmic feel. The gigue originated in the British Isles. Its counterpart in folk music is the jig.[37]

The four dance types (allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue) make up the majority of 17th-century suites. Later suites interpolate one or more additional dances between the sarabande and gigue:

  • Gavotte – The gavotte can be identified by its 4
    4     time which always starts on the third beat of the bar, although it sometimes sound like the first beat, as the first and third beats are the strong beats in quadruple time. The gavotte is played at a moderate tempo, though in some cases it may be played faster.[citation needed]
  • Bourrée – The bourrée is similar to the gavotte as it is in 2
    2     time, although it starts on the second half of the last beat of the bar, creating a different feel to the dance. The bourrée is commonly played at a moderate tempo, although for some composers, such as Handel, it can be taken at a much faster tempo.[2]
  • Minuet – The minuet is perhaps the best-known of the baroque dances in triple meter. It does not have an anacrusis. In some suites there may be a Minuet I and II, played in succession, with the Minuet I repeated but without the internal repeats.[citation needed]
  • Passepied – The passepied is a fast dance in binary form and triple meter that originated as a court dance in Brittany.[38] Examples can be found in later suites such as those of Bach and Handel.[citation needed]
  • Rigaudon – The rigaudon is a lively French dance in duple meter, similar to the bourrée, but rhythmically simpler. It originated as a family of closely related southern-French folk dances, traditionally associated with the provinces of Vavarais, Languedoc, Dauphiné, and Provence.[39]

There are many other dance forms as well as other pieces that could be included in a suite, such as Polonaise, Loure, Scherzo, Air, etc.

Other features

  • Prelude – a suite might be started by a prelude, a slow piece written in an improvisatory style. Some Baroque preludes were not fully written out; instead, a sequence of chords were indicated, with the expectation that the instrumentalist would be able to improvise a melodic part using the indicated harmonic framework. The prelude was not based on a type of dance.
  • Entrée – Sometimes an entrée is composed as part of a suite; but there it is purely instrumental music and no dance is performed. It is an introduction, a march-like piece played during the entrance of a dancing group, or played before a ballet. Usually in 4
    4     time. It is related to the Italian 'intrada'.
  • Basso continuo – a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system, figured bass, usually for one or more sustaining bass instruments (e.g., cello) and one or more chord-playing instruments (e.g., keyboard instruments such as harpsichord, pipe organ or lute)
  • The concerto (a solo piece with orchestral accompaniment) and concerto grosso
  • Monody – an outgrowth of song[citation needed]
  • Homophony – music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar (and subordinate) chordal accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance texture, polyphony)[40]
  • Dramatic musical forms like opera, dramma per musica[41]
  • Combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the oratorio and cantata,[41] both of which used singers and orchestra
  • New instrumental techniques, like tremolo and pizzicato[41]
  • The da capo aria "enjoyed sureness".[citation needed]
  • The ritornello aria – repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages.[42]
  • The concertato style – contrast in sound between groups of instruments.[43]
  • Extensive ornamentation,[44] which was typically improvised by singers and instrumentalists (e.g., trills, mordents, etc.)

Genres

Vocal

Instrumental

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Palisca 2001.
  2. ^ a b c Mackay and Romanec 2007.
  3. ^ "baroque – Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  4. ^ Palisca 1989, pp. 7–8.
  5. ^ Encyclopedie; Lettre sur la Musique Francaise under the direction of Denis Diderot
  6. ^ Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, La logique ou l'art de penser, Part Three, chapter VI (1662) (in French)
  7. ^ "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE". www.cnrtl.fr. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  8. ^ Sachs 1919, pp. 7–15.
  9. ^ a b Bukofzer 1947, pp. 17ff.
  10. ^ a b Bukofzer 2013, "The Phases of Baroque Music" pp. 26–29.
  11. ^ Nuti 2007, p. 14.
  12. ^ Wallechinsky 2007, p. 445.
  13. ^ Chua 2001, p. 26.
  14. ^ Wainwright and Holman 2005, p. 4.
  15. ^ Clarke 1898, pp. 147–48.
  16. ^ Haagmans 1916, p. vi.
  17. ^ York 1909, p. 109.
  18. ^ Donington 1974, p. 156.
  19. ^ Watkins 1991, p. 103.
  20. ^ Norton 1984, p. 24.
  21. ^ Carter and Chew 2013.
  22. ^ Rollin & Ledbetter 2001.
  23. ^ a b Ledbetter 2001.
  24. ^ Rollin 2001a.
  25. ^ Sadie 2013.
  26. ^ a b La Gorce 2001.
