fbpx
Wikipedia

Proto-Indo-European nominals

Proto-Indo-European nominals include nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses nouns and adjectives; Proto-Indo-European pronouns are treated elsewhere.

The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) had eight or nine cases, three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and probably originally two genders (animate and neuter), with the animate later splitting into the masculine and the feminine.

Nominals fell into multiple different declensions. Most of them had word stems ending in a consonant (called athematic stems) and exhibited a complex pattern of accent shifts and/or vowel changes (ablaut) among the different cases.

Two declensions ended in a vowel (*-o/e-[note 1]) and are called thematic; they were more regular and became more common during the history of PIE and its older daughter languages.

PIE very frequently derived nominals from verbs. Just as English giver and gift are ultimately related to the verb give, *déh₃tors 'giver' and *déh₃nom 'gift' are derived from *deh₃- 'to give', but the practice was much more common in PIE. For example, *pṓds 'foot' was derived from *ped- 'to tread', and *dómh₂s 'house' from *demh₂- 'to build'.

Morphology edit

The basic structure of Proto-Indo-European nouns and adjectives was the same as that of PIE verbs. A lexical word (as would appear in a dictionary) was formed by adding a suffix (S) onto a root (R) to form a stem. The word was then inflected by adding an ending (E) to the stem.

The root indicates a basic concept, often a verb (e.g. *deh₃- 'give'), while the stem carries a more specific nominal meaning based on the combination of root and suffix (e.g. *déh₃-tor- 'giver', *déh₃-o- 'gift'). Some stems cannot clearly be broken up into root and suffix altogether, as in *h₂r̥tḱo- 'bear'.

The ending carries grammatical information, including case, number, and gender.[1] Gender is an inherent property of a noun but is part of the inflection of an adjective, because it must agree with the gender of the noun it modifies.[2]

Thus, the general morphological form of such words is R+S+E:

 

The process of forming a lexical stem from a root is known in general as derivational morphology, while the process of inflecting that stem is known as inflectional morphology. As in other languages, the possible suffixes that can be added to a given root, and the meaning that results, are not entirely predictable, while the process of inflection is largely predictable in both form and meaning.

Originally, extensive ablaut (vowel variation, between *e, *o, *ē, *ō and Ø, i.e. no vowel) occurred in PIE, in both derivation and inflection and in the root, suffix, and ending. Variation in the position of the accent likewise occurred in both derivation and inflection, and is often considered part of the ablaut system (which is described in more detail below).

For example, the nominative form *léymons 'lake' (composed of the root *ley- in the ablaut form *léy-, the suffix in the form *-mon- and the ending in the form *-s) had the genitive *limnés (root form *li-,[note 2] suffix *-mn- and ending *-és). In this word, the nominative has the ablaut vowels *é–o–Ø while the genitive has the ablaut vowels *Ø–Ø–é — i.e. all three components have different ablaut vowels, and the stress position has also moved.

A large number of different patterns of ablaut variation existed; speakers had to both learn the ablaut patterns and memorize which pattern went with which word. There was a certain regularity of which patterns occurred with which suffixes and formations, but with many exceptions.[3]

Already by late PIE times, this system was extensively simplified, and daughter languages show a steady trend towards more and more regularization and simplification.

Far more simplification occurred in the late PIE nominal system than in the verbal system, where the original PIE ablaut variations were maintained essentially intact well into the recorded history of conservative daughter languages such as Sanskrit and Ancient Greek, as well as in the Germanic languages (in the form of strong verbs).

Root nouns edit

PIE also had a class of monosyllabic root nouns which lack a suffix, the ending being directly added to the root (as in *dómh₂-s 'house', derived from *demh₂- 'build'[4]). These nouns can also be interpreted as having a zero suffix or one without a phonetic body (*dóm-Ø-s).[3]

Verbal stems have corresponding morphological features, the root present and the root aorist.

Complex nominals edit

Not all nominals fit the basic R+S+E pattern. Some were formed with additional prefixes. An example is *ni-sd-ó-s 'nest', derived from the verbal root *sed- 'sit' by adding a local prefix and thus meaning "where [the bird] sits down" or the like.[5]

A special kind of prefixation, called reduplication, uses the first part of the root plus a vowel as a prefix. For example, *kʷelh₁- 'turn' gives *kʷe-kʷl(h₁)-ó-s 'wheel',[6][7] and *bʰrew- 'brown' gives *bʰé-bʰru-s 'beaver'.[8] This type of derivation is also found in verbs, mainly to form the perfect.

As with PIE verbs, a distinction is made between primary formations, which are words formed directly from a root as described above, and secondary formations, which are formed from existing words (whether primary or secondary themselves).

Athematic and thematic nominals edit

A fundamental distinction is made between thematic and athematic nominals.

The stem of athematic nominals ends in a consonant. They have the original complex system of accent/ablaut alternations described above and are generally held as more archaic.

Thematic nominals, which became more and more common during the times of later PIE and its older daughter languages, have a stem ending in a thematic vowel, *-o- in almost all grammatical cases, sometimes ablauting to *-e-. Since all roots end in a consonant, all thematic nominals have suffixes ending in a vowel, and none are root nouns. The accent is fixed on the same syllable throughout the inflection.[9][10]

From the perspective of the daughter languages, a distinction is often made between vowel stems (that is, stems ending in a vowel: i-, u-, (y)ā-, (y)o-stems) and consonantic stems (the rest). However, from the PIE perspective, only the thematic (o-)stems are truly vocalic. Stems ending in *i or *u such as *men-ti- are consonantic (i.e. athematic) because the *i is just the vocalic form of the glide *y, the full grade of the suffix being *-tey-.[note 2] Post-PIE ā was actually *eh₂ in PIE.

Among the most common athematic stems are root stems, i-stems, u-stems, eh₂-stems, n-stems, nt-stems, r-stems and s-stems. Within each of these, numerous subclasses with their own inflectional peculiarities developed by late PIE times.

