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Orthomolecular medicine

December 15, 2023

Orthomolecular medicine[1][2] is a form of alternative medicine that aims to maintain human health through nutritional supplementation. The concept builds on the idea of an optimal nutritional environment in the body and suggests that diseases reflect deficiencies in this environment. Treatment for disease, according to this view, involves attempts to correct "imbalances or deficiencies based on individual biochemistry" by use of substances such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, trace elements and fatty acids.[3][4][5] The notions behind orthomolecular medicine are not supported by sound medical evidence, and the therapy is not effective for chronic disease prevention;[6][7] even the validity of calling the orthomolecular approach a form of medicine has been questioned since the 1970s.[8]

Orthomolecular medicine
Alternative medicine
ClaimsHealth effects of dietary supplements, particularly vitamin megadoses.
Related fieldsNaturopathy
Original proponentsLinus Pauling (coined term)
MeSHD009974

The approach is sometimes referred to as megavitamin therapy,[1][2] because its practice evolved out of, and in some cases still uses, doses of vitamins and minerals many times higher than the recommended dietary intake. Orthomolecular practitioners may also incorporate a variety of other styles of treatment into their approaches, including dietary restriction, megadoses of non-vitamin nutrients and mainstream pharmaceutical drugs.[1][9] Proponents argue that non-optimal levels of certain substances can cause health issues beyond simple vitamin deficiency and see balancing these substances as an integral part of health.[10]

American chemist Linus Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" in the 1960s to mean "the right molecules in the right amounts" (ortho- in Greek implies "correct").[11] Proponents of orthomolecular medicine hold that treatment must be based on each patient's individual biochemistry.[12][13]

The scientific and medical consensus holds that the broad claims of efficacy advanced by advocates of orthomolecular medicine are not adequately tested as drug therapies.[6] It has been described as a form of food faddism and as quackery.[14] Proponents point to mainstream sources that have published research supporting the benefits of nutrient supplementation[15][16] and to instances where conventional medicine uses vitamins as treatments for some diseases.

Some vitamins in large doses have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer and death.[17][18][19] The scientific consensus view is that for normal individuals, a balanced diet contains all necessary vitamins and minerals and that routine supplementation is not necessary outside of specific diagnosed deficiencies.[20]

History and development edit

In the early 20th century, some doctors hypothesised that vitamins could cure disease, and supplements were prescribed in megadoses by the 1930s.[21] Their effects on health were disappointing, though, and in the 1950s and 1960s, nutrition was de-emphasised in standard medical curricula.[21] Riordon's organization cite figures from this period as founders of their movement,[22] although the word "orthomolecular" was coined by Linus Pauling only in 1967.

Amongst the individuals described posthumously as orthomolecularists are Max Gerson, who developed a diet that he claimed could treat diseases, which the American Medical Association's 1949 Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry found ineffective;[23] and Evan Shute and his brother, who attempted to treat heart disease with vitamin E.[24] Several concepts now cited by orthomolecularists, including individual biochemical variation[13] and inborn errors of metabolism,[21][25][26] debuted in scientific papers early in the 20th century.

In 1948, William McCormick theorized that vitamin C deficiency played an important role in many diseases and began to use large doses in patients.[27] In the 1950s, Fred R. Klenner also tried vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses, including polio.[28] Irwin Stone stated that organisms that do not synthesise their own vitamin C due to a loss-of-function mutation have a disease he called "hypoascorbemia".[29] This term is not used by the medical community, and the idea of an organism-wide lack of a biosynthetic pathway as a disease was not endorsed by Stone's contemporaries.[30]

In the 1950s, some individuals believed that vitamin deficiencies caused mental illness.[21] Psychiatrists Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer gave people having acute schizophrenic episodes high doses of niacin,[31] while William Kaufman used niacinamide. While niacin has no known efficacy in psychiatric disease, the use of niacin in combination with statins and other medical therapies has become one of several medical treatments for cardiovascular disease.[32][33]

In the late 1960s, Linus Pauling introduced the expression "orthomolecular"[11] to express the idea of the right molecules in the right amounts.[11] Since the first claims of medical breakthroughs with vitamin C by Pauling and others, findings on the health effects of vitamin C have been controversial and contradictory.[34][35] Pauling's claims have been criticised as overbroad.[36]

Later research branched out into nutrients besides niacin and vitamin C, including essential fatty acids.[37]

Scope edit

According to Abram Hoffer, orthomolecular medicine does not purport to treat all diseases, nor is it "a replacement for standard treatment. A proportion of patients will require orthodox treatment, a proportion will do much better on orthomolecular treatment, and the rest will need a skillful blend of both."[38] Nevertheless, advocates have said that the right nutrients at the optimum dose for the individual concerned can prevent,[39] treat, and sometimes cure a wide range of medical conditions. Conditions for which orthomolecular practitioners have claimed some efficacy are: acne,[40] alcoholism,[41] allergies, arthritis, autism, bee stings, bipolar disorder, burns, cancer,[42][43] the common cold, depression, drug addiction, drug overdose, epilepsy, heart diseases, heavy metal toxicity, acute hepatitis, herpes, hyperactivity, hypertension, hypoglycemia, influenza, learning disabilities, mental and metabolic disorders,[44] migraine, mononucleosis, mushroom poisoning, neuropathy & polyneuritis (including multiple sclerosis), osteoporosis,[45] polio, a hypothesised condition called "pyroluria", radiation sickness, Raynaud's disease, mental retardation, schizophrenia,[4] shock, skin problems, snakebite, spider bite, tetanus toxin and viral pneumonia.[46]

