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McCarthyism

December 15, 2023

This article is about the events during the cold war. For general information about the phenomenon, see Red Scare.

McCarthyism, also known as the second Red Scare, was the political repression and persecution of left-wing individuals and a campaign spreading fear of alleged communist and Soviet influence on American institutions and of Soviet espionage in the United States during the late 1940s through the 1950s.[1] After the mid-1950s, U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, who had spearheaded the campaign, gradually lost his public popularity and credibility after several of his accusations were found to be false.[2][3] The U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren made a series of rulings on civil and political rights that overturned several key laws and legislative directives, and helped bring an end to the Second Red Scare.[4][5][6] Historians have suggested since the 1980s that as McCarthy's involvement was less central than that of others, a different and more accurate term should be used instead that more accurately conveys the breadth of the phenomenon, and that the term McCarthyism is now outdated. Ellen Schrecker has suggested that Hooverism after FBI Head J. Edgar Hoover is more appropriate.[7]

American anti-communist propaganda of the 1950s, specifically addressing the entertainment industry

What would become known as the McCarthy era began before McCarthy's rise to national fame. Following the breakdown of the wartime East-West alliance with the Soviet Union, and with many remembering the First Red Scare, President Harry S. Truman signed an executive order in 1947 to screen federal employees for possible association with organizations deemed "totalitarian, fascist, communist, or subversive", or advocating "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means." The following year, the Czechoslovak coup by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia heightened concern in the West about Communist parties seizing power and the possibility of subversion. In 1949, a high-level State Department official was convicted of perjury in a case of espionage, and the Soviet Union tested a nuclear bomb. The Korean War started the next year, significantly raising tensions and fears of impending communist upheavals in the United States. In a speech in February 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of members of the Communist Party USA working in the State Department, which attracted substantial press attention, and the term McCarthyism was published for the first time in late March of that year in The Christian Science Monitor, along with a political cartoon by Herblock in The Washington Post. The term has since taken on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts to crack down on alleged "subversive" elements. In the early 21st century, the term is used more generally to describe reckless and unsubstantiated accusations of treason and far-left extremism, along with demagogic personal attacks on the character and patriotism of political adversaries.

The primary targets for persecution were government employees, prominent figures in the entertainment industry, academics, left-wing politicians, and labor union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive and questionable evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations and beliefs were often exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and the destruction of their careers and livelihoods as a result of the crackdowns on suspected communists, and some were outright imprisoned. Most of these reprisals were initiated by trial verdicts that were later overturned,[8] laws that were later struck down as unconstitutional,[9] dismissals for reasons later declared illegal[10] or actionable,[11] and extra-judiciary procedures, such as informal blacklists by employers and public institutions, that would come into general disrepute, though by then many lives had been ruined. The most notable examples of McCarthyism include the investigations of alleged communists that were conducted by Senator McCarthy, and the hearings conducted by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).

Origins edit

See also: US Strike wave of 1945–1946
 
One of the earliest uses of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Herbert Block ("Herblock"), published in The Washington Post, March 29, 1950.

President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9835 of March 21, 1947, required that all federal civil-service employees be screened for "loyalty". The order said that one basis for determining disloyalty would be a finding of "membership in, affiliation with or sympathetic association" with any organization determined by the attorney general to be "totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive" or advocating or approving the forceful denial of constitutional rights to other persons or seeking "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means".[12]

The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthy's own involvement in it. Many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them with roots in the First Red Scare (1917–20), inspired by communism's emergence as a recognized political force and widespread social disruption in the United States related to unionizing and anarchist activities. Owing in part to its success in organizing labor unions and its early opposition to fascism, and offering an alternative to the ills of capitalism during the Great Depression, the Communist Party of the United States increased its membership through the 1930s, reaching a peak of about 75,000 members in 1940–41.[13] While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union, the issue of anti-communism was largely muted. With the end of World War II, the Cold War began almost immediately, as the Soviet Union installed communist puppet régimes in areas it had occupied across Central and Eastern Europe. In a March 1947 address to Congress, Truman enunciated a new foreign policy doctrine that committed the United States to opposing Soviet geopolitical expansion. This doctrine came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, and it guided United States support for anti-communist forces in Greece and later in China and elsewhere.[14]

Although the Igor Gouzenko and Elizabeth Bentley affairs had raised the issue of Soviet espionage in 1945, events in 1949 and 1950 sharply increased the sense of threat in the United States related to communism. The Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected, raising the stakes in the Cold War. That same year, Mao Zedong's communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang. In 1950, the Korean War began, pitting U.S., U.N., and South Korean forces against communists from North Korea and China.

During the following year, evidence of increased sophistication in Soviet Cold War espionage activities was found in the West. In January 1950, Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury. Hiss was in effect found guilty of espionage; the statute of limitations had run out for that crime, but he was convicted of having perjured himself when he denied that charge in earlier testimony before the HUAC. In Britain, Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 in the United States on charges of stealing atomic-bomb secrets for the Soviets, and were executed in 1953.

Other forces encouraged the rise of McCarthyism. The more conservative politicians in the United States had historically referred to progressive reforms, such as child labor laws and women's suffrage, as "communist" or "Red plots", trying to raise fears against such changes.[15] They used similar terms during the 1930s and the Great Depression when opposing the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with socialism or Communism, and thought the policies were evidence of too much influence by allegedly communist policy makers in the Roosevelt administration.[16] In general, the vaguely defined danger of "Communist influence" was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity.

 
Senator Joseph McCarthy

McCarthy's involvement in these issues began publicly with a speech he made on Lincoln Day, February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia. He brandished a piece of paper, which he claimed contained a list of known communists working for the State Department. McCarthy is usually quoted as saying: "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department."[17] This speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and helped establish his path to becoming one of the most recognized politicians in the United States.

The first recorded use of the term "McCarthyism" was in the Christian Science Monitor on March 28, 1950 ("Their little spree with McCarthyism is no aid to consultation").[18] The paper became one of the earliest and most consistent critics of the Senator.[19] The next recorded use happened on the following day, in a political cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block (Herblock). The cartoon depicts four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant (the traditional symbol of the Republican Party) to stand on a platform atop a teetering stack of ten tar buckets, the topmost of which is labeled "McCarthyism". Block later wrote:

"nothing [was] particularly ingenious about the term, which is simply used to represent a national affliction that can hardly be described in any other way. If anyone has a prior claim on it, he's welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of free dishes and a case of soap."[20]

Institutions edit

A number of anti-communist committees, panels, and "loyalty review boards" in federal, state, and local governments, as well as many private agencies, carried out investigations for small and large companies concerned about possible Communists in their work forces.

In Congress, the primary bodies that investigated Communist activities were the HUAC, the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Between 1949 and 1954, a total of 109 investigations were carried out by these and other committees of Congress.[21]

On December 2, 1954, the United States Senate voted 67 to 22[22] to condemn McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute".

Executive branch edit

Loyalty-security reviews edit

 
Executive Order 9835, signed by President Truman in 1947

In the federal government, President Truman's Executive Order 9835 initiated a program of loyalty reviews for federal employees in 1947. It called for dismissal if there were "reasonable grounds ... for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States."[23] Truman, a Democrat, was probably reacting in part to the Republican sweep in the 1946 Congressional election and felt a need to counter growing criticism from conservatives and anti-communists.[24]

When President Dwight Eisenhower took office in 1953, he strengthened and extended Truman's loyalty review program, while decreasing the avenues of appeal available to dismissed employees. Hiram Bingham, chairman of the Civil Service Commission Loyalty Review Board, referred to the new rules he was obliged to enforce as "just not the American way of doing things."[25] The following year, J. Robert Oppenheimer, scientific director of the Manhattan Project that built the first atomic bomb, then working as a consultant to the Atomic Energy Commission, was stripped of his security clearance after a four-week hearing. Oppenheimer had received a top-secret clearance in 1947, but was denied clearance in the harsher climate of 1954.

Similar loyalty reviews were established in many state and local government offices and some private industries across the nation. In 1958, an estimated one of every five employees in the United States was required to pass some sort of loyalty review.[26] Once a person lost a job due to an unfavorable loyalty review, finding other employment could be very difficult. "A man is ruined everywhere and forever," in the words of the chairman of President Truman's Loyalty Review Board. "No responsible employer would be likely to take a chance in giving him a job."[27]

The Department of Justice started keeping a list of organizations that it deemed subversive beginning in 1942. This list was first made public in 1948, when it included 78 groups. At its longest, it comprised 154 organizations, 110 of them identified as Communist. In the context of a loyalty review, membership in a listed organization was meant to raise a question, but not to be considered proof of disloyalty. One of the most common causes of suspicion was membership in the Washington Bookshop Association, a left-leaning organization that offered lectures on literature, classical music concerts, and discounts on books.[28]

J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI edit

 
J. Edgar Hoover in 1961

FBI director J. Edgar Hoover designed President Truman's loyalty-security program, and its background investigations of employees were carried out by FBI agents. This was a major assignment that led to the number of agents in the bureau being increased from 3,559 in 1946 to 7,029 in 1952. Hoover's sense of the communist threat and the standards of evidence applied by his bureau resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs. Due to Hoover's insistence upon keeping the identity of his informers secret, most subjects of loyalty-security reviews were not allowed to cross-examine or know the identities of those who accused them. In many cases, they were not even told of what they were accused.[29]

Hoover's influence extended beyond federal government employees and beyond the loyalty-security programs. The records of loyalty review hearings and investigations were supposed to be confidential, but Hoover routinely gave evidence from them to congressional committees such as HUAC.[30]

From 1951 to 1955, the FBI operated a secret "Responsibilities Program" that distributed anonymous documents with evidence from FBI files of communist affiliations on the part of teachers, lawyers, and others. Many people accused in these "blind memoranda" were fired without any further process.[31]

The FBI engaged in a number of illegal practices in its pursuit of information on communists, including burglaries, opening mail, and illegal wiretaps.[32] The members of the left-wing National Lawyers Guild (NLG) were among the few attorneys who were willing to defend clients in communist-related cases, and this made the NLG a particular target of Hoover's; the office of the NLG was burgled by the FBI at least 14 times between 1947 and 1951.[33] Among other purposes, the FBI used its illegally obtained information to alert prosecuting attorneys about the planned legal strategies of NLG defense lawyers.[34][35]

The FBI also used illegal undercover operations to disrupt communist and other dissident political groups. In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by Supreme Court decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute communists. At this time, he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program under the name COINTELPRO.[32] COINTELPRO actions included planting forged documents to create the suspicion that a key person was an FBI informer, spreading rumors through anonymous letters, leaking information to the press, calling for IRS audits, and the like. The COINTELPRO program remained in operation until 1971.

Historian Ellen Schrecker calls the FBI "the single most important component of the anti-communist crusade" and writes: "Had observers known in the 1950s what they have learned since the 1970s, when the Freedom of Information Act opened the Bureau's files, 'McCarthyism' would probably be called 'Hooverism'."[36]

Allen Dulles and the CIA edit

In March 1950, McCarthy had initiated a series of investigations into potential infiltration of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) by communist agents and came up with a list of security risks that matched one previously compiled by the Agency itself. At the request of CIA director Allen Dulles, President Eisenhower demanded that McCarthy discontinue issuing subpoenas against the CIA. Documents made public in 2004 revealed that the CIA, under Dulles' orders, had broken into McCarthy's Senate office and fed disinformation to him in order to discredit him and stop his investigation from proceeding any further.[37]

Congress edit

House Committee on Un-American Activities edit

Main article: House Un-American Activities Committee

The House Committee on Un-American Activities (commonly referred to as the HUAC) was the most prominent and active government committee involved in anti-communist investigations. Formed in 1938 and known as the Dies Committee, named for Rep. Martin Dies, who chaired it until 1944, HUAC investigated a variety of "activities", including those of German-American Nazis during World War II. The committee soon focused on communism, beginning with an investigation into communists in the Federal Theatre Project in 1938. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948. This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss's trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion.

HUAC achieved its greatest fame and notoriety with its investigation into the Hollywood film industry. In October 1947, the committee began to subpoena screenwriters, directors, and other movie-industry professionals to testify about their known or suspected membership in the Communist Party, association with its members, or support of its beliefs. At these testimonies, this question was asked: "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party of the United States?"[38][39][better source needed] Among the first film industry witnesses subpoenaed by the committee were ten who decided not to cooperate. These men, who became known as the "Hollywood Ten", cited the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech and free assembly, which they believed legally protected them from being required to answer the committee's questions. This tactic failed, and the ten were sentenced to prison for contempt of Congress. Two of them were sentenced to six months, the rest to a year.

In the future, witnesses (in the entertainment industries and otherwise) who were determined not to cooperate with the committee would claim their Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination. William Grooper and Rockwell Kent, the only two visual artists to be questioned by McCarthy, both took this approach, and emerged relatively unscathed by the experience.[40] However, while this usually protected witnesses from a contempt-of-Congress citation, it was considered grounds for dismissal by many government and private-industry employers. The legal requirements for Fifth Amendment protection were such that a person could not testify about his own association with the Communist Party and then refuse to "name names" of colleagues with communist affiliations.[41] Thus, many faced a choice between "crawl[ing] through the mud to be an informer," as actor Larry Parks put it, or becoming known as a "Fifth Amendment Communist"—an epithet often used by Senator McCarthy.[42]

Senate committees edit

In the Senate, the primary committee for investigating communists was the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee (SISS), formed in 1950 and charged with ensuring the enforcement of laws relating to "espionage, sabotage, and the protection of the internal security of the United States". The SISS was headed by Democrat Pat McCarran and gained a reputation for careful and extensive investigations. This committee spent a year investigating Owen Lattimore and other members of the Institute of Pacific Relations. As had been done numerous times before, the collection of scholars and diplomats associated with Lattimore (the so-called China Hands) were accused of "losing China", and while some evidence of pro-communist attitudes was found, nothing supported McCarran's accusation that Lattimore was "a conscious and articulate instrument of the Soviet conspiracy". Lattimore was charged with perjuring himself before the SISS in 1952. After many of the charges were rejected by a federal judge and one of the witnesses confessed to perjury, the case was dropped in 1955.[43]

McCarthy headed the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1953 and 1954, and during that time, used it for a number of his communist-hunting investigations. McCarthy first examined allegations of communist influence in the Voice of America, and then turned to the overseas library program of the State Department. Card catalogs of these libraries were searched for works by authors McCarthy deemed inappropriate. McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press. Yielding to the pressure, the State Department ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves "material by any controversial persons, Communists, fellow travelers, etc." Some libraries actually burned the newly forbidden books.[44] Though he did not block the State Department from carrying out this order, President Eisenhower publicly criticized the initiative as well, telling the graduating class of Dartmouth College President in 1953: "Don't join the book burners! … Don't be afraid to go to the library and read every book so long as that document does not offend our own ideas of decency—that should be the only censorship."[45] The president then settled for a compromise by retaining the ban on Communist books written by Communists, while also allowing the libraries to keep books on Communism written by anti-Communists.[46]

McCarthy's committee then began an investigation into the United States Army. This began at the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth. McCarthy garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers, but ultimately nothing came of this investigation.[47]

McCarthy next turned his attention to the case of a U.S. Army dentist who had been promoted to the rank of major despite having refused to answer questions on an Army loyalty review form. McCarthy's handling of this investigation, including a series of insults directed at a brigadier general, led to the Army–McCarthy hearings, with the Army and McCarthy trading charges and counter-charges for 36 days before a nationwide television audience. While the official outcome of the hearings was inconclusive, this exposure of McCarthy to the American public resulted in a sharp decline in his popularity.[48] In less than a year, McCarthy was censured by the Senate, and his position as a prominent force in anti-communism was essentially ended.[49]

Blacklists edit

Main article: Hollywood blacklist

On November 25, 1947, the day after the House of Representatives approved citations of contempt for the Hollywood Ten, Eric Johnston, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, issued a press release on behalf of the heads of the major studios that came to be referred to as the Waldorf Statement. This statement announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten and stated: "We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States..." This marked the beginning of the Hollywood blacklist. In spite of the fact that hundreds were denied employment, the studios, producers, and other employers did not publicly admit that a blacklist existed.

