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Linus Pauling

January 07, 2023

Linus Carl Pauling FRS (/ˈpɔːlɪŋ/; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)[4] was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics.[5] New Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time,[6] and as of 2000, he was rated the 16th most important scientist in history.[7] For his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. For his peace activism, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962. He is one of five people to have won more than one Nobel Prize (the others being Marie Curie, John Bardeen, Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless).[8] Of these, he is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes,[9] and one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being Marie Curie.[8]

Linus Pauling

ForMemRS
Pauling in 1962
Born
Linus Carl Pauling

(1901-02-28)February 28, 1901
Portland, Oregon, U.S.
DiedAugust 19, 1994(1994-08-19) (aged 93)
Big Sur, California, U.S.
Education
Known for
See list
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1923; died 1981)​
Children4
Awards
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
As faculty member
As fellow
ThesisThe Determination with X-Rays of the Structures of Crystals (1925[3])
Doctoral advisor
Other academic advisors
Doctoral students
Signature
Notes
The only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes.

Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.[10] His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include the concept of orbital hybridisation and the first accurate scale of electronegativities of the elements. Pauling also worked on the structures of biological molecules, and showed the importance of the alpha helix and beta sheet in protein secondary structure. Pauling's approach combined methods and results from X-ray crystallography, molecular model building, and quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired the work of James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin on the structure of DNA, which in turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code of all organisms.[11]

In his later years, he promoted nuclear disarmament, as well as orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy,[12] and dietary supplements. None of his ideas concerning the medical usefulness of large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream scientific community.[6][13] He was married to the American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling.

Early life and education

 
Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, c. 1900

Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon,[14][15] the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).[16]: 22  He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.[17]: 8  His ancestry included German and English.[18][19]

In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.[20]: 4  Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Lake Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Lake Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore.[20]: 4  He moved his family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905.[20]: 5  By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.[17]: 9 

Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry lab kit.[20]: 17  He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world."[21]

In high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure.[20]: 21 

At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.[20]: 22  Lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma.[16]: 48  The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.[8][22][23]

Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for US$8 per week (equivalent to US$200 in 2021). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of US$40 per month (equivalent to US$1,000 in 2021). This was soon raised to US$50 per month.[20]: 23  Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends.[20]: 24  In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.[20]: 25 

Higher education

 
Pauling's graduation photo from Oregon State University, 1922

In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.[20]: 26  He was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.[24] After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned US$100 a month (equivalent to US$1,400 in 2021), enabling him to continue his studies.[20]: 29 

In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.[20]: 29  He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry.

Engineering professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course.[20]: 29 [25][26] During the winter of his senior year, Pauling taught a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.[20]: 31 [26]: 41 [27][28]

In 1922, Pauling graduated with a degree in chemical engineering. He went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe Dickinson and Richard Tolman.[1] His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics,[3] summa cum laude, in 1925.[29]

Career

External video
 
  Linus Pauling, Oregon Experience, Oregon Historical Society

In 1926, Pauling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics.[2] Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London.[30] Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules.[31]

In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry.[32] He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as Pauling's rules.[33][34] By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor.[32] In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.[35] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.[36]

At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year.[16][37] Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley, serving as a Visiting Lecturer in Physics and Chemistry from 1929 to 1934.[38] Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals.[39] The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.[16]: 152 [37]

In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Lawrence Olin Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.[40]

Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932.[41] Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements — the Pauling Electronegativity Scale — which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.[42]

In 1936, Pauling was promoted to Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Caltech, and to the position of Director of the Gates and Crellin laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958.[32] Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.[43]

Nature of the chemical bond

 
Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955

In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures[44] and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.[45][34]: Preface  It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances".[8] Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible".[46] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.[47]

Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization.[48] While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp2 hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene.[34]: 111–120  Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules. Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the quantum-mechanical wave function for a polar molecule AB is a combination of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules.[34]: 66  Here Pauling's electronegativity concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.[49]

The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene.[50] The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.[51] In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.

Ionic crystal structures

In 1929, Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds.[52][34] These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.

Biological molecules

 
Pauling in 1941
 
An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17–32).

In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest.[53] Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant.[54] His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin with his student Charles D. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen molecule.[54] As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.[55]

It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.

In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure.[56][57] This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integer number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.

Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;[58][59] his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.[16]: 414–415 

Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action.[60] He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures.[61] Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.[62]

Molecular genetics

 
Pauling in 1948

In November 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"[63] in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators).[64] Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.[65]

His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established Caltech chemists.[66]: 2 

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled "Molecular Medicine".[67] In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction.

Structure of the atomic nucleus

On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.[68][69] For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.[68][70][71][72][73][74]

The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of "clusters of nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], and triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei.[75] Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:[76]

Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations ...

Activism

Wartime work

 
Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, ca.1950

Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. However, he declined, not wanting to uproot his family.[77]

 
Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer, later model based on Pauling's design, 1968
 
Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959

Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts.[78] The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.[79]: 180–186 [80]

In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions". His project group, which included J. B. Koepfli and Dan Campbell, developed a possible replacement for human blood plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).[81][82]

Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Bruce H. Sage, was awarded a Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services”.[83][84][85] In 1949, he served as president of the American Chemical Society.[86]

Nuclear activism

The aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.

In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began[87][88][89] that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.[90] On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss academic freedom, during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."[90]

In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.[91] Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.

 
Denial letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952

His political activism prompted the US State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.[92][93] In a speech before the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the aforementioned conference in England.[94][95] His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize.

Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955.[96] He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.[97]

In May 1957, working with Washington University in St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.[98] On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld calling for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.[99][100]

In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.[101] Later in 1958, Pauling published No more war!, in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".[8]

Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI).[98] This group, headed by Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America. The "Baby Tooth Survey," published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.[102][103][104] The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,[105] as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".[106]

Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962. (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.)[107] They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."[108] Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.[109]

Political criticism

 
Pauling's beret on display at the Nobel Prize Museum

Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee,[110] which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country".[111] A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway".[112][113]

Pauling was a frequent target of the National Review magazine. In an article entitled "The Collaborators" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1965, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher William Rusher, and its editor William F. Buckley, Jr for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal.[114][115][116][117]

His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.[66]: 2  Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967).[21] In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.[66]: 3  From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as Professor of Chemistry at Stanford University.[32]

Vietnam war activism

During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti-war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.[118]

Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970.[111][119] He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International League of Humanists in 1974.[120] He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement of 1974/1976.[121] Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.[122]

Eugenics

Pauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as sickle cell anemia.[123][124]

Medical research and vitamin C advocacy

Main article: Vitamin C megadosage
 
Pauling's book, How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated very high intake of Vitamin C.[125]

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.[126] Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.

In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.[127] In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry",[128] giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s, and advocating that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.[129][130]

In 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.[131]

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds.[14] Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.[132] Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public[133] and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.[134][135]

A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.[136] Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic led by oncologist Dr. Edward T. Creagan also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.[137][138][139] The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery.[14][140] Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",[141][142] and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C[143] (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study[140]). Pauling also criticised the Mayo clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.[144]

Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer.[142] Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.[145] He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.[146] A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously.[147] Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.[148][149]

Personal life

 
The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: an unidentified person, and Crellin Pauling

Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until Ava Pauling's death in 1981. They had four children.[150] Linus Carl Jr. (born 1925) became a psychiatrist; Peter (1931–2003) a crystallographer at University College London; Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a biologist; and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb.[151]

Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church,[152] but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church.[153] Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda, Pauling publicly declared his atheism.[154]

On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about 80 miles (130 km) south of Monterey, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about 300 feet (90 m) above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.[155]

Death and legacy

Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in Big Sur, California.[13] He was 93 years old.[156] A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.[157]

Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.[158][159]

His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry.[10] The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years,[160] and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his Valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena.[161] Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.[26]: 80–81  His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.[57]

Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the "father of molecular biology".[10][162] His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.[65]

Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, "The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain," was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the Department of Chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.[163][164]

Commemorations

Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.[165]

On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin.[166][167] His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease."[65] The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.[167]

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.[168]

By proclamation of Gov. John Kitzhaber in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named "Linus Pauling Day".[169] The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at Oregon State University.[170][171][172] The Valley Library Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.[169]

In 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a Symposium and Lectureship.[173] The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.[174]

Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California;[175] Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California;[176] Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon;[177] and Pauling Field, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth.[178] There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet.[179]

The asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by Eleanor F. Helin, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.[180]

Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.[181]

Nobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.[182]

In 2010, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.[183]

Honors and awards

Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:[184][32][185]

Publications

Books

  • ——; Wilson, E. B. (1985) [Originally published in 1935]. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry. Reprinted by Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-64871-2.
  • —— (1939). The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. Cornell University Press.
  • —— (1947). General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory. W. H. Freeman.
    • Greatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1988.
  • ——; Hayward, Roger (1964). The Architecture of Molecules. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Vol. 51. San Francisco: Freeman. pp. 977–84. doi:10.1073/pnas.51.5.977. ISBN 978-0-7167-0158-3. PMC 300194. PMID 16591181.
    • Manuscript notes and typescripts (clear images)
  • —— (1958). No more war!. Dodd, Mead & Co. ISBN 978-1-124-11966-3.
  • —— (1977). Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu. W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0360-0.
  • —— (1987). How to Live Longer and Feel Better. Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-70289-3.
  • Cameron, E.; —— (1993). Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C. Camino. ISBN 978-0-940159-21-1.
  • —— (1998). Linus Pauling On Peace: A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival. Rising Star Press. ISBN 978-0-933670-03-7.
  • Hoffer, Abram; —— (2004). Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. Toronto: CCNM Press. ISBN 978-1-897025-11-6.
  • Ikeda, Daisaku; —— (2008). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Richard L. Gage (ed., trans.). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-889-1.