Orthomolecular psychiatry edit

Main article: Orthomolecular psychiatry

Hoffer believed that particular nutrients could cure mental illness. In the 1950s, he attempted to treat schizophrenia with niacin, although proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry say that the ideas behind their approach predate Hoffer.[47][48] According to Hoffer and others who called themselves "orthomolecular psychiatrists", psychiatric syndromes result from biochemical deficiencies, allergies, toxicities or several hypothetical contributing conditions which they termed pyroluria, histadelia and histapenia. These purported causes were said to be found during an "individual biochemical workup" and treated with megavitamin therapy and dietary changes including fasting.[49] These diagnoses and treatments are not accepted by evidence-based medicine.[50]

Principles edit

According to Abram Hoffer, "primitive" peoples do not consume processed foods and do not have "degenerative" diseases.[51] In contrast, typical "Western" diets are said to be insufficient for long-term health, necessitating the use of megadose supplements of vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids, ω-6 fatty acids, medium-chain triglycerides, dietary fiber, short and long chain fatty acids, lipotropes, systemic and digestive enzymes, other digestive factors, and prohormones to ward off hypothetical metabolism anomalies at an early stage, before they cause disease.[38]

Orthomolecularists say that they provide prescriptions for optimal amounts of micronutrients after individual diagnoses based on blood tests and personal histories.[3][12] Lifestyle and diet changes may also be recommended. The battery of tests ordered includes many that are not considered useful by medicine.[50]

Prevalence edit

Orthomolecular medicine is practiced by few medical practitioners.[52][53]

A survey released in May, 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used alternative medicine, what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2003. The survey reported uses in the previous twelve months that include orthomolecular related uses: Nonvitamin, nonmineral, natural products 18.9%, Diet-based therapies 3.5%, Megavitamin therapy 2.8%.[54]

Another recent CAM survey reported that 12% of liver disease patients used the antioxidant silymarin, more than 6% used vitamins, and that "in all, 74% of patients reported using CAM in addition to the medications prescribed by their physician, but 26% did not inform their physician of their CAM use."[55]

Even though the health benefits are not established, the use of high doses of vitamins is also common in people who have been diagnosed with cancer.[56] According to Cancer Research UK, cancer patients should always seek professional advice before taking such supplements, and using them as a substitute for conventional treatment "could be harmful to [their] health and greatly reduce the chance of curing or controlling [their] cancer".[57]

Medical and scientific reception edit

Methodology edit

Orthomolecular therapies have been criticized as lacking a sufficient evidence base for clinical use: their scientific foundations are too weak, the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to interpretation, and reported positive findings in observational studies are contradicted by the results of more rigorous clinical trials.[52][58] Accordingly, "there is no evidence that orthomolecular medicine is effective". Proponents of orthomolecular medicine strongly dispute this statement by citing studies demonstrating the effectiveness of treatments involving vitamins, though this ignores the belief that a normal diet will provide adequate nutrients to avoid deficiencies, and that orthomolecular treatments are not actually related to vitamin deficiency.[10] The lack of scientifically rigorous testing of orthomolecular medicine has led to its practices being classed with other forms of alternative medicine and regarded as unscientific.[59][60][61] It has been described as food faddism and quackery, with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease."[62][63][64] Orthomolecular practitioners will often use dubious diagnostic methods to define what substances are "correct"; one example is hair analysis, which produces spurious results when used in this fashion.[10]

Proponents of orthomolecular medicine contend that, unlike some other forms of alternative medicine such as homeopathy, their ideas are at least biologically based, do not involve magical thinking,[65] and are capable of generating testable hypotheses.[66] Orthomolecular is not a standard medical term, and clinical use of specific nutrients is considered a form of chemoprevention (to prevent or delay development of disease) or chemotherapy (to treat an existing condition).[67]

Despite a lack of evidence for its efficacy, interest in intravenous high dose vitamin C therapy has not been permanently extinguished, and some research groups continue to investigate whether it has an effect as a possible cancer treatment.[68][69]

Views on safety and efficacy edit

In general, the vitamin megadoses advocated by orthomolecular medicine are unsupported by scientific consensus.[32] Some vitamins are toxic in high doses,[70] including niacin (B3),[71] cholecalciferol (D)[72] and tocopherol (E).[73] The view of the medical community is that there is no evidence for the efficacy of Orthomolecular medicine as a treatment for cancer,[6] and that high vitamin doses may – on the contrary – increase overall mortality.[74] Nutritional treatments are not generally accepted as being helpful for psychological health.[75] Its claims have been criticized by most medical organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Institute of Mental Health,[50] the American Academy of Pediatrics,[76] CHAMPUS, and the Canadian Paediatric Society. The American Medical Association describes as "myths" the ideas that adequate nutrition is not readily achievable with normal food, all food grown with pesticide is poisonous, all food additives are poisonous, vitamin and mineral deficiencies are common, that the cause of most disease is poor diet, which can be prevented by nutritional supplements. [77]

Similarly, the American Cancer Society comments that the current scientific evidence does not "support use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the conditions for which it is promoted." Some supplements have exhibited benefits for specific conditions, while a few have been confirmed to be harmful; the consumption of nutritious foods is the best recognized method to obtain vitamins, minerals, and nutrients crucial for good health.[32] Barrie Cassileth, an adviser on alternative medicine to the National Institutes of Health, stated that "scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for any disease,"[52] and medical textbooks also report that there is "no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease."[78]

A 1973 task force of the American Psychiatric Association unanimously concluded:

This review and critique has carefully examined the literature produced by megavitamin proponents and by those who have attempted to replicate their basic and clinical work. It concludes in this regard that the credibility of the megavitamin proponents is low. Their credibility is further diminished by a consistent refusal over the past decade to perform controlled experiments and to report their new results in a scientifically acceptable fashion. Under these circumstances this Task Force considers the massive publicity which they promulgate via radio, the lay press and popular books, using catch phrases which are really misnomers like "megavitamin therapy" and "orthomolecular treatment," to be deplorable.[79]