  27. ^ Bukofzer 1947, pp. 118–21.
  28. ^ a b Talbot 2001a.
  29. ^ Snyder 2001.
  30. ^ Rollin 2001b.
  31. ^ Ledbetter & Harris 2014.
  32. ^ Fuller 2001.
  33. ^ Fuller & Gustafson 2001.
  34. ^ Sadie 2002.
  35. ^ Dürr 1954.
  36. ^ "Muziek voor barokharp". lib.ugent.be. Retrieved 27 August 2020.
  37. ^ a b c Estrella 2012.
  38. ^ Little 2001a.
  39. ^ Little 2001b.
  40. ^ Hyer 2013.
  41. ^ a b c Shotwell 2002.
  42. ^ Talbot 2001b.
  43. ^ Carver 2013.
  44. ^ Roseman 1975.

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  • Talbot, Michael (2001b). "Ritornello". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
  • Wainwright, Jonathan; Peter Holman (2005). From Renaissance to Baroque: Change in Instruments and Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-0403-7.
  • Wallechinsky, David (2007). The Knowledge Book: Everything You Need to Know to Get by in the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4262-0124-0.
  • Watkins, Glenn (1991). Gesualdo: The Man and His Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-816197-4.
  • White, Harry; Thomas Hochradner (2013). "Fux, Johann Joseph". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press.
  • York, Francis L. (1909). Harmony Simplified: A Practical Introduction to Composition. Boston: Oliver Ditson and Company. ISBN 978-1-176-33956-9.

Further reading

  • Christensen, Thomas Street, and Peter Dejans. Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-90-5867-587-3
  • Cyr, Mary. Essays on the Performance of Baroque Music Opera and Chamber Music in France and England. Variorum collected studies series, 899. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7546-5926-6
  • Foreman, Edward. A Bel Canto Method, or, How to Sing Italian Baroque Music Correctly Based on the Primary Sources. Twentieth century masterworks on singing, v. 12. Minneapolis, Minn: Pro Musica Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-887117-18-0
  • Hebson, Audrey (2012). "Dance and Its Importance in Bach's Suites for Solo Cello", Musical Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 2, Article 2. Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol1/iss2/2.
  • Hoffer, Brandi (2012). "Sacred German Music in the Thirty Years' War", Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 1. Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/1.
  • Schubert, Peter, and Christoph Neidhöfer. Baroque Counterpoint. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN 978-0-13-183442-2
  • Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-512232-9
  • Stauffer, George B. The World of Baroque Music New Perspectives. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-253-34798-5
  • Strunk, Oliver. Source Readings in Music History. From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic Era. London: Faber & Faber, 1952.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baroque music.
  • Handel's Harpsichord Room – free recordings of harpsichord music of the Baroque era
  • : Composers
  • Orpheon Foundation in Vienna, Austria
  • Free scores by various baroque composers at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
  • : Thesis on Affect Theory with Fire as the special topic
  • Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM), a free, searchable database of worldwide locations for music manuscripts up to c. 1800.

May 18, 2023
baroque, music, refers, period, dominant, style, western, classical, music, composed, from, about, 1600, 1750, baroque, style, followed, renaissance, period, followed, turn, classical, period, after, short, transition, galant, style, baroque, period, divided, . Baroque music UK b e ˈ r ɒ k or US b e ˈ r oʊ k refers to the period or dominant style of Western classical music composed from about 1600 to 1750 1 The Baroque style followed the Renaissance period and was followed in turn by the Classical period after a short transition the galant style The Baroque period is divided into three major phases early middle and late Overlapping in time they are conventionally dated from 1580 to 1650 from 1630 to 1700 and from 1680 to 1750 Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon and is widely studied performed and listened to The term baroque comes from the Portuguese word barroco meaning misshapen pearl 2 The works of George Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach are considered the pinnacle of the Baroque period Other key composers of the Baroque era include Claudio Monteverdi Domenico Scarlatti Alessandro Scarlatti Alessandro Stradella Antonio Vivaldi Tomaso Albinoni Johann Pachelbel Henry Purcell Georg Philipp Telemann Jean Baptiste Lully Jean Philippe Rameau Marc Antoine Charpentier Arcangelo Corelli Francois Couperin Johann Hermann Schein Heinrich Schutz Samuel Scheidt Dieterich Buxtehude and others Painting by Evaristo Baschenis of Baroque instruments including a cittern viola da gamba violin and two lutes The Baroque saw the creation of common practice tonality an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key this type of harmony has continued to be used extensively in Western classical and popular music During the Baroque era professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts Baroque concerts were typically accompanied by a basso continuo group comprising chord playing instrumentalists such as harpsichordists and lute players improvising