Journal articles

  • —— (1927). "The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 114 (767): 181–211. Bibcode:1927RSPSA.114..181P. doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0035.
  • —— (1929). "The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006.
  • —— (1931). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. I. Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (4): 1367–1400. doi:10.1021/ja01355a027.
  • —— (1931). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. II. The One-Electron Bond and the Three-Electron Bond". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (9): 3225–3237. doi:10.1021/ja01360a004.
  • —— (1932). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. III. The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (3): 988–1003. doi:10.1021/ja01342a022.
  • —— (1932). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (9): 3570–3582. doi:10.1021/ja01348a011.
  • ——; Wheland, G. W. (1933). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond. V. The Quantum-Mechanical Calculation of the Resonance Energy of Benzene and Naphthalene and the Hydrocarbon Free Radicals" (PDF). The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1 (6): 362. Bibcode:1933JChPh...1..362P. doi:10.1063/1.1749304. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
  • —— (1935). "The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 57 (12): 2680–2684. doi:10.1021/ja01315a102.
  • —— (1940). "A Theory of the Structure and Process of Formation of Antibodies*". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 62 (10): 2643–2657. doi:10.1021/ja01867a018.
  • —— (1947). "Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 69 (3): 542–553. doi:10.1021/ja01195a024.
  • ——; Itano, H. A.; Singer, S. J.; Wells, I. C. (1949). "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease". Science. 110 (2865): 543–548. Bibcode:1949Sci...110..543P. doi:10.1126/science.110.2865.543. PMID 15395398. S2CID 31674765.
  • ——; Corey, R. B.; Branson, H. R. (1951). "The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (4): 205–11. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..205P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.4.205. PMC 1063337. PMID 14816373.

See also

References

Citations

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  2. ^ a b "A Guggenheim Fellow in Europe during the Golden Years of Physics (1926–1927)". Oregon State University. from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2015-05-27.
  3. ^ a b ———— (1925). The determination with x-rays of the structures of crystals (PhD thesis). California Institute of Technology. doi:10.7907/F7V6-4P98. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  4. ^ "Linus Pauling: Facts". Nobel Prize. from the original on 2022-04-04. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  5. ^ ———— (1997). Pauling, Linus Jr. (ed.). Selected papers of Linus Pauling (Volume I ed.). River Edge, New Jersey: World Scientific. p. xvii. ISBN 978-981-02-2939-9.
  6. ^ a b Horgan, J (1993). "Profile: Linus C. Pauling – Stubbornly Ahead of His Time". Scientific American. Vol. 266, no. 3. pp. 36–40. Bibcode:1993SciAm.266c..36H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0393-36.
  7. ^ Simmons, John (1996). The scientific 100 : a ranking of the most influential scientists, past and present. Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1749-0. OL 7941698M. Retrieved 2015-05-26 – via Internet Archive.
  8. ^ a b c d e Linus Pauling on Nobelprize.org  , accessed 30 April 2020
  9. ^ "Nobel Prize Facts". Nobel Prize. 2022-04-12 [2009-10-05]. from the original on 2017-01-11. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  10. ^ a b c Rich, Alexander (1994). "Linus Pauling (1901–1994)". Nature. 371 (6495): 285. Bibcode:1994Natur.371..285R. doi:10.1038/371285a0. PMID 8090196. S2CID 8923975.
  11. ^ Gribbin, John (2004-08-10). The Scientists: A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors. New York City: Random House. pp. 558–569. ISBN 978-0-8129-6788-3. OL 8020832M.
  12. ^ Stone, Irwin (1982-12-14). The healing factor: "vitamin C" against disease. New York City: Perigee Books. ISBN 978-0-399-50764-9. OCLC 10169988. OL 9567597M – via Internet Archive.
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  14. ^ a b c d Dunitz, Jack D. (1996). "Linus Carl Pauling. 28 February 1901–19 August 1994". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 42 (9): 316–326. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020. PMID 11619334.
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  19. ^ Dunitz, Jack D. (1997). "Linus Carl Pauling". Biographical Memoirs. Vol. 71. National Academies Press. pp. 221–261. doi:10.17226/5737. ISBN 978-0-309-05738-7. from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2021-09-27.
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  21. ^ a b Abrams, Irwin (1988). The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates : an illustrated biographical history, 1901–1987 (2. print. ed.). Boston: G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8161-8609-9.
  22. ^ Bourgoin, Suzanne M.; Byers, Paula K., eds. (1998). "Pauling, Linus". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 12. Thomson Gale. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7876-2221-3. OCLC 498136139. OL 24962233M.
  23. ^ "Pauling Finally Gets High School Diploma". Evening Star. 1962-06-19. p. 1 col 6. Retrieved 2022-08-03.
  24. ^ Swanson, Stephen (2000-10-03). . Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
  25. ^ "Pauling's Years as an Undergraduate at Oregon Agricultural College, Part 2 (1919–1922)". Oregon State University. from the original on 2021-10-31. Retrieved 2015-05-27. He is also an assistant to Samuel H. Graf in a mechanics and materials course.
  26. ^ a b c ———— (1995). Marinacci, Barbara (ed.). Linus Pauling: in his own words : selected writings, speeches, and interviews. New York City: Simon & Schuster. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-684-81387-5. Retrieved 2015-05-27 – via Internet Archive. Graf gave me a job correcting papers in the courses he taught, about statics and dynamics, bridge structure, strength of materials, and so on. I also helped him in the laboratory.
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  33. ^ ———— (1929-04-01). "The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006.
  34. ^ a b c d e ———— (1960-01-31) [1939]. The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals; an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 543–562. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. OL 26811428M.
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  36. ^ ———— (1932-03-01). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (3): 988–1003. doi:10.1021/ja01342a022.
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  49. ^ Pauling, Linus (1930s). "Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  50. ^ Pauling, Linus (1934-01-06). "Benzene". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  51. ^ Pauling, Linus (1946-07-29). "Resonance". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
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  56. ^ Pauling, L; Corey, RB (1951). "Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37 (11): 729–40. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..729P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.11.729. PMC 1063460. PMID 16578412.
  57. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100.
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Bibliography

General references

  • Hargittai, István (2000). Hargittai, Magdolna (ed.). Candid science: conversations with famous chemists (Reprinted ed.). London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-151-1.
  • Marinacci, Barbara, ed. (1995). Linus Pauling: In His Own Words; Selected Writings, Speeches, and Interviews. Introduction by Linus Pauling. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-81387-5. online
  • Pauling, Linus. Selected Scientific Papers Vol II online
  • Sturchio, Jeffrey L. (1987-04-06). Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation.

Further reading

  • Coffey, Patrick (2008). Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0.
  • Davenport, Derek A. (1996). "The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews". Journal of Chemical Education. 73 (9): A210. Bibcode:1996JChEd..73A.210D. doi:10.1021/ed073pA210.
  • Gormley, Melinda. "The first ‘molecular disease’: a story of Linus Pauling, the intellectual patron." Endeavour 31.2 (2007): 71-77 online.
  • Mead, Clifford. Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker (2008)
  • Nakamura, Jeanne, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. "Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling." American Psychologist 56.4 (2001): 337+.
  • Strasser, Bruno J. "A world in one dimension: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology." History and philosophy of the life sciences (2006): 491–512 online.
  • Strasser, Bruno J. "Linus Pauling's “molecular diseases”: Between history and memory." American journal of medical genetics 115.2 (2002): 83–93 online.
  • White, Florence Meiman. Linus Pauling Scientist and Crusader (1980) online
  • Zannos, Susan. Linus Pauling and the chemical bond (2004), 48pp online, for secondary schools

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Linus Pauling.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linus C. Pauling.
 
Scholia has an author profile for Linus Pauling.
  • Linus Pauling Online a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries
  • The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries
  • Center for Oral History. "Linus C. Pauling". Science History Institute.
  • Sturchio, Jeffrey L. (1987-04-06). Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation.
  • The Pauling Blog
  • Linus Pauling (1901–1994)
  • Berkeley Conversations With History interview
  • Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit
  • Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography
  • "It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia – Special Collections & Archives Research Center – Oregon State University". Oregon State University Library. Retrieved 2015-02-25.
  • The Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University
  • The Linus Pauling Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
  • Linus Pauling July 19, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
  • Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling from Science History Institute Digital Collections