At this time, private loyalty review boards and anti-communist investigators began to appear to fill a growing demand among certain industries to certify that their employees were above reproach. Companies that were concerned about the sensitivity of their business, or which, like the entertainment industry, felt particularly vulnerable to public opinion, made use of these private services. For a fee, these teams investigated employees and questioned them about their politics and affiliations.

At such hearings, the subject usually did not have a right to the presence of an attorney, and as with HUAC, the interviewee might be asked to defend himself against accusations without being allowed to cross-examine the accuser. These agencies kept cross-referenced lists of leftist organizations, publications, rallies, charities, and the like, as well as lists of individuals who were known or suspected communists. Books such as Red Channels and newsletters such as Counterattack and Confidential Information were published to keep track of communist and leftist organizations and individuals.[50] Insofar as the various blacklists of McCarthyism were actual physical lists, they were created and maintained by these private organizations.[citation needed][further explanation needed]

Laws and arrests edit

See also: Smith Act trials of communist party leaders

Efforts to protect the United States from the perceived threat of communist subversion were particularly enabled by several federal laws. The Hatch Act of 1939 banned membership in subversive organizations, which was interpreted as being anti-labor legislation.[51] The Hatch Act would allow for the reduction of influence of the Workers' Alliance, which was claimed to have been created by the Soviet Union based on a model of their unemployed councils.[51] The Alien Registration Act or Smith Act of 1940 made the act of "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the ... desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association" a criminal offense.

Hundreds of communists and others were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957. Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were convicted under the Smith Act in 1949 in the Foley Square trial. Ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years. The defense attorneys were cited for contempt of court and given prison sentences.[52] In 1951, 23 other leaders of the party were indicted, including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union. Many were convicted on the basis of testimony that was later admitted to be false.[53] By 1957, 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law, of whom 93 were convicted.[54]

The McCarran Internal Security Act, which became law in 1950, has been described by scholar Ellen Schrecker as "the McCarthy era's only important piece of legislation"[55] (the Smith Act technically antedated McCarthyism). However, the McCarran Act had no real effect beyond legal harassment. It required the registration of Communist organizations with the U.S. Attorney General and established the Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate possible communist-action and communist-front organizations so they could be required to register. Due to numerous hearings, delays, and appeals, the act was never enforced, even with regard to the Communist Party of the United States itself, and the major provisions of the act were found to be unconstitutional in 1965 and 1967.[56] In 1952, the Immigration and Nationality, or McCarran–Walter, Act was passed. This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities and also to bar suspected subversives from entering the country.

The Communist Control Act of 1954 was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate. Jointly drafted by Republican John Marshall Butler and Democrat Hubert Humphrey, the law was an extension of the Internal Security Act of 1950, and sought to outlaw the Communist Party by declaring that the party, as well as "Communist-Infiltrated Organizations" were "not entitled to any of the rights, privileges, and immunities attendant upon legal bodies." While the Communist Control Act had an odd mix of liberals and conservatives among its supporters, it never had any significant effect.

The act was successfully applied only twice. In 1954 it was used to prevent Communist Party members from appearing on the New Jersey state ballot, and in 1960, it was cited to deny the CPUSA recognition as an employer under New York state's unemployment compensation system. The New York Post called the act "a monstrosity", "a wretched repudiation of democratic principles," while The Nation accused Democratic liberals of a "neurotic, election-year anxiety to escape the charge of being 'soft on Communism' even at the expense of sacrificing constitutional rights."[57]

Repression in the individual states edit

In addition to the federal laws and responding to the worries of the local opinion, several states enacted anti-communist statutes.

By 1952, several states had enacted statutes against criminal anarchy, criminal syndicalism, and sedition; banned communists and "subversives" from public employment, or even from receiving public aid; demanded on loyalty oaths from public servants; and severely restricted or banned the Communist Party. In addition, six states had equivalents to the HUAC.[58] The California Senate Factfinding Subcommittee on Un-American Activities[59] and the Florida Legislative Investigation Committee were established by their respective legislatures.

Some of these states had very severe, or even extreme, laws against communism. In 1950, Michigan enacted life imprisonment for subversive propaganda; the following year, Tennessee enacted the death penalty for advocating the violent overthrow of the government.[58] The death penalty for membership in the Communist Party was discussed in Texas by Governor Allan Shivers, who described it as "worse than murder."[60][61]

Municipalities and counties also enacted anti-communist ordinances: Los Angeles banned any communist or "Muscovite model of police-state dictatorship" from owning arms, while Birmingham, Alabama and Jacksonville, Florida banned any communist from being within the city's limits.[58]

Popular support edit

 
Flier issued in May 1955 by the Keep America Committee urging readers to "fight communistic world government" by opposing public health programs

McCarthyism was supported by a variety of groups, including the American Legion and various other anti-communist organizations. One core element of support was a variety of militantly anti-communist women's groups such as the American Public Relations Forum and the Minute Women of the U.S.A. These organized tens of thousands of housewives into study groups, letter-writing networks, and patriotic clubs that coordinated efforts to identify and eradicate what they saw as subversion.[62]

Although right-wing radicals were the bedrock of support for McCarthyism, they were not alone. A broad "coalition of the aggrieved" found McCarthyism attractive, or at least politically useful. Common themes uniting the coalition were opposition to internationalism, particularly the United Nations; opposition to social welfare provisions, particularly the various programs established by the New Deal; and opposition to efforts to reduce inequalities in the social structure of the United States.[63]

One focus of popular McCarthyism concerned the provision of public health services, particularly vaccination, mental health care services, and fluoridation, all of which were denounced by some to be communist plots to poison or brainwash the American people. Such viewpoints led to collisions between McCarthyite radicals and supporters of public-health programs, most notably in the case of the Alaska Mental Health Bill controversy of 1956.[64]

William F. Buckley Jr., the founder of the influential conservative political magazine National Review, wrote a defense of McCarthy, McCarthy and his Enemies, in which he asserted that "McCarthyism ... is a movement around which men of good will and stern morality can close ranks."[65]

In addition, as Richard Rovere points out, many ordinary Americans became convinced that there must be "no smoke without fire" and lent their support to McCarthyism. The Gallup poll found that at his peak in January 1954, 50% of the American public supported McCarthy, while 29% had an unfavorable opinion. His support fell to 34% in June 1954.[66] Republicans tended to like what McCarthy was doing and Democrats did not, though McCarthy had significant support from traditional Democratic ethnic groups, especially Catholics, as well as many unskilled workers and small-business owners. (McCarthy himself was a Catholic.) He had very little support among union members and Jews.[67]

Portrayals of communists edit

Those who sought to justify McCarthyism did so largely through their characterization of communism, and American communists in particular. Proponents of McCarthyism claimed that the CPUSA was so completely under Moscow's control that any American communist was a puppet of the Soviet intelligence services. This view, if restricted to the Communist Party's leadership[68] is supported by recent documentation from the archives of the KGB[69] as well as post-war decodes of wartime Soviet radio traffic from the Venona project,[70] showing that Moscow provided financial support to the CPUSA and had significant influence on CPUSA policies. J. Edgar Hoover commented in a 1950 speech, "Communist members, body and soul, are the property of the Party."

According to historian Richard G. Powers, McCarthy added "bogus specificity" to "sweeping accusation[s]", gaining support among "countersubversive anticommunists" on one hand, who sought to find and punish perceived communists. On the other hand, "liberal anticommunists" believed that the Communist Party was "despicable and annoying" but ultimately politically irrelevant.[71]

President Harry Truman, who pursued the anti-Soviet Truman Doctrine, called McCarthy "the greatest asset the Kremlin has" by "torpedo[ing] the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States."[72]

Historian Landon R. Y. Storrs writes that the CPUSA's "secretiveness, its authoritarian internal structure, and the loyalty of its leaders to the Kremlin were fundamental flaws that help explain why and how it was demonized. On the other hand, most American Communists were idealists attracted by the party's militance against various forms of social injustice." Furthermore, based on later declassified evidence, "The paradoxical lesson from several decades of scholarship is that the same organization that inspired democratic idealists in the pursuit of social justice also was secretive, authoritarian, and morally compromised by ties to the Stalin regime."[73]

In the mid 20th century, this attitude was not confined to arch-conservatives. In 1940, the American Civil Liberties Union ejected founding member Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, saying that her membership in the Communist Party was enough to disqualify her as a civil libertarian. In the government's prosecutions of Communist Party members under the Smith Act (see above), the prosecution case was based not on specific actions or statements by the defendants, but on the premise that a commitment to violent overthrow of the government was inherent in the doctrines of Marxism–Leninism. Passages of the CPUSA constitution that specifically rejected revolutionary violence were dismissed as deliberate deception.[74]

In addition, it was often claimed that the party didn't allow members to resign; thus someone who had been a member for a short time decades previously could be thought a current member. Many of the hearings and trials of McCarthyism featured testimony by former Communist Party members such as Elizabeth Bentley, Louis Budenz, and Whittaker Chambers, speaking as expert witnesses.[75][76]

Various historians and pundits have discussed alleged Soviet-directed infiltration of the U.S. government and the possible collaboration of high U.S. government officials.[77][78][79][80]

Victims of McCarthyism edit

See also: List of films by the Hollywood Ten, Hollywood blacklist, and Lavender scare

Estimating the number of victims of McCarthy is difficult. The number imprisoned is in the hundreds, and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs.[81] In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.[82]

For the vast majority, both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous.[83] After the extremely damaging "Cambridge Five" spy scandal (Guy Burgess, Donald Maclean, Kim Philby, Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross), suspected homosexuality was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism. The hunt for "sexual perverts", who were presumed to be subversive by nature, resulted in over 5,000 federal workers being fired, and thousands were harassed and denied employment.[84][85] Many have termed this aspect of McCarthyism the "lavender scare".[86][87]

Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s.[88] However, in the context of the highly politicized Cold War environment, homosexuality became framed as a dangerous, contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security.[88] As the family was believed to be the cornerstone of American strength and integrity,[89] the description of homosexuals as "sexual perverts" meant that they were both unable to function within a family unit and presented the potential to poison the social body.[90] This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees.[91]

The McCarthy hearings and according "sexual pervert" investigations can be seen to have been driven by a desire to identify individuals whose ability to function as loyal citizens had been compromised.[90] McCarthy began his campaign by drawing upon the ways in which he embodied traditional American values to become the self-appointed vanguard of social morality.[92]

 
Dalton Trumbo and his wife, Cleo, at the HUAC in 1947

In the film industry, more than 300 actors, authors, and directors were denied work in the U.S. through the unofficial Hollywood blacklist. Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry, in universities and schools at all levels, in the legal profession, and in many other fields. A port-security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the Korean War required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship, regardless of cargo or destination. As with other loyalty-security reviews of McCarthyism, the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused. Nearly 3,000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone.[93]

Some of the notable people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism include:

In 1953, Robert K. Murray, a young professor of history at Pennsylvania State University who had served as an intelligence officer in World War II, was revising his dissertation on the Red Scare of 1919–20 for publication until Little, Brown and Company decided that "under the circumstances ... it wasn't wise for them to bring this book out." He learned that investigators were questioning his colleagues and relatives. The University of Minnesota press published his volume, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920, in 1955.[140]

Critical reactions edit

The nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be associated with McCarthyism. The critics of various aspects of McCarthyism included many figures not generally noted for their liberalism. In his overridden veto of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950, President Truman wrote, "In a free country, we punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have."[141] Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the Taft–Hartley Act, which among other provisions denied trade unions National Labor Relations Board protection unless union leaders signed affidavits swearing they were not and had never been Communists. In 1953, after he left office, Truman criticized the current Eisenhower administration:

It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced, for political advantage, McCarthyism. I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin. He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word. It is the corruption of truth, the abandonment of the due process law. It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security. It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth; it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society.[142]

On June 1, 1950, Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican, delivered a speech to the Senate she called a "Declaration of Conscience". In a clear attack upon McCarthyism, she called for an end to "character assassinations" and named "some of the basic principles of Americanism: The right to criticize; the right to hold unpopular beliefs; the right to protest; the right of independent thought". She said "freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America", and decried "cancerous tentacles of 'know nothing, suspect everything' attitudes".[143] Six other Republican senators—Wayne Morse, Irving M. Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken, and Robert C. Hendrickson—joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism.

 
Joseph N. Welch (left) and Senator McCarthy, June 9, 1954

Elmer Davis, one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s, often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism. On one occasion he warned that many local anti-communist movements constituted a "general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries, on teachers and textbooks, but on all people who think and write ... in short, on the freedom of the mind".[144]

In 1952, the Supreme Court upheld a lower-court decision in Adler v. Board of Education, thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed "subversive". In his dissenting opinion, Justice William O. Douglas wrote: "The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society—guilt by association.... What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state. Teachers are under constant surveillance; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts."[145]

 
Broadcast journalist Edward R. Murrow

One of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst Edward R. Murrow. On October 20, 1953, Murrow's show See It Now aired an episode about the dismissal of Milo Radulovich, a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists. The show was strongly critical of the Air Force's methods, which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open.

On March 9, 1954, See It Now aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism, this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy", it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest, reckless, and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans. In his concluding comment, Murrow said:

We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.[42]

This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism.[146]

In April 1954, McCarthy was also under attack in the Army–McCarthy hearings. These hearings were televised live on the new American Broadcasting Company network, allowing the public to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics. In one exchange, McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army, Joseph Welch, that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies. In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy, Welch rebuked the senator: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"[147]

Decline edit

In the mid and late 1950s, the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened. Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism. Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions.