Grammatical categories edit

PIE nouns and adjectives (as well as pronouns) are subject to the system of PIE nominal inflection with eight or nine cases: nominative, accusative, vocative, genitive, dative, instrumental, ablative, locative, and possibly a directive or allative.

The so-called strong or direct cases are the nominative and the vocative for all numbers, and the accusative case for singular and dual (and possibly plural as well), and the rest are the weak or oblique cases. This classification is relevant for inflecting the athematic nominals of different accent and ablaut classes.[11]

Number edit

Three numbers were distinguished: singular, dual and plural. Many (possibly all) athematic neuter nouns had a special collective form instead of the plural, which inflected with singular endings, but with the ending *-h₂ in the direct cases, and an amphikinetic accent/ablaut pattern (see below).[12]

Gender edit

Late PIE had three genders, traditionally called masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender or noun class is an inherent (lexical) property of each noun; all nouns in a language that has grammatical genders are assigned to one of its classes. There was probably originally only an animate (masculine/feminine) versus an inanimate (neuter) distinction.[13] This view is supported by the existence of certain classes of Latin and Ancient Greek adjectives which inflect only for two sets of endings: one for masculine and feminine, the other for neuter. Further evidence comes from the Anatolian languages such as Hittite which exhibit only the animate and the neuter genders.[14]

The feminine ending is thought to have developed from a collective/abstract suffix *-h₂ that also gave rise to the neuter collective.[15][16] The existence of combined collective and abstract grammatical forms can be seen in English words such as youth = "the young people (collective)" or "young age (abstract)".[17]

Remnants of this period exist in (for instance) the eh₂-stems, ih₂-stems, uh₂-stems and bare h₂-stems, which are found in daughter languages as ā-, ī-, ū- and a-stems, respectively. They originally were the feminine equivalents of the o-stems, i-stems, u-stems and root nouns. Already by late PIE times, however, this system was breaking down. *-eh₂ became generalized as the feminine suffix, and eh₂-stem nouns evolved more and more in the direction of thematic o-stems, with fixed ablaut and accent, increasingly idiosyncratic endings and frequent borrowing of endings from the o-stems. Nonetheless, clear traces of the earlier system are seen especially in Sanskrit, where ī-stems and ū-stems still exist as distinct classes comprising largely feminine nouns. Over time, these stem classes merged with i-stems and u-stems, with frequent crossover of endings.

Grammatical gender correlates only partially with sex, and almost exclusively when it relates to humans and domesticated animals. Even then, those correlations may not be consistent: nouns referring to adult males are usually masculine (father, brother, priest), nouns referring to adult females (mother, sister, priestess) are usually feminine, but diminutives may be neuter regardless of referent, as in both Greek and German. Gender may have also had a grammatical function, a change of gender within a sentence signaling the end of a noun phrase (a head noun and its agreeing adjectives) and the start of a new one.[18]

An alternative hypothesis to the two-gender view is that Proto-Anatolian inherited a three-gender PIE system, and subsequently Hittite and other Anatolian languages eliminated the feminine by merging it with the masculine.[19]

Case endings edit

Some endings are difficult to reconstruct and not all authors reconstruct the same sets of endings. For example, the original form of the genitive plural is a particular thorny issue, because different daughter languages appear to reflect different proto-forms. It is variously reconstructed as *-ōm, *-om, *-oHom, and so on. Meanwhile, the dual endings of cases other than the merged nominative/vocative/accusative are often considered impossible to reconstruct because these endings are attested sparsely and diverge radically in different languages.

The following shows three modern mainstream reconstructions. Sihler (1995)[20] remains closest to the data, often reconstructing multiple forms when daughter languages show divergent outcomes. Ringe (2006)[21] is somewhat more speculative, willing to assume analogical changes in some cases to explain divergent outcomes from a single source form. Fortson (2004)[10] is between Sihler and Ringe.

The thematic vowel *-o- ablauts to *-e- only in word-final position in the vocative singular, and before *h₂ in the neuter nominative and accusative plural. The vocative singular is also the only case for which the thematic nouns show accent retraction, a leftward shift of the accent, denoted by *.

Athematic Thematic
Sihler Ringe Fortson Sihler Ringe Fortson
Singular nominative *-s ~ *-Ø *-s *-o-s
vocative *-Ø *-ĕ
accusative *-m *-o-m
nom./voc./acc. neuter *-Ø *-o-m
instrumental *-bʰi ~ *-mi ~ *-(e)h₁ *-é-h₁ ~ *-h₁ *-h₁ *-o-h₁ ~ *-e-h₁ *-o-h₁ >[note 3] *-ō
dative *-ey *-ōy *-o-ey > *-ōy
ablative *-s ~ *-os ~ *-es *-s *-ōt, *-āt *-o-ad *-o(h₂)at > *-ōt
genitive *-ī, *-osyo *-o-syo (?) *-o-s (?)
locative *-i, *-ا *-o-y ~ *-e-y (**-e →) *-e-y *-o-y
Dual nom./voc./acc. *-h₁e ~ *-h₁ *-h₁e *-h₁ *-o-h₁ ~ *-o-(h₁)e *-o-h₁ > *-ō
nom./voc./acc. neuter ? *-ih₁ *-oyh₁ *-o-y(h₁) *-oyh₁
inst./dat./abl. ? ?
gen./loc. ? *-ows (?) ? *-eyows ~ *-oyows (?) ? ?
Plural nom./voc. *-es *-ōs
-oy (pronominal)
*-o-es > *-ōs
accusative *-ms *-ns *-o-ms *-o-ns
nom./voc./acc. neuter *-h₂ *-h₂ ~ *-Ø *-h₂ *-e-h₂ > *-ā
instrumental *-bʰis ~ *-mis ~ *-mīs *-bʰí *-bʰ- *-ōys ~ *-o-mis (?) ~ *-o-mīs (?) *-ōys *-o(i)bʰ-
dat./abl. *-bʰos ~ -mos *-mos *-o-bʰos ~ o-mos *-o-mos (*-o-y-mos?)
genitive *-om (?) *-oHom *-ōm *-ōm
-oysōm (pronominal)
*-o-oHom *-ōm
locative *-su (*-o-su?)
*-oysu (pronominal)
*-o-y-su

The dative, instrumental and ablative plural endings probably contained a * but are of uncertain structure otherwise. They might also have been of post-PIE date.