chords from a figured bass part while a group of bass instruments viol cello double bass played the bassline A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music dance suites were designed purely for listening not for accompanying dancers During the period composers experimented with finding a fuller sound for each instrumental part thus creating the orchestra 2 made changes in musical notation the development of figured bass as a quick way to notate the chord progression of a song or piece and developed new instrumental playing techniques Baroque music expanded the size range and complexity of instrumental performance and also established the mixed vocal instrumental forms of opera cantata and oratorio and the instrumental forms of the solo concerto and sonata as musical genres Dense complex polyphonic music in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously a popular example of this is the fugue was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works Overall Baroque music was a tool for expression and communication 1 Contents 1 Etymology and definition 2 History 2 1 Early baroque music 1580 1650 2 2 Middle baroque music 1630 1700 2 3 Late baroque music 1680 1750 2 3 1 Onset 2 3 2 Wider adoption 2 3 3 Transition to Classical era 3 Timeline of composers 4 Instruments 4 1 Strings 4 2 Woodwinds 4 3 Brass 4 4 Keyboards 4 5 Percussion 5 Styles and forms 5 1 Dance suite 5 2 Other features 6 Genres 6 1 Vocal 6 2 Instrumental 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksEtymology and definition Edit Johann Sebastian Bach 1748 The etymology of baroque is likely via the French baroque which originally meant a pearl of irregular shape and from the Portuguese barroco irregular pearl also related are the Spanish barrueco and the Italian barocco The term is of uncertain ultimate origin but possibly from Latin verruca wart or possibly from Baroco a technical term from scholastic logic 3 The term baroque is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region mostly in Europe composed over a period of about 150 years 1 Though it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture in fact it appears earlier in reference to music in an anonymous satirical review of the premiere in October 1733 of Rameau s Hippolyte et Aricie printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734 The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was du barocque complaining that the music lacked coherent melody was filled with unremitting dissonances constantly changed key and meter and speedily ran through every compositional device 4 Jean Jacques Rousseau who was a musician and composer as well as philosopher wrote in 1768 in the Encyclopedie Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused and loaded with modulations and dissonances The singing is harsh and unnatural the intonation difficult and the movement limited It appears that term comes from the word baroco used by logicians 5 Rousseau was referring to the philosophical term baroco in use since the 13th century to describe a type of elaborate and for some unnecessarily complicated academic argument 6 7 The systematic application by historians of the term baroque to music of this period is a relatively recent development In 1919 Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wolfflin s theory of the Baroque systematically to music 8 Critics were quick to question the attempt to transpose Wolfflin s categories to music however and in the second quarter of the 20th century independent attempts were made by Manfred Bukofzer in Germany and after his immigration in America and by Suzanne Clercx Lejeune in Belgium to use autonomous technical analysis rather than comparative abstractions in order to avoid the adaptation of theories based on the plastic arts and literature to music All of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period especially concerning when it began In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s in the writings of Bukofzer and Paul Henry Lang 1 As late as 1960 there was still considerable dispute in academic circles particularly in France and Britain whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of Jacopo Peri Domenico Scarlatti and Johann Sebastian Bach under a single rubric Nevertheless the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music 1 It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding Renaissance and following Classical periods of musical history History EditThroughout the Baroque era new developments in music originated in Italy after which it took up to 20 years before they were broadly adopted in rest of the Western classical music practice For instance Italian composers switched to the galant style around 1730 while German composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach largely continued to write in the baroque style up to 1750 9 10 Phases of Baroque music 9 10 Subperiod Time In Italy ElsewhereEarly baroque 1580 1650 Gabrieli Monteverdi Frescobaldi M Praetorius Sweelinck O Gibbons SchutzMiddle baroque 1630 1700 Carissimi Legrenzi Lully Biber Buxtehude Purcell PachelbelLate baroque 1680 1750 Corelli Vivaldi Pergolesi Telemann Rameau Handel J S BachEarly baroque music 1580 1650 Edit Further information Transition from Renaissance to Baroque in instrumental music Claudio Monteverdi in 1640 The Florentine Camerata was a group of humanists