Notable events edit

A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was John Henry Faulk. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. He was scrutinized by AWARE, Inc., one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist "disloyalty". Marked by AWARE as unfit, he was fired by CBS Radio. Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962.[148]

With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused. Although some informal blacklisting continued, the private "loyalty checking" agencies were soon a thing of the past.[149] Even before the Faulk verdict, many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist. In 1960, Dalton Trumbo, one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten, was publicly credited with writing the films Exodus and Spartacus.

Warren Court edit

Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren.[2][3] As Richard Rovere wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy, "[T]he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before."[150] Two Eisenhower appointees to the court—Earl Warren (who was made Chief Justice) and William J. Brennan, Jr.—proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated.[151]

The Warren Court made a series of rulings that helped bring an end to the McCarthyism.[4][5][6]

In 1956, the Warren Court heard the case of Slochower v. Board of Education. Harry Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party. The court prohibited such actions, ruling "...we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment… The privilege against self-incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury."[152] In addition, the 1956 Cole v. Young ruling also greatly weakened the ability to discriminate in the federal civilian workforce.[153]

Another key decision was in the 1957 case Yates v. United States, in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed. In Justice Black's opinion, he wrote of the original "Smith Act" trials: "The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant. Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago… When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue, …prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances."[154]

Also in 1957, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Watkins v. United States, curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress. Justice Warren wrote in the decision: "The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify, against his will, about his beliefs, expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference. And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox, unpopular, or even hateful to the general public, the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous."[155][156]

In its 1958 decision in Kent v. Dulles, the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant's communist beliefs or associations.[157]

Repercussions edit

Study and reactions to Constitutional implications edit

The political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest, and the politics and history of anti-communism in the United States are still contentious. Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist. Loyalty oaths are still required by the California Constitution for all officials and employees of the government of California (which is highly problematic for Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state).[158] At the federal level, a few portions of the McCarran Internal Security Act remain in effect. However, the act's detention provision was repealed in 1971.[159] The McCarran Act's Communist registration requirement was declared unconstitutional in the 1965 Supreme Court ruling in Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board as well. The McCarran Act's Subversive Activities Control Board, which enforced the law's investigation requirement for persons alleged to be involved in "subversive activities", was officially abolished through Congressional legislation in 1972 as well.[160]

Historical study on anti-communism and Soviet espionage edit

McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue. Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet messages, the Soviet Union was found to have engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s. The Communist Party USA also was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union, and accusations existed that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies.[161][162]

Liberal anti-communists like Edward Shils and Daniel Moynihan had a contempt for McCarthyism. Sociologist Edward Shils criticized an excessive policy of secrecy during the Cold War, that led to the misdirection of McCarthyism, which was addressed during the 1994–1997 Moynihan Commission. As Moynihan put it, "reaction to McCarthy took the form of a modish anti-anti-Communism that considered impolite any discussion of the very real threat Communism posed to Western values and security." After revelations of Soviet spy networks from the declassified Venona project, Moynihan wondered: "Might less secrecy have prevented the liberal overreaction to McCarthyism as well as McCarthyism itself?" He described the situation during the McCarthy era as "ignorant armies clashed by night". With McCarthy advocating an extremist view, the discussion of communist subversion was made into a civil rights issue instead of a counterintelligence one.[68]

In the view of some contemporary commentators, the revelations from Venona and other archives on espionage, stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism.[163] Some such as Goldberg feel that a genuinely dangerous subversive element was in the United States, and that this danger justified extreme measures.[164] The opposing view holds that, recent revelations notwithstanding, by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s, the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group, and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal.[165] Historian Ellen Schrecker states, "in this country, McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."[166]

Historian John Earl Haynes, while acknowledging that inexcusable excesses occurred during McCarthyism, argues that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the un-democratic nature of the CPUSA.[167] At the same time, Haynes, who studied the Venona decryptions extensively, argued that McCarthy's attempts to "make anti-communism a partisan weapon" actually "threatened [the post-War] anti-Communist consensus", thereby ultimately harming anti-Communist efforts more than helping them.[168] Of the 159 people who were identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy, evidence only substantially proved that nine of them had aided Soviet espionage efforts—while several hundred Soviet spies were actually known based on Venona and other evidence, most were never named by McCarthy.[169][170]

Later political usage of term edit

A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to 2000s-era actions against suspected terrorists, most of them Muslims. In The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism, author Haynes Johnson compares the "abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high-security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9/11" to the excesses of the McCarthy era.[171] Similarly, David D. Cole has written that the Patriot Act "in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism, simply substituting 'terrorist' for 'communist'."[172]

From the opposite pole, conservative writer Ann Coulter devotes much of her book Treason to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern-day liberals, arguing that the former hindered the anti-communist cause and the latter hinder the War on Terrorism.[173] Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti-terrorism policies and McCarthyism include Geoffrey R. Stone,[174] Ted Morgan,[175] and Jonah Goldberg.[164]

Since the time of McCarthy, the word McCarthyism has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices: aggressively questioning a person's patriotism, making poorly supported accusations, using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent, subverting civil and political rights in the name of national security, and the use of demagoguery are all often referred to as McCarthyism.[176][177][178]

In popular culture edit

The 1951 novel The Troubled Air by Irwin Shaw tells the story of the director of a (fictional) radio show, broadcast live at the time, who is given a deadline to investigate his cast for alleged links to communism. The novel recounts the devastating effects on all concerned.[179]

The 1952 Arthur Miller play The Crucible used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place. The play focused on the fact that once accused, a person had little chance of exoneration, given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public. Miller later wrote: "The more I read into the Salem panic, the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties."[180]

The 1976 film The Front starring Woody Allen dealt with the McCarthy-era Hollywood blacklist. The film was made by those blacklisted: producer and director Martin Ritt; writer Walter Bernstein; and actors Zero Mostel, Herschel Bernardi, Michael Murphy, John Randolph, Lloyd Gough, and Joshua Shelley.[181]

Guilty by Suspicion is a 1991 American drama film about the Hollywood blacklist, McCarthyism, and the activities of the HUAC. Written and directed by Irwin Winkler, it starred Robert De Niro, Annette Bening, and George Wendt.

The 2005 film Good Night, and Good Luck by George Clooney starred David Strathairn as broadcast journalist Edward R. Murrow and contained archival footage of McCarthy.[182]

The 2023 mini-series Fellow Travelers centers on the decades-long romance between two men who first meet during the height of McCarthyism.

See also edit

References edit

Citations edit

  1. ^ Storrs, Landon R. Y. (July 2, 2015). "McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare". American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6. ISBN 978-0199329175. from the original on July 3, 2018. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
  2. ^ a b Lichtman, Robert M. "UI Press | Robert M. Lichtman | The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions". www.press.uillinois.edu. from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  3. ^ a b "Revisiting McCarthyism in the Patriot Act Era". NPR.org. from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  4. ^ a b Horwitz, Morton J. (1999). The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0809016259. from the original on November 13, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  5. ^ a b "Yates v. United States". Oyez. from the original on August 24, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  6. ^ a b "Watkins v. United States". Oyez. from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  7. ^ Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America, (New York: Little, Brown & Company, 1998): 203 ISBN 978-0-3167-7470-3
  8. ^ For example, Yates v. United States (1957) and Watkins v. United States (1957): Fried, Albert (1997). McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195097017. pp. 205, 207.
  9. ^ For example, California's "Levering Oath" law, declared unconstitutional in 1967: Fried (1997), p. 124.
  10. ^ For example, Slochower v. Board of Education (1956): Fried (1997), p. 203.
  11. ^ For example, Faulk vs. AWARE Inc., et al. (1962): Fried (1997), p. 197.
  12. ^ Robert J, Goldstein (2006). "Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist". Prologue Magazine. Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration. from the original on January 18, 2017. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
  13. ^ Weir (2007), pp. 148–149.
  14. ^ Merrill, Dennis (2006). "The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 27–37. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x.
  15. ^ Fried, Richard M. (1990). Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195043618., p. 41.
  16. ^ Brinkley (1995), p. 141; Fried (1990), pp. 6, 15, 78–80.
  17. ^ Griffith (1970), p. 49.
  18. ^ "McCarthyism, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.); citing Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1950, p. 20.
  19. ^ Strout, Lawrence N. (1999). Covering McCarthyism: how the 'Christian Science Monitor' handled Joseph R. McCarthy, 1950–1954. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. "Introduction".
  20. ^ Block (1952), p. 152.
  21. ^ Fried (1990), p. 150.
  22. ^ "U.S. Senate: On This Day: December 2, 1954". www.senate.gov.
  23. ^ McCoy, Donald R. (1991). "The Constitution of the Truman Presidency and the Post–World War II Era". In Fausold, Martin; Shank, Alan (eds.). The Constitution and the American Presidency. SUNY Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0791404683.
  24. ^ Fried (1997).
  25. ^ Fried (1990), p. 133.
  26. ^ Brown (1958).
  27. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 271.
  28. ^ Fried (1990), p. 70.
  29. ^ Schrecker (1998), pp. 211, 266 et seq.
  30. ^ Schrecker (2002), p. 65.
  31. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 212.
  32. ^ a b Cox and Theoharis (1988), p. 312.
  33. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 225.
  34. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 224
  35. ^ Yoder, Traci (April 2014). (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2018. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
  36. ^ Schrecker (1998), pp. 239, 203.
  37. ^ Weiner 2007, pp. 105–106.
  38. ^ Case, Sue-Ellen; Reinelt, Janelle G., eds. (1991). The Performance of Power: Theatrical Discourse and Politics. University of Iowa Press. p. 153. ISBN 978-1587290343. from the original on November 7, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  39. ^ Dmytryk, Edward (1996). Odd Man Out: A Memoir of the Hollywood Ten. Southern Illinois University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0809319992. In the early days of the Martin Dies Committee [...] the question had simply been, Are you a member of the Communist Party of the United States? As a countermeasure, the Party adopted a rule that automatically cancelled a Communist's membership the moment the question was asked. He could then answer 'No' without perjuring himself. The final wording [...] was adopted to circumvent the Party's tactic.
  40. ^ nublockmuseum (May 31, 2013). "Behind Blacklisted". Stories From The Block. from the original on July 27, 2020. Retrieved July 27, 2020.
  41. ^ Fried (1990), pp. 154–155; Schrecker (2002), p. 68.
  42. ^ a b "See it Now: A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (transcript)". CBS-TV. March 9, 1954. from the original on November 10, 2015. Retrieved March 16, 2007.
  43. ^ Fried (1990), pp. 145–150.
  44. ^ Griffith (1970), p. 216.
  45. ^ "The Horrible, Oppressive History of Book Burning in America". The New Republic. June 26, 1953. from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved February 12, 2020.
  46. ^ Kareem Abdul-Jabbar; Raymond Obstfeld (2016). Writings on the Wall: Searching for a New Equality Beyond Black and White. Time Inc. Books. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-1618935434.
  47. ^ Stone (2004), p. 384.
  48. ^ Fried (1990), p. 138.
  49. ^ 83rd U.S. Congress (July 30, 1954). "Senate Resolution 301: Censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy". U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. from the original on November 1, 2013. Retrieved October 30, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Fried (1997), p. 116.
  51. ^ a b Goldstein, Robert Justin (2014). Little 'Red Scares' : Anti-Communism and Political Repression in the United States, 1921–1946. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1472413772. OCLC 879022662.
  52. ^ Fried (1997), pp. 13, 15, 27, 110–112, 165–168.
  53. ^ Fried (1997), pp. 201–202.
  54. ^ Levin, Daniel, "Smith Act", in Paul Finkelman, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. CRC Press. p. 1488. ISBN 0415943426.
  55. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 141.
  56. ^ Fried (1990), p. 187.
  57. ^ McAuliff (1978), p. 142.
  58. ^ a b c Linfield, Michael (1990). Freedom Under Fire: U.S. Civil Liberties in Times of War. South End Press. pp. 107–111. ISBN 978-0896083745.
  59. ^ "California Creates Un-American Activities Committee". Today in Civil Liberties History. May 28, 2013. from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
  60. ^ Richards, Dave (August 19, 2009). "So Long to the Communist Threat". The Texas Observer. from the original on September 26, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
  61. ^ McEnteer, James (2004). Deep in the Heart: The Texas Tendency in American Politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 87. ISBN 978-0275983062. from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2017.
  62. ^ Nickerson, Michelle M., "Women, Domesticity, and Postwar Conservatism March 10, 2003, at the Wayback Machine", OAH Magazine of History 17 (January 2003). ISSN 0882-228X.
  63. ^ Rovere (1959), pp. 21–22.
  64. ^ Marmor, Judd, Viola W. Bernard, and Perry Ottenberg, "Psychodynamics of Group Opposition to Mental Health Programs", in Judd Marmor (1994). Psychiatry in Transition (2nd ed.). Transaction. pp. 355–373. ISBN 1560007362.
  65. ^ Buckley (1954), p. 335.
  66. ^ Robert Griffith (1987). The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate. Univ of Massachusetts Press. p. 263. ISBN 0870235559.
  67. ^ Arthur Herman (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. Simon and Schuster. pp. 160–161. ISBN 978-0684836256.
  68. ^ a b Moynihan, Daniel Patrick (1998). Secrecy: The American Experience. Yale University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0300080797.
  69. ^ Andrew, Christopher; Vasili Mitrokhin (1999). The Sword and the Shield. New York: Basic Books. pp. 108, 110, 122, 148, 164, 226, 236–237, 279–280, 294–306. ISBN 0465003109.
  70. ^ Haynes, John; Harvey Klehr (1999). Venona – Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Connecticut: Yale University. pp. 221–226. ISBN 0300077718.
  71. ^ Powers, Richard Gid (1995). Not Without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism. Free Press. pp. 129, 214, 240. ISBN 978-0684824277.
  72. ^ "President Harry S. Truman Responds to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy's Accusations of Disloyalty". historymatters.gmu.edu.
  73. ^ Storrs, Landon R. Y. (July 2, 2015). "McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6. ISBN 978-0199329175. Retrieved November 2, 2022.
  74. ^ Schrecker (1998), pp. 161, 193–194.
  75. ^ Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness. New York: Random House. p. 799. ISBN 978-0848809584.
  76. ^ Schrecker (1998), pp. 130–137.
  77. ^ Herman, Arthur (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. Free Press. pp. 5–6.
  78. ^ Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America – The Stalin Era (New York: Modern Library, 2000) ISBN 978-0375755361, pp. 48, 158, 162, 169, 229
  79. ^ M. Stanton Evans. Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight against America's Enemies. Crown Forum, 2007 pp. 19–21.
  80. ^ John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr. Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press, 1999, p. 18.
  81. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. xiii.
  82. ^ Schrecker (2002), pp. 63–64.
  83. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 4.
  84. ^ Sears, Brad; Hunter, Nan D.; Mallory, Christy (2009). "5: The Legacy of Discriminatory State Laws, Policies, and Practices, 1945–Present". (PDF). Los Angeles: The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at UCLA School of Law. p. 5-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 6, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2017. From 1947 to 1961, more than 5,000 allegedly homosexual federal civil servants lost their jobs in the purges for no reason other than sexual orientation, and thousands of applicants were also rejected for federal employment for the same reason. During this period, more than 1,000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone—a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party. The Cold War and anticommunist efforts provided the setting in which a sustained attack upon gay men and lesbians took place. The history of this 'lavender scare' by the federal government has been extensively documented by historian David Johnson, who has demonstrated that during this era, government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism: 'homosexual' and 'pervert' became synonyms for 'Communist' and 'traitor.' LGBT people were treated as a national-security threat, demanding the attention of Congress, the courts, statehouses, and the media.
  85. ^ D'Emilio (1998), pp. 41–49.
  86. ^ David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.), p. 10
  87. ^ "An interview with David K. Johnson author of The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government". press.uchicago.edu. The University of Chicago. 2004. from the original on April 28, 2019. Retrieved December 16, 2017. The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated. Both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed. And both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government.
  88. ^ a b Gary Kinsman and Patrizia Gentile. The Canadian War on Queers: National Security as Sexual Regulation. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010, p. 65.
  89. ^ Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline Davis. Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold. New York: Routledge, 1993, p. 75.
  90. ^ a b Kinsman and Gentile, p. 8.
  91. ^ John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman. Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012, p. 316.
  92. ^ David K. Johnson, p. 96.
  93. ^ Schrecker (1998), p. 267.
  94. ^ Publication canceled after FBI contact: Horvath, Brooke (2005). Understanding Nelson Algren. University of South Carolina Press. p. 84. ISBN 1570035741.
  95. ^ Investigated by the FBI and brought before HUAC for having registered as a Communist supporter in 1936: "Lucille Ball". FBI Records: The Vault. Federal Bureau of Investigation. from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
  96. ^ On Hollywood "graylist": "Composer Elmer Bernstein Dead at 82". Today.com. Associated Press. August 19, 2004. from the original on April 20, 2017. Retrieved February 27, 2009.
  97. ^ Schrecker, Ellen (2002). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents. New York, Palgrave. p. 244. ISBN 0312294255.
  98. ^ Lost his job, exiled: Jessica Wang (1999). American Science in an Age of Anxiety: scientists, anticommunism, & the cold war. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 277–278. ISBN 978-0807824474.
  99. ^ "Obituary" March 31, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, November 25, 1990. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
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  101. ^ Buhle, Paul & David Wagner (2003b). Blacklisted: The Film Lover's Guide to the Hollywood Blacklist. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 140396145X.
  102. ^ Harassed by anti-Communist groups, denied reentry to United States while traveling abroad: Lev, Peter (1999). Transforming the Screen, 1950–1959. University of California Press. p. 159. ISBN 0520249666.
  103. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p On the Red Channels blacklist of artists and entertainers: Schrecker (2002), p. 244.
  104. ^ Blacklisted in his profession, committed suicide in 1959: Bosworth, Patricia (1998). Anything Your Little Heart Desires: An American Family Story. Touchstone. ISBN 0684838486.
  105. ^ a b c d e f "The Authentic History Center: Red Channels, The Blacklist". Retrieved July 21, 2010.[dead link]
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Sources edit