§For athematic nouns, an endingless locative is reconstructed in addition to the ordinary locative singular in *-i. In contrast to the other weak cases, it typically has full or lengthened grade of the stem.

An alternative reconstruction is found in Beekes (1995).[22] This reconstruction does not give separate tables for the thematic and athematic endings, assuming that they were originally the same and only differentiated in daughter languages.

Singular Plural
animate neuter animate neuter
Nominative *-s, *-Ø *-m, *-Ø *-es *-h₂, *-Ø
Vocative *-Ø
Accusative *-m *-ns
Instrumental *-(e)h₁ *-bʰi
Dative *-(e)i *-mus
Ablative *-(o)s, *-(e)t *-ios[23]
Genitive *-(o)s *-om
Locative *-i, *-Ø *-su

Athematic accent/ablaut classes edit

There is a general consensus as to which nominal accent-ablaut patterns must be reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. Given that the foundations for the system were laid by a group of scholars (Schindler, Eichner, Rix, and Hoffmann) during the 1964 Erlanger Kolloquium, which discussed the works of Pedersen and Kuiper on nominal accent-ablaut patterns in PIE, the system is sometimes referred to as the Erlangen model.[24]

Early PIE edit

Early PIE nouns had complex patterns of ablation according to which the root, the stem and the ending all showed ablaut variations. Polysyllabic athematic nominals (type R+S+E) exhibit four characteristic patterns, which include accent and ablaut alternations throughout the paradigm between the root, the stem and the ending.

  • Acrostatic (< Ancient Greek: ἄκρος, romanizedákros, lit.'at the edge, beginning' + στατικός, statikós, 'coming to a standstill', "stationary on the beginning"): The accent stays on the root.
  • Proterokinetic (< πρότερος, próteros, 'the former, earlier' + κινητικός, kinetikós, 'moveable, mobile', "moving towards the earlier [closer to the root]"): The best evidence for the reconstruction of this type comes from ἄγυιᾰ, gen. ἀγυιᾶς 'street' (< ideal *h₂éǵ-u-ih₂- ~ *h₂ǵ-u-yéh₂-) and ὄργυιᾰ, gen. ὀργυίᾱς 'fathom' (< ideal *h₃réǵ-u-ih₂- ~ *h₃rǵ-u-yéh₂-) in Ancient Greek and , gen. sg. mná 'woman' (< *gwén-h₂ ~ *gwn-éh₂-s) in Old Irish.[25]
  • Hysterokinetic (< ὕστερος, hýsteros, 'the latter', "moving towards the latter [of the syllables following the root]").
  • Amphikinetic (< ἀμφί, amphí, 'about, around, on both sides', "moving towards both sides").

Root nouns (type R+E) show a similar behavior but with only two patterns.[3]

The patterns called "Narten" are, at least formally, analogous to the Narten presents in verbs, as they alternate between full (*e) and lengthened grades (*ē).

Type Subtype Case R S E Example Gloss
Polysyllabic nominals
Acrostatic normal strong ó Ø Ø nom. sg. *nókʷ-t-s night
weak é Ø Ø gen. sg. *nékʷ-t-s
lengthened
("Narten" type)
strong Ø Ø nom. sg. *mḗh₁-n̥-s moon
weak é Ø Ø gen. sg. *méh₁-n̥s-os[26]
Proterokinetic (or proterodynamic) Normal strong é Ø Ø nom. sg. *mén-ti-s thought
weak Ø é Ø gen. sg. *mn̥-téy-s
old acrostatic[3] strong ó Ø Ø nom. sg. *dór-u tree
weak Ø é Ø gen. sg. *dr-éw-s
Hysterokinetic (or hysterodynamic) strong Ø é Ø nom. sg. *ph₂-tḗr <[note 3] *ph₂-tér-s[note 4] father
weak Ø Ø é gen. sg. *ph₂-tr-és
loc. sg. Ø é Ø loc. sg. *ph₂-tér-(i)
Amphikinetic (or amphidynamic) strong é o Ø nom. sg. *léy-mō < *léy-mon-s lake
weak Ø Ø é gen. sg. *li-mn-és
loc. sg. Ø é Ø loc. sg. *li-mén-(i)
Root nouns
Acrostatic normal strong ó Ø nom. sg. *dṓm < *dóm-s[note 4] house
weak é Ø gen. sg. *dém-s
lengthened
("Narten" type)
strong Ø nom. sg. *mḗms meat
weak é Ø gen. sg. *méms-os?
Amphikinetic(?) strong é Ø nom. sg. *wréh₂d-s root
weak Ø é gen. sg. *wr̥h₂d-és
loc. sg. é Ø loc. sg. *wréh₂d-(i)

Notes:

  • For the strong cases of proterokinetic nominals, the accent is placed on the penultimate syllable of the stem. If there is only one suffix, the root will be the penultimate syllable; when there is more than one suffix, the penultimate syllable will be a suffix, and the root will appear unaccented and in the zero grade.[27]
  • There is an unexpected o-grade of the suffix in the strong cases of polysyllabic amphikinetic nominals. Another unusual property of this class is the locative singular having a stressed e-grade suffix.