musicians poets and intellectuals in late Renaissance Florence who gathered under the patronage of Count Giovanni de Bardi to discuss and guide trends in the arts especially music and drama In reference to music they based their ideals on a perception of Classical especially ancient Greek musical drama that valued discourse and oration 11 Accordingly they rejected their contemporaries use of polyphony multiple independent melodic lines and instrumental music and discussed such ancient Greek music devices as monody which consisted of a solo singing accompanied by a kithara an ancient strummed string instrument 12 The early realizations of these ideas including Jacopo Peri s Dafne and L Euridice marked the beginning of opera 13 which was a catalyst for Baroque music 14 Concerning music theory the more widespread use of figured bass also known as thorough bass represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony 15 Harmony is the end result of counterpoint and figured bass is a visual representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance With figured bass numbers accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as harpsichord players or pipe organists or lutenists The numbers accidentals or symbols indicated to the keyboard player what intervals are to be played above each bass note The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note 16 Composers began concerning themselves with harmonic progressions 17 and also employed the tritone perceived as an unstable interval 18 to create dissonance it was used in the dominant seventh chord and the diminished chord An interest in harmony had also existed among certain composers in the Renaissance notably Carlo Gesualdo 19 However the use of harmony directed towards tonality a focus on a musical key that becomes the home note of a piece rather than modality marks the shift from the Renaissance into the Baroque period 20 This led to the idea that certain sequences of chords rather than just notes could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality citation needed By incorporating these new aspects of composition Claudio Monteverdi furthered the transition from the Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period He developed two individual styles of composition the heritage of Renaissance polyphony prima pratica and the new basso continuo technique of the Baroque seconda pratica With basso continuo a small group of musicians would play the bassline and the chords which formed the accompaniment for a melody The basso continuo group would typically use one or more keyboard players and a lute player who would play the bassline and improvise the chords and several bass instruments e g bass viola cello double bass which would play the bassline With the writing of the operas L Orfeo and L incoronazione di Poppea among others Monteverdi brought considerable attention to this new genre 21 This Venetian style was taken handily to Germany by Heinrich Schutz whose diverse style also evolved into the subsequent period Idiomatic instrumental textures became increasingly prominent In particular the style luthe the irregular and unpredictable breaking up of chordal progressions in contrast to the regular patterning of broken chords referred to since the early 20th century as style brise was established as a consistent texture in French music by Robert Ballard 22 23 in his lute books of 1611 and 1614 and by Ennemond Gaultier 24 This idiomatic lute figuration was later transferred to the harpsichord for example in the keyboard music of Louis Couperin and Jean Henri D Anglebert and continued to be an important influence on keyboard music throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries in for example the music of Johann Sebastian Bach and Frederic Chopin 23 Middle baroque music 1630 1700 Edit The rise of the centralized court is one of the economic and political features of what is often labelled the Age of Absolutism personified by Louis XIV of France The style of palace and the court system of manners and arts he fostered became the model for the rest of Europe The realities of rising church and state patronage created the demand for organized public music as the increasing availability of instruments created the demand for chamber music which is music for a small ensemble of instrumentalists 25 Jean Baptiste Lully by Paul Mignard One pre eminent example of a court style composer is Jean Baptiste Lully He purchased patents from the monarchy to be the sole composer of operas for the French king and to prevent others from having operas staged He completed 15 lyric tragedies and left unfinished Achille et Polyxene 26 Lully was an early example of a conductor he would beat the time with a large staff to keep his ensembles together Musically he did not establish the string dominated norm for orchestras which was inherited from the Italian opera and the characteristically French five part disposition violins violas in hautes contre tailles and quintes sizes and bass violins had been used in the ballet from the time of Louis XIII He did however introduce this ensemble to the lyric theatre with the upper parts often doubled by recorders flutes and oboes and the bass by bassoons Trumpets and kettledrums were frequently added for heroic scenes 26 The middle Baroque period in Italy is defined by the emergence of the vocal styles of cantata