  • Block, Herbert (1952). The Herblock Book. Beacon. ISBN 149925346X.
  • Brinkley, Alan (1995). The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War. Vintage. ISBN 0679753141.
  • Brown, Ralph S. (1958). Loyalty and Security: Employment Tests in the United States. Yale University Press. ISBN 0306702185.
  • Buckley, William F. (1977). A Hymnal: The Controversial Arts. G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0399122273.
  • Buckley, William F. (1954). McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning. Regnery. ISBN 0895264722.
  • Buhle, Paul & David Wagner (2003). Hide in Plain Sight: The Hollywood Blacklistees in Film and Television, 1950–2002. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403961441.
  • Cox, John Stuart & Athan G. Theoharis (1988). The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Temple University Press. ISBN 087722532X.
  • D'Emilio, John (1998). Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities (2d ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226142671.
  • Doherty, Thomas (2005). Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 023112953X.
  • Fried, Albert (1997). McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195097017.
  • Fried, Richard M. (1990). Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195043618.
  • Griffith, Robert (1970). The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0870235559.
  • Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr (2000). Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300-084625.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Herman, Arthur (2000). Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator. The Free Press. ISBN 0684836254.
  • McAuliff, Mary Sperling (1978). Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947–1954. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 087023241X.
  • Rovere, Richard H. (1959). Senator Joe McCarthy. University of California Press. ISBN 0520204727.
  • Sabin, Arthur J. (1999). In Calmer Times: The Supreme Court and Red Monday. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 081223507X.
  • Schrecker, Ellen (1998). Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Little, Brown. ISBN 0316774707.
  • Schrecker, Ellen (2002). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents (2d ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312294255.
  • Stone, Geoffrey R. (2004). Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0393-058808.
  • Streitmatter, Rodger (1998). Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History. Westview Press. ISBN 0813332117.
  • Weir, Robert E. (2007). Class in America: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313337208.

Historiography edit

  • Haynes, John Earl. "The Cold War debate continues: A traditionalist view of historical writing on domestic Communism and anti-Communism." Journal of Cold War Studies 2.1 (2000): 76–115.
  • Hixson Jr, William B. Search for the American right wing: An analysis of the social science record, 1955–1987 (Princeton University Press, 2015).
  • Reeves, Thomas C. "McCarthyism: Interpretations since Hofstadter." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1976): 42–54. online
  • Selverstone, Marc J. "A Literature So Immense: The Historiography of Anticommunism." Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 24.4 (2010): 7–11.

Further reading edit

  • Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000). The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. Basic Books. ISBN 0465-003125.
  • Byman, Jeremy (2004). Showdown at High Noon: Witch-hunts, Critics, and the End of the Western. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810849984. from the original on May 10, 2017. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  • Caballero, Raymond. McCarthyism vs. Clinton Jencks. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.
  • Caute, David (1978). The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671226827.
  • Coulter, Ann (2003). Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism. Crown Forum. ISBN 1400050308.
  • Evans, M. Stanton (2007). Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies. Crown Publishing. ISBN 978-1400081059.
  • Haynes, John Earl (2000). Red Scare or Red Menace?: American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 156663-0916.
  • Haynes, John Earl & Harvey Klehr (2003). In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage. Encounter. ISBN 1893554724.
  • Latham, Earl (ed.). The Meaning of McCarthyism (1965). excerpts from primary and secondary sources
  • Lichtman, Robert M. The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2012.
  • McDaniel, Rodger. Dying for Joe McCarthy's Sins: The Suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester Hunt. WordsWorth, 2013.
  • Morgan, Ted (2004). Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America. Random House. ISBN 081297302X.
  • Navasky, Victor S. (1980). Naming Names. Hill and Wang. ISBN 08090-01837.
  • Powers, Richard Gid (1997). Not Without Honor: A History of American Anticommunism. Free Press. ISBN 0300-07470-0.
  • Schrecker, Ellen (1994). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312-083491.
  • Storrs, Landon R.Y., The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
  • Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev (2000). The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America – The Stalin Era. Modern Library. ISBN 0375755365.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links edit

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to McCarthyism.
  • Badash, Lawrence (October 30, 2007). "Science in the McCarthy Period: Training Ground for Scientists as Public Citizens". Oregon State University. from the original on February 5, 2008. Retrieved January 16, 2008.
  • Beyer, Mary & Michael Beyer (January 2006). . International Journal of Baudrillard Studies. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006. Retrieved November 2, 2006.
  • "McCarthyism / The "Red Scare"". Dwight D. Eisenhower Online Documents. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home. from the original on November 1, 2013. Retrieved October 30, 2013.
  • Navasky, Victor S. (June 28, 2001). "Cold War Ghosts". The Nation. from the original on April 14, 2009. Retrieved November 2, 2006.
  • Rusher, William A. (Fall 2004). . Claremont Review of Books. Claremont Institute. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved December 27, 2011.