In response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders, the American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a "cult" in 1976.[80]

Proponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that some vitamins and nutrients are now used in medicine as treatments for specific diseases, such as megadose niacin and fish oil for dyslipidemias, and megavitamin therapies for a group of rare inborn errors of metabolism.[21] A review in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluded that while some therapies might be beneficial, others might be harmful or interfere with effective medical therapy.[81] A recent study of over 161,000 individuals provided, in the words of the authors, "convincing evidence that multivitamin use has little or no influence on the risk of common cancers, cardiovascular disease, or total mortality in postmenopausal women."[82] A recent meta-analysis in JAMA suggested that supplementation with combinations of antioxidant vitamins (beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E) may increase mortality, although with respect to beta-carotene this conclusion may be due to the known harmful effect in smokers.[83]

Safety edit

In the United States, pharmaceuticals must be proven safe and effective to the satisfaction of the FDA before they can be marketed, whereas dietary supplements must be proven unsafe before regulatory action can be taken.[84] A number of orthomolecular supplements are available in the US in pharmaceutical versions that are sometimes quite similar in strength and general content, or in other countries are regulated as pharmaceuticals. The US regulations also have provisions to recognize a general level of safety for established nutrients that can forgo new drug safety tests. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that supplements are less likely to cause dangerous side-effects or harm, since they are normally present in the body.[5] Some vitamins are toxic in high doses[70] and nearly all (with the possible exception of Vitamin C[85]) will cause adverse effects given high levels of overdosing for prolonged periods as recommended by orthomolecular practitioners.[10] Forgoing medical care in favor of orthomolecular treatments can lead to adverse health outcomes.[6]

Health professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutrients without conventional supervision, which they worry might be damaging to health. Potential risks[86] of inappropriate vitamin and supplement regimes include an increased risk of coronary heart disease,[87] hypertension, thrombophlebitis, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, neurological effects, liver toxicity, congenital abnormalities, spontaneous abortion, gouty arthritis, jaundice, kidney stones, and diarrhea.[7][17][88][89][90][91][92] In their book Trick or Treatment?, Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh conclude that "The concepts of orthomolecular medicine are not biologically plausible and not supported by the results of rigorous clinical trials. These problems are compounded by the fact that orthomolecular medicine can cause harm and is often very expensive."[10]

Example: vitamin E edit

Orthomolecular proponents claim that even large doses of vitamin E pose no risk to health and are useful for the treatment and prevention of a broad list of conditions, including heart and circulatory diseases, diabetes and nephritis.[93] Initial hopes for the usefulness of vitamin E in orthomolecular medicine were based on epidemiological studies suggesting that people who consumed more vitamin E had lower risks of chronic disease, such as coronary heart disease.[94] These observational studies could not distinguish between whether the higher levels of vitamin E improved health themselves, or whether confounding variables (such as other dietary factors or exercise) were responsible.[95][96] To distinguish between these possibilities, a number of randomized controlled trials were performed and meta-analysis of these controlled clinical trials have not shown any clear benefit from any form of vitamin E supplementation for preventing chronic disease.[97][98][99][100] Further clinical studies show no benefit of vitamin E supplements for cardiovascular disease.[101] The current position of the American National Institutes of Health is that there is no convincing evidence that vitamin E supplements can prevent or treat any disease.[102]

Beyond the lack of apparent benefit, a series of three meta-analyses reported that vitamin E supplementation is associated with an increased risk of death; one of the meta-analyses performed by the Cochrane Collaboration also found significantly increased mortality for the antioxidant vitamins A and beta-carotene.[103][104][105] A subsequent meta-analysis found no mortality benefit from vitamin E, but also no increase in mortality either.[106]

Use in AIDS edit

Several articles in the alternative-medicine literature have suggested that orthomolecular-related dietary supplementation might be helpful for patients with HIV/AIDS.[107][108] A study using 250 mg and 1000 mg doses of vitamin C along with other antioxidants to treat people with AIDS did not find any benefit.[109]

A meta analysis in 2010 (updated in 2017 with different results) found that micronutrient supplementation decreased the risk of death and improved outcomes in pregnant women with HIV in Africa.[110][111] A 2017 Cochrane review found no strong evidence to suggest that micronutrient supplementation prevents death or is effective at slowing the progression of disease for adults with HIV.[111] It is important for people living with HIV to eat a healthy adequate diet.[111] For people with HIV that have clinically demonstrated deficiencies in micronutrients or for people who are not able to consume the recommended daily quantities of minerals and vitamins, supplementation is still encouraged.[111] Vitamin A in children with HIV appears to be safe and beneficial.[112] Vitamin A deficiency is found in children with HIV infection who may or may not have symptoms of AIDS. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality in AIDS symptomatic children, but has no effect on asymptomatic children. It does not prevent HIV infection, cannot treat the chronic HIV infection, and will not cure AIDS.[113][114]

Deaths resulting from illegal vitamin trials in South Africa edit

Main article: Matthias Rath

Matthias Rath has been extensively criticized for presenting his vitamin supplements as a treatment for AIDS and for testing them in illegal trials in South Africa.[115][116] A former associate of Linus Pauling, Rath has promoted vitamins as a treatment for HIV infection, describing treatment with effective antiretroviral drugs as toxic and part of a global conspiracy serving the financial interests of the pharmaceutical industry.[117] In a lawsuit that found against Rath, the South African Medical Association blamed his vitamin products for several deaths.[116][118][119] The World Health Organization and two health agencies of the United Nations also described Rath's advertisements as “wrong and misleading” and “an irresponsible attack on ARV (antiretroviral) therapy.”[120] The South African Centre for Social Science Research described the trials as "state sponsored pseudo-science".[121] Rath's trials, conducted with the aid of AIDS denialist David Rasnick, were declared unlawful by the Cape High Court; Rath, Rasnick and their foundation were barred from conducting further unauthorised clinical trials and from advertising their products.[122]