oratorio and opera during the 1630s and a new concept of melody and harmony that elevated the status of the music to one of equality with the words which formerly had been regarded as pre eminent The florid coloratura monody of the early Baroque gave way to a simpler more polished melodic style These melodies were built from short cadentially delimited ideas often based on stylized dance patterns drawn from the sarabande or the courante The harmonies too might be simpler than in the early Baroque monody to show expression in a lighter manner on the string and crescendos and diminuendos on longer notes The accompanying bass lines were more integrated with the melody producing a contrapuntal equivalence of the parts that later led to the device of an initial bass anticipation of the aria melody This harmonic simplification also led to a new formal device of the differentiation of recitative a more spoken part of opera and aria a part of opera that used sung melodies The most important innovators of this style were the Romans Luigi Rossi and Giacomo Carissimi who were primarily composers of cantatas and oratorios respectively and the Venetian Francesco Cavalli who was principally an opera composer Later important practitioners of this style include Antonio Cesti Giovanni Legrenzi and Alessandro Stradella who additionally originated the concerto grosso style in his Sonate di viole 27 Arcangelo Corelli is remembered as influential for his achievements on the other side of musical technique as a violinist who organized violin technique and pedagogy and in purely instrumental music particularly his advocacy and development of the concerto grosso 28 Whereas Lully was ensconced at court Corelli was one of the first composers to publish widely and have his music performed all over Europe As with Lully s stylization and organization of the opera the concerto grosso is built on strong contrasts sections alternate between those played by the full orchestra and those played by a smaller group Fast sections and slow sections were juxtaposed against each other Numbered among his students is Antonio Vivaldi who later composed hundreds of works based on the principles in Corelli s trio sonatas and concerti 28 In contrast to these composers Dieterich Buxtehude was not a creature of court but instead was church musician holding the posts of organist and Werkmeister at the Marienkirche at Lubeck His duties as Werkmeister involved acting as the secretary treasurer and business manager of the church while his position as organist included playing for all the main services sometimes in collaboration with other instrumentalists or vocalists who were also paid by the church Entirely outside of his official church duties he organised and directed a concert series known as the Abendmusiken which included performances of sacred dramatic works regarded by his contemporaries as the equivalent of operas 29 France Denis Gaultier 30 Jean Henri d Anglebert 31 Jacques Champion de Chambonnieres 32 Louis Couperin 33 Late baroque music 1680 1750 Edit This section has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This section is in list format but may read better as prose You can help by converting this section if appropriate Editing help is available February 2020 This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Baroque music news newspapers books scholar JSTOR February 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Learn how and when to remove this template message George Frideric Handel The work of George Frideric Handel Johann Sebastian Bach and their contemporaries including Domenico Scarlatti Antonio Vivaldi Tomaso Albinoni Jean Philippe Rameau Georg Philipp Telemann and others advanced the Baroque era to its climax 34 a k a High BaroqueOnset Edit Italy Alessandro Scarlatti Neapolitan School Neapolitan mass Arcangelo Corelli Trio sonata Concerto grosso La Folia Giuseppe Torelli Solo concerto Marc Antoine Charpentier France Henri Dumont Pierre Robert Francois Couperin Andre Campra Michel Richard Delalande Marc Antoine Charpentier Henri Desmarest Marin Marais Jean Fery RebelWider adoption Edit Italy Giovanni Bononcini Antonio Vivaldi Tomaso Albinoni Benedetto Marcello Francesco Geminiani Pietro Locatelli Giovanni Battista Pergolesi Nicola Porpora Giuseppe Tartini Francesco Maria VeraciniProliferation Erdmann Neumeister Estienne Roger L estro armonico Visiting Italy e g Johann Kuhnau Johann David Heinichen Gottfried Heinrich Stolzel Italians abroad e g Domenico Scarlatti Antonio Caldara Antonio Lotti Pietro TorriFrance Jean Philippe Rameau Jean Marie Leclair Jean Joseph de Mondonville Jean Baptiste Senaille Joseph Bodin de Boismortier Michel Corrette French abroad e g Louis MarchandCentral Europe Johann Georg Pisendel Georg Philipp Telemann Johann Sebastian Bach Johann Friedrich Fasch Jan Dismas Zelenka Johann Joseph Fux Johann Pachelbel Christoph Graupner Johann David Heinichen Sylvius Leopold Weiss Germans abroad e g George Frideric Handel Johann Adolf ScheibeTransition to Classical era Edit Galant music Johann Mattheson Jean Marie Leclair Johann Joachim Quantz Johann Adolph Hasse Carl Heinrich Graun Giovanni Battista Sammartini Baldassare GaluppiBach s elder sons and pupils Wilhelm Friedemann Bach Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach empfindsamer Stil Johann Gottlieb Goldberg 35 Mannheim school Johann StamitzTimeline