December 15, 2023
mccarthyism, this, article, about, events, during, cold, general, information, about, phenomenon, scare, also, known, second, scare, political, repression, persecution, left, wing, individuals, campaign, spreading, fear, alleged, communist, soviet, influence, . This article is about the events during the cold war For general information about the phenomenon see Red Scare McCarthyism also known as the second Red Scare was the political repression and persecution of left wing individuals and a campaign spreading fear of alleged communist and Soviet influence on American institutions and of Soviet espionage in the United States during the late 1940s through the 1950s 1 After the mid 1950s U S Senator Joseph McCarthy who had spearheaded the campaign gradually lost his public popularity and credibility after several of his accusations were found to be false 2 3 The U S Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren made a series of rulings on civil and political rights that overturned several key laws and legislative directives and helped bring an end to the Second Red Scare 4 5 6 Historians have suggested since the 1980s that as McCarthy s involvement was less central than that of others a different and more accurate term should be used instead that more accurately conveys the breadth of the phenomenon and that the term McCarthyism is now outdated Ellen Schrecker has suggested that Hooverism after FBI Head J Edgar Hoover is more appropriate 7 American anti communist propaganda of the 1950s specifically addressing the entertainment industryWhat would become known as the McCarthy era began before McCarthy s rise to national fame Following the breakdown of the wartime East West alliance with the Soviet Union and with many remembering the First Red Scare President Harry S Truman signed an executive order in 1947 to screen federal employees for possible association with organizations deemed totalitarian fascist communist or subversive or advocating to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means The following year the Czechoslovak coup by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia heightened concern in the West about Communist parties seizing power and the possibility of subversion In 1949 a high level State Department official was convicted of perjury in a case of espionage and the Soviet Union tested a nuclear bomb The Korean War started the next year significantly raising tensions and fears of impending communist upheavals in the United States In a speech in February 1950 McCarthy claimed to have a list of members of the Communist Party USA working in the State Department which attracted substantial press attention and the term McCarthyism was published for the first time in late March of that year in The Christian Science Monitor along with a political cartoon by Herblock in The Washington Post The term has since taken on a broader meaning describing the excesses of similar efforts to crack down on alleged subversive elements In the early 21st century the term is used more generally to describe reckless and unsubstantiated accusations of treason and far left extremism along with demagogic personal attacks on the character and patriotism of political adversaries The primary targets for persecution were government employees prominent figures in the entertainment industry academics left wing politicians and labor union activists Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive and questionable evidence and the level of threat posed by a person s real or supposed leftist associations and beliefs were often exaggerated Many people suffered loss of employment and the destruction of their careers and livelihoods as a result of the crackdowns on suspected communists and some were outright imprisoned Most of these reprisals were initiated by trial verdicts that were later overturned 8 laws that were later struck down as unconstitutional 9 dismissals for reasons later declared illegal 10 or actionable 11 and extra judiciary procedures such as informal blacklists by employers and public institutions that would come into general disrepute though by then many lives had been ruined The most notable examples of McCarthyism include the investigations of alleged communists that were conducted by Senator McCarthy and the hearings conducted by the House Un American Activities Committee HUAC Contents 1 Origins 2 Institutions 2 1 Executive branch 2 1 1 Loyalty security reviews 2 1 2 J Edgar Hoover and the FBI 2 1 3 Allen Dulles and the CIA 2 2 Congress 2 2 1 House Committee on Un American Activities 2 2 2 Senate committees 2 3 Blacklists 2 4 Laws and arrests 2 5 Repression in the individual states 3 Popular support 4 Portrayals of communists 5 Victims of McCarthyism 6 Critical reactions 7 Decline 7 1 Notable events 7 2 Warren Court 8 Repercussions 8 1 Study and reactions to Constitutional implications 8 2 Historical study on anti communism and Soviet espionage 8 3 Later political usage of term 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Citations 11 2 Sources 11 3 Historiography 12 Further reading 13 External linksOrigins editSee also US Strike wave of 1945 1946 nbsp One of the earliest uses of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Herbert Block Herblock published in The Washington Post March 29 1950 President Harry S Truman s Executive Order 9835 of March 21 1947 required that all federal civil service employees be screened for loyalty The order said that one basis for determining disloyalty would be a finding of membership in affiliation with or sympathetic association with any organization determined by the attorney general to be totalitarian fascist communist or subversive or advocating or approving the forceful denial of constitutional rights to other persons or seeking to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means 12 The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthy s own involvement in it Many factors contributed to McCarthyism some of them with roots in the First Red Scare 1917 20 inspired by communism s emergence as a recognized political force and widespread social disruption in the United States related to unionizing and anarchist activities Owing in part to its success in organizing labor unions and its early opposition to fascism and offering an alternative to the ills of capitalism during the Great Depression the Communist Party of the United States increased its membership through the 1930s reaching a peak of about 75 000 members in 1940 41 13 While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union the issue of anti communism was largely muted With the end of World War II the Cold War began almost immediately as the Soviet Union installed communist puppet regimes in areas it had occupied across Central and Eastern Europe In a March 1947 address to Congress Truman enunciated a new foreign policy doctrine that committed the United States to opposing Soviet geopolitical expansion This doctrine came to be known as the Truman Doctrine and it guided United States support for anti communist forces in Greece and later in China and elsewhere 14 Although the Igor Gouzenko and Elizabeth Bentley affairs had raised the issue of Soviet espionage in 1945 events in 1949 and 1950 sharply increased the sense of threat in the United States related to communism The Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949 earlier than many analysts had expected raising the stakes in the Cold War That same year Mao Zedong s communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang In 1950 the Korean War began pitting U S U N and South Korean forces against communists from North Korea and China During the following year evidence of increased sophistication in Soviet Cold War espionage activities was found in the West In January 1950 Alger Hiss a high level State Department official was convicted of perjury Hiss was in effect found guilty of espionage the statute of limitations had run out for that crime but he was convicted of having perjured himself when he denied that charge in earlier testimony before the HUAC In Britain Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 in the United States on charges of stealing atomic bomb secrets for the Soviets and were executed in 1953 Other forces encouraged the rise of McCarthyism The more conservative politicians in the United States had historically referred to progressive reforms such as child labor laws and women s suffrage as communist or Red plots trying to raise fears against such changes 15 They used similar terms during the 1930s and the Great Depression when opposing the New Deal policies of President Franklin D Roosevelt Many conservatives equated the New Deal with socialism or Communism and thought the policies were evidence of too much influence by allegedly communist policy makers in the Roosevelt administration 16 In general the vaguely defined danger of Communist influence was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity nbsp Senator Joseph McCarthyMcCarthy s involvement in these issues began publicly with a speech he made on Lincoln Day February 9 1950 to the Republican Women s Club of Wheeling West Virginia He brandished a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known communists working for the State Department McCarthy is usually quoted as saying I have here in my hand a list of 205 a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department 17 This speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and helped establish his path to becoming one of the most recognized politicians in the United States The first recorded use of the term McCarthyism was in the Christian Science Monitor on March 28 1950 Their little spree with McCarthyism is no aid to consultation 18 The paper became one of the earliest and most consistent critics of the Senator 19 The next recorded use happened on the following day in a political cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block Herblock The cartoon depicts four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant the traditional symbol of the Republican Party to stand on a platform atop a teetering stack of ten tar buckets the topmost of which is labeled McCarthyism Block later wrote nothing was particularly ingenious about the term which is simply used to represent a national affliction that can hardly be described in any other way If anyone has a prior claim on it he s welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it I will also throw in a set of free dishes and a case of soap 20 Institutions editA number of anti communist committees panels and loyalty review boards in federal state and local governments as well as many private agencies carried out investigations for small and large companies concerned about possible Communists in their work forces In Congress the primary bodies that investigated Communist activities were the HUAC the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations Between 1949 and 1954 a total of 109 investigations were carried out by these and other committees of Congress 21 On December 2 1954 the United States Senate voted 67 to 22 22 to condemn McCarthy for conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute Executive branch edit Loyalty security reviews edit nbsp Executive Order 9835 signed by President Truman in 1947In the federal government President Truman s Executive Order 9835 initiated a program of loyalty reviews for federal employees in 1947 It called for dismissal if there were reasonable grounds for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States 23 Truman a Democrat was probably reacting in part to the Republican sweep in the 1946 Congressional election and felt a need to counter growing criticism from conservatives and anti communists 24 When President Dwight Eisenhower took office in 1953 he strengthened and extended Truman s loyalty review program while decreasing the avenues of appeal available to dismissed employees Hiram Bingham chairman of the Civil Service Commission Loyalty Review Board referred to the new rules he was obliged to enforce as just not the American way of doing things 25 The following year J Robert Oppenheimer scientific director of the Manhattan Project that built the first atomic bomb then working as a consultant to the Atomic Energy Commission was stripped of his security clearance after a four week hearing Oppenheimer had received a top secret clearance in 1947 but was denied clearance in the harsher climate of 1954 Similar loyalty reviews were established in many state and local government offices and some private industries across the nation In 1958 an estimated one of every five employees in the United States was required to pass some sort of loyalty review 26 Once a person lost a job due to an unfavorable loyalty review finding other employment could be very difficult A man is ruined everywhere and forever in the words of the chairman of President Truman s Loyalty Review Board No responsible employer would be likely to take a chance in giving him a job 27 The Department of Justice started keeping a list of organizations that it deemed subversive beginning in 1942 This list was first made public in 1948 when it included 78 groups At its longest it comprised 154 organizations 110 of them identified as Communist In the context of a loyalty review membership in a listed organization was meant to raise a question but not to be considered proof of disloyalty One of the most common causes of suspicion was membership in the Washington Bookshop Association a left leaning organization that offered lectures on literature classical music concerts and discounts on books 28 J Edgar Hoover and the FBI edit nbsp J Edgar Hoover in 1961FBI director J Edgar Hoover designed President Truman s loyalty security program and its background investigations of employees were carried out by FBI agents This was a major assignment that led to the number of agents in the bureau being increased from 3 559 in 1946 to 7 029 in 1952 Hoover s sense of the communist threat and the standards of evidence applied by his bureau resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs Due to Hoover s insistence upon keeping the identity of his informers secret most subjects of loyalty security reviews were not allowed to cross examine or know the identities of those who accused them In many cases they were not even told of what they were accused 29 Hoover s influence extended beyond federal government employees and beyond the loyalty security programs The records of loyalty review hearings and investigations were supposed to be confidential but Hoover routinely gave evidence from them to congressional committees such as HUAC 30 From 1951 to 1955 the FBI operated a secret Responsibilities Program that distributed anonymous documents with evidence from FBI files of communist affiliations on the part of teachers lawyers and others Many people accused in these blind memoranda were fired without any further process 31 The FBI engaged in a number of illegal practices in its pursuit of information on communists including burglaries opening mail and illegal wiretaps 32 The members of the left wing National Lawyers Guild NLG were among the few attorneys who were willing to defend clients in communist related cases and this made the NLG a particular target of Hoover s the office of the NLG was burgled by the FBI at least 14 times between 1947 and 1951 33 Among other purposes the FBI used its illegally obtained information to alert prosecuting attorneys about the planned legal strategies of NLG defense lawyers 34 35 The FBI also used illegal undercover operations to disrupt communist and other dissident political groups In 1956 Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by Supreme Court decisions that limited the Justice Department s ability to prosecute communists At this time he formalized a covert dirty tricks program under the name COINTELPRO 32 COINTELPRO actions included planting forged documents to create the suspicion that a key person was an FBI informer spreading rumors through anonymous letters leaking information to the press calling for IRS audits and the like The COINTELPRO program remained in operation until 1971 Historian Ellen Schrecker calls the FBI the single most important component of the anti communist crusade and writes Had observers known in the 1950s what they have learned since the 1970s when the Freedom of Information Act opened the Bureau s files McCarthyism would probably be called Hooverism 36 Allen Dulles and the CIA edit In March 1950 McCarthy had initiated a series of investigations into potential infiltration of the Central Intelligence Agency CIA by communist agents and came up with a list of security risks that matched one previously compiled by the Agency itself At the request of CIA director Allen Dulles President Eisenhower demanded that McCarthy discontinue issuing subpoenas against the CIA Documents made public in 2004 revealed that the CIA under Dulles orders had broken into McCarthy s Senate office and fed disinformation to him in order to discredit him and stop his investigation from proceeding any further 37 Congress edit House Committee on Un American Activities edit Main article House Un American Activities Committee The House Committee on Un American Activities commonly referred to as the HUAC was the most prominent and active government committee involved in anti communist investigations Formed in 1938 and known as the Dies Committee named for Rep Martin Dies who chaired it until 1944 HUAC investigated a variety of activities including those of German American Nazis during World War II The committee soon focused on communism beginning with an investigation into communists in the Federal Theatre Project in 1938 A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948 This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss s trial and conviction for perjury and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion HUAC achieved its greatest fame and notoriety with its investigation into the Hollywood film industry In October 1947 the committee began to subpoena screenwriters directors and other movie industry professionals to testify about their known or suspected membership in the Communist Party association with its members or support of its beliefs At these testimonies this question was asked Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party of the United States 38 39 better source needed Among the first film industry witnesses subpoenaed by the committee were ten who decided not to cooperate These men who became known as the Hollywood Ten cited the First Amendment s guarantee of free speech and free assembly which they believed legally protected them from being required to answer the committee s questions This tactic failed and the ten were sentenced to prison for contempt of Congress Two of them were sentenced to six months the rest to a year In the future witnesses in the entertainment industries and otherwise who were determined not to cooperate with the committee would claim their Fifth Amendment protection against self incrimination William Grooper and Rockwell Kent the only two visual artists to be questioned by McCarthy both took this approach and emerged relatively unscathed by the experience 40 However while this usually protected witnesses from a contempt of Congress citation it was considered grounds for dismissal by many government and private industry employers The legal requirements for Fifth Amendment protection were such that a person could not testify about his own association with the Communist Party and then refuse to name names of colleagues with communist affiliations 41 Thus many faced a choice between crawl ing through the mud to be an informer as actor Larry Parks put it or becoming known as a Fifth Amendment Communist an epithet often used by Senator McCarthy 42 Senate committees edit In the Senate the primary committee for investigating communists was the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee SISS formed in 1950 and charged with ensuring the enforcement of laws relating to espionage sabotage and the protection of the internal security of the United States The SISS was headed by Democrat Pat McCarran and gained a reputation for careful and extensive investigations This committee spent a year investigating Owen Lattimore and other members of the Institute of Pacific Relations As had been done numerous times before the collection of scholars and diplomats associated with Lattimore the so called China Hands were accused of losing China and while some evidence of pro communist attitudes was found nothing supported McCarran s accusation that Lattimore was a conscious and articulate instrument of the Soviet conspiracy Lattimore was charged with perjuring himself before the SISS in 1952 After many of the charges were rejected by a federal judge and one of the witnesses confessed to perjury the case was dropped in 1955 43 McCarthy headed the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1953 and 1954 and during that time used it for a number of his communist hunting investigations McCarthy first examined allegations of communist influence in the Voice of America and then turned to the overseas library program of the State Department Card catalogs of these libraries were searched for works