The classification of the amphikinetic root nouns is disputed.[28] Since those words have no suffix, they differ from the amphikinetic polysyllables in the strong cases (no o-grade) and in the locative singular (no e-grade suffix). Some scholars prefer to call them amphikinetic and the corresponding polysyllables holokinetic (or holodynamic, from holos = whole).[29]

Some[16] also list mesostatic (meso = middle) and teleutostatic types, with the accent fixed on the suffix and the ending, respectively, but their existence in PIE is disputed.[30] The classes can then be grouped into three static (acrostatic, mesostatic, teleutostatic) and three or four mobile (proterokinetic, hysterokinetic, amphikinetic, holokinetic) paradigms.

"Late PIE" edit

By late PIE, the above system had been already significantly eroded, with one of the root ablaut grades tending to be extended throughout the paradigm. The erosion is much more extensive in all the daughter languages, with only the oldest stages of most languages showing any root ablaut and typically only in a small number of irregular nouns:

  • Vedic Sanskrit dā́ru 'wood', gen. drṓs < PIE *dór-u, *dr-éu-s
  • Old Irish ben 'woman', gen. mná < PIE *gʷén-eh₂, *gʷn-éh₂-s
  • Old Avestan zyā̊ 'winter', gen. zimō < PIE *ǵʰyem-s, *ǵʰim-ós
  • Ancient Greek Zdeús 'Zeus', gen. Di(w)ós, Vedic Sanskrit d(i)yāúḥ 'heaven', gen. diváḥ, dyōḥ, both < PIE *dyēu-s, *diw-ós 'sky, day, god'[citation needed]
  • Proto-Germanic reconstructed *tan(þ)s 'tooth' gen. *tundiz[31] < PIE *Hd-ónt-s, *Hd-n̥t-és, with the nominative stem preserved in Old Norse tǫnn, Old Saxon tand, Old English tōþ, and the genitive stem in Gothic tundus.

The most extensive remains are in Vedic Sanskrit and Old Avestan (the oldest recorded stages of the oldest Indic and Iranian languages, c. 1700–1300 BC); the younger stages of the same languages already show extensive regularization.

In many cases, a former ablauting paradigm was generalized in the daughter languages but in different ways in each language.

For example, Ancient Greek dóru 'spear' < PIE nominative *dóru 'wood, tree' and Old English trēo 'tree' < PIE genitive *dreu-s reflect different stems of a PIE ablauting paradigm *dóru, *dreus, which is still reflected directly in Vedic Sanskrit nom. dā́ru 'wood', gen. drṓs. Similarly, PIE *ǵónu, *ǵnéus can be reconstructed for 'knee' from Ancient Greek gónu and Old English cnēo. In that case, there is no extant ablauting paradigm in a single language, but Avestan accusative žnūm and Modern Persian zānū are attested, which strongly implies that Proto-Iranian had an ablauting paradigm. That is quite possible for Avestan as well, but that cannot be certain since the nominative is not extant.

An ablauting paradigm *pōds, *ped- can also clearly be reconstructed from 'foot', based on Greek pous gen. podós (< *pō(d)s, *pod-) vs. Latin pēs gen. pedis (< *ped-) vs. Old English fōt (< *pōd-), with differing ablaut grades among cognate forms in different languages.

In some cases, ablaut would be expected based on the form (given numerous other examples of ablauting nouns of the same form), but a single ablaut variant is found throughout the paradigm. In such cases, it is often assumed that the noun had showed ablaut in early PIE but was generalized to a single form by late PIE or shortly afterwards.

An example is Greek génus 'chin, jaw', Sanskrit hánus 'jaw', Latin gena 'cheek', Gothic kinnus 'cheek'. All except the Latin form suggest a masculine u-stem with non-ablauting PIE root *ǵen-, but certain irregularities (the position of the accent, the unexpected feminine ā-stem form in Latin, the unexpected Gothic stem kinn- < ǵenw-, the ablaut found in Greek gnáthos 'jaw' < PIE *ǵnHdʰ-, Lithuanian žándas 'jawbone' < *ǵonHdʰ-os) suggest an original ablauting neuter noun *ǵénu, *ǵnéus in early PIE. It generalized the nominative ablaut in late PIE and switched to the masculine u-stem in the post-PIE period.

Another example is *nokʷts 'night'; an acrostatic root paradigm might be expected based on the form, but the consistent stem *nokʷt- is found throughout the family. With the discovery of Hittite, however, the form *nekʷts 'in the evening' was found, which is evidently a genitive; it indicates that early PIE actually had an acrostatic paradigm that was regularized by late PIE but after the separation of Hittite.

Leiden model edit

Kuiper's student Beekes, together with his colleague Kortlandt, developed an alternative model on the basis of Pedersen's and Kuiper's works, described in detail in Beekes (1985). Since the scholars who developed it and generally accept it are mostly from the University of Leiden, it is generally dubbed the Leiden model. It states that for earlier PIE, three accent types of inflection of consonant stems are to be reconstructed, and from them, all of the attested types can be derived:[32]

Case Hysterodynamic Proterodynamic Static
nominative singular *CéC-C(-s) *CéC-C(-s) *CéC-C(-s)
accusative singular *CC-éC-m *CéC-C(-m) *CéC-C(-m)
genitive singular *CC-C-és *CC-éC-s *CéC-C-s

For root nouns, accentuation could have been either static or mobile:

Case Static root nouns Mobile root nouns
nominative singular *Cé/óC(-s) *Cé/óC(-s)
accusative singular *Cé/óC(-m) *Cé/óC(-m)
genitive singular *Cé/óC-s *CC-ós

The thematic stem type was a recent innovation, with a thematic vowel *-o- originating from the hysterodynamic genitive singular form of athematic inflection, which had in pre-PIE the function of ergative.[33] That is why there are o-stems but no e-stems[34] and is suggested to be why thematic nouns show no ablaut or accentual mobility in inflection (for other theories on the origin of thematic vowel see Thematic vowel: Origin in nouns). The general points of departure to the Erlangen model are:

  • Both models share (acro)static and proterodynamic patterns.
  • The hysterokinetic and amphikinetic patterns are reconstructed only in the Erlangen model.
  • The hysterodynamic model exists only in the Leiden model and represents an earlier stage of the hysterokinetic and amphikinetic patterns of the Erlangen model. The reconstruction of the paradigm is not based only on internal reconstruction. It is synchronically still attested in the Hittite paradigm of the word for "hand": keššar, kiššeran, kišraš. That is therefore one of the most archaic paradigms in PIE.[35]
  • The Leiden model describes a stage, Early PIE, that is relatively older than the Erlangen model.
  • The Leiden model has a one-to-one correlation between the presence of the full grade vowel and the position of the accent, which indicates a historical connection between the two. At the stage of the Leiden model, there was only one phonemic vowel, as {*e was always accented, and the new vowel, *o, was always unaccented. Both were therefore in complementary distribution.[36]

Heteroclitic stems edit

Some athematic noun stems have different final consonants in different cases and are termed heteroclitic stems. Most of the stems end in *-r- in the nominative and accusative singular, and in *-n- in the other cases. An example of such r/n-stems is the acrostatic neuter *wód-r̥ 'water', genitive *wéd-n̥-s. The suffixes *-mer/n-, *-ser/n-, *-ter/n- and *-wer/n- are also attested, as in the probably-proterokinetic *péh₂-wr̥ 'fire', genitive *ph₂-wén-s or similar. An l/n-stem is *séh₂-wl̥ or *seh₂-wōl 'sun', genitive *sh₂-wén-s or the like.[8][37]

Derivation edit

PIE had a number of ways to derive nominals from verbs or from other nominals. These included

  1. simply adding a nominal ending to a verbal root, for example *dómh₂s 'house' from *demh₂- 'build',
  2. accent/ablaut alternations of existing nominals,
  3. derivational prefixes (including reduplication) and suffixes added to verbal roots or nominal stems,
  4. and combining lexical morphemes (compounding).

Accent/ablaut alternations edit

From athematic nouns, derivatives could be created by shifting the accent to the right and thus switching to another accent/ablaut class: acrostatic to proterokinetic or amphikinetic, proterokinetic to amphikinetic or hysterokinetic, and so on. Such derivations signified "possessing, associated with". An example is proterokinetic *bʰléǵʰ-mn̥, *bʰl̥ǵʰ-mén-s 'sacred formulation' (Vedic bráhmaṇ-), from which amphikinetic *bʰléǵʰ-mō(n), *bʰl̥ǵʰ-mn-es 'priest' (Vedic brahmáṇ-) was derived.[8]

Another ablaut alternation is *ḱernes 'horned' from *ḱernos 'horn, roe'. Many PIE adjectives formed this way were subsequently nominalized in daughter languages.[citation needed]

Thematic nominals could also be derived by accent or ablaut changes. Leftward shift of the accent could turn an agentive word into a resultative one, for example *tomós 'sharp', but *tómos 'a slice' (from *tem- 'to cut'); *bʰorós 'carrier', but *bʰóros 'burden' (from *bʰer- 'carry'). A special type of ablaut alternation was vṛddhi derivation, which typically lengthened a vowel, signifying "of, belonging to, descended from".[6]

Affixation edit

These are some of the nominal affixes found in Proto-Indo-European[38]

  • -o: forms action or agent nouns.
  • -u: unproductive suffix of uncertain function. Only used in a few old nouns such as *gón-u (knee) and *dór-u (wood).
  • -it: marks elemental foodstuff such as *mél-it (honey), *sép-it (wheat) and *h₂élbʰ-it (barley).
  • -men: forms abstractions. This is probably a reduced form of the noun *men-s (mind).
  • -ter: forms agentives ("-er").

Compounding edit

PIE had a number of possibilities to compound nouns. Endocentric or determinative compounds denote subclasses of their head (usually the second part), as in English "smalltalk" or "blackbird". Exocentric or possessive compounds, usually called bahuvrihis, denote something possessing something, as in "Flatfoot = [somebody] having flat feet" or "redthroat = [a bird] with a red throat". This type was much more common in old Indo-European languages; some[39] doubt the existence of determinative compounds in PIE altogether. Compounds consisting of a nominal plus a verb (akin to English "cowherd") were common; those of a verb plus a nominal ("pickpocket"), less so. Other parts of speech also occurred as first part of compounds, such as prepositions, numerals (*tri- from *tréyes 'three'), other particles (*n̥-, zero grade of *ne 'not', seen in English "un-", Latin "in-", Greek "a(n)-") and adjectives[39][40] (*drḱ-h₂ḱru 'tear', literally 'bitter-eye').

Adjectives edit

Adjectives in PIE generally have the same form as nouns, although when paradigms are gender-specific more than one may be combined to form an adjectival paradigm, which must be declined for gender as well as number and case. The main example of this is the o/eh₂-stem adjectives, which have masculine forms following masculine o-stems (*-os), feminine forms following eh₂-stems and neuter forms following neuter o-stems (*-om).

Caland-system adjectives edit

A number of adjectival roots form part of the Caland system, named after Dutch Indologist Willem Caland, who first formulated part of the system. The cognates derived from these roots in different daughter languages often do not agree in formation, but show certain characteristic properties:[41][42][note 5]

  • Adjectives are formed using zero-ablaut ro-stems, u-stems or nt-stems: *h₁rudʰ-ro- (zero grade of the root *h₁rewdʰ-) > Ancient Greek eruthrós 'red'; *h₂rǵ-ro- > *argrós > Ancient Greek argós 'white, bright'.
  • Adjectives are sometimes formed using i-stems, especially in the first part of a compound: Ancient Greek argi-kéraunos 'with bright lightning'.
  • There are often corresponding stative verbs in *-eh₁: *h₁rudʰ-eh₁- > Latin rubeō 'be red'.