of composers EditSee also List of Baroque composersInstruments EditMain article Baroque instruments See also List of period instruments Strings Edit Double manual harpsichord by Vital Julian Frey after Jean Claude Goujon 1749 Individual sheet music for a seventeenth century harp 36 Violino piccolo Violin Viol Viola Viola d amore Viola pomposa Tenor violin Cello Violone Bass violin Contrabass Lute Theorbo Archlute Mandora Bandora Angelique Mandolin Cittern Guitar Harp Hurdy gurdyWoodwinds Edit Baroque flute Chalumeau Cortol also known as Cortholt Curtall Oboe family Dulcian Musette de cour Baroque oboe Rackett Recorder BassoonBrass Edit Cornett Natural horn Baroque trumpet Tromba da tirarsi also called tromba spezzata Flatt trumpet Serpent Sackbut 16th and early 17th century English name for FR saquebute saqueboute ES sacabuche IT trombone MHG busaun busine busune DE since the early 17th century Posaune Trombone English name for the same instrument from the early 18th century Keyboards Edit Clavichord Tangent piano Fortepiano an early version of the piano invented ca 1700 but did not become popular during Baroque era Harpsichord OrganPercussion Edit Timpani Tambourine CastanetsStyles and forms EditDance suite Edit See also Suite music Dance suite A large instrumental ensemble s performance in the lavish Teatro Argentina as depicted by Panini 1747 A characteristic of the Baroque form was the dance suite Some dance suites by Bach are called partitas although this term is also used for other collections of pieces While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music dance suites were intended for listening not for accompanying dancers Composers used a variety of different movements in their dance suites A dance suite commonly has these movements Overture The Baroque suite often began with a French overture Ouverture in French a slow movement followed by a succession of principally four different types of dances Allemande Often the first dance of an instrumental suite the allemande was a very popular dance that had its origins in the German Renaissance era The allemande was played at a moderate tempo and could start on any beat of the bar 37 Courante The second dance is the courante a lively French dance in triple meter The Italian version is called the corrente citation needed Sarabande The sarabande a Spanish dance is the third of the four basic dances and is one of the slowest of the baroque dances It is also in triple meter and can start on any beat of the bar although there is an emphasis on the second beat creating the characteristic halting or iambic rhythm of the sarabande 37 Gigue The gigue is an upbeat and lively baroque dance in compound meter typically the concluding movement of an instrumental suite and the fourth of its basic dance types The gigue can start on any beat of the bar and is easily recognized by its rhythmic feel The gigue originated in the British Isles Its counterpart in folk music is the jig 37 The four dance types allemande courante sarabande and gigue make up the majority of 17th century suites Later suites interpolate one or more additional dances between the sarabande and gigue Gavotte The gavotte can be identified by its 44 time which always starts on the third beat of the bar although it sometimes sound like the first beat as the first and third beats are the strong beats in quadruple time The gavotte is played at a moderate tempo though in some cases it may be played faster citation needed Bourree The bourree is similar to the gavotte as it is in 22 time although it starts on the second half of the last beat of the bar creating a different feel to the dance The bourree is commonly played at a moderate tempo although for some composers such as Handel it can be taken at a much faster tempo 2 Minuet The minuet is perhaps the best known of the baroque dances in triple meter It does not have an anacrusis In some suites there may be a Minuet I and II played in succession with the Minuet I repeated but without the internal repeats citation needed Passepied The passepied is a fast dance in binary form and triple meter that originated as a court dance in Brittany 38 Examples can be found in later suites such as those of Bach and Handel citation needed Rigaudon The rigaudon is a lively French dance in duple meter similar to the bourree but rhythmically simpler It originated as a family of closely related southern French folk dances traditionally associated with the provinces of Vavarais Languedoc Dauphine and Provence 39 There are many other dance forms as well as other pieces that could be included in a suite such as Polonaise Loure Scherzo Air etc Other features Edit Prelude a suite might be started by a prelude a slow piece written in an improvisatory style Some Baroque preludes were not fully written out instead a sequence of chords were indicated with the expectation that the instrumentalist would be able to improvise a melodic part using the indicated harmonic framework The prelude was not based on a type of dance Entree Sometimes an entree is composed as part of a suite but there it is purely instrumental music and no dance is performed It is an introduction a march like piece played during the entrance of a dancing group or played before a ballet Usually in 44 time It is related to the Italian intrada Basso continuo a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system