January 07, 2023
linus, pauling, linus, carl, pauling, ɔː, february, 1901, august, 1994, american, chemist, biochemist, chemical, engineer, peace, activist, author, educator, published, more, than, papers, books, which, about, dealt, with, scientific, topics, scientist, called. Linus Carl Pauling FRS ˈ p ɔː l ɪ ŋ February 28 1901 August 19 1994 4 was an American chemist biochemist chemical engineer peace activist author and educator He published more than 1 200 papers and books of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics 5 New Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time 6 and as of 2000 he was rated the 16th most important scientist in history 7 For his scientific work Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 For his peace activism he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 He is one of five people to have won more than one Nobel Prize the others being Marie Curie John Bardeen Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless 8 Of these he is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes 9 and one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields the other being Marie Curie 8 Linus PaulingForMemRSPauling in 1962BornLinus Carl Pauling 1901 02 28 February 28 1901Portland Oregon U S DiedAugust 19 1994 1994 08 19 aged 93 Big Sur California U S EducationOregon State University BS California Institute of Technology PhD Known forSee list Alpha sheetAncestral sequence reconstructionBackbondingBeta sheetBond orderBreath gas analysisCoiled coilCorey Pauling rulesCPK coloringCrystal structure predictionElectronegativityElucidating chemical bonds and molecular structuresGeometrical frustrationHybridisation theoryHydrogen bondingIce type modelLinear combination of atomic orbitalsMolecular clockMolecular medicineNon carbon nanotubeOrbital overlapPauling equationPauling s rulesPauling Corey Branson alpha helixPauling s principle of electroneutralityQuantum chemistryQuantum graphResidual entropyResonance chemistry Slater Pauling ruleSpace filling modelValence bond theoryVitamin C megadosageXenic acidAdvocating nuclear disarmamentSpouseAva Helen Miller m 1923 died 1981 wbr Children4AwardsACS Award in Pure Chemistry 1931 Irving Langmuir Award 1931 Member of the National Academy of Sciences 1933 Davy Medal 1947 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1954 Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Roebling Medal 1967 Lenin Peace Prize 1968 1969 National Medal of Science 1974 Lomonosov Gold Medal 1977 NAS Award in Chemical Sciences 1979 Priestley Medal 1984 Vannevar Bush Award 1989 Scientific careerFieldsQuantum chemistryBiochemistryInstitutionsAs faculty member Caltech 1927 1963 UC San Diego 1967 1969 Stanford 1969 1975 As fellow Cornell University 1937 1938 University of Oxford 1948 Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions 1963 1967 ThesisThe Determination with X Rays of the Structures of Crystals 1925 3 Doctoral advisorRoscoe DickinsonRichard Tolman 1 Other academic advisorsArnold SommerfeldNiels Bohr 2 Doctoral studentsMartin KarplusJerry DonohueMatthew MeselsonRobert E RundleEdgar Bright WilsonWilliam Lipscomb 1 Leonard LermanSignatureNotesThe only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology 10 His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include the concept of orbital hybridisation and the first accurate scale of electronegativities of the elements Pauling also worked on the structures of biological molecules and showed the importance of the alpha helix and beta sheet in protein secondary structure Pauling s approach combined methods and results from X ray crystallography molecular model building and quantum chemistry His discoveries inspired the work of James Watson Francis Crick Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin on the structure of DNA which in turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code of all organisms 11 In his later years he promoted nuclear disarmament as well as orthomolecular medicine megavitamin therapy 12 and dietary supplements None of his ideas concerning the medical usefulness of large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream scientific community 6 13 He was married to the American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling Contents 1 Early life and education 1 1 Higher education 2 Career 2 1 Nature of the chemical bond 2 2 Ionic crystal structures 2 3 Biological molecules 2 4 Molecular genetics 2 5 Structure of the atomic nucleus 3 Activism 3 1 Wartime work 3 2 Nuclear activism 3 3 Political criticism 3 4 Vietnam war activism 3 5 Eugenics 3 6 Medical research and vitamin C advocacy 4 Personal life 4 1 Death and legacy 4 2 Commemorations 5 Honors and awards 6 Publications 6 1 Books 6 2 Journal articles 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Citations 8 2 Bibliography 9 General references 10 Further reading 11 External linksEarly life and education Edit Herman Henry William Pauling Linus Pauling s father c 1900 Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28 1901 in Portland Oregon 14 15 the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling 1876 1910 and Lucy Isabelle Belle Darling 1881 1926 16 22 He was named Linus Carl in honor of Lucy s father Linus and Herman s father Carl 17 8 His ancestry included German and English 18 19 In 1902 after his sister Pauline was born Pauling s parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one room apartment 20 4 Lucy stayed with her husband s parents in Lake Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company Within a year of Lucile s birth in 1904 Herman Pauling moved his family to Lake Oswego where he opened his own drugstore 20 4 He moved his family to Condon Oregon in 1905 20 5 By 1906 Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain He died of a perforated ulcer on June 11 1910 leaving Lucy to care for Linus Lucile and Pauline 17 9 Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend Lloyd A Jeffress who had a small chemistry lab kit 20 17 He later wrote I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena by the reactions in which substances often with strikingly different properties appear and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world 21 In high school Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant With an older friend Lloyd Simon Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon s basement They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task and the business ended in failure 20 21 At age 15 the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University OSU known then as Oregon Agricultural College 20 22 Lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester Denied he left Washington High School in June without a diploma 16 48 The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes 8 22 23 Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses including working part time at a grocery store for US 8 per week equivalent to US 200 in 2021 His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland Mr Schwietzerhoff who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of US 40 per month equivalent to US 1 000 in 2021 This was soon raised to US 50 per month 20 23 Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends 20 24 In September 1917 Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University He immediately resigned from the machinist s job and informed his mother who saw no point in a university education of his plans 20 25 Higher education Edit Pauling s graduation photo from Oregon State University 1922 In his first semester Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry two in mathematics mechanical drawing introduction to mining and use of explosives modern English prose gymnastics and military drill 20 26 He was active in campus life and founded the school s chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity 24 After his second year he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother The college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis a course he had just finished taking himself He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned US 100 a month equivalent to US 1 400 in 2021 enabling him to continue his studies 20 29 In his last two years at school Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules 20 29 He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry Engineering professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course 20 29 25 26 During the winter of his senior year Pauling taught a chemistry course for home economics majors It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife Ava Helen Miller 20 31 26 41 27 28 In 1922 Pauling graduated with a degree in chemical engineering He went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology Caltech in Pasadena California under the guidance of Roscoe Dickinson and Richard Tolman 1 His graduate research involved the use of X ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics 3 summa cum laude in 1925 29 Career EditExternal video Linus Pauling Oregon Experience Oregon Historical SocietyIn 1926 Pauling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to travel to Europe to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger in Zurich All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics 2 Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest the electronic structure of atoms and molecules In Zurich Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London 30 Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules 31 In 1927 Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry 32 He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years continuing with his X ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules He published approximately fifty papers in those five years and created the five rules now known as Pauling s rules 33 34 By 1929 he was promoted to associate professor and by 1930 to full professor 32 In 1931 the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger 35 The following year Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom 36 At Caltech Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California Berkeley who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year 16 37 Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley serving as a Visiting Lecturer in Physics and Chemistry from 1929 to 1934 38 Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals 39 The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling s wife Ava Helen When Pauling was at work Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico She flatly refused and reported the incident to Pauling He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer 16 152 37 In the summer of 1930 Pauling made another European trip during which he learned about gas phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark After returning he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his Lawrence Olin Brockway and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances 40 Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932 41 Using the various properties of molecules such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements the Pauling Electronegativity Scale which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules 42 In 1936 Pauling was promoted to Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Caltech and to the position of Director of the Gates and Crellin laboratories of Chemistry He would hold both positions until 1958 32 Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol 43 Nature of the chemical bond Edit Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955 In the late 1920s Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond Between 1937 and 1938 he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University While at Cornell he delivered a series of nineteen lectures 44 and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond 45 34 Preface It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances 8 Pauling s book has been considered chemistry s most influential book of this century and its effective bible 46 In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939 the book was cited more than 16 000 times Even today many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work more than seventy years after the first publication 47 Part of Pauling s work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization 48 While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be mathematically mixed or combined to make four equivalent orbitals called sp3 hybrid orbitals which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals called sp2 hybrid orbitals with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene 34 111 120 Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding where electrons are transferred between atoms and covalent bonding where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis Pauling showed that these were merely extremes and that for most actual cases of bonding the quantum mechanical wave function for a polar molecule AB is a combination of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules 34 66 Here Pauling s electronegativity concept is particularly useful the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond 49 The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of the nature of the chemical bond was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons particularly the prototype benzene 50 The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekule He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures each with alternating single and double bonds but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them The name resonance was later applied to this phenomenon 51 In a sense this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding both described above because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result Ionic crystal structures Edit In 1929 Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds 52 34 These rules concern 1 the ratio of cation radius to anion radius 2 the electrostatic bond strength 3 the sharing of polyhedron corners edges and faces 4 crystals containing different cations and 5 the rule of parsimony Biological molecules Edit Pauling in 1941 An alpha helix in ultra high resolution electron density contours with O atoms in red N atoms in blue and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines PDB file 2NRL 17 32 In the mid 1930s Pauling strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation s Warren Weaver decided to strike out into new areas of interest 53 Although Pauling s early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance in part because of Caltech s growing strength in biology Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan Theodosius Dobzhanski Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant 54 His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin with his student Charles D Coryell He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen molecule 54 As a result of this observation he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general He returned to his earlier use of X ray diffraction analysis But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work The best X ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury but when Pauling tried in 1937 to account for Astbury s observations quantum mechanically he could not 55 It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem his mathematical analysis was correct but Astbury s pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern and applied this idea to proteins in general In 1951 based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond Pauling Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure 56 57 This work exemplified Pauling s ability to think unconventionally central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non integer number of amino acid residues for the alpha helix it is 3 7 amino acid residues per turn Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid DNA was a triple helix 58 59 his model contained several basic mistakes including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins Bragg s team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA James Watson and Francis Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King s College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X ray diffraction photographs During the time Pauling was researching the problem Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world s best images They were key to Watson s and Crick s success Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them while taking Pauling s place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States Politics did not play a critical role Not only did Corey see the images at the time but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin s lab and see her work but chose not to 16 414 415 Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action 60 He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures 61 Along the same lines with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbruck he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity rather than similarity as suggested by a few researchers This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered 62 Molecular genetics Edit Pauling in 1948 In November 1949 Pauling Harvey Itano S J Singer and Ibert Wells published Sickle Cell Anemia a Molecular Disease 63 in the journal Science It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level It was not however the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis which had been shown several years earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators 64 Using electrophoresis they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins not simply their presence or absence the dawn of molecular genetics 65 His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases including mental illnesses such as schizophrenia might result from flawed genetics As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical biomedical approach to mental illness a direction not always popular with established Caltech chemists 66 2 In 1951 Pauling gave a lecture entitled Molecular Medicine 67 In the late 1950s he studied the role of enzymes in brain function believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction Structure of the atomic nucleus Edit On September 16 1952 Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei On October 15 1965 Pauling published his Close Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 68 69 For nearly three decades until his death in 1994 Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model 68 70 71 72 73 74 The basic idea behind Pauling s spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of clusters of nucleons The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron np helion pnp and triton npn Even even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles as has often been done for light nuclei 75 Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model 76 Now recently I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends as observed experimentally From reading the physics literature Physical Review Letters and other journals I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei but none of them so far as I have been able to discover has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it So I just move along at my own speed making calculations Activism EditWartime work Edit Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer ca 1950 Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II At the beginning of the Manhattan Project Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project However he declined not wanting to uproot his family 77 Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer later model based on Pauling s design 1968 Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter based on Pauling s design with infant incubator 1959 Pauling did however work on research for the military He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts 78 The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3 1940 wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter which was developed and manufactured by Arnold O Beckman Inc After the war Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies 79 180 186 80 In 1942 Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions His project group which included J B Koepfli and Dan Campbell developed a possible replacement for human blood plasma in transfusions polyoxy gelatin Oxypolygelatin 81 82 Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives rocket propellants and the patent for an armor piercing shell In October 1948 Pauling along with Lee A DuBridge William A Fowler Max Mason and Bruce H Sage was awarded a Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S Truman The citation credits him for his imaginative mind brilliant success and exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services 83 84 85 In 1949 he served as president of the American Chemical Society 86 Nuclear activism Edit The aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava s pacifism changed Pauling s life profoundly and he became a peace activist In June 1945 a May Johnson Bill began 87 88 89 that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 signed August 1 1946 In November 1945 Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts Sciences and Professions ICCASP on atomic weapons shortly after wife Ava and he accepted membership 90 On January 21 1946 the group met to discuss academic freedom during which Pauling said There is of course always a threat to academic freedom as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom these rights by the selfish the overly ambitious the misguided the unscrupulous who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit and we must always be on the alert against this threat and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous 90 In 1946 he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists chaired by Albert Einstein 91 Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons Denial letter from Ruth B Shipley Chief Passport Division Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14 1952 His political activism prompted the US State Department to deny him a passport in 1952 when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London 92 93 In a speech before the US Senate on June 6 of the same year Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a limited passport to attend the aforementioned conference in England 94 95 His full passport was restored in 1954 shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize Joining Einstein Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals he signed the Russell Einstein Manifesto issued July 9 1955 96 He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15 1955 signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates 97 In May 1957 working with Washington University in St Louis professor Barry Commoner Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing 98 On January 15 1958 Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold calling for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons It was signed by 11 021 scientists representing fifty countries 99 100 In February 1958 Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations 101 Later in 1958 Pauling published No more war in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to attack the problem of preserving the peace 8 Pauling also supported the work of the St Louis Citizen s Committee for Nuclear Information CNI 98 This group headed by Barry Commoner Eric Reiss M W Friedlander and John Fowler organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium 90 in the baby teeth of children across North America The Baby Tooth Survey published by Louise Reiss demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass 102 103 104 The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban 105 as is the ground breaking research conducted by Reiss and the Baby Tooth Survey 106 Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research subsequently led to a moratorium on above ground nuclear weapons testing followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963 by John F Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev On the day that the treaty went into force October 10 1963 the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962 No prize had previously been awarded for that year 107 They described him as Linus Carl Pauling who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly not only against nuclear weapons tests not only against the spread of these armaments not only against their very use but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts 108 Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava s deep involvement in peace work and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him 109 Political criticism Edit Pauling s beret on display at the Nobel Prize Museum Many of Pauling s critics including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naive spokesman for Soviet communism In 1960 he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee 110 which termed him the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country 111 A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as