Alleged institutional bias edit

Advocates of orthomolecular medicine, including Pauling, Hoffer and Ewan Cameron have claimed that their findings are actively suppressed by the medical and pharmaceutical industry. Hoffer wrote "There is no conspiracy led and directed by a single person or by a single organization. There is no Mafia in psychiatry. However, there is a conspiracy led and directed by a large number of professionals and their associations who have a common aim to protect their hard-earned orthodoxy, no matter what the cost to their opponent colleagues or to their patients."[123][124]

The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, founded in 1967 as the Journal of Schizophrenia, is a major publication of orthomolecular medicine. As Abram Hoffer wrote:

We had to create our own journals because it was impossible to obtain entry into the official journals of psychiatry and medicine. Before 1967 I had not found it difficult to publish reports in these journals, and by then I had about 150 articles and several books in the establishment press.[125]

Other members of the medical community deny the existence of such an institutional prejudice.[126][127] A review in the Journal of Clinical Oncology denied that physicians collude against unconventional treatments.[128] Claims of conspiracy were limited to the now defunct Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. In its current iteration, the Linus Pauling Institute derives a significant amount of funding from the National Institutes of Health and other federal sources.[129]

See also edit

Citations edit

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Further reading edit

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December 15, 2023
orthomolecular, medicine, form, alternative, medicine, that, aims, maintain, human, health, through, nutritional, supplementation, concept, builds, idea, optimal, nutritional, environment, body, suggests, that, diseases, reflect, deficiencies, this, environmen. Orthomolecular medicine 1 2 is a form of alternative medicine that aims to maintain human health through nutritional supplementation The concept builds on the idea of an optimal nutritional environment in the body and suggests that diseases reflect deficiencies in this environment Treatment for disease according to this view involves attempts to correct imbalances or deficiencies based on individual biochemistry by use of substances such as vitamins minerals amino acids trace elements and fatty acids 3 4 5 The notions behind orthomolecular medicine are not supported by sound medical evidence and the therapy is not effective for chronic disease prevention 6 7 even the validity of calling the orthomolecular approach a form of medicine has been questioned since the 1970s 8 Orthomolecular medicineAlternative medicineClaimsHealth effects of dietary supplements particularly vitamin megadoses Related fieldsNaturopathyOriginal proponentsLinus Pauling coined term MeSHD009974The approach is sometimes referred to as megavitamin therapy 1 2 because its practice evolved out of and in some cases still uses doses of vitamins and minerals many times higher than the recommended dietary intake Orthomolecular practitioners may also incorporate a variety of other styles of treatment into their approaches including dietary restriction megadoses of non vitamin nutrients and mainstream pharmaceutical drugs 1 9 Proponents argue that non optimal levels of certain substances can cause health issues beyond simple vitamin deficiency and see balancing these substances as an integral part of health 10 American chemist Linus Pauling coined the term orthomolecular in the 1960s to mean the right molecules in the right amounts ortho in Greek implies correct 11 Proponents of orthomolecular medicine hold that treatment must be based on each patient s individual biochemistry 12 13 The scientific and medical consensus holds that the broad claims of efficacy advanced by advocates of orthomolecular medicine are not adequately tested as drug therapies 6 It has been described as a form of food faddism and as quackery 14 Proponents point to mainstream sources that have published research supporting the benefits of nutrient supplementation 15 16 and to instances where conventional medicine uses vitamins as treatments for some diseases Some vitamins in large doses have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease cancer and death 17 18 19 The scientific consensus view is that for normal individuals a balanced diet contains all necessary vitamins and minerals and that routine supplementation is not necessary outside of specific diagnosed deficiencies 20 Contents 1 History and development 2 Scope 3 Orthomolecular psychiatry 4 Principles 5 Prevalence 6 Medical and scientific reception 6 1 Methodology 6 2 Views on safety and efficacy 6 2 1 Safety 6 3 Example vitamin E 6 4 Use in AIDS 6 4 1 Deaths resulting from illegal vitamin trials in South Africa 6 5 Alleged institutional bias 7 See also 8 Citations 9 Further reading 10 External linksHistory and development editIn the early 20th century some doctors hypothesised that vitamins could cure disease and supplements were prescribed in megadoses by the 1930s 21 Their effects on health were disappointing though and in the 1950s and 1960s nutrition was de emphasised in standard medical curricula 21 Riordon s organization cite figures from this period as founders of their movement 22 although the word orthomolecular was coined by Linus Pauling only in 1967 Amongst the individuals described posthumously as orthomolecularists are Max Gerson who developed a diet that he claimed could treat diseases which the American Medical Association s 1949 Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry found ineffective 23 and Evan Shute and his brother who attempted to treat heart disease with vitamin E 24 Several concepts now cited by orthomolecularists including individual biochemical variation 13 and inborn errors of metabolism 21 25 26 debuted in scientific papers early in the 20th century In 1948 William McCormick theorized that vitamin C deficiency played an important role in many diseases and began to use large doses in patients 27 In the 1950s Fred R Klenner also tried vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses including polio 28 Irwin Stone stated that organisms that do not synthesise their own vitamin C due to a loss of function mutation have a disease he called hypoascorbemia 29 This term is not used by the medical community and the idea of an organism wide lack of a biosynthetic pathway as a disease was not endorsed by Stone s contemporaries 30 In the 1950s some individuals believed