figured bass usually for one or more sustaining bass instruments e g cello and one or more chord playing instruments e g keyboard instruments such as harpsichord pipe organ or lute The concerto a solo piece with orchestral accompaniment and concerto grosso Monody an outgrowth of song citation needed Homophony music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar and subordinate chordal accompaniment this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance texture polyphony 40 Dramatic musical forms like opera dramma per musica 41 Combined instrumental vocal forms such as the oratorio and cantata 41 both of which used singers and orchestra New instrumental techniques like tremolo and pizzicato 41 The da capo aria enjoyed sureness citation needed The ritornello aria repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages 42 The concertato style contrast in sound between groups of instruments 43 Extensive ornamentation 44 which was typically improvised by singers and instrumentalists e g trills mordents etc Genres EditVocal Edit Opera Singspiel Ballad opera Semi opera Zarzuela Intermezzo Opera buffa Opera seria Opera comique Opera ballet Tragedie en musique Ballet de cour Masque Oratorio Passion music Cantata Mass music Anthem Monody ChoraleInstrumental Edit Chorale composition Concerto Concerto grosso Fugue Suite Allemande Courante Sarabande Gigue Gavotte Minuet Sonata Sonata da camera Sonata da chiesa Trio sonata Partita Canzona Sinfonia Fantasia Ricercar Toccata Prelude Chaconne Passacaglia Chorale prelude Stylus fantasticusNotes Edit a b c d e Palisca 2001 a b c Mackay and Romanec 2007 baroque Wiktionary en wiktionary org Retrieved 13 September 2021 Palisca 1989 pp 7 8 Encyclopedie Lettre sur la Musique Francaise under the direction of Denis Diderot Antoine Arnauld Pierre Nicole La logique ou l art de penser Part Three chapter VI 1662 in French BAROQUE Etymologie de BAROQUE www cnrtl fr Retrieved 4 January 2019 Sachs 1919 pp 7 15 a b Bukofzer 1947 pp 17ff a b Bukofzer 2013 The Phases of Baroque Music pp 26 29 Nuti 2007 p 14 Wallechinsky 2007 p 445 Chua 2001 p 26 Wainwright and Holman 2005 p 4 Clarke 1898 pp 147 48 Haagmans 1916 p vi York 1909 p 109 Donington 1974 p 156 Watkins 1991 p 103 Norton 1984 p 24 Carter and Chew 2013 Rollin amp Ledbetter 2001 a b Ledbetter 2001 Rollin 2001a Sadie 2013 a b La Gorce 2001 Bukofzer 1947 pp 118 21 a b Talbot 2001a Snyder 2001 Rollin 2001b Ledbetter amp Harris 2014 Fuller 2001 Fuller amp Gustafson 2001 Sadie 2002 Durr 1954 Muziek voor barokharp lib ugent be Retrieved 27 August 2020 a b c Estrella 2012 Little 2001a Little 2001b Hyer 2013 a b c Shotwell 2002 Talbot 2001b Carver 2013 Roseman 1975 References EditBukofzer Manfred F 1947 Music in the Baroque Era From Monteverdi to Bach New York E W Norton amp Company Inc ISBN 0 393 09745 5 Bukofzer Manfred F 2013 Music in the Baroque Era From Monteverdi to Bach digital ed Read Books ISBN 978 1 4474 9678 6 Burrows Donald 1991 Handel Messiah Cambridge New York and Melbourne Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 37620 3 Carter Tim Geoffrey Chew 2001 Monteverdi Monteverde Claudio The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed Carter Tim Geoffrey Chew 2011 Monteverdi Monteverde Claudio Grove Music Online doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 44352 Carter Tim and Geoffrey Chew 2013 full citation needed Carver Anthony F 2013 Concertato Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Clarke Hugh Archibald 1898 A System of Harmony Philadelphia T Presser ISBN 978 1 248 37946 2 Chua Daniel K L 2001 Vincenzo Galilei Modernity and the Division of Nature In Clark Suzannah ed Music Theory and Natural Order from the Renaissance to the Early Twentieth Century ISBN 978 0 521 77191 7 Donington Robert 1974 A Performer s Guide to Baroque Music New York C Scribner s Sons ISBN 978 0 571 09797 5 Durr Alfred 1954 Johann Gottlieb Goldberg und die Triosonate BWV 1037 Johann Gottlieb Goldberg and the trio sonata BWV 1037 In Durr Alfred Neumann Werner eds Bach Jahrbuch 1953 Bach Yearbook 1953 Bach Jahrbuch in German Vol 40 Neue Bachgesellschaft Berlin Evangelische Verlagsanstalt pp 51 80 doi 10 13141 bjb v1953 Estrella Espie 2012 The Suite Baroque Dance Suite About com Fuller David 2001 Chambonnieres Jacques Champion Sieur de The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Fuller David Gustafson Bruce 2001 Couperin Luis The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Fux Johann Joseph Mann Alfred Edmunds John 1965 The Study of Counterpoint from Johann Joseph Fux s Gradus ad parnassum New York W W Norton amp Co ISBN 0 393 00277 2 OCLC 494781 Grout Donald J Claude V Palisca 1996 A History of Western Music New York W W Norton Haagmans Dirk 1916 Scales Intervals Harmony University of Michigan J Fischer amp Bro ISBN 978 1 4370 6202 1 Hyer Brian 2013 Homophony Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required La Gorce Jerome de 2001 Jean Baptiste Lully Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Ledbetter David 2001 Style brise Fr broken style The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Ledbetter David Harris C David 2014 D Anglebert Jean Henry Grove Music Online Oxford University Press Little Meredith Ellis 2001a Passepied The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Little Meredith Ellis 2001b Rigaudon The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Mackay