by authors McCarthy deemed inappropriate McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro communist authors before his subcommittee and the press Yielding to the pressure the State Department ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves material by any controversial persons Communists fellow travelers etc Some libraries actually burned the newly forbidden books 44 Though he did not block the State Department from carrying out this order President Eisenhower publicly criticized the initiative as well telling the graduating class of Dartmouth College President in 1953 Don t join the book burners Don t be afraid to go to the library and read every book so long as that document does not offend our own ideas of decency that should be the only censorship 45 The president then settled for a compromise by retaining the ban on Communist books written by Communists while also allowing the libraries to keep books on Communism written by anti Communists 46 McCarthy s committee then began an investigation into the United States Army This began at the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth McCarthy garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers but ultimately nothing came of this investigation 47 McCarthy next turned his attention to the case of a U S Army dentist who had been promoted to the rank of major despite having refused to answer questions on an Army loyalty review form McCarthy s handling of this investigation including a series of insults directed at a brigadier general led to the Army McCarthy hearings with the Army and McCarthy trading charges and counter charges for 36 days before a nationwide television audience While the official outcome of the hearings was inconclusive this exposure of McCarthy to the American public resulted in a sharp decline in his popularity 48 In less than a year McCarthy was censured by the Senate and his position as a prominent force in anti communism was essentially ended 49 Blacklists edit Main article Hollywood blacklist On November 25 1947 the day after the House of Representatives approved citations of contempt for the Hollywood Ten Eric Johnston president of the Motion Picture Association of America issued a press release on behalf of the heads of the major studios that came to be referred to as the Waldorf Statement This statement announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten and stated We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States This marked the beginning of the Hollywood blacklist In spite of the fact that hundreds were denied employment the studios producers and other employers did not publicly admit that a blacklist existed At this time private loyalty review boards and anti communist investigators began to appear to fill a growing demand among certain industries to certify that their employees were above reproach Companies that were concerned about the sensitivity of their business or which like the entertainment industry felt particularly vulnerable to public opinion made use of these private services For a fee these teams investigated employees and questioned them about their politics and affiliations At such hearings the subject usually did not have a right to the presence of an attorney and as with HUAC the interviewee might be asked to defend himself against accusations without being allowed to cross examine the accuser These agencies kept cross referenced lists of leftist organizations publications rallies charities and the like as well as lists of individuals who were known or suspected communists Books such as Red Channels and newsletters such as Counterattack and Confidential Information were published to keep track of communist and leftist organizations and individuals 50 Insofar as the various blacklists of McCarthyism were actual physical lists they were created and maintained by these private organizations citation needed further explanation needed Laws and arrests edit See also Smith Act trials of communist party leaders Efforts to protect the United States from the perceived threat of communist subversion were particularly enabled by several federal laws The Hatch Act of 1939 banned membership in subversive organizations which was interpreted as being anti labor legislation 51 The Hatch Act would allow for the reduction of influence of the Workers Alliance which was claimed to have been created by the Soviet Union based on a model of their unemployed councils 51 The Alien Registration Act or Smith Act of 1940 made the act of knowingly or willfully advocate abet advise or teach the desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence or for anyone to organize any association which teaches advises or encourages such an overthrow or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association a criminal offense Hundreds of communists and others were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957 Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were convicted under the Smith Act in 1949 in the Foley Square trial Ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years The defense attorneys were cited for contempt of court and given prison sentences 52 In 1951 23 other leaders of the party were indicted including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union Many were convicted on the basis of testimony that was later admitted to be false 53 By 1957 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law of whom 93 were convicted 54 The McCarran Internal Security Act which became law in 1950 has been described by scholar Ellen Schrecker as the McCarthy era s only important piece of legislation 55 the Smith Act technically antedated McCarthyism However the McCarran Act had no real effect beyond legal harassment It required the registration of Communist organizations with the U S Attorney General and established the Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate possible communist action and communist front organizations so they could be required to register Due to numerous hearings delays and appeals the act was never enforced even with regard to the Communist Party of the United States itself and the major provisions of the act were found to be unconstitutional in 1965 and 1967 56 In 1952 the Immigration and Nationality or McCarran Walter Act was passed This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities and also to bar suspected subversives from entering the country The Communist Control Act of 1954 was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate Jointly drafted by Republican John Marshall Butler and Democrat Hubert Humphrey the law was an extension of the Internal Security Act of 1950 and sought to outlaw the Communist Party by declaring that the party as well as Communist Infiltrated Organizations were not entitled to any of the rights privileges and immunities attendant upon legal bodies While the Communist Control Act had an odd mix of liberals and conservatives among its supporters it never had any significant effect The act was successfully applied only twice In 1954 it was used to prevent Communist Party members from appearing on the New Jersey state ballot and in 1960 it was cited to deny the CPUSA recognition as an employer under New York state s unemployment compensation system The New York Post called the act a monstrosity a wretched repudiation of democratic principles while The Nation accused Democratic liberals of a neurotic election year anxiety to escape the charge of being soft on Communism even at the expense of sacrificing constitutional rights 57 Repression in the individual states edit In addition to the federal laws and responding to the worries of the local opinion several states enacted anti communist statutes By 1952 several states had enacted statutes against criminal anarchy criminal syndicalism and sedition banned communists and subversives from public employment or even from receiving public aid demanded on loyalty oaths from public servants and severely restricted or banned the Communist Party In addition six states had equivalents to the HUAC 58 The California Senate Factfinding Subcommittee on Un American Activities 59 and the Florida Legislative Investigation Committee were established by their respective legislatures Some of these states had very severe or even extreme laws against communism In 1950 Michigan enacted life imprisonment for subversive propaganda the following year Tennessee enacted the death penalty for advocating the violent overthrow of the government 58 The death penalty for membership in the Communist Party was discussed in Texas by Governor Allan Shivers who described it as worse than murder 60 61 Municipalities and counties also enacted anti communist ordinances Los Angeles banned any communist or Muscovite model of police state dictatorship from owning arms while Birmingham Alabama and Jacksonville Florida banned any communist from being within the city s limits 58 Popular support edit nbsp Flier issued in May 1955 by the Keep America Committee urging readers to fight communistic world government by opposing public health programsMcCarthyism was supported by a variety of groups including the American Legion and various other anti communist organizations One core element of support was a variety of militantly anti communist women s groups such as the American Public Relations Forum and the Minute Women of the U S A These organized tens of thousands of housewives into study groups letter writing networks and patriotic clubs that coordinated efforts to identify and eradicate what they saw as subversion 62 Although right wing radicals were the bedrock of support for McCarthyism they were not alone A broad coalition of the aggrieved found McCarthyism attractive or at least politically useful Common themes uniting the coalition were opposition to internationalism particularly the United Nations opposition to social welfare provisions particularly the various programs established by the New Deal and opposition to efforts to reduce inequalities in the social structure of the United States 63 One focus of popular McCarthyism concerned the provision of public health services particularly vaccination mental health care services and fluoridation all of which were denounced by some to be communist plots to poison or brainwash the American people Such viewpoints led to collisions between McCarthyite radicals and supporters of public health programs most notably in the case of the Alaska Mental Health Bill controversy of 1956 64 William F Buckley Jr the founder of the influential conservative political magazine National Review wrote a defense of McCarthy McCarthy and his Enemies in which he asserted that McCarthyism is a movement around which men of good will and stern morality can close ranks 65 In addition as Richard Rovere points out many ordinary Americans became convinced that there must be no smoke without fire and lent their support to McCarthyism The Gallup poll found that at his peak in January 1954 50 of the American public supported McCarthy while 29 had an unfavorable opinion His support fell to 34 in June 1954 66 Republicans tended to like what McCarthy was doing and Democrats did not though McCarthy had significant support from traditional Democratic ethnic groups especially Catholics as well as many unskilled workers and small business owners McCarthy himself was a Catholic He had very little support among union members and Jews 67 Portrayals of communists editThose who sought to justify McCarthyism did so largely through their characterization of communism and American communists in particular Proponents of McCarthyism claimed that the CPUSA was so completely under Moscow s control that any American communist was a puppet of the Soviet intelligence services This view if restricted to the Communist Party s leadership 68 is supported by recent documentation from the archives of the KGB 69 as well as post war decodes of wartime Soviet radio traffic from the Venona project 70 showing that Moscow provided financial support to the CPUSA and had significant influence on CPUSA policies J Edgar Hoover commented in a 1950 speech Communist members body and soul are the property of the Party According to historian Richard G Powers McCarthy added bogus specificity to sweeping accusation s gaining support among countersubversive anticommunists on one hand who sought to find and punish perceived communists On the other hand liberal anticommunists believed that the Communist Party was despicable and annoying but ultimately politically irrelevant 71 President Harry Truman who pursued the anti Soviet Truman Doctrine called McCarthy the greatest asset the Kremlin has by torpedo ing the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States 72 Historian Landon R Y Storrs writes that the CPUSA s secretiveness its authoritarian internal structure and the loyalty of its leaders to the Kremlin were fundamental flaws that help explain why and how it was demonized On the other hand most American Communists were idealists attracted by the party s militance against various forms of social injustice Furthermore based on later declassified evidence The paradoxical lesson from several decades of scholarship is that the same organization that inspired democratic idealists in the pursuit of social justice also was secretive authoritarian and morally compromised by ties to the Stalin regime 73 In the mid 20th century this attitude was not confined to arch conservatives In 1940 the American Civil Liberties Union ejected founding member Elizabeth Gurley Flynn saying that her membership in the Communist Party was enough to disqualify her as a civil libertarian In the government s prosecutions of Communist Party members under the Smith Act see above the prosecution case was based not on specific actions or statements by the defendants but on the premise that a commitment to violent overthrow of the government was inherent in the doctrines of Marxism Leninism Passages of the CPUSA constitution that specifically rejected revolutionary violence were dismissed as deliberate deception 74 In addition it was often claimed that the party didn t allow members to resign thus someone who had been a member for a short time decades previously could be thought a current member Many of the hearings and trials of McCarthyism featured testimony by former Communist Party members such as Elizabeth Bentley Louis Budenz and Whittaker Chambers speaking as expert witnesses 75 76 Various historians and pundits have discussed alleged Soviet directed infiltration of the U S government and the possible collaboration of high U S government officials 77 78 79 80 Victims of McCarthyism editThis section possibly contains original research Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations Statements consisting only of original research should be removed January 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message See also List of films by the Hollywood Ten Hollywood blacklist and Lavender scare Estimating the number of victims of McCarthy is difficult The number imprisoned is in the hundreds and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs 81 In many cases simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired 82 For the vast majority both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous 83 After the extremely damaging Cambridge Five spy scandal Guy Burgess Donald Maclean Kim Philby Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross suspected homosexuality was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism The hunt for sexual perverts who were presumed to be subversive by nature resulted in over 5 000 federal workers being fired and thousands were harassed and denied employment 84 85 Many have termed this aspect of McCarthyism the lavender scare 86 87 Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s 88 However in the context of the highly politicized Cold War environment homosexuality became framed as a dangerous contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security 88 As the family was believed to be the cornerstone of American strength and integrity 89 the description of homosexuals as sexual perverts meant that they were both unable to function within a family unit and presented the potential to poison the social body 90 This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees 91 The McCarthy hearings and according sexual pervert investigations can be seen to have been driven by a desire to identify individuals whose ability to function as loyal citizens had been compromised 90 McCarthy began his campaign by drawing upon the ways in which he embodied traditional American values to become the self appointed vanguard of social morality 92 nbsp Dalton Trumbo and his wife Cleo at the HUAC in 1947In the film industry more than 300 actors authors and directors were denied work in the U S through the unofficial Hollywood blacklist Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry in universities and schools at all levels in the legal profession and in many other fields A port security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the Korean War required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship regardless of cargo or destination As with other loyalty security reviews of McCarthyism the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused Nearly 3 000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone 93 Some of the notable people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism include Larry Adler musician Nelson Algren writer 94 Lucille Ball actress model and film studio executive 95 Robert N Bellah sociologist Walter Bernstein screenwriter Alvah Bessie Abraham Lincoln Brigade writer journalist screenwriter Hollywood Ten Elmer Bernstein composer and conductor 96 Leonard Bernstein conductor pianist composer 97 David Bohm physicist and philosopher 98 Bertolt Brecht poet playwright screenwriter Archie Brown Abraham Lincoln Brigade veteran of World War II union leader imprisoned Successfully challenged Landrum Griffin Act provision 99 Esther Brunauer forced from the U S State Department 100 Luis Bunuel film director producer 101 Charlie Chaplin actor and director 102 Aaron Copland composer 103 Bartley Crum attorney 104 Howard Da Silva actor 105 Jules Dassin director 106 Chandler Davis mathematician Natalie Zemon Davis historian Dolores del Rio actress 107 Edward Dmytryk director Hollywood Ten W E B Du Bois civil rights activist and author 108 George A Eddy pre Keynesian Harvard economist US Treasury monetary policy specialist 109 Albert Einstein Nobel Prize winning physicist philosopher mathematician activist 110 Hanns Eisler composer 111 Howard Fast writer 112 Lion Feuchtwanger novelist and playwright 113 Carl Foreman writer of High Noon John Garfield actor 103 C H Garrigues journalist 114 Jack Gilford actor 105 Ruth Gordon actress 105 Lee Grant actress 115 Dashiell Hammett author 103 Hananiah Harari American painter and illustrator Elizabeth Hawes clothing designer author equal rights activist 116 Lillian Hellman playwright 103 Dorothy Healey union organizer CPUSA official 117 Lena Horne singer 105 Langston Hughes writer poet playwright 103 Marsha Hunt actress Sam Jaffe actor 103 Theodore Kaghan diplomat 118 Garson Kanin writer and director 103 Ernst Kantorowicz historian Danny Kaye comedian singer 119 full citation needed Benjamin Keen historian 120 Otto Klemperer conductor and composer 121 Gypsy Rose Lee actress and stripper 103 Harold Lewis physicist Cornelius Lanczos mathematician and physicist 122 Ring Lardner Jr screenwriter Hollywood Ten Arthur Laurents playwright 105 Philip Loeb actor 123 Jacob Loewenberg philosopher Joseph Losey director 103 Albert Maltz screenwriter Hollywood Ten Heinrich Mann novelist 124 Klaus Mann writer 124 Thomas Mann Nobel Prize winning novelist and essayist 124 Thomas McGrath poet Burgess Meredith actor 103 Arthur Miller playwright and essayist 103 Jessica Mitford author muckraker Refused to testify to HUAC Dimitri Mitropoulos conductor pianist composer 125 Zero Mostel actor 103 Charles Muscatine literary scholar Joseph Needham biochemist sinologist historian of science J Robert Oppenheimer theoretical physicist director of the Manhattan Project Dorothy Parker writer humorist 103 Linus Pauling chemist Nobel prizes for Chemistry and Peace 126 Samuel Reber diplomat 127 Al Richmond union organizer editor 128 Martin Ritt actor and director 129 Paul Robeson actor athlete singer writer political activist 130 Edward G Robinson actor 103 Waldo Salt screenwriter 131 David S Saxon physicist Jean Seberg actress 132 Pete Seeger folk singer songwriter 103 Robert Serber physicist Artie Shaw jazz musician bandleader author 103 Irwin Shaw writer 105 William L Shirer journalist author 133 Lionel Stander actor 134 Jack Steinberger physicist Dirk Jan Struik mathematician historian of maths 135 Paul Sweezy economist and founder editor of Monthly Review 136 Charles W Thayer diplomat 137 Edward C Tolman psychologist Dalton Trumbo screenwriter Hollywood Ten Tsien Hsue shen physicist 138 Sam Wanamaker actor director responsible for recreating Shakespeare s Globe Theatre in London England Gene Weltfish anthropologist fired from Columbia University 139 Gian Carlo Wick physicist In 1953 Robert K Murray a young professor of history at Pennsylvania State University who had