that vitamin deficiencies caused mental illness 21 Psychiatrists Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer gave people having acute schizophrenic episodes high doses of niacin 31 while William Kaufman used niacinamide While niacin has no known efficacy in psychiatric disease the use of niacin in combination with statins and other medical therapies has become one of several medical treatments for cardiovascular disease 32 33 In the late 1960s Linus Pauling introduced the expression orthomolecular 11 to express the idea of the right molecules in the right amounts 11 Since the first claims of medical breakthroughs with vitamin C by Pauling and others findings on the health effects of vitamin C have been controversial and contradictory 34 35 Pauling s claims have been criticised as overbroad 36 Later research branched out into nutrients besides niacin and vitamin C including essential fatty acids 37 Scope editAccording to Abram Hoffer orthomolecular medicine does not purport to treat all diseases nor is it a replacement for standard treatment A proportion of patients will require orthodox treatment a proportion will do much better on orthomolecular treatment and the rest will need a skillful blend of both 38 Nevertheless advocates have said that the right nutrients at the optimum dose for the individual concerned can prevent 39 treat and sometimes cure a wide range of medical conditions Conditions for which orthomolecular practitioners have claimed some efficacy are acne 40 alcoholism 41 allergies arthritis autism bee stings bipolar disorder burns cancer 42 43 the common cold depression drug addiction drug overdose epilepsy heart diseases heavy metal toxicity acute hepatitis herpes hyperactivity hypertension hypoglycemia influenza learning disabilities mental and metabolic disorders 44 migraine mononucleosis mushroom poisoning neuropathy amp polyneuritis including multiple sclerosis osteoporosis 45 polio a hypothesised condition called pyroluria radiation sickness Raynaud s disease mental retardation schizophrenia 4 shock skin problems snakebite spider bite tetanus toxin and viral pneumonia 46 Orthomolecular psychiatry editMain article Orthomolecular psychiatry Hoffer believed that particular nutrients could cure mental illness In the 1950s he attempted to treat schizophrenia with niacin although proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry say that the ideas behind their approach predate Hoffer 47 48 According to Hoffer and others who called themselves orthomolecular psychiatrists psychiatric syndromes result from biochemical deficiencies allergies toxicities or several hypothetical contributing conditions which they termed pyroluria histadelia and histapenia These purported causes were said to be found during an individual biochemical workup and treated with megavitamin therapy and dietary changes including fasting 49 These diagnoses and treatments are not accepted by evidence based medicine 50 Principles editAccording to Abram Hoffer primitive peoples do not consume processed foods and do not have degenerative diseases 51 In contrast typical Western diets are said to be insufficient for long term health necessitating the use of megadose supplements of vitamins dietary minerals proteins antioxidants amino acids w 3 fatty acids w 6 fatty acids medium chain triglycerides dietary fiber short and long chain fatty acids lipotropes systemic and digestive enzymes other digestive factors and prohormones to ward off hypothetical metabolism anomalies at an early stage before they cause disease 38 Orthomolecularists say that they provide prescriptions for optimal amounts of micronutrients after individual diagnoses based on blood tests and personal histories 3 12 Lifestyle and diet changes may also be recommended The battery of tests ordered includes many that are not considered useful by medicine 50 Prevalence editOrthomolecular medicine is practiced by few medical practitioners 52 53 A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used alternative medicine what was used and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2003 The survey reported uses in the previous twelve months that include orthomolecular related uses Nonvitamin nonmineral natural products 18 9 Diet based therapies 3 5 Megavitamin therapy 2 8 54 Another recent CAM survey reported that 12 of liver disease patients used the antioxidant silymarin more than 6 used vitamins and that in all 74 of patients reported using CAM in addition to the medications prescribed by their physician but 26 did not inform their physician of their CAM use 55 Even though the health benefits are not established the use of high doses of vitamins is also common in people who have been diagnosed with cancer 56 According to Cancer Research UK cancer patients should always seek professional advice before taking such supplements and using them as a substitute for conventional treatment could be harmful to their health and greatly reduce the chance of curing or controlling their cancer 57 Medical and scientific reception editMethodology edit Orthomolecular therapies have been criticized as lacking a sufficient evidence base for clinical use their scientific foundations are too weak the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to interpretation and reported positive findings in observational studies are contradicted by the results of more rigorous clinical trials 52 58 Accordingly there is no evidence that orthomolecular medicine is effective Proponents of orthomolecular medicine strongly dispute this statement by citing studies demonstrating the effectiveness of treatments involving vitamins though this ignores the belief that a normal diet will provide adequate nutrients to avoid deficiencies and that orthomolecular treatments are not actually related to vitamin deficiency 10 The lack of scientifically rigorous testing of orthomolecular medicine has led to its practices being classed with other forms of alternative medicine and regarded as unscientific 59 60 61 It has been described as food faddism and quackery with critics arguing that it is based upon an exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease 62 63 64 Orthomolecular practitioners will often use dubious diagnostic methods to define what substances are correct one example is hair analysis which produces spurious results when used in this fashion 10 Proponents of orthomolecular medicine contend that unlike some other forms of alternative medicine such as homeopathy their ideas are at least biologically based do not involve magical thinking 65 and are capable of generating testable hypotheses 66 Orthomolecular is not a standard medical term and clinical