Alison Craig Romanec 2007 Baroque Guide PDF Tafelmusik Archived from the original PDF on 7 December 2016 Retrieved 27 July 2012 Norton Richard 1984 Tonality in Western Culture A Critical and Historical Perspective University Park Pennsylvania State University Press ISBN 978 0 271 00359 7 Nuti Giulia 2007 The Performance of Italian Basso Continuo Style in Keyboard Accompaniment in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Aldershot England Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 0567 6 Palisca Claude V 1989 Baroque as a Music Critical Term In Georgia Cowart ed French Musical Thought 1600 1800 Ann Arbor UMI Research Press pp 7 22 ISBN 978 0 8357 1882 0 Palisca Claude V 2001 Baroque In Stanley Sadie ed The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9781561592630 Price Curtis 2013 Purcell Henry Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Rollin Monique 2001a Gaultier Gautier Gaulthier Ennemond The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Rollin Monique 2001b Gaultier Gautier Gaulthier Denis The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Rollin Monique Ledbetter David 2001 Ballard Family 3 Robert Ballard ii The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians second ed London Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 56159 239 5 Roseman Ronald 1975 Baroque Ornamentation Journal of The International Double Reed Society 3 Archived from the original on 20 April 2008 Reprinted in Muse Baroque La magazine de la musique baroque Archived 14 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine n d Sachs Curt 1919 Barockmusik Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters Vol 26 pp amp 91 page needed amp 93 Sadie Stanley 2002 The Baroque Era The Oxford Companion to Music Oxford University Press subscription required Sadie Julie Anne 2013 Louis XIV King of France Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Shotwell Clay 2002 MUSI 4350 4360 Music of the Baroque Era General Characteristics of the Baroque Augusta GA Augusta State University Archived from the original on 30 April 2012 Retrieved 25 August 2012 Snyder Kerala J 2001 Buxtehude Dieterich Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Talbot Michael 2001a Corelli Arcangelo Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Talbot Michael 2001b Ritornello Grove Music Online Oxford University Press subscription required Wainwright Jonathan Peter Holman 2005 From Renaissance to Baroque Change in Instruments and Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century Aldershot England Ashgate Publishing ISBN 978 0 7546 0403 7 Wallechinsky David 2007 The Knowledge Book Everything You Need to Know to Get by in the 21st century Washington DC National Geographic Books ISBN 978 1 4262 0124 0 Watkins Glenn 1991 Gesualdo The Man and His Music Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 816197 4 White Harry Thomas Hochradner 2013 Fux Johann Joseph Grove Music Online Oxford University Press York Francis L 1909 Harmony Simplified A Practical Introduction to Composition Boston Oliver Ditson and Company ISBN 978 1 176 33956 9 Further reading EditChristensen Thomas Street and Peter Dejans Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory Leuven Leuven University Press 2007 ISBN 978 90 5867 587 3 Cyr Mary Essays on the Performance of Baroque Music Opera and Chamber Music in France and England Variorum collected studies series 899 Aldershot Hants England Ashgate 2008 ISBN 978 0 7546 5926 6 Foreman Edward A Bel Canto Method or How to Sing Italian Baroque Music Correctly Based on the Primary Sources Twentieth century masterworks on singing v 12 Minneapolis Minn Pro Musica Press 2006 ISBN 978 1 887117 18 0 Hebson Audrey 2012 Dance and Its Importance in Bach s Suites for Solo Cello Musical Offerings Vol 1 No 2 Article 2 Available at http digitalcommons cedarville edu musicalofferings vol1 iss2 2 Hoffer Brandi 2012 Sacred German Music in the Thirty Years War Musical Offerings Vol 3 No 1 Article 1 Available at http digitalcommons cedarville edu musicalofferings vol3 iss1 1 Schubert Peter and Christoph Neidhofer Baroque Counterpoint Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Prentice Hall 2006 ISBN 978 0 13 183442 2 Schulenberg David Music of the Baroque New York Oxford UP 2001 ISBN 978 0 19 512232 9 Stauffer George B The World of Baroque Music New Perspectives Bloomington Indiana University Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 253 34798 5 Strunk Oliver Source Readings in Music History From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic Era London Faber amp Faber 1952 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baroque music Handel s Harpsichord Room free recordings of harpsichord music of the Baroque era Renaissance amp Baroque Music Chronology Composers Orpheon Foundation in Vienna Austria Free scores by various baroque composers at the International Music Score Library Project IMSLP Music Affect and Fire Thesis on Affect Theory with Fire as the special topic Repertoire International des Sources Musicales RISM a free searchable database of worldwide locations for music manuscripts up to c 1800 Portals Classical music Music Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Baroque music amp oldid 1148696123, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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