Comparison edit

Comparative edit

  • Suffixes *-yos- and *-tero-

The comparative form ("bigger, more beautiful") could be formed by replacing an adjective's suffix with *-yos-; the resulting word is amphikinetic: *meǵ-no-[43] 'big' (Latin magnus) → *méǵ-yos- 'bigger' (Latin maior, maius), weak cases *meǵ-is-. A second suffix, *-tero-, originally expressed contrast, as in Ancient Greek pó-tero-s 'which (of two)' or deksi-teró-s 'right (as opposed to left)'. It later attained comparative function. For example, the meaning of Ancient Greek sophṓteros 'wiser, the wiser one' developed from 'the wise one (of the two)'. English far-ther also contains this suffix.[44][45]

Superlative edit

  • Suffixes *-m̥mo- / *-m̥h₂o- and *-isto- / *-isth₂o-

PIE probably expressed the superlative ("biggest, most beautiful") by adding a genitive plural noun to the adjective. Instead of 'the greatest of the gods', people said 'great of (=among) the gods'. Still, two suffixes have been reconstructed that have superlative meaning in daughter languages: one is *-m̥mo- or *-m̥h₂o-, the other *-isto- or *-isth₂o-, composed of the zero grade of the comparative suffix plus an additional syllable. They are generalisations of the ordinal numbers.[44][45]

Sample declensions edit

The following are example declensions of a number of different types of nouns, based on the reconstruction of Ringe (2006).[46] The last two declensions, the o-stems, are thematic, and all others are athematic. Morpheme boundaries (boundaries between root, suffix, and ending) are given only in the nominative singular.

Acrostatic root noun Acrostatic lengthened root noun Amphikinetic(?) root noun Hysterokinetic r-stem Amphikinetic n-stem Hysterokinetic n-stem
Gloss night f. moon m. foot m. father m. lake m. bull, ox m.
Singular
nom. *nókʷt-s *mḗh₁n̥-s *pṓd-s *ph₂t-ér-s[note 4] *léymō *uksḗn
voc. *nókʷt *mḗh₁n̥s *pód *ph₂tér *léymon *úksen
acc. *nókʷtm̥ *mḗh₁n̥sm̥ *pódm̥ *ph₂térm̥ *léymonm̥ *uksénm̥
inst. *nékʷt(e)h₁ *méh₁n̥s(e)h₁ *pedéh₁ *ph₂tr̥éh₁ *limnéh₁ *uksn̥éh₁
dat. *nékʷtey *méh₁n̥sey *pedéy *ph₂tr̥éy *limnéy *uksn̥éy
abl./gen. *nékʷts *méh₁n̥sos *pedés *ph₂tr̥és *limnés *uksn̥és
loc. *nékʷt(i) *méh₁n̥s(i) *péd(i) *ph₂tér(i) *limén(i) *uksén(i)
Dual
nom./voc.
/acc.
*nókʷth₁e *mḗh₁n̥sh₁e *pódh₁e *ph₂térh₁e *léymonh₁e *uksénh₁e
Plural
nom./voc. *nókʷtes *mḗh₁n̥ses *pódes *ph₂téres *léymones *uksénes
acc. *nókʷtn̥s *mḗh₁n̥sn̥s *pódn̥s *ph₂térn̥s *léymonn̥s *uksénn̥s
inst. *nékʷtbʰi *méh₁n̥sbʰi *pedbʰí *ph₂tr̥bʰí *limn̥bʰí *uksn̥bʰí
dat./abl. *nékʷtm̥os *méh₁n̥smos *pedmós *ph₂tr̥mós *limn̥mós *uksn̥mós
gen. *nékʷtoHom *méh₁n̥soHom *pedóHom *ph₂tr̥óHom *limn̥óHom *uksn̥óHom
loc. *nékʷtsu *méh₁n̥su *pedsú *ph₂tr̥sú *limn̥sú *uksn̥sú
Proterokinetic neuter r/n-stem Amphikinetic collective neuter r/n-stem Amphikinetic m-stem Proterokinetic ti-stem Proterokinetic tu-stem Proterokinetic neuter u-stem
Gloss water n. waters n. earth f. thought f. taste m. tree n.
Singular
nom. *wódr̥ *wédōr *dʰéǵʰō-m *mént-i-s *ǵéwstu-s *dóru
voc. *dʰéǵʰom *ménti *ǵéwstu
acc. *dʰéǵʰōm *méntim *ǵéwstum
inst. *udénh₁ *udnéh₁ *ǵʰméh₁ *mn̥tíh₁ *ǵustúh₁ *drúh₁
dat. *udéney *udnéy *ǵʰméy *mn̥téyey *ǵustéwey *dréwey
abl./gen. *udéns *udnés *ǵʰmés *mn̥téys *ǵustéws *dréws
loc. *udén(i) *udén(i) *ǵʰdʰsém(i) *mn̥téy (-ēy) *ǵustéw(i) *dréw(i)
Dual
nom./voc.
/acc.
*méntih₁ *ǵéwstuh₁ *dórwih₁
Plural
nom./voc. *ménteyes *ǵéwstewes *dóruh₂
acc. *méntins *ǵéwstuns
inst. *mn̥tíbʰi *ǵustúbʰi *drúbʰi
dat./abl. *mn̥tímos *ǵustúmos *drúmos
gen. *mn̥téyoHom *ǵustéwoHom *dréwoHom
loc. *mn̥tísu *ǵustúsu *drúsu
Neuter s-stem Proterokinetic h₂-stem Hysterokinetic h₂-stem eh₂-stem (ā-stem) o-stem Neuter o-stem
Gloss cloud n. woman f. (> "queen") tongue f. grain f. nest m. work n.
Singular
nom. *nébʰo-s *gʷḗn *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂-s *dʰoHn-éh₂ *nisd-ó-s *wérǵ-o-m
voc. *dń̥ǵʰweh₂ *dʰoHn[á] *nisdé
acc. *gʷénh₂m̥ *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂m (-ām) *dʰoHnéh₂m (-ā́m) *nisdóm
inst. *nébʰes(e)h₁ *gʷnéh₂(e)h₁ *dn̥ǵʰuh₂éh₁ *dʰoHnéh₂(e)h₁ *nisdóh₁ *wérǵoh₁
dat. *nébʰesey *gʷnéh₂ey *dn̥ǵʰuh₂éy *dʰoHnéh₂ey *nisdóey *wérǵoey
abl. *nébʰesos *gʷnéh₂s *dn̥ǵʰuh₂és *dʰoHnéh₂s *nisdéad *wérǵead
gen. *nisdósyo *wérǵosyo
loc. *nébʰes(i) *gʷnéh₂(i) *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂(i) *dʰoHnéh₂(i) *nisdéy *wérǵey
Dual
nom./voc.
/acc.
*nébʰesih₁ *gʷénh₂h₁e *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂h₁e ? *nisdóh₁ *wérǵoy(h₁)
Plural
nom./voc. *nébʰōs *gʷénh₂es *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂es *dʰoHnéh₂es *nisdóes *wérǵeh₂
acc. *gʷénh₂n̥s *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂ns (-ās) *dʰoHnéh₂ns (-ās) *nisdóns
inst. *nébʰesbʰi *gʷnéh₂bʰi *dn̥ǵʰuh₂bʰí *dʰoHnéh₂bʰi *nisdṓys *wérǵōys
dat./abl. *nébʰesmos *gʷnéh₂mos *dn̥ǵʰuh₂mós *dʰoHnéh₂mos *nisdó(y)mos *wérǵo(y)mos
gen. *nébʰesoHom *gʷnéh₂oHom *dn̥ǵʰuh₂óHom *dʰoHnéh₂oHom *nisdóoHom *wérǵooHom
loc. *nébʰesu *gʷnéh₂su *dn̥ǵʰuh₂sú *dʰoHnéh₂su *nisdóysu *wérǵoysu