use of specific nutrients is considered a form of chemoprevention to prevent or delay development of disease or chemotherapy to treat an existing condition 67 Despite a lack of evidence for its efficacy interest in intravenous high dose vitamin C therapy has not been permanently extinguished and some research groups continue to investigate whether it has an effect as a possible cancer treatment 68 69 Views on safety and efficacy edit In general the vitamin megadoses advocated by orthomolecular medicine are unsupported by scientific consensus 32 Some vitamins are toxic in high doses 70 including niacin B3 71 cholecalciferol D 72 and tocopherol E 73 The view of the medical community is that there is no evidence for the efficacy of Orthomolecular medicine as a treatment for cancer 6 and that high vitamin doses may on the contrary increase overall mortality 74 Nutritional treatments are not generally accepted as being helpful for psychological health 75 Its claims have been criticized by most medical organizations including the American Cancer Society the American Psychiatric Association the National Institute of Mental Health 50 the American Academy of Pediatrics 76 CHAMPUS and the Canadian Paediatric Society The American Medical Association describes as myths the ideas that adequate nutrition is not readily achievable with normal food all food grown with pesticide is poisonous all food additives are poisonous vitamin and mineral deficiencies are common that the cause of most disease is poor diet which can be prevented by nutritional supplements 77 Similarly the American Cancer Society comments that the current scientific evidence does not support use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the conditions for which it is promoted Some supplements have exhibited benefits for specific conditions while a few have been confirmed to be harmful the consumption of nutritious foods is the best recognized method to obtain vitamins minerals and nutrients crucial for good health 32 Barrie Cassileth an adviser on alternative medicine to the National Institutes of Health stated that scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for any disease 52 and medical textbooks also report that there is no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease 78 A 1973 task force of the American Psychiatric Association unanimously concluded This review and critique has carefully examined the literature produced by megavitamin proponents and by those who have attempted to replicate their basic and clinical work It concludes in this regard that the credibility of the megavitamin proponents is low Their credibility is further diminished by a consistent refusal over the past decade to perform controlled experiments and to report their new results in a scientifically acceptable fashion Under these circumstances this Task Force considers the massive publicity which they promulgate via radio the lay press and popular books using catch phrases which are really misnomers like megavitamin therapy and orthomolecular treatment to be deplorable 79 In response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders the American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a cult in 1976 80 Proponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that some vitamins and nutrients are now used in medicine as treatments for specific diseases such as megadose niacin and fish oil for dyslipidemias and megavitamin therapies for a group of rare inborn errors of metabolism 21 A review in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluded that while some therapies might be beneficial others might be harmful or interfere with effective medical therapy 81 A recent study of over 161 000 individuals provided in the words of the authors convincing evidence that multivitamin use has little or no influence on the risk of common cancers cardiovascular disease or total mortality in postmenopausal women 82 A recent meta analysis in JAMA suggested that supplementation with combinations of antioxidant vitamins beta carotene vitamin A and vitamin E may increase mortality although with respect to beta carotene this conclusion may be due to the known harmful effect in smokers 83 Safety edit In the United States pharmaceuticals must be proven safe and effective to the satisfaction of the FDA before they can be marketed whereas dietary supplements must be proven unsafe before regulatory action can be taken 84 A number of orthomolecular supplements are available in the US in pharmaceutical versions that are sometimes quite similar in strength and general content or in other countries are regulated as pharmaceuticals The US regulations also have provisions to recognize a general level of safety for established nutrients that can forgo new drug safety tests Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that supplements are less likely to cause dangerous side effects or harm since they are normally present in the body 5 Some vitamins are toxic in high doses 70 and nearly all with the possible exception of Vitamin C 85 will cause adverse effects given high levels of overdosing for prolonged periods as recommended by orthomolecular practitioners 10 Forgoing medical care in favor of orthomolecular treatments can lead to adverse health outcomes 6 Health professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutrients without conventional supervision which they worry might be damaging to health Potential risks 86 of inappropriate vitamin and supplement regimes include an increased risk of coronary heart disease 87 hypertension thrombophlebitis peripheral neuropathy ataxia neurological effects liver toxicity congenital abnormalities spontaneous abortion gouty arthritis jaundice kidney stones and diarrhea 7 17 88 89 90 91 92 In their book Trick or Treatment Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh conclude that The concepts of orthomolecular medicine are not biologically plausible and not supported by the results of rigorous clinical trials These problems are compounded by the fact that orthomolecular medicine can cause harm and is often very expensive 10 Example vitamin E edit Orthomolecular proponents claim that even large doses of vitamin E pose no risk to health and are useful for the treatment and prevention of a broad list of conditions including heart and circulatory diseases diabetes and nephritis 93 Initial hopes for the usefulness of vitamin E in orthomolecular medicine were based on epidemiological studies suggesting that people who consumed more vitamin E had lower risks of chronic disease such as coronary heart disease 94 These observational studies could not distinguish between whether the