A Weird Insult from Norway 112 113 Pauling was a frequent target of the National Review magazine In an article entitled The Collaborators in the magazine s July 17 1962 issue Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator but as a fellow traveler of proponents of Soviet style communism In 1965 Pauling sued the magazine its publisher William Rusher and its editor William F Buckley Jr for 1 million He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal 114 115 116 117 His peace activism his frequent travels and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech In 1958 the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division 66 2 Although he had retained tenure as a full professor Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money He spent the next three years at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions 1963 1967 21 In 1967 he moved to the University of California at San Diego but remained there only briefly leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan era board of regents 66 3 From 1969 to 1974 he accepted a position as Professor of Chemistry at Stanford University 32 Vietnam war activism Edit During the 1960s President Lyndon Johnson s policy of increasing America s involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional He made speeches signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson His efforts were ignored by the American government 118 Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970 111 119 He continued his peace activism in the following years He and his wife Ava helped to found the International League of Humanists in 1974 120 He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik Philadelphia statement of 1974 1976 121 Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science Munich until the end of his life 122 Eugenics Edit Pauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark such as a forehead tattoo to discourage potential mates with the same defect in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as sickle cell anemia 123 124 Medical research and vitamin C advocacy Edit Main article Vitamin C megadosage Pauling s book How to Live Longer and Feel Better advocated very high intake of Vitamin C 125 In 1941 at age 40 Pauling was diagnosed with Bright s disease a renal disease Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as nutritionist cook and eventually as deputy doctor Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis s then unusual low protein salt free diet and vitamin supplements 126 Thus Pauling s initial and intensely personal exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive In 1965 Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases 127 In 1968 Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled Orthomolecular psychiatry 128 giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s and advocating that orthomolecular therapy the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients Pauling coined the term orthomolecular to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized 129 130 In 1973 with Arthur B Robinson and another colleague Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park California which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine Pauling directed research on vitamin C but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death In his last years he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris During the 1990s Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C In 1996 a website was created expounding Pauling s treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations 131 Pauling s work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy He was first introduced to the concept of high dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966 After becoming convinced of its worth Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds 14 Excited by his own perceived results he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970 He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients 132 Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book Cancer and Vitamin C that discussed their observations Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public 133 and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients 134 135 A re evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study and judged to be terminal much earlier than the comparison group 136 Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic led by oncologist Dr Edward T Creagan also concluded that high dose 10 000 mg vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high dose vitamin C 137 138 139 The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery 14 140 Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as fraud and deliberate misrepresentation 141 142 and criticized the studies for using oral rather than intravenous vitamin C 143 which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling s original study 140 Pauling also criticised the Mayo clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short Pauling advocated continued high dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient s life whereas the Mayo clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2 5 months 144 Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer 142 Despite this Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain injured children 145 He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regime including high dose vitamin C as adjunctive cancer therapy 146 A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies such as the Mayo clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously 147 Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer 148 149 Personal life Edit The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm Sweden Seated from left Linus Pauling Jr Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling Standing from left an unidentified person and Crellin Pauling Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17 1923 The marriage lasted until Ava Pauling s death in 1981 They had four children 150 Linus Carl Jr born 1925 became a psychiatrist Peter 1931 2003 a crystallographer at University College London Edward Crellin 1937 1997 a biologist and Linda Helen born 1932 married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb 151 Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church 152 but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church 153 Two years before his death in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda Pauling publicly declared his atheism 154 On January 30 1960 Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about 80 miles 130 km south of Monterey California and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff but reached a large overhanging rock about 300 feet 90 m above the ocean He decided it was safest to stay there and meanwhile he was reported missing He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours 155 Death and legacy Edit Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19 1994 at 19 20 at home in Big Sur California 13 He was 93 years old 156 A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego Oregon by his sister Pauline but Pauling s ashes along with those of his wife were not buried there until 2005 157 Pauling s discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics inorganic chemistry organic chemistry protein structure molecular biology and medicine 158 159 His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry 10 The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years 160 and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks While his Valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules such as the color of organometallic complexes and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken Valence Bond Theory still competes in its modern form with Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory DFT as a way of describing chemical phenomena 161 Pauling s work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds 26 80 81 His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure 57 Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the father of molecular biology 10 162 His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level 65 Pauling s 1951 publication with Robert B Corey and H R Branson The Structure of Proteins Two Hydrogen Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the Department of Chemistry Caltech in 2017 163 164 Commemorations Edit Oregon State University completed construction of the 77 million 100 000 square foot 9 300 m2 Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s now housing the bulk of Oregon State s chemistry classrooms labs and instruments 165 On March 6 2008 the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin 166 167 His description reads A remarkably versatile scientist structural chemist Linus Pauling 1901 1994 won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules His work in establishing the field of molecular biology his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease 65 The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori biochemist Edwin Hubble astronomer and John Bardeen physicist 167 California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28 2008 that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History Women and the Arts The induction ceremony took place December 15 2008 Pauling s son was asked to accept the honor in his place 168 By proclamation of Gov John Kitzhaber in the state of Oregon February 28 has been named Linus Pauling Day 169 The Linus Pauling Institute still exists but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto California to Corvallis Oregon where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at Oregon State University 170 171 172 The Valley Library Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers including digitized versions of Pauling s forty six research notebooks 169 In 1986 Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a Symposium and Lectureship 173 The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall since Pauling spent so much time there 174 Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch California 175 Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules California Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo California 176 Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis Oregon 177 and Pauling Field a small airfield located in Condon Oregon where Pauling spent his youth 178 There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston Texas named The Linus Pauling Quartet 179 The asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt discovered by Eleanor F Helin was named after Linus Pauling in 1991 on his 90th birthday 180 Linus Torvalds developer of the Linux kernel is named after Pauling 181 Nobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him 182 In 2010 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program 183 Honors and awards EditPauling received numerous awards and honors during his career including the following 184 32 185 1931 ACS Award in Pure Chemistry 186 1931 Irving Langmuir Award American Chemical Society 32 185 1940 Alpha Chi Sigma professional chemistry fraternity 187 1941 Nichols Medal New York Section American Chemical Society 32 1946 Willard Gibbs Award Chicago section of the American Chemical Society 185 1947 Davy Medal Royal Society 32 185 1947 T W Richards Medal Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society 185 1948 Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S Truman of the United States 32 185 1948 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London ForMemRS 14 1951 Gilbert N Lewis medal California section of the American Chemical Society 185 1952 Pasteur Medal Biochemical Society of France 32 188 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 32 185 1955 Addis Medal National Nephrosis Foundation 32 185 1955 John Phillips Memorial Award American College of Physicians 32 185 1956 Avogadro Medal Italian Academy of Science 32 185 1957 Paul Sabatier Medal 1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics awarded for only the sixth time in three centuries 32 185 189 1957 International Grotius Medal 32 1959 Messenger Lectureship 1960 Fellow Royal Society of Arts 1961 Humanist of the Year American Humanist Association 1961 Gandhi Peace Award by Promoting Enduring Peace 190 1962 Nobel Peace Prize 32 185 1965 Medal Academy of the Rumanian People s Republic 32 1966 Linus Pauling Award 32 1966 Silver Medal Institute of France 32 1966 Supreme Peace Sponsor World Fellowship of Religion 32 1967 Washington A Roebling Medal Mineralogical Society of America 