served as an intelligence officer in World War II was revising his dissertation on the Red Scare of 1919 20 for publication until Little Brown and Company decided that under the circumstances it wasn t wise for them to bring this book out He learned that investigators were questioning his colleagues and relatives The University of Minnesota press published his volume Red Scare A Study in National Hysteria 1919 1920 in 1955 140 Critical reactions editThe nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be associated with McCarthyism The critics of various aspects of McCarthyism included many figures not generally noted for their liberalism In his overridden veto of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 President Truman wrote In a free country we punish men for the crimes they commit but never for the opinions they have 141 Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the Taft Hartley Act which among other provisions denied trade unions National Labor Relations Board protection unless union leaders signed affidavits swearing they were not and had never been Communists In 1953 after he left office Truman criticized the current Eisenhower administration It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced for political advantage McCarthyism I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word It is the corruption of truth the abandonment of the due process law It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society 142 On June 1 1950 Senator Margaret Chase Smith a Maine Republican delivered a speech to the Senate she called a Declaration of Conscience In a clear attack upon McCarthyism she called for an end to character assassinations and named some of the basic principles of Americanism The right to criticize the right to hold unpopular beliefs the right to protest the right of independent thought She said freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America and decried cancerous tentacles of know nothing suspect everything attitudes 143 Six other Republican senators Wayne Morse Irving M Ives Charles W Tobey Edward John Thye George Aiken and Robert C Hendrickson joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism nbsp Joseph N Welch left and Senator McCarthy June 9 1954Elmer Davis one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism On one occasion he warned that many local anti communist movements constituted a general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries on teachers and textbooks but on all people who think and write in short on the freedom of the mind 144 In 1952 the Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision in Adler v Board of Education thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed subversive In his dissenting opinion Justice William O Douglas wrote The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society guilt by association What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state Teachers are under constant surveillance their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts 145 nbsp Broadcast journalist Edward R MurrowOne of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst Edward R Murrow On October 20 1953 Murrow s show See It Now aired an episode about the dismissal of Milo Radulovich a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists The show was strongly critical of the Air Force s methods which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open On March 9 1954 See It Now aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself Titled A Report on Senator Joseph R McCarthy it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest reckless and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans In his concluding comment Murrow said We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law We will not walk in fear one of another We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine and remember that we are not descended from fearful men 42 This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism 146 In April 1954 McCarthy was also under attack in the Army McCarthy hearings These hearings were televised live on the new American Broadcasting Company network allowing the public to view first hand McCarthy s interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics In one exchange McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army Joseph Welch that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy Welch rebuked the senator Have you no sense of decency sir At long last have you left no sense of decency 147 Decline editIn the mid and late 1950s the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions Notable events edit A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was John Henry Faulk Host of an afternoon comedy radio show Faulk was a leftist active in his union the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists He was scrutinized by AWARE Inc one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist disloyalty Marked by AWARE as unfit he was fired by CBS Radio Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962 148 With this court decision the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused Although some informal blacklisting continued the private loyalty checking agencies were soon a thing of the past 149 Even before the Faulk verdict many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist In 1960 Dalton Trumbo one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten was publicly credited with writing the films Exodus and Spartacus Warren Court edit Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the U S Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren 2 3 As Richard Rovere wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy T he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before 150 Two Eisenhower appointees to the court Earl Warren who was made Chief Justice and William J Brennan Jr proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated 151 The Warren Court made a series of rulings that helped bring an end to the McCarthyism 4 5 6 In 1956 the Warren Court heard the case of Slochower v Board of Education Harry Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy s committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party The court prohibited such actions ruling we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person s constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment The privilege against self incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury 152 In addition the 1956 Cole v Young ruling also greatly weakened the ability to discriminate in the federal civilian workforce 153 Another key decision was in the 1957 case Yates v United States in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed In Justice Black s opinion he wrote of the original Smith Act trials The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances 154 Also in 1957 the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Watkins v United States curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress Justice Warren wrote in the decision The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify against his will about his beliefs expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox unpopular or even hateful to the general public the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous 155 156 In its 1958 decision in Kent v Dulles the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant s communist beliefs or associations 157 Repercussions editStudy and reactions to Constitutional implications edit The political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest and the politics and history of anti communism in the United States are still contentious Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist Loyalty oaths are still required by the California Constitution for all officials and employees of the government of California which is highly problematic for Quakers and Jehovah s Witnesses whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state 158 At the federal level a few portions of the McCarran Internal Security Act remain in effect However the act s detention provision was repealed in 1971 159 The McCarran Act s Communist registration requirement was declared unconstitutional in the 1965 Supreme Court ruling in Albertson v Subversive Activities Control Board as well The McCarran Act s Subversive Activities Control Board which enforced the law s investigation requirement for persons alleged to be involved in subversive activities was officially abolished through Congressional legislation in 1972 as well 160 Historical study on anti communism and Soviet espionage edit McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet messages the Soviet Union was found to have engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s The Communist Party USA also was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union and accusations existed that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies 161 162 Liberal anti communists like Edward Shils and Daniel Moynihan had a contempt for McCarthyism Sociologist Edward Shils criticized an excessive policy of secrecy during the Cold War that led to the misdirection of McCarthyism which was addressed during the 1994 1997 Moynihan Commission As Moynihan put it reaction to McCarthy took the form of a modish anti anti Communism that considered impolite any discussion of the very real threat Communism posed to Western values and security After revelations of Soviet spy networks from the declassified Venona project Moynihan wondered Might less secrecy have prevented the liberal overreaction to McCarthyism as well as McCarthyism itself He described the situation during the McCarthy era as ignorant armies clashed by night With McCarthy advocating an extremist view the discussion of communist subversion was made into a civil rights issue instead of a counterintelligence one 68 In the view of some contemporary commentators the revelations from Venona and other archives on espionage stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism 163 Some such as Goldberg feel that a genuinely dangerous subversive element was in the United States and that this danger justified extreme measures 164 The opposing view holds that recent revelations notwithstanding by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group and the damage done to U S interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal 165 Historian Ellen Schrecker states in this country McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did 166 Historian John Earl Haynes while acknowledging that inexcusable excesses occurred during McCarthyism argues that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the un democratic nature of the CPUSA 167 At the same time Haynes who studied the Venona decryptions extensively argued that McCarthy s attempts to make anti communism a partisan weapon actually threatened the post War anti Communist consensus thereby ultimately harming anti Communist efforts more than helping them 168 Of the 159 people who were identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy evidence only substantially proved that nine of them had aided Soviet espionage efforts while several hundred Soviet spies were actually known based on Venona and other evidence most were never named by McCarthy 169 170 Later political usage of term edit A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to 2000s era actions against suspected terrorists most of them Muslims In The Age of Anxiety McCarthyism to Terrorism author Haynes Johnson compares the abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high security U S prisons in the wake of 9 11 to the excesses of the McCarthy era 171 Similarly David D Cole has written that the Patriot Act in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism simply substituting terrorist for communist 172 From the opposite pole conservative writer Ann Coulter devotes much of her book Treason to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern day liberals arguing that the former hindered the anti communist cause and the latter hinder the War on Terrorism 173 Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti terrorism policies and McCarthyism include Geoffrey R Stone 174 Ted Morgan 175 and Jonah Goldberg 164 Since the time of McCarthy the word McCarthyism has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices aggressively questioning a person s patriotism making poorly supported accusations using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent subverting civil and political rights in the name of national security and the use of demagoguery are all often referred to as McCarthyism 176 177 178 In popular culture editThe 1951 novel The Troubled Air by Irwin Shaw tells the story of the director of a fictional radio show broadcast live at the time who is given a deadline to investigate his cast for alleged links to communism The novel recounts the devastating effects on all concerned 179 The 1952 Arthur Miller play The Crucible used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism suggesting that the process of McCarthyism style persecution can occur at any time or place The play focused on the fact that once accused a person had little chance of exoneration given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public Miller later wrote The more I read into the Salem panic the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties 180 The 1976 film The Front starring Woody Allen dealt with the McCarthy era Hollywood blacklist The film was made by those blacklisted producer and director Martin Ritt writer Walter Bernstein and actors Zero Mostel Herschel Bernardi Michael Murphy John Randolph Lloyd Gough and Joshua Shelley 181 Guilty by Suspicion is a 1991 American drama film about the Hollywood blacklist McCarthyism and the activities of the HUAC Written and directed by Irwin Winkler it starred Robert De Niro Annette Bening and George Wendt The 2005 film Good Night and Good Luck by George Clooney starred David Strathairn as broadcast journalist Edward R Murrow and contained archival footage of McCarthy 182 The 2023 mini series Fellow Travelers centers on the decades long romance between two men who first meet during the height of McCarthyism See also edit nbsp Conservatism portal nbsp Communism portal nbsp 1950s portalCancel culture Censorship of school curricula in the United States Deplatforming Enemy of the people Litmus test politics Mundt Ferguson Communist Registration Bill of 1950 Ostracism Palmer Raids Red baiting Red tagging in the Philippines Red Purge Trumpism Witch huntReferences editCitations edit Storrs Landon R Y July 2 2015 McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare American History doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199329175 013 6 ISBN 978 0199329175 Archived from the original on July 3 2018 Retrieved July 3 2018 a b Lichtman Robert M UI Press Robert M Lichtman The Supreme Court and McCarthy Era Repression One Hundred Decisions www press uillinois edu Archived from the original on May 12 2019 Retrieved October 20 2019 a b Revisiting McCarthyism in the Patriot Act Era NPR org Archived from the original on October 20 2019 Retrieved October 20 2019 a b Horwitz Morton J 1999 The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice Macmillan ISBN 978 0809016259 Archived from the original on November 13 2020 Retrieved October 19 2020 a b Yates v United States Oyez Archived from the original on August 24 2019 Retrieved October 20 2019 a b Watkins v United States Oyez Archived from the original on October 20 2019 Retrieved October 20 2019 Ellen Schrecker Many Are the Crimes McCarthyism in America New York Little Brown amp Company 1998 203 ISBN 978 0 3167 7470 3 For example Yates v United States 1957 and Watkins v United States 1957 Fried Albert 1997 McCarthyism The Great American Red Scare A Documentary History Oxford University Press ISBN 0195097017 pp 205 207 For example California s Levering Oath law declared unconstitutional in 1967 Fried 1997 p 124 For example Slochower v Board of Education 1956 Fried 1997 p 203 For example Faulk vs AWARE Inc et al 1962 Fried 1997 p 197 Robert J Goldstein 2006 Prelude to McCarthyism The Making of a Blacklist Prologue Magazine Washington DC National Archives and Records Administration Archived from the original on January 18 2017 Retrieved January 16 2017 Weir 2007 pp 148 149 Merrill Dennis 2006 The Truman Doctrine Containing Communism and Modernity Presidential Studies Quarterly 36 1 27 37 doi 10 1111 j 1741 5705 2006 00284 x Fried Richard M 1990 Nightmare in Red The McCarthy Era in Perspective Oxford University Press ISBN 0195043618 p 41 Brinkley 1995 p 141 Fried 1990 pp 6 15 78 80 Griffith 1970 p 49 McCarthyism n Oxford English Dictionary Online ed Oxford University Press Subscription or participating institution membership required citing Christian Science Monitor March 28 1950 p 20 Strout Lawrence N 1999 Covering McCarthyism how the Christian Science Monitor handled Joseph R McCarthy 1950 1954 Westport CT Greenwood Press Introduction Block 1952 p 152 Fried 1990 p 150 U S Senate On This Day December 2 1954 www senate gov McCoy Donald R 1991 The Constitution of the Truman Presidency and the Post World War II Era In Fausold Martin Shank Alan eds The Constitution and the American Presidency SUNY Press p 116 ISBN 978 0791404683 Fried 1997 Fried 1990 p 133 Brown 1958 Schrecker 1998 p 271 Fried 1990 p 70 Schrecker 1998 pp 211 266 et seq Schrecker 2002 p 65 Schrecker 1998 p 212 a b Cox and Theoharis 1988 p 312 Schrecker 1998 p 225 Schrecker 1998 p 224 Yoder Traci April 2014 Breach of Privilege Spying on Lawyers in the United States PDF Archived from the original PDF on September 25 2018 Retrieved February 5 2019 Schrecker 1998 pp 239 203 Weiner 2007 pp 105 106 sfn error no target CITEREFWeiner2007 help Case Sue Ellen Reinelt Janelle G eds 1991 The Performance of Power Theatrical Discourse and Politics University of Iowa Press p 153 ISBN 978 1587290343 Archived from the original on November 7 2020 Retrieved October 19 2020 Dmytryk Edward 1996 Odd Man Out A Memoir of the Hollywood Ten Southern Illinois University Press p 59 ISBN 978 0809319992 In the early days of the Martin Dies Committee the question had simply been Are you a member of the Communist Party of the United States As a countermeasure the Party adopted a rule that automatically cancelled a Communist s membership the moment the question was asked He could then answer No without perjuring himself The final wording was adopted to circumvent the Party s tactic nublockmuseum May 31 2013 Behind Blacklisted Stories From The Block Archived from the original on July 27 2020 Retrieved July 27 2020 Fried 1990 pp 154 155 Schrecker 2002 p 68 a b See it Now A Report on Senator Joseph R McCarthy transcript CBS TV March 9 1954 Archived from the original on November 10 2015 Retrieved March 16 2007 Fried 1990 pp 145 150 Griffith 1970 p 216 The Horrible Oppressive History of Book Burning in America The New Republic June 26 1953 Archived from the original on February 12 2020 Retrieved February 12 2020 Kareem Abdul Jabbar Raymond Obstfeld 2016 Writings on the Wall Searching for a New Equality Beyond Black and White Time Inc Books pp 53 ISBN 978 1618935434 Stone 2004 p 384 Fried 1990 p 138 83rd U S Congress July 30 1954 Senate Resolution 301 Censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy U S National Archives and Records Administration Archived from the original on November 1 2013 Retrieved October 30 2013 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Fried 1997 p 116 a b Goldstein Robert Justin 2014 Little Red Scares Anti Communism and Political Repression in the United States 1921 1946 Farnham Ashgate Publishing Ltd ISBN 978 1472413772 OCLC 879022662 Fried 1997 pp 13 15 27 110 112 165 168 Fried 1997 pp 201 202 Levin Daniel Smith Act in Paul Finkelman ed 2006 Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties CRC Press p 1488 ISBN 0415943426 Schrecker 1998 p 141 Fried 1990 p 187 McAuliff 1978 p 142 a b c Linfield Michael 1990 Freedom Under Fire U S Civil Liberties in Times of War South End Press pp 107 111 ISBN 978 0896083745 California Creates Un American Activities Committee Today in Civil Liberties History May 28 2013 Archived from the original on September 24 2017 Retrieved July 9 2017 Richards Dave August 19 2009 So Long to the Communist Threat The Texas Observer Archived from the original on September 26 2017 Retrieved July 9 2017 McEnteer James 2004 Deep in the Heart The Texas Tendency in American Politics Greenwood Publishing Group p 87 ISBN 978 0275983062 Archived from the original on August 6 2020 Retrieved September 4 2017 Nickerson Michelle M Women Domesticity and Postwar Conservatism Archived March 10 2003 at the Wayback Machine OAH Magazine of History 17 January 2003 ISSN 0882 228X Rovere 1959 pp 21 22 Marmor Judd Viola W Bernard and Perry Ottenberg Psychodynamics of Group Opposition to Mental Health Programs in Judd Marmor 1994 Psychiatry in Transition 2nd ed Transaction pp 355 373 ISBN 1560007362 Buckley 1954 p 335 Robert Griffith 1987 The Politics of Fear Joseph R McCarthy and the Senate Univ of Massachusetts Press p 263 ISBN 0870235559 Arthur Herman 2000 Joseph McCarthy Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America