higher levels of vitamin E improved health themselves or whether confounding variables such as other dietary factors or exercise were responsible 95 96 To distinguish between these possibilities a number of randomized controlled trials were performed and meta analysis of these controlled clinical trials have not shown any clear benefit from any form of vitamin E supplementation for preventing chronic disease 97 98 99 100 Further clinical studies show no benefit of vitamin E supplements for cardiovascular disease 101 The current position of the American National Institutes of Health is that there is no convincing evidence that vitamin E supplements can prevent or treat any disease 102 Beyond the lack of apparent benefit a series of three meta analyses reported that vitamin E supplementation is associated with an increased risk of death one of the meta analyses performed by the Cochrane Collaboration also found significantly increased mortality for the antioxidant vitamins A and beta carotene 103 104 105 A subsequent meta analysis found no mortality benefit from vitamin E but also no increase in mortality either 106 Use in AIDS edit Several articles in the alternative medicine literature have suggested that orthomolecular related dietary supplementation might be helpful for patients with HIV AIDS 107 108 A study using 250 mg and 1000 mg doses of vitamin C along with other antioxidants to treat people with AIDS did not find any benefit 109 A meta analysis in 2010 updated in 2017 with different results found that micronutrient supplementation decreased the risk of death and improved outcomes in pregnant women with HIV in Africa 110 111 A 2017 Cochrane review found no strong evidence to suggest that micronutrient supplementation prevents death or is effective at slowing the progression of disease for adults with HIV 111 It is important for people living with HIV to eat a healthy adequate diet 111 For people with HIV that have clinically demonstrated deficiencies in micronutrients or for people who are not able to consume the recommended daily quantities of minerals and vitamins supplementation is still encouraged 111 Vitamin A in children with HIV appears to be safe and beneficial 112 Vitamin A deficiency is found in children with HIV infection who may or may not have symptoms of AIDS Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality in AIDS symptomatic children but has no effect on asymptomatic children It does not prevent HIV infection cannot treat the chronic HIV infection and will not cure AIDS 113 114 Deaths resulting from illegal vitamin trials in South Africa edit Main article Matthias Rath Matthias Rath has been extensively criticized for presenting his vitamin supplements as a treatment for AIDS and for testing them in illegal trials in South Africa 115 116 A former associate of Linus Pauling Rath has promoted vitamins as a treatment for HIV infection describing treatment with effective antiretroviral drugs as toxic and part of a global conspiracy serving the financial interests of the pharmaceutical industry 117 In a lawsuit that found against Rath the South African Medical Association blamed his vitamin products for several deaths 116 118 119 The World Health Organization and two health agencies of the United Nations also described Rath s advertisements as wrong and misleading and an irresponsible attack on ARV antiretroviral therapy 120 The South African Centre for Social Science Research described the trials as state sponsored pseudo science 121 Rath s trials conducted with the aid of AIDS denialist David Rasnick were declared unlawful by the Cape High Court Rath Rasnick and their foundation were barred from conducting further unauthorised clinical trials and from advertising their products 122 Alleged institutional bias edit Advocates of orthomolecular medicine including Pauling Hoffer and Ewan Cameron have claimed that their findings are actively suppressed by the medical and pharmaceutical industry Hoffer wrote There is no conspiracy led and directed by a single person or by a single organization There is no Mafia in psychiatry However there is a conspiracy led and directed by a large number of professionals and their associations who have a common aim to protect their hard earned orthodoxy no matter what the cost to their opponent colleagues or to their patients 123 124 The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine founded in 1967 as the Journal of Schizophrenia is a major publication of orthomolecular medicine As Abram Hoffer wrote We had to create our own journals because it was impossible to obtain entry into the official journals of psychiatry and medicine Before 1967 I had not found it difficult to publish reports in these journals and by then I had about 150 articles and several books in the establishment press 125 Other members of the medical community deny the existence of such an institutional prejudice 126 127 A review in the Journal of Clinical Oncology denied that physicians collude against unconventional treatments 128 Claims of conspiracy were limited to the now defunct Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine In its current iteration the Linus Pauling Institute derives a significant amount of funding from the National Institutes of Health and other federal sources 129 See also editFringe science Health freedom movement Life extension List of ineffective cancer treatments List of life extension related topics Nutrigenomics Orthopathy Orthorexia Carl Pfeiffer pharmacologist Vitamin C megadosage HypervitaminosisCitations edit a b c Saul AW Hoffer A 2008 Orthomolecular Medicine For Everyone Megavitamin Therapeutics for Families and Physicians Laguna Beach California Basic Health Publications ISBN 978 1 59120 226 4 OCLC 232131968 OL 16944688M a b McMichael AJ January 1981 Orthomolecular medicine and megavitamin therapy Med J Aust 1 1 6 8 doi 10 5694 j 1326 5377 1981 tb135275 x PMID 7207301 S2CID 27461422 a b Hoffer A Walker M 2000 Smart Nutrients Avery ISBN 978 0 89529 562 0 a b Skinner Patricia 2004 Gale encyclopedia of alternative medicine holistic medicine Thomson Gale a b Orthomolecular medicine orthomed org Archived from the original on 2011 08 27 verification needed a b c d Aaronson S et al 2003 Cancer medicine In Frei Emil Kufe Donald W Holland James F eds Cancer medicine 6 Hamilton Ontario BC Decker pp 76 ISBN 978 1 55009 213 4 There is no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease a b NIH state of the science conference statement on multivitamin mineral supplements and chronic disease prevention NIH Consens State Sci Statements 23 2 1 30 2006 PMID 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Concentration