References edit

Notes
  1. ^ The asterisk (*) indicates that the form is not directly attested but has been reconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material.
  2. ^ a b *i and *y are actually the same sound; technically speaking, *i is the vocalic allophone of *y. The same applies to the pairs *u/w, *m̥/m, etc. See Proto-Indo-European phonology: Vowels for further information on spelling and syllabification rules for PIE sonorants.
  3. ^ a b "<" means comes from; ">" means turns into.
  4. ^ a b c Actually, only *ph₂tḗr and *dṓm can be reconstructed, but those forms could have developed from regular forms (*ph₂térs and *dómh₂s, respectively) via Szemerényi's law.
  5. ^ A comparison of such characteristic properties of derivatives of PIE's *-nt- suffix is available in Lowe (2011).
Citations
  1. ^ Fortson (2004:76f)
  2. ^ Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003, F 323)
  3. ^ a b c d Fortson (2004:108f)
  4. ^ Rix & Kümmel (2001:115)
  5. ^ Fortson (2004:55)
  6. ^ a b Fortson (2004:116–118)
  7. ^ Rix & Kümmel (2001:386f)
  8. ^ a b c Fortson (2004:110–113)
  9. ^ Fortson (2004:77f)
  10. ^ a b Fortson (2004:113)
  11. ^ Fortson (2004:102)
  12. ^ Ringe (2006)
  13. ^ Fortson (2004:103)
  14. ^ Mallory & Adams (2006:59)
  15. ^ Luraghi (2009)
  16. ^ a b Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003, F 315)
  17. ^ Fortson (2004:118)
  18. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). "Proto-Indo-European". Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 465.
  19. ^ Woodard (2008)
  20. ^ Sihler (1995:248)
  21. ^ Ringe (2006:41)
  22. ^ Beekes & de Vaan (2011:186)
  23. ^ Compare also Jay Jasanoff's *-bhi, *-bhis, *-^is: following the trail of the PIE instrumental plural (2009), which reconstructs the original ablative plural as *-os based on Hittite -aš and believes that it was secondarily added to the adverbial suffix -*bʰi that replaced it. He also argues for an original instrumental plural ending *-is, forming the familiar *-bhis in the same way.
  24. ^ Kloekhorst (2013:108)
  25. ^ Jasanoff, Jay 2017. The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent. Leiden: Brill, p. 18 and p. 28
  26. ^ Ringe (2006:47)
  27. ^ Ringe (2006:45)
  28. ^ Fortson (2004:109f)
  29. ^ Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003:F 315)
  30. ^ Fortson (2004:107)
  31. ^ Ringe (2006:280)
  32. ^ Kloekhorst (2008:103)
  33. ^ Beekes & de Vaan (2011:215)
  34. ^ Beekes & de Vaan (2011:216)
  35. ^ Kloekhorst (2013:124)
  36. ^ Kloekhorst (2013:119)
  37. ^ Wodtko, Irslinger & Schneider (2008:540f, 606ff, 706ff)
  38. ^ Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (29 April 2015). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4.
  39. ^ a b Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003, W 207–211)
  40. ^ Fortson (2004:122f)
  41. ^ Fortson (2004:91, 121, 123)
  42. ^ Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003, W 206)
  43. ^ Wodtko, Irslinger & Schneider (2008:468ff)
  44. ^ a b Fortson (2004:121f)
  45. ^ a b Meier-Brügger, Fritz & Mayrhofer (2003, F 325)
  46. ^ Ringe (2006:47–50)
Bibliography