s Most Hated Senator Simon and Schuster pp 160 161 ISBN 978 0684836256 a b Moynihan Daniel Patrick 1998 Secrecy The American Experience Yale University Press pp 15 16 ISBN 978 0300080797 Andrew Christopher Vasili Mitrokhin 1999 The Sword and the Shield New York Basic Books pp 108 110 122 148 164 226 236 237 279 280 294 306 ISBN 0465003109 Haynes John Harvey Klehr 1999 Venona Decoding Soviet Espionage in America Connecticut Yale University pp 221 226 ISBN 0300077718 Powers Richard Gid 1995 Not Without Honor The History of American Anticommunism Free Press pp 129 214 240 ISBN 978 0684824277 President Harry S Truman Responds to Senator Joseph R McCarthy s Accusations of Disloyalty historymatters gmu edu Storrs Landon R Y July 2 2015 McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199329175 013 6 ISBN 978 0199329175 Retrieved November 2 2022 Schrecker 1998 pp 161 193 194 Chambers Whittaker 1952 Witness New York Random House p 799 ISBN 978 0848809584 Schrecker 1998 pp 130 137 Herman Arthur 2000 Joseph McCarthy Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America s Most Hated Senator Free Press pp 5 6 Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev The Haunted Wood Soviet Espionage in America The Stalin Era New York Modern Library 2000 ISBN 978 0375755361 pp 48 158 162 169 229 M Stanton Evans Blacklisted by History The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight against America s Enemies Crown Forum 2007 pp 19 21 John Earl Haynes Harvey Klehr Venona Decoding Soviet Espionage in America Yale University Press 1999 p 18 Schrecker 1998 p xiii Schrecker 2002 pp 63 64 Schrecker 1998 p 4 Sears Brad Hunter Nan D Mallory Christy 2009 5 The Legacy of Discriminatory State Laws Policies and Practices 1945 Present Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment PDF Los Angeles The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at UCLA School of Law p 5 3 Archived from the original PDF on February 6 2017 Retrieved December 16 2017 From 1947 to 1961 more than 5 000 allegedly homosexual federal civil servants lost their jobs in the purges for no reason other than sexual orientation and thousands of applicants were also rejected for federal employment for the same reason During this period more than 1 000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party The Cold War and anticommunist efforts provided the setting in which a sustained attack upon gay men and lesbians took place The history of this lavender scare by the federal government has been extensively documented by historian David Johnson who has demonstrated that during this era government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism homosexual and pervert became synonyms for Communist and traitor LGBT people were treated as a national security threat demanding the attention of Congress the courts statehouses and the media D Emilio 1998 pp 41 49 David K Johnson The Lavender Scare The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government Chicago University of Chicago Press 2009 p 10 An interview with David K Johnson author of The Lavender Scare The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government press uchicago edu The University of Chicago 2004 Archived from the original on April 28 2019 Retrieved December 16 2017 The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare In popular discourse communists and homosexuals were often conflated Both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places literature cultural codes and bonds of loyalty Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed And both groups were considered immoral and godless Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government a b Gary Kinsman and Patrizia Gentile The Canadian War on Queers National Security as Sexual Regulation Vancouver UBC Press 2010 p 65 Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline Davis Boots of Leather Slippers of Gold New York Routledge 1993 p 75 a b Kinsman and Gentile p 8 John D Emilio and Estelle B Freedman Intimate Matters A History of Sexuality in America 3rd ed Chicago University of Chicago Press 2012 p 316 David K Johnson p 96 Schrecker 1998 p 267 Publication canceled after FBI contact Horvath Brooke 2005 Understanding Nelson Algren University of South Carolina Press p 84 ISBN 1570035741 Investigated by the FBI and brought before HUAC for having registered as a Communist supporter in 1936 Lucille Ball FBI Records The Vault Federal Bureau of Investigation Archived from the original on September 5 2015 Retrieved September 9 2015 On Hollywood graylist Composer Elmer Bernstein Dead at 82 Today com Associated Press August 19 2004 Archived from the original on April 20 2017 Retrieved February 27 2009 Schrecker Ellen 2002 The Age of McCarthyism A Brief History with Documents New York Palgrave p 244 ISBN 0312294255 Lost his job exiled Jessica Wang 1999 American Science in an Age of Anxiety scientists anticommunism amp the cold war The University of North Carolina Press pp 277 278 ISBN 978 0807824474 Obituary Archived March 31 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times November 25 1990 Retrieved June 10 2014 McCarthy Target Ousted PDF The New York Times November 21 1952 Archived PDF from the original on March 1 2021 Retrieved April 4 2014 Buhle Paul amp David Wagner 2003b Blacklisted The Film Lover s Guide to the Hollywood Blacklist Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 140396145X Harassed by anti Communist groups denied reentry to United States while traveling abroad Lev Peter 1999 Transforming the Screen 1950 1959 University of California Press p 159 ISBN 0520249666 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p On the Red Channels blacklist of artists and entertainers Schrecker 2002 p 244 Blacklisted in his profession committed suicide in 1959 Bosworth Patricia 1998 Anything Your Little Heart Desires An American Family Story Touchstone ISBN 0684838486 a b c d e f The Authentic History Center Red Channels The Blacklist Retrieved July 21 2010 dead link On Hollywood blacklist Buhle and Wagner 2003 p 105 Harassed by anti Communist groups denied reentry to United States thus prevented from acting in the movie Broken Lance Ramon David 1997 Dolores del Rio Clio p 44 ISBN 9686932356 Indicted under the Foreign Agents Registration Act Du Bois W E B 1968 The Autobiography of W E B Du Bois International Publishers ISBN 0717802345 Craig R Bruce 2004 Treasonable Doubt University Press of Kansas p 496 ISBN 978 0700613113 Jerome Fred 2002 The Einstein File J Edgar Hoover s Secret War Against the World s Most Famous Scientist St Martin s Press ISBN 0312288565 Herman Jan 1995 A Talent for Trouble The Life of Hollywood s Most Acclaimed Director William Wyler Cambridge Mass Da Capo ISBN 030680798X Blacklisted imprisoned for three months for contempt of Congress Sabin 1999 p 75 Alexander Stephan 2007 Uberwacht Ausgeburgert Exiliert Schriftsteller und der Staat Bielefeld Aisthesis Verlag pp 36 52 ISBN 978 3895286346 Investigation of Communist Activities in the Los Angeles Area Part 5 United States Congress House Committee on Un American Activities On Hollywood blacklist Buhle and Wagner 2003 p 31 Berch Bettina 1988 Radical By Design The Life and Style of Elizabeth Hawes Dutton Adult ISBN 0525247157 Dorothy Healey Lifelong Communist Fought for Workers Archived December 18 2018 at the Wayback Machine Los Angeles Times Dennis McLellan August 8 2006 Retrieved June 11 2014 Theodore Kaghan 77 Was in Foreign Service Archived 2020 11 13 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times August 11 1989 Accessed March 7 2011 Subject Danny Kaye Federal Bureau of Investigation Archived from the original on May 12 2013 Retrieved June 29 2013 Keith Haynes Benjamin Keen 1913 2002 Hispanic American Historical Review 83 2 2003 357 359 Heyworth Peter 1996 Otto Klemperer Vol 2 1933 1973 His Life and Times Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521244886 Louis Komzsik 2003 The Lanczos Method Evolution and Application SIAM p 79 ISBN 978 0898715378 Blacklisted and unemployed committed suicide in 1955 Fried 1990 p 156 a b c Stephan Alexander 1995 Im Visier des FBI deutsche Exilschriftsteller in den Akten amerikanischer Geheimdienste Metzler ISBN 3476013812 Trotter William R 1995 Priest of Music The Life of Dimitri Mitropoulos Amadeus Press ISBN 0931340810 Repeatedly denied passport Thompson Gail amp R Andrew Viruleg Linus Pauling Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation Archived from the original on December 24 2007 Retrieved December 11 2007 Robert D Dean The Imperial Brotherhood Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy University of Massachusetts Press 2001 65 127 140 Obituary Archived May 10 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times November 9 1987 Retrieved June 10 2014 On Hollywood blacklist Buhle and Wagner 2003 p 18 Blacklisted passport revoked Manning Marable McMillian John Frazier Nishani eds 2003 Freedom on My Mind The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience Columbia University Press p 559 ISBN 0231108907 On Hollywood blacklist Buhle and Wagner 2003 p 208 Brodeur Paul 1997 A Writer in the Cold War Faber and Faber pp 159 165 ISBN 978 0571199075 Herbert Mitgang William L Shirer Author Is Dead at 89 Archived 2017 05 01 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times December 29 1993 Accessed March 5 2011 Lawrence Van Gelder Lionel Stander Dies at 86 Actor Who Defied Blacklist Archived 2017 02 19 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times December 2 1994 Accessed March 5 2011 1 Archived March 16 2014 at the Wayback Machine p 7 Subpoenaed by New Hampshire Attorney General indicted for contempt of court Heale M J 1998 McCarthy s Americans Red Scare Politics in State and Nation 1935 1965 University of Georgia Press p 73 ISBN 0820320269 Robert D Dean Imperial Brotherhood Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy Amherst MA University of Massachusetts Press 2001 141 144 Passport revoked incarcerated Chang Iris 1996 Thread of the Silkworm Basic Books ISBN 0465006787 David H Price 2004 Threatening Anthropology McCarthyism and the FBI s Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists Duke University Press March 30 2004 Organization of American Historians Lee W Formwalt Robert Murray s Two Red Scares in OAH Newsletter November 2003 Archived September 4 2013 at the Wayback Machine accessed January 28 2011 Truman Harry S September 1950 Veto of the Internal Security Bill Truman Presidential Museum and Library Archived from the original on March 1 2007 Retrieved August 7 2006 Doherty 2005 pp 14 15 Smith Margaret Chase June 1 1950 Declaration of Conscience Margaret Chase Smith Library Archived from the original on October 8 2006 Retrieved August 4 2006 Fried 1990 p 29 Fried 1997 p 114 Streitmatter 1998 p 154 Doherty 2005 p 207 Faulk John Henry 1963 Fear on Trial University of Texas Press ISBN 029272442X Fried 1997 p 197 Rovere 1959 p 264 Sabin 1999 p 5 Fried 1997 p 203 Cole v Young 351 U S 536 1956 Justia Archived from the original on March 27 2019 Retrieved October 1 2016 Fried 1997 p 205 Fried 1997 p 207 full text Archived June 14 2018 at the Wayback Machine Caselaw Findlaw Fried 1997 p 211 Paddock Richard C May 11 2008 Loyalty oath poses ethical dilemmas Archived July 7 2012 at archive today San Francisco Chronicle Izumi Masumi May 2005 Prohibiting American Concentration Camps Pacific Historical Review 74 2 166 doi 10 1525 phr 2005 74 2 165 JSTOR 10 1525 phr 2005 74 2 165 Kesaris Paul L ed Records of the Subversive Activities Control Board PDF University Publications of America Archived from the original PDF on March 4 2016 Retrieved February 4 2022 Marshall Joshua Exhuming McCarthy permanent dead link American Prospect 10 no 43 1999 Storrs Landon R Y July 2 2015 McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199329175 013 6 ISBN 978 0199329175 David Aaronovitch McCarthy There Were Reds Under the Bed Archived March 30 2015 at the Wayback Machine BBC Radio 4 airdate August 9 2010 a b Goldberg Jonah February 26 2003 Two Cheers for McCarthyism National Review Online Archived from the original on December 10 2006 Retrieved January 25 2007 Theoharis Athan 2002 Chasing Spies How the FBI Failed in Counter Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years Ivan R Dee ISBN 1566634202 Schrecker Ellen Winter 2000 Comments on John Earl Haynes The Cold War Debate Continues Journal of Cold War Studies Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Archived from the original on May 15 2017 Retrieved February 27 2009 Emphasis in original Haynes John Earl Reflections on Ellen Schrecker and Maurice Isserman s essay The Right s Cold War Revision Archived from the original on March 15 2015 Retrieved September 9 2010 Haynes John Earl February 2000 Exchange with Arthur Herman and Venona book talk Retrieved July 11 2007 Haynes John Earl 2006 Senator Joseph McCarthy s Lists and Venona Retrieved August 31 2006 Haynes John Earl Klehr Harvey 2000 Venona Decoding Soviet Espionage in America New Haven Connecticut Yale University Press ISBN 0300 084625 Johnson Haynes 2005 The Age of Anxiety McCarthyism to Terrorism Harcourt p 471 ISBN 0151010625 Cole David National Security State Archived 2007 02 11 at the Wayback Machine The Nation December 17 2001 See also Cole David The New McCarthyism Repeating History in the War on Terrorism Harvard Civil Rights Civil Liberties Law Review 38 no 1 Winter 2003 Coulter Ann 2003 Treason Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism Three Rivers Press ISBN 1400050324 Geoffrey R Stone October 17 2004 America s new McCarthyism Chicago Tribune Archived from the original on January 4 2018 Retrieved January 3 2018 Morgan Ted 2004 Reds McCarthyism in Twentieth Century America Random House p 597 et seq ISBN 081297302X Rosenthal Jack October 7 1984 President vs Demagogue The New York Times Archived from the original on September 4 2017 Retrieved December 20 2017 Boot Max April 2000 Joseph McCarthy by Arthur Herman Commentary Archived from the original on July 21 2010 Retrieved April 11 2013 What Qualifies as Demagoguery October 19 2004 What Qualifies as Demagoguery History News Network Archived from the original on July 25 2013 Retrieved December 20 2017 The Troubled Air Open Road Media April 16 2013 Archived from the original on September 11 2016 Retrieved September 9 2016 Miller Arthur October 21 1996 Why I Wrote The Crucible The New Yorker Archived from the original on September 28 2013 Retrieved February 20 2020 Georgakas Dan The Hollywood Blacklist www english illinois edu Archived from the original on August 26 2018 Retrieved August 15 2018 Good Night and Good Luck Murrow vs McCarthy NPR org Archived from the original on October 26 2017 Retrieved April 5 2018 Sources edit Block Herbert 1952 The Herblock Book Beacon ISBN 149925346X Brinkley Alan 1995 The End of Reform New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War Vintage ISBN 0679753141 Brown Ralph S 1958 Loyalty and Security Employment Tests in the United States Yale University Press ISBN 0306702185 Buckley William F 1977 A Hymnal The Controversial Arts G P Putnam s Sons ISBN 0399122273 Buckley William F 1954 McCarthy and His Enemies The Record and Its Meaning Regnery ISBN 0895264722 Buhle Paul amp David Wagner 2003 Hide in Plain Sight The Hollywood Blacklistees in Film and Television 1950 2002 Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1403961441 Cox John Stuart amp Athan G Theoharis 1988 The Boss J Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition Temple University Press ISBN 087722532X D Emilio John 1998 Sexual Politics Sexual Communities 2d ed University of Chicago Press ISBN 0226142671 Doherty Thomas 2005 Cold War Cool Medium Television McCarthyism and American Culture Columbia University Press ISBN 023112953X Fried Albert 1997 McCarthyism The Great American Red Scare A Documentary History Oxford University Press ISBN 0195097017 Fried Richard M 1990 Nightmare in Red The McCarthy Era in Perspective Oxford University Press ISBN 0195043618 Griffith Robert 1970 The Politics of Fear Joseph R McCarthy and the Senate University of Massachusetts Press ISBN 0870235559 Haynes John Earl and Harvey Klehr 2000 Venona Decoding Soviet Espionage in America Yale University Press ISBN 0300 084625 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Herman Arthur 2000 Joseph McCarthy Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America s Most Hated Senator The Free Press ISBN 0684836254 McAuliff Mary Sperling 1978 Crisis on the Left Cold War Politics and American Liberals 1947 1954 University of Massachusetts Press ISBN 087023241X Rovere Richard H 1959 Senator Joe McCarthy University of California Press ISBN 0520204727 Sabin Arthur J 1999 In Calmer Times The Supreme Court and Red Monday University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 081223507X Schrecker Ellen 1998 Many Are the Crimes McCarthyism in America Little Brown ISBN 0316774707 Schrecker Ellen 2002 The Age of McCarthyism A Brief History with Documents 2d ed Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 0312294255 Stone Geoffrey R 2004 Perilous Times Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism W W Norton ISBN 0393 058808 Streitmatter Rodger 1998 Mightier Than the Sword How the News Media Have Shaped American History Westview Press ISBN 0813332117 Weir Robert E 2007 Class in America An Encyclopedia Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0313337208 Historiography edit Haynes John Earl The Cold War debate continues A traditionalist view of historical writing on domestic Communism and anti Communism Journal of Cold War Studies 2 1 2000 76 115 Hixson Jr William B Search for the American right wing An analysis of the social science record 1955 1987 Princeton University Press 2015 Reeves Thomas C McCarthyism Interpretations since Hofstadter Wisconsin Magazine of History 1976 42 54 online Selverstone Marc J A Literature So Immense The Historiography of Anticommunism Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 24 4 2010 7 11 Further reading editAndrew Christopher Mitrokhin Vasili 2000 The Sword and the Shield The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB Basic Books ISBN 0465 003125 Byman Jeremy 2004 Showdown at High Noon Witch hunts Critics and the End of the Western Scarecrow Press ISBN 0810849984 Archived from the original on May 10 2017 Retrieved October 19 2020 Caballero Raymond McCarthyism vs Clinton Jencks Norman University of Oklahoma Press 2019 Caute David 1978 The Great Fear The Anti Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower Simon amp Schuster ISBN 0671226827 Coulter Ann 2003 Treason Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism Crown Forum ISBN 1400050308 Evans M Stanton 2007 Blacklisted by History The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America s Enemies Crown Publishing ISBN 978 1400081059 Haynes John Earl 2000 Red Scare or Red Menace American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era Ivan R Dee ISBN 156663 0916 Haynes John Earl amp Harvey Klehr 2003 In Denial Historians Communism and Espionage Encounter ISBN 1893554724 Latham Earl ed The Meaning of McCarthyism 1965 excerpts from primary and secondary sources Lichtman Robert M The Supreme Court and McCarthy Era Repression One Hundred Decisions Urbana IL University of Illinois Press 2012 McDaniel Rodger Dying for Joe McCarthy s Sins The Suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester Hunt WordsWorth 2013 Morgan Ted 2004 Reds McCarthyism in Twentieth Century America Random House ISBN 081297302X Navasky Victor S 1980 Naming Names Hill and Wang ISBN 08090 01837 Powers Richard Gid 1997 Not Without Honor A History of American Anticommunism Free Press ISBN 0300 07470 0 Schrecker Ellen 1994 The Age of McCarthyism A Brief History with Documents Bedford Books of St Martin s Press ISBN 0312 083491 Storrs Landon R Y The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left Princeton NJ Princeton University Press 2013 Weinstein Allen and Alexander Vassiliev 2000 The Haunted Wood Soviet Espionage in America The Stalin Era Modern Library ISBN 0375755365 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link External links edit nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to McCarthyism Badash Lawrence October 30 2007 Science in the McCarthy Period Training Ground for Scientists as Public Citizens Oregon State University Archived from the original on February 5 2008 Retrieved January 16 2008 Beyer Mary amp Michael Beyer January 2006 McCarthyism Today International Journal of Baudrillard Studies Archived from the original on October 1 2006 Retrieved November 2 2006 McCarthyism The Red Scare Dwight D Eisenhower Online Documents Dwight D Eisenhower Presidential Library Museum and Boyhood Home Archived from the original on November 1 2013 Retrieved October 30 2013 Navasky Victor S June 28 2001 Cold War Ghosts The Nation Archived from the original on April 14 2009 Retrieved November 2 2006 Rusher William A Fall 2004 A Closer Look Under The Bed Claremont Review of Books Claremont Institute Archived from the original on January 27 2012 Retrieved December 27 2011 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title McCarthyism amp oldid 1189229217, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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