185 1972 Lenin Peace Prize 32 1974 National Medal of Science by President Gerald R Ford of the United States 185 1978 Lomonosov Gold Medal Presidium of the Academy of the USSR 32 185 1979 Gold Medal Honoree National Institute of Social Sciences 191 1979 NAS Award in Chemical Sciences National Academy of Sciences 32 192 1979 Golden Plate Award American Academy of Achievement 193 1981 John K Lattimer Award American Urological Association 185 1984 Priestley Medal American Chemical Society 32 185 1984 Award for Chemistry Arthur M Sackler Foundation 32 1986 Lavoisier Medal by Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie 185 1987 Award in Chemical Education American Chemical Society 32 1989 Vannevar Bush Award National Science Board 32 185 1990 Richard C Tolman Medal American Chemical Society Southern California Section 32 1992 Daisaku Ikeda Medal Soka Gakkai International 185 2008 American Scientists U S postage stamp series 0 41 for his sickle cell disease work 194 Publications EditBooks Edit Wilson E B 1985 Originally published in 1935 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry Reprinted by Dover Publications ISBN 978 0 486 64871 2 1939 The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals Cornell University Press 1947 General Chemistry An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory W H Freeman Greatly revised and expanded in 1947 1953 and 1970 Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1988 Hayward Roger 1964 The Architecture of Molecules Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Vol 51 San Francisco Freeman pp 977 84 doi 10 1073 pnas 51 5 977 ISBN 978 0 7167 0158 3 PMC 300194 PMID 16591181 Manuscript notes and typescripts clear images 1958 No more war Dodd Mead amp Co ISBN 978 1 124 11966 3 1977 Vitamin C the Common Cold and the Flu W H Freeman ISBN 978 0 7167 0360 0 1987 How to Live Longer and Feel Better Avon ISBN 978 0 380 70289 3 Cameron E 1993 Cancer and Vitamin C A Discussion of the Nature Causes Prevention and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C Camino ISBN 978 0 940159 21 1 1998 Linus Pauling On Peace A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival Rising Star Press ISBN 978 0 933670 03 7 Hoffer Abram 2004 Healing Cancer Complementary Vitamin amp Drug Treatments Toronto CCNM Press ISBN 978 1 897025 11 6 Ikeda Daisaku 2008 A Lifelong Quest for Peace A Dialogue Richard L Gage ed trans London I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 84511 889 1 Journal articles Edit 1927 The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many Electron Atoms and Ions Mole Refraction Diamagnetic Susceptibility and Extension in Space Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 114 767 181 211 Bibcode 1927RSPSA 114 181P doi 10 1098 rspa 1927 0035 1929 The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals Journal of the American Chemical Society 51 4 1010 1026 doi 10 1021 ja01379a006 1931 The Nature of the Chemical Bond I Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules Journal of the American Chemical Society 53 4 1367 1400 doi 10 1021 ja01355a027 1931 The Nature of the Chemical Bond II The One Electron Bond and the Three Electron Bond Journal of the American Chemical Society 53 9 3225 3237 doi 10 1021 ja01360a004 1932 The Nature of the Chemical Bond III The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another Journal of the American Chemical Society 54 3 988 1003 doi 10 1021 ja01342a022 1932 The Nature of the Chemical Bond IV The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms Journal of the American Chemical Society 54 9 3570 3582 doi 10 1021 ja01348a011 Wheland G W 1933 The Nature of the Chemical Bond V The Quantum Mechanical Calculation of the Resonance Energy of Benzene and Naphthalene and the Hydrocarbon Free Radicals PDF The Journal of Chemical Physics 1 6 362 Bibcode 1933JChPh 1 362P doi 10 1063 1 1749304 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 1935 The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement Journal of the American Chemical Society 57 12 2680 2684 doi 10 1021 ja01315a102 1940 A Theory of the Structure and Process of Formation of Antibodies Journal of the American Chemical Society 62 10 2643 2657 doi 10 1021 ja01867a018 1947 Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals Journal of the American Chemical Society 69 3 542 553 doi 10 1021 ja01195a024 Itano H A Singer S J Wells I C 1949 Sickle Cell Anemia a Molecular Disease Science 110 2865 543 548 Bibcode 1949Sci 110 543P doi 10 1126 science 110 2865 543 PMID 15395398 S2CID 31674765 Corey R B Branson H R 1951 The structure of proteins Two hydrogen bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 4 205 11 Bibcode 1951PNAS 37 205P doi 10 1073 pnas 37 4 205 PMC 1063337 PMID 14816373 See also EditList of peace activists NiacinReferences EditCitations Edit a b c Linus Pauling at the Mathematics Genealogy Project a b A Guggenheim Fellow in Europe during the Golden Years of Physics 1926 1927 Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2021 10 28 Retrieved 2015 05 27 a b 1925 The determination with x rays of the structures of crystals PhD thesis California Institute of Technology doi 10 7907 F7V6 4P98 Retrieved 2022 04 13 Linus Pauling Facts Nobel Prize Archived from the original on 2022 04 04 Retrieved 2022 04 13 1997 Pauling Linus Jr ed Selected papers of Linus Pauling Volume I ed River Edge New Jersey World Scientific p xvii ISBN 978 981 02 2939 9 a b Horgan J 1993 Profile Linus C Pauling Stubbornly Ahead of His Time Scientific American Vol 266 no 3 pp 36 40 Bibcode 1993SciAm 266c 36H doi 10 1038 scientificamerican0393 36 Simmons John 1996 The scientific 100 a ranking of the most influential scientists past and present Secaucus New Jersey Carol Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8065 1749 0 OL 7941698M Retrieved 2015 05 26 via Internet Archive a b c d e Linus Pauling on Nobelprize org accessed 30 April 2020 Nobel Prize Facts Nobel Prize 2022 04 12 2009 10 05 Archived from the original on 2017 01 11 Retrieved 2022 04 13 a b c Rich Alexander 1994 Linus Pauling 1901 1994 Nature 371 6495 285 Bibcode 1994Natur 371 285R doi 10 1038 371285a0 PMID 8090196 S2CID 8923975 Gribbin John 2004 08 10 The Scientists A History of Science Told Through the Lives of Its Greatest Inventors New York City Random House pp 558 569 ISBN 978 0 8129 6788 3 OL 8020832M Stone Irwin 1982 12 14 The healing factor vitamin C against disease New York City Perigee Books ISBN 978 0 399 50764 9 OCLC 10169988 OL 9567597M via Internet Archive a b Offit Paul 2013 07 19 The Vitamin Myth Why We Think We Need Supplements The Atlantic ISSN 2151 9463 OCLC 936540106 Retrieved 2013 07 19 a b c d Dunitz Jack D 1996 Linus Carl Pauling 28 February 1901 19 August 1994 Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 42 9 316 326 doi 10 1098 rsbm 1996 0020 PMID 11619334 Linus Pauling s Childhood 1901 1910 Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2022 04 07 Retrieved 2013 04 25 a b c d e Hager Thomas 1995 Force of Nature The Life of Linus Pauling Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 80909 0 via Internet Archive a b Mead Clifford Hager Thomas eds 2001 Linus Pauling Scientist and Peacemaker Oregon State University Press ISBN 978 0 87071 489 4 Linus Pauling Biographical Nobel Prize Archived from the original on 2022 03 18 Retrieved 2021 09 27 Dunitz Jack D 1997 Linus Carl Pauling Biographical Memoirs Vol 71 National Academies Press pp 221 261 doi 10 17226 5737 ISBN 978 0 309 05738 7 Archived from the original on 2021 10 28 Retrieved 2021 09 27 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Goertzel Ted Goertzel Ben 1995 Linus Pauling A Life in Science and Politics Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 00672 4 via Internet Archive a b Abrams Irwin 1988 The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates an illustrated biographical history 1901 1987 2 print ed Boston G K Hall ISBN 978 0 8161 8609 9 Bourgoin Suzanne M Byers Paula K eds 1998 Pauling Linus Encyclopedia of World Biography Vol 12 Thomson Gale p 150 ISBN 978 0 7876 2221 3 OCLC 498136139 OL 24962233M Pauling Finally Gets High School Diploma Evening Star 1962 06 19 p 1 col 6 Retrieved 2022 08 03 Swanson Stephen 2000 10 03 OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2016 03 03 Retrieved 2013 04 29 Pauling s Years as an Undergraduate at Oregon Agricultural College Part 2 1919 1922 Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2021 10 31 Retrieved 2015 05 27 He is also an assistant to Samuel H Graf in a mechanics and materials course a b c 1995 Marinacci Barbara ed Linus Pauling in his own words selected writings speeches and interviews New York City Simon amp Schuster p 39 ISBN 978 0 684 81387 5 Retrieved 2015 05 27 via Internet Archive Graf gave me a job correcting papers in the courses he taught about statics and dynamics bridge structure strength of materials and so on I also helped him in the laboratory Linus Pauling Biographical Timeline Linus Pauling Institute Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2022 03 02 Retrieved 2011 11 10 Richard Terry 2013 05 03 Ava Helen Pauling wife of Linus Pauling subject of biography by Corvallis author Mina Carson The Oregonian ISSN 8750 1317 Archived from the original on 2021 05 13 Retrieved 2015 06 02 Commencement 1925 California Institute of Technology Pasadena PDF California Institute of Technology 1925 06 12 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 11 01 Retrieved 2013 03 29 Cohen Robert S Hilpinen Risto Qiu Ren Zong eds 2010 12 09 1996 10 31 Realism and anti realism in the philosophy of science Beijing International Conference 1992 Dordrecht Springer p 161 ISBN 978 90 481 4493 8 OL 28281917M Retrieved 2015 05 27 About Linus Pauling Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Archived from the original on 2022 03 02 Retrieved 2022 04 13 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac 1987 04 06 Written at Denver Oral history interview with Linus C Pauling Interviewed by Sturchio Jeffrey L Philadelphia Science History Institute Archived from the original on 2021 08 16 Retrieved 2022 04 13 1929 04 01 The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals Journal of the American Chemical Society 51 4 1010 1026 doi 10 1021 ja01379a006 a b c d e 1960 01 31 1939 The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals an introduction to modern structural chemistry 3rd ed Ithaca New York Cornell University Press pp 543 562 ISBN 978 0 8014 0333 0 OL 26811428M Hager Thomas December 2004 The Langmuir Prize Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2020 12 12 Retrieved 2008 02 29 1932 03 01 The nature of the chemical bond III The transition from one extreme bond type to another Journal of the American Chemical Society 54 3 988 1003 doi 10 1021 ja01342a022 a b Monk Ray 2014 03 11 2012 Robert Oppenheimer a life inside the center First Anchor Books ed Anchor Books p 203 ISBN 978 0 385 72204 9 OL 32935915M Early Career at the California Institute of Technology 1927 1930 Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2021 11 12 Retrieved 2017 05 18 A Lost Ally Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2021 08 20 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Hargittai Istvan Hargittai Magdolna 2000 02 29 In our own image personal symmetry in discovery New York City Springer Nature ISBN 978 0 306 46091 3 LCCN 99033173 OL 9669915M Retrieved 2015 05 27 1932 09 01 The Nature of the Chemical Bond IV The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms Journal of the American Chemical Society 54 9 3570 3582 doi 10 1021 ja01348a011 ISSN 0002 7863 LCCN 16003159 OCLC 01226990 The Pauling Electronegativity Scale Part 2 Inspired by Biology Oregon State University 2009 03 17 Archived from the original on 2021 11 17 Retrieved 2009 03 17 Obituary Professor Linus Pauling The Independent 1994 08 21 Archived from the original on 2021 06 16 Retrieved 2018 01 25 Outline of the George Fischer Baker Lectureship Cornell University Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2021 11 12 Retrieved 2022 04 13 The George Fischer Baker Lectureship and the Beginnings of the Manuscript The Pauling Blog Oregon State University 2014 07 30 Archived from the original on 2022 03 07 Retrieved 2015 06 03 Watson James D 2001 A passion for DNA genes genomes and society 2003 ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 860428 0 OL 7401431M via Internet Archive The nature of the chemical bond citations and estimated counts Google Scholar Retrieved 2015 05 27 Pauling Linus 1928 London s paper General ideas on bonds Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2015 06 02 Pauling Linus 1930s Notes and Calculations re Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2008 