Function Approach Yields Pharmacology and Therapeutic Discoveries Advances in Nutrition 2 2 78 88 doi 10 3945 an 110 000109 ISSN 2156 5376 PMC 3065766 PMID 22332036 a b Nutrition Committee Canadian Paediatric Society January 1 1990 Megavitamin and megamineral therapy in childhood Nutrition Committee Canadian Paediatric Society Canadian Medical Association Journal 143 10 1009 13 PMC 1452516 PMID 1699646 National Library of Medicine March 2009 Niacin MedlinePlus Encyclopedia National Library of Medicine Retrieved 2010 04 28 Large doses of niacin can cause liver damage peptic ulcers and skin rashes Even normal doses can be associated with skin flushing It can be prescribed as a treatment for elevated total cholesterol and other types of lipid disorders but it should only be used with medical supervision due to its potential for severe side effects National Library of Medicine March 2009 Vitamin D MedlinePlus Encyclopedia National Library of Medicine Retrieved 2010 04 28 Vitamin D deficiency can lead to osteoporosis in adults or rickets in children Too much vitamin D can make the intestines absorb too much calcium This may cause high levels of calcium in the blood High blood calcium can lead to calcium deposits in soft tissues such as the heart and lungs This can reduce their ability to function Kidney stones vomiting and muscle weakness may also occur in someone who has too much vitamin D National Library of Medicine March 2009 Vitamin E MedlinePlus Encyclopedia National Library of Medicine Retrieved 2010 04 28 In November 2004 the American Heart Association stated that high amounts of vitamin E can be harmful Taking 400 IU per day or higher may increase the risk of death Taking smaller amounts such as those found in a typical multivitamin was not harmful Bjelakovic G Nikolova D Simonetti RG Gluud C 16 July 2008 Antioxidant supplements for preventing gastrointestinal cancers The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 CD004183 doi 10 1002 14651858 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2 372 PMID 16880453 Arroyave G 1988 Abuse of megadoses of vitamins Arch Latinoam Nutr in Spanish 38 3 589 98 PMID 3153129 Blair KA 1986 Vitamin supplementation and megadoses Nurse Pract 11 7 19 26 31 6 doi 10 1097 00006205 198607000 00003 PMID 3737019 Roberts HJ Roberts H 1995 Vitamin E Lancet 345 8951 737 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 95 90913 3 PMID 7885163 S2CID 5410582 Begin M Kaegi E 1999 Unconventional therapies and cancer PDF Canadian Medical Association Journal 161 6 686 7 PMC 1230613 PMID 10513271 Vitamin E Safe Effective and Heart Healthy Orthomolecular Medicine News Service 2005 03 23 Traber MG November 2006 How much vitamin E Just enough Am J Clin Nutr 84 5 959 60 doi 10 1093 ajcn 84 5 959 PMID 17093143 Gaziano JM December 2004 Vitamin E and cardiovascular disease observational studies Ann N Y Acad Sci 1031 1 280 91 Bibcode 2004NYASA1031 280G doi 10 1196 annals 1331 028 PMID 15753154 S2CID 26369772 Hemila H Miller ER July 1 2007 Evidence based medicine and vitamin E 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vitamins including vitamin A on HIV AIDS patients Vitamins amp Hormones Vol 75 pp 355 83 doi 10 1016 S0083 6729 06 75013 0 ISBN 978 0 12 709875 3 PMID 17368322 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help Kapp C November 2006 South Africans hope for a new era in HIV AIDS policies Lancet 368 9549 1759 60 doi 10 1016 S0140 6736 06 69717 1 PMID 17120343 S2CID 37147734 a b Smith TC Novella SP August 2007 HIV Denial in the Internet Era PLOS Med 4 8 e256 doi 10 1371 journal pmed 0040256 PMC 1949841 PMID 17713982 Boseley Sarah May 14 2005 Discredited doctor s cure for Aids ignites life and death struggle in South Africa The Guardian Manchester Apartheid a pharmaceutical plot Rath Independent Online Cape Town May 10 2007 Archived from the original on October 30 2007 Retrieved August 22 2008 Watson J January 2006 Scientists activists sue South Africa s AIDS denialists Nat Med 12 1 6 doi 10 1038 nm0106 6a PMID 16397537 S2CID 3502309 TAC hails ruling on Rath Independent Online Cape Town June 13 2008 Reed John July 25 2005 HIV fight focuses on ads Los Angeles Times Geffen N 2005 Echoes of Lysenko State sponsored pseudo science in South Africa PDF Social Dynamics 31 2 183 210 doi 10 1080 02533950508628713 hdl 11427 19344 S2CID 143821379 South African court bans AIDS vitamin trials Reuters June 13 2008 Retrieved June 20 2008 Hoffer A 1987 Is there a conspiracy PDF J Orthomol Med 2 3 158 Thomas Hager 1995 Force of nature the life of Linus Pauling New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 80909 0 Hoffer Abram History J Orthomol Med Archived from the original on 2007 11 01 via archive org archived on November 1 2007 Razzouk N Seitz V 2003 Marketing to the heart a practical approach to dealing with health care quackery PDF Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs 20 4 469 478 doi 10 1081 CRP 120026128 S2CID 73219671 Weitzman S 1998 Alternative nutritional cancer therapies Int J Cancer Suppl 11 S11 69 72 doi 10 1002 SICI 1097 0215 1998 78 11 lt 69 AID IJC20 gt 3 0 CO 2 7 PMID 9876483 S2CID 20633344 Gertz MA Bauer BA May 2003 Caring really for patients who use alternative therapies for cancer J Clin Oncol 21 9 Suppl 125s 128s doi 10 1200 JCO 2003 01 195 PMID 12743218 Frei Balz June 2006 From the Director LPI Research Newsletter Spring 2006 Archived from the original on 2011 09 19 Retrieved 2006 09 21 Further reading editHoffer Abram with Pauling Linus 2004 Healing cancer complementary vitamin amp drug treatments Toronto Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine ISBN 978 1 897025 11 6 OCLC 56682217 Barrett Stephen 1980 The health robbers how to protect your money and your life Second ed Philadelphia G F Stickley pp 52 ISBN 978 0 89313 023 7 OCLC 6994138 Cassileth Barrie R 1998 Alternative medicine handbook the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies New York W W Norton ISBN 978 0 393 04566 6 OCLC 36727947 Bender David A 2003 Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins Second ed Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press p 230 ISBN 978 0 521 80388 5 OCLC 50948594 Gratzer Walter B 2005 Terrors of the table the curious history of nutrition Oxford New York Oxford University Press pp 210 ISBN 978 0 19 280661 1 OCLC 60837725 External links editBiologically based practices an overview Archived 2009 01 09 at the Wayback Machine National Institute of Health National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Orthomolecular medicine amp oldid 1186059824, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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