02 29 Pauling Linus 1934 01 06 Benzene Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2008 02 29 Pauling Linus 1946 07 29 Resonance Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2008 02 29 Pauling Linus 1929 The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals J Am Chem Soc 51 4 1010 1026 doi 10 1021 ja01379a006 Kay Lily E 1996 The molecular vision of life Caltech the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology New York u a Oxford University Press pp 148 151 ISBN 978 0 19 511143 9 Retrieved 2015 05 27 a b Califano Salvatore 2012 Pathways to modern chemical physics Heidelberg Germany Springer p 198 ISBN 978 3 642 28179 2 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Livio Mario 2014 Brilliant blunders from Darwin to Einstein colossal mistakes by great scientists that changed our understanding of life and the universe S l Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 4391 9237 5 Pauling L Corey RB 1951 Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds Two New Pleated Sheets Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 37 11 729 40 Bibcode 1951PNAS 37 729P doi 10 1073 pnas 37 11 729 PMC 1063460 PMID 16578412 a b Goertzel and Goertzel p 95 100 Pauling L Corey RB February 1953 A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 39 2 84 97 Bibcode 1953PNAS 39 84P doi 10 1073 pnas 39 2 84 PMC 1063734 PMID 16578429 Linus Pauling s DNA Model Archived from the original on 2012 02 04 Retrieved 2015 06 02 Metzler David E 2003 Biochemistry 2nd ed San Diego Harcourt Academic Pr ISBN 978 0 12 492541 0 Lewis Julius M Cruse Robert E 2010 Atlas of immunology 3rd ed Boca Raton FL CRC Press Taylor amp Francis p 21 ISBN 978 1 4398 0268 7 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Tudge Colin 1995 The engineer in the garden genes and genetics from the idea of heredity to the creation of life 1st American ed New York Hill and Wang ISBN 978 0 8090 4259 3 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Pauling L Itano H A Singer S J Wells I C 1949 11 25 Sickle Cell Anemia a Molecular Disease Science 110 2865 543 548 Bibcode 1949Sci 110 543P doi 10 1126 science 110 2865 543 PMID 15395398 S2CID 31674765 Retrieved 2015 06 02 Andersch MA Wilson DA Menten ML 1944 Sedimentation constants and electrophoretic mobilities of adult and fetal carbonylhemoglobin Journal of Biological Chemistry 153 301 305 doi 10 1016 S0021 9258 18 51237 0 a b c Strasser Bruno J 2002 08 30 Linus Pauling s molecular diseases Between history and memory PDF American Journal of Medical Genetics 115 2 83 93 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 613 5672 doi 10 1002 ajmg 10542 PMID 12400054 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 Retrieved 2015 05 27 a b c A Flamboyant Scientist s Legacy Scholar Linus C Pauling s supporters and detractors join in calling the two time Nobel winner one of the most significant figures of this century Los Angeles Times 1994 08 21 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Pauling Linus October 1951 Molecular Medicine Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers Retrieved 2007 08 05 a b Pauling Linus 1965 The Close Packed Spheron Model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 54 4 989 994 Bibcode 1965PNAS 54 989P doi 10 1073 pnas 54 4 989 PMC 219778 PMID 16578621 Pauling L 1965 10 15 The close packed spheron theory and nuclear fission Science 150 3694 297 305 Bibcode 1965Sci 150 297P doi 10 1126 science 150 3694 297 PMID 17742357 Pauling Linus July 1966 The close packed spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei Revue Roumain de Physique Retrieved 2007 08 05 Pauling Linus December 1967 Magnetic moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 58 6 2175 2178 Bibcode 1967PNAS 58 2175P doi 10 1073 pnas 58 6 2175 PMC 223816 PMID 16591577 Retrieved 2007 08 05 Pauling Linus November 1969 Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 64 3 807 9 Bibcode 1969PNAS 64 807P doi 10 1073 pnas 64 3 807 PMC 223305 PMID 16591799 Retrieved 2007 08 05 Pauling Linus Arthur B Robinson 1975 Rotating clusters in nuclei Canadian Journal of Physics Retrieved 2007 08 05 Pauling Linus February 1991 Transition from one revolving cluster to two revolving clusters in the ground state rotational bands of nuclei in the lanthanon region Proc Natl Acad Sci 88 3 820 823 Bibcode 1991PNAS 88 820P doi 10 1073 pnas 88 3 820 PMC 50905 PMID 11607150 Retrieved 2007 08 05 Pauling Linus 1969 11 15 Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 64 3 807 809 Bibcode 1969PNAS 64 807P doi 10 1073 pnas 64 3 807 PMC 223305 PMID 16591799 Linus C Pauling Ph D Biography and Interview www achievement org American Academy of Achievement Hiroshima Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement Special Collections amp Archives Research Center Oregon State University Retrieved 2015 05 27 Kay Lily E 1996 The molecular vision of life Caltech the Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of the new biology New York Oxford University Press p 179 ISBN 978 0 19 511143 9 Retrieved 2015 12 27 Thackray Arnold amp Minor Myers Jr 2000 Arnold O Beckman one hundred years of excellence foreword by James D Watson Philadelphia Pa Chemical Heritage Foundation ISBN 978 0 941901 23 9 Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer Wood Library Museum of Anesthesiology Retrieved 2015 05 28 Blood and War The Development of Oxypolygelatin Part 1 The Pauling Blog 2009 01 27 Retrieved 2015 05 28 Chadarevian Soraya de 1998 Molecularizing biology and medicine new practices and alliances 1910s 1970s Amsterdam Harwood Academic p 109 ISBN 978 90 5702 293 7 Retrieved 2015 05 28 Presidential Medal for Merit Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals Retrieved 2015 05 28 The Linus Pauling Papers Biographical Information United States National Library of Medicine Retrieved 2008 02 11 Paulus John Allen 1995 11 05 Pauling s Prizes The New York Times Retrieved 2007 12 09 ACS President Linus Pauling 1901 1994 ACS Chemistry for Life Retrieved 2015 06 01 Part VI The Manhattan District in Peacetime The May Johnson Bill Atomic Archive 1998 retrieved 2019 10 19 Atomic Energy Commission Atomic Heritage Foundation 2016 11 18 retrieved 2019 10 19 Roy Glauber amp Priscilla McMillan on Oppenheimer Atomic Energy Commission Voices of the Manhattan Project 2013 06 06 retrieved 2019 10 19 a b The Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts Sciences and Professions Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement 2009 retrieved 2019 10 19 Hager Thomas 2007 11 29 Einstein Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 Linus Pauling U S Stamp Gallery Retrieved 2015 06 02 In January of 1952 Pauling requested a passport to attend a meeting in England The passport was denied because granting it would not be in the best interest of the United States He applied again and wrote President Eisenhower asking him to arrange the issuance of the passport since I am a loyal citizen of the United States I have never been guilty of any unpatriotic or criminal act Pauling Linus May 1952 The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 Robert Paradowski 2011 Oregon State University Special Collections p 18 Proteins Passports and the Prize 1950 1954 retrieved February 1 2013 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol VIII Nr 7 Okt 1952 p 254 Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science Inc Hager Thomas 2007 11 29 Russell Einstein Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 Hermann Armin 1979 The new physics the route into the atomic age in memory of Albert Einstein Max von Laue Otto Hahn Lise Meitner Bonn Bad Godesberg Inter Nationes p 130 a b The Baby Tooth Survey The Pauling Blog Retrieved 2011 06 01 The Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Linus Pauling Nobel Lecture Nobel Prize org Retrieved 2015 05 28 Linus Pauling Receives the Nobel Peace Prize The Pauling Blog Retrieved 2013 12 10 Moore Kelly 2008 Disrupting science social movements American scientists and the politics of the military 1945 1975 Princeton Princeton University Press p 113 ISBN 978 0 691 11352 4 Retrieved 2015 05 28 Reiss Louise Zibold 1961 11 24 Strontium 90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium 90 uptake by human populations Science 134 3491 1669 1673 doi 10 1126 science 134 3491 1669 PMID 14491339 Hager Thomas 2007 11 29 Strontium 90 Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 Hager Thomas 2007 11 29 The Right to Petition Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 McCormick John 1991 Reclaiming paradise the global environmental movement 1st Midland ed Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 20660 2 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Allen Garland E MacLeod Roy M 2001 Science history and social activism a tribute to Everett Mendelsohn Dordrecht Kluwer Academic p 302 ISBN 978 1 4020 0495 7 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Nobel Peace Prize Awarded to Pauling Palo Alto Times 1963 10 10 Retrieved 2015 05 27 Pauling Linus 1963 10 10 Notes by Linus Pauling October 10 1963 Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections Retrieved 2007 12 13 Linus Pauling Biography Linus Pauling Institute 2014 05 09 Retrieved 2015 06 02 Pauling said that his Nobel Peace Prize should really have gone to her or at least been shared between them issued to Linus Pauling by the Internal Security Subcommittee of the United States Senate June 20 1960 Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement Retrieved 2015 05 28 a b Mason Stephen F 1997 The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling 1901 1994 Chemical Society Reviews 26 29 39 doi 10 1039 cs9972600029 Archived from the original on 2009 05 15 Retrieved 2015 05 20 Kovac Jeffrey 1999 A weird insult from Norway Linus Pauling as public intellectual Soundings An Interdisciplinary Journal 82 1 2 91 106 JSTOR 41178914 A Weird Insult From Norway Life Vol 5 no 17 1963 10 25 p 4 The National Review Lawsuit Paulingblog 2013 01 30 Retrieved 2013 12 20 A Tough Conclusion to the National Review Lawsuit Paulingblog Retrieved 2013 12 20 Pauling v NAT L REVIEW INC Justia com Retrieved 2013 12 20 Saxon Wolfgang 1998 08 30 C Dickerman Williams 97 Free Speech Lawyer Is Dead The New York Times Retrieved 2013 12 20 Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement Vietnam Oregon State University Libraries 2010 Lenin Peace Prize Recipients Research History 2011 05 16 Founders International League of Humanists for peace and tolerance Archived from the original on 2015 06 11 Retrieved 2015 05 28 The Dubrovnik Philadelphia Statement 1974 1976 short version International League of Humanists Archived from the original on 2015 09 24 Retrieved 2015 05 28 History International Academy of Science Munich Retrieved 2015 03 16 Mendelsohn Everett March April 2000 The Eugenic Temptation Harvard Magazine Special Collections amp Archives Research Center Oregon State University Libraries 2015 Eugenics for Alleviating Human Suffering It s in the Blood A Documentary History of Linus Pauling Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia Retrieved 2020 05 30 Pauling Linus 1987 How to Live Longer and Feel Better 1 ed New York Avon Books OL 18076125M Peitzman Steven J 2007 Dropsy dialysis transplant a short history of failing kidneys Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press pp 72 8 190 ISBN 978 0 8018 8734 5 Nicolle Lorraine Beirne Ann Woodriff eds 2010 Biochemical imbalances in disease a practitioner s handbook London Singing Dragon p 27 ISBN 978 0 85701 028 5 Pauling Linus April 1968 Orthomolecular psychiatry Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease Science 160 3825 265 71 Bibcode 1968Sci 160 265P doi 10 1126 science 160 3825 265 PMID 5641253 S2CID 20153555 Cassileth Barrie R 1998 The alternative medicine handbook the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies New York W W Norton p 67 ISBN 978 0 393 04566 6 Vitamin Therapy Megadose Orthomolecular Therapy BC Cancer Agency February 2000 Archived from the original on 2007 02 02 Retrieved 2007 08 05 PaulingTherapy com Reversing Heart Disease w o Drugs is Possible www paulingtherapy com Cameron Ewan Cancer Bibliography Ewan Cameron M D and Vitamin C Therapy Doctoryourself com Retrieved 2007 08 05 Severo Richard 1994 08 21 Linus C Pauling Dies at 93 Chemist and Voice for Peace The New York Times Retrieved 2015 06 01 Cameron E Pauling L October 1976 Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 73 10 3685 9 Bibcode 1976PNAS 73 3685C doi 10 1073 pnas 73 10 3685 PMC 431183 PMID 1068480 Cameron E Pauling L September 1978 Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer Reevaluation of prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 75 9 4538 42 Bibcode 1978PNAS 75 4538C doi 10 1073 pnas 75 9 4538 PMC 336151 PMID 279931 DeWys WD 1982 How to evaluate a new treatment for cancer Your Patient and Cancer 2 5 31 36 Creagan ET Moertel CG O Fallon JR September 1979 Failure of high dose vitamin C ascorbic acid therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer A controlled trial The New England Journal of Medicine 301 13 687 90 doi 10 1056 NEJM197909273011303 PMID 384241 Moertel CG Fleming TR Creagan ET Rubin J O Connell MJ Ames MM January 1985 High dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy A randomized double blind comparison The New England Journal of Medicine 312 3 137 41 doi 10 1056 NEJM198501173120301 PMID 3880867 Tschetter L et al 1983 A community based study of vitamin C ascorbic acid in patients with advanced cancer Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 2 92 a b Chen Q Espey M G Sun A Y Lee J H Krishna M C Shacter E Choyke P L Pooput C Kirk K L Buettner G R Levine M et al 2007 Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 21 8749 54 Bibcode 2007PNAS 104 8749C doi 10 1073 pnas 0702854104 PMC 1885574 PMID 17502596 Goertzel Ted 1996 Analyzing Pauling s Personality A Three Generational Three Decade Project Special Collections Oregon State University Libraries Archived from the original on 2007 10 14 Retrieved 2007 08 05 a b Pinch Trevor Collins Harry M 2005 Alternative Medicine The Cases of Vitamin C and Cancer Dr Golem how to think about medicine Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 89 111 ISBN 978 0 226 11366 1 Levine M et al 2006 Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy three cases CMAJ 174 7 937 942 doi 10 1503 cmaj 050346 PMC 1405876 PMID 16567755 Pauling Linus 1986 How to Live Longer and Feel Better New York W H Freeman and Company pp 173 175 ISBN 978 0 7167 1781 2 Pauling L November 1978 Ralph Pelligra ed Orthomolecular enhancement of human development PDF Human Neurological Development 47 51 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 Saul Andrew W Dr Abram Hoffer Abram Hoffer M D PhD 50 Years of Megavitamin Research Practice and Publication Doctoryourself com Retrieved 2007 08 05 Ohno S Ohno Y Suzuki N Soma G Inoue M 2009 High dose vitamin C ascorbic acid therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer Anticancer Research 29 3 809 15 PMID 19414313 Jacobs Carmel Hutton Brian Ng Terry Shorr Risa Clemons Mark 2015 Is There a Role for Oral or Intravenous Ascorbate Vitamin C in Treating Patients With Cancer A Systematic Review The Oncologist 20 2 210 223 doi 10 1634 theoncologist 2014 0381 PMC 4319640 PMID 25601965 Conclusion There is no high quality evidence to suggest that ascorbate supplementation in cancer patients either enhances the antitumor effects of chemotherapy or reduces its toxicity Vitamin C Fact Sheet for Health Professionals National Institutes of Health Retrieved 2015 06 02 At this time the evidence is inconsistent on whether dietary vitamin C intake affects cancer risk Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer Some researchers support reassessment of the use of high dose IV vitamin C as a drug to treat cancer It is uncertain whether supplemental vitamin C and other antioxidants might interact with chemotherapy and or radiation The Linus Pauling Papers Biographical Information United States National Library of Medicine n d Retrieved 2011 11 10 Linus Pauling Biography Linus Pauling Institute Retrieved 2011 11 10 Oral history interview with Linus Carl Pauling 1964 March 27 American Institute of Physics Retrieved 2015 05 27 Linus Pauling Dictionary of Unitarian amp Universalist Biography Retrieved 2015 05 27 Pauling Linus Ikeda Daisaku 1992 A Lifelong Quest for Peace A Dialogue Jones amp Bartlett p 22 ISBN 978 0 86720 277 9 I Pauling am not however militant in my atheism The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God I am not It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet Dr Pauling Rescued On a Sea Cliff 24 Hrs clipping scarc library oregonstate edu Special Collections amp Archives Research Center Oregon State University Libraries New York Herald Tribune 1960 02 01 Retrieved 2018 04 22 Goertzel and Goertzel p 247 The Centennial Who s Buried in Linus Pauling s Grave PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 Retrieved 2012 12 26 Linus Pauling California Museum Retrieved 2015 06 01 Linus Pauling Biographical Nobelprize org Nobel Media AB 2014 Retrieved 2016 10 06 Hamilton Neil A 2002 American social leaders and activists New York Facts On File ISBN 978 0 8160 4535 8 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Hoffmann Roald Shaik Sason Hiberty Philippe C 2003 A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory A Never Ending Rivalry Acc Chem Res 36 10 750 6 doi 10 1021 ar030162a PMID 14567708 Pauling Honored by Scientists at Caltech Event Los Angeles Times United Press International 1986 03 01 Retrieved 2012 07 22 Citations for Chemical Breakthrough Awards 2017 Awardees Division of the History of Chemistry Retrieved 2018 03 12 Pauling L Corey R B Branson H R 1951 The structure of proteins Two hydrogen bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 37 4 205 11 Bibcode 1951PNAS 37 205P doi 10 1073 pnas 37 4 205 PMC 1063337 PMID 14816373 Linus Pauling Science Center Department of Chemistry Oregon State University chemistry oregonstate edu Retrieved 2016 11 10 Four Legends of American Science Now on U S Postage Stamps PDF United States Postal Service Postal News Release No 08 23 2008 03 06 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 a b OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U S Postal Service Stamp Oregon State University University Events Archived from the original on 2013 11 02 Retrieved 2015 02 25 Governor amp First Lady Participate in 2008 CA Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony CA gov Archived from the original on 2015 06 02 Retrieved 2015 06 01 a b Linus Pauling Research Notebooks Online Natural Science Archived from the original on 2015 09 05 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Linus Pauling Institute Lpi oregonstate edu Retrieved 2013 06 25 Cole Gail 2011 10 14 Linus Pauling Science Center opens at OSU Corvallis Gazette Times Retrieved 2015 06 02 Linus Pauling Science Center A Moment to Celebrate Oregon State University Foundation Retrieved 2015 06 02 Zewail Ahmed 1992 The Chemical Bond Structure and Dynamics Burlington Elsevier Science ISBN 978 0 08 092669 8 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Baum Rudy 1989 12 11 Caltech launches Linus Pauling lecture series Chemical amp Engineering News 67 50 18 19 doi 10 1021 cen v067n050 p018a Johnson Greg 1996 03 20 Pauling Road Address Fits New Vitamin Factory to a C Los Angeles Times Retrieved 2015 06 02 Gottlieb Jeff 2001 08 19 A New View University Los Angeles Times Retrieved 2015 06 01 Woodward Raju 2012 02 29 A son s tribute by Linus Pauling Jr Corvallis Gazette Times Retrieved 2015 06 01 Scientist cites Condon years as influential Register Guard Eugene Oregon 1988 10 19 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Heberlein L A 2002 The Rough guide to internet radio London Rough Guides ISBN 978 1 85828 961 8 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Schmadel Lutz D 2012 Dictionary of minor planet names 6th ed Berlin Springer ISBN 978 3 642 29718 2 Retrieved 2015 06 01 Moody Glyn 2002 Rebel Code Linux and the Open Source Revolution Perseus Books Group p 336 ISBN 978 0 7382 0670 7 Agre Peter 2013 12 10 Fifty years ago Linus Pauling and the belated Nobel Peace Prize Science amp Diplomacy 2 4 Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship PNNL Center for Oral History Linus C Pauling Science History Institute a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals Special Collections Oregon State University Libraries Retrieved 2013 04 25 ACS Award in Pure Chemistry American Chemical Society Retrieved 2014 01 18 Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity Certificate of Membership Special Collections amp Archives Research Center Oregon State University Libraries Retrieved 2015 05 27 Societe de Chimie Biologique Louis Pasteur Medal 1952 Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals scarc library oregonstate edu Pauling s awards and medals includes image of Fermat medal Gandhi Peace Award Promoting Enduring Peace Retrieved 2013 04 26 Gold Medal Honorees National Institute of Social Sciences Archived from the original on 2019 07 02 Retrieved 2019 07 02 NAS Award in Chemical Sciences National Academy of Sciences Retrieved 2015 06 02 Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement www achievement org American Academy of Achievement OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U S Postal Service Stamp Events Oregon State University Archived from the original on 2013 11 02 Retrieved 2013 04 25 Bibliography Edit Hager Thomas 1998 Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 513972 3 via Internet Archive Marinacci Barbara Krishnamurthy Ramesh 1998 Linus Pauling on Peace Rising Star Press ISBN 978 0 933670 03 7 Serafini Anthony 1989 Linus Pauling A Man and His Science Paragon House ISBN 978 1 55778 440 7 via Internet Archive General references EditHargittai Istvan 2000 Hargittai Magdolna ed Candid science conversations with famous chemists Reprinted ed London Imperial College Press ISBN 978 1 86094 151 1 Marinacci Barbara ed 1995 Linus Pauling In His Own Words Selected Writings Speeches and Interviews Introduction by Linus Pauling New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 81387 5 online Pauling Linus Selected Scientific Papers Vol II online Sturchio Jeffrey L 1987 04 06 Linus C Pauling Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L Sturchio in Denver Colorado on 6 April 1987 PDF Philadelphia PA Chemical Heritage Foundation Further reading EditCoffey Patrick 2008 Cathedrals of Science The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 532134 0 Davenport Derek A 1996 The Many Lives of Linus Pauling A Review of Reviews Journal of Chemical Education 73 9 A210 Bibcode 1996JChEd 73A 210D doi 10 1021 ed073pA210 Gormley Melinda The first molecular disease a story of Linus Pauling the intellectual patron Endeavour 31 2 2007 71 77 online Mead Clifford Linus Pauling Scientist and Peacemaker 2008 Nakamura Jeanne and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Catalytic creativity The case of Linus Pauling American Psychologist 56 4 2001 337 Strasser Bruno J A world in one dimension Linus Pauling Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology History and philosophy of the life sciences 2006 491 512 online Strasser Bruno J Linus Pauling s molecular diseases Between history and memory American journal of medical genetics 115 2 2002 83 93 online White Florence Meiman Linus Pauling Scientist and Crusader 1980 online Zannos Susan Linus Pauling and the chemical bond 2004 48pp online for secondary schoolsExternal links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Linus Pauling Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linus C Pauling Scholia has an author profile for Linus Pauling Linus Pauling Online a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries Crick Francis The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries The Pauling Catalogue Center for Oral History Linus C Pauling Science History Institute Sturchio Jeffrey L 1987 04 06 Linus C Pauling Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L Sturchio in Denver Colorado on 6 April 1987 PDF Philadelphia PA Chemical Heritage Foundation The Pauling Blog Linus Pauling 1901 1994 Berkeley Conversations With History interview Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography It s in the Blood A Documentary History of Linus Pauling Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia Special Collections amp Archives Research Center Oregon State University Oregon State University Library Retrieved 2015 02 25 The Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University Publications of Pauling The Linus Pauling Papers Profiles in Science National Library of Medicine Linus Pauling Archived July 19 2019 at the Wayback Machine Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting Oral history interview with Linus C Pauling from Science History Institute Digital CollectionsAwards and achievementsPreceded byHermann Staudinger Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry1954 Succeeded byVincent du VigneaudPreceded byDag Hammarskjold Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize1962 Succeeded byInternational Committee of the Red Cross League of Red Cross Societies Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Linus Pauling amp oldid 1127941278, 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