proto, indo, european, nominals, this, article, contains, characters, used, write, reconstructed, proto, indo, european, words, explanation, notation, proto, indo, european, phonology, without, proper, rendering, support, question, marks, boxes, other, symbols. This article contains characters used to write reconstructed Proto Indo European words for an explanation of the notation see Proto Indo European phonology Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode combining characters and Latin characters Proto Indo European nominals include nouns adjectives and pronouns Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo European languages This article discusses nouns and adjectives Proto Indo European pronouns are treated elsewhere The Proto Indo European language PIE had eight or nine cases three numbers singular dual and plural and probably originally two genders animate and neuter with the animate later splitting into the masculine and the feminine Nominals fell into multiple different declensions Most of them had word stems ending in a consonant called athematic stems and exhibited a complex pattern of accent shifts and or vowel changes ablaut among the different cases Two declensions ended in a vowel o e note 1 and are called thematic they were more regular and became more common during the history of PIE and its older daughter languages PIE very frequently derived nominals from verbs Just as English giver and gift are ultimately related to the verb give deh tors giver and deh nom gift are derived from deh to give but the practice was much more common in PIE For example pṓds foot was derived from ped to tread and domh s house from demh to build Contents 1 Morphology 1 1 Root nouns 1 2 Complex nominals 1 3 Athematic and thematic nominals 2 Grammatical categories 2 1 Number 2 2 Gender 2 3 Case endings 3 Athematic accent ablaut classes 3 1 Early PIE 3 2 Late PIE 3 3 Leiden model 4 Heteroclitic stems 5 Derivation 5 1 Accent ablaut alternations 5 2 Affixation 5 3 Compounding 6 Adjectives 6 1 Caland system adjectives 6 2 Comparison 6 2 1 Comparative 6 2 2 Superlative 7 Sample declensions 8 ReferencesMorphology editThe basic structure of Proto Indo European nouns and adjectives was the same as that of PIE verbs A lexical word as would appear in a dictionary was formed by adding a suffix S onto a root R to form a stem The word was then inflected by adding an ending E to the stem The root indicates a basic concept often a verb e g deh give while the stem carries a more specific nominal meaning based on the combination of root and suffix e g deh tor giver deh o gift Some stems cannot clearly be broken up into root and suffix altogether as in h r tḱo bear The ending carries grammatical information including case number and gender 1 Gender is an inherent property of a noun but is part of the inflection of an adjective because it must agree with the gender of the noun it modifies 2 Thus the general morphological form of such words is R S E r o o t s u f f i x s t e m e n d i n g w o r d displaystyle underbrace underbrace mathrm root suffix mathrm stem mathrm ending mathrm word nbsp The process of forming a lexical stem from a root is known in general as derivational morphology while the process of inflecting that stem is known as inflectional morphology As in other languages the possible suffixes that can be added to a given root and the meaning that results are not entirely predictable while the process of inflection is largely predictable in both form and meaning Originally extensive ablaut vowel variation between e o e ō and O i e no vowel occurred in PIE in both derivation and inflection and in the root suffix and ending Variation in the position of the accent likewise occurred in both derivation and inflection and is often considered part of the ablaut system which is described in more detail below For example the nominative form leymons lake composed of the root ley in the ablaut form ley the suffix in the form mon and the ending in the form s had the genitive limnes root form li note 2 suffix mn and ending es In this word the nominative has the ablaut vowels e o O while the genitive has the ablaut vowels O O e i e all three components have different ablaut vowels and the stress position has also moved A large number of different patterns of ablaut variation existed speakers had to both learn the ablaut patterns and memorize which pattern went with which word There was a certain regularity of which patterns occurred with which suffixes and formations but with many exceptions 3 Already by late PIE times this system was extensively simplified and daughter languages show a steady trend towards more and more regularization and simplification Far more simplification occurred in the late PIE nominal system than in the verbal system where the original PIE ablaut variations were maintained essentially intact well into the recorded history of conservative daughter languages such as Sanskrit and Ancient Greek as well as in the Germanic languages in the form of strong verbs Root nouns edit PIE also had a class of monosyllabic root nouns which lack a suffix the ending being directly added to the root as in domh s house derived from demh build 4 These nouns can also be interpreted as having a zero suffix or one without a phonetic body dom O s 3 Verbal stems have corresponding morphological features the root present and the root aorist Complex nominals edit Not all nominals fit the basic R S E pattern Some were formed with additional prefixes An example is ni sd o s nest derived from the verbal root sed sit by adding a local prefix and thus meaning where the bird sits down or the like 5 A special kind of prefixation called reduplication uses the first part of the root plus a vowel as a prefix For example kʷelh turn gives kʷe kʷl h o s wheel 6 7 and bʰrew brown gives bʰe bʰru s beaver 8 This type of derivation is also found in verbs mainly to form the perfect As with PIE verbs a distinction is made between primary formations which are words formed directly from a root as described above and secondary formations which are formed from existing words whether primary or secondary themselves Athematic and thematic nominals edit A fundamental distinction is made between thematic and athematic nominals The stem of athematic nominals ends in a consonant They have the original complex system of accent ablaut alternations described above and are generally held as more archaic Thematic nominals which became more and more common during the times of later PIE and its older daughter languages have a stem ending in a thematic vowel o in almost all grammatical cases sometimes ablauting to e Since all roots end in a consonant all thematic nominals have suffixes ending in a vowel and none are root nouns The accent is fixed on the same syllable throughout the inflection 9 10 From the perspective of the daughter languages a distinction is often made between vowel stems that is stems ending in a vowel i u y a y o stems and consonantic stems the rest However from the PIE perspective only the thematic o stems are truly vocalic Stems ending in i or u such as men ti are consonantic i e athematic because the i is just the vocalic form of the glide y the full grade of the suffix being tey note 2 Post PIE a was actually eh in PIE Among the most common athematic stems are root stems i stems u stems eh stems n stems nt stems r stems and s stems Within each of these numerous subclasses with their own inflectional peculiarities developed by late PIE times Grammatical categories editPIE nouns and adjectives as well as pronouns are subject to the system of PIE nominal inflection with eight or nine cases nominative accusative vocative genitive dative instrumental ablative locative and possibly a directive or allative The so called strong or direct cases are the nominative and the vocative for all numbers and the accusative case for singular and dual and possibly plural as well and the rest are the weak or oblique cases This classification is relevant for inflecting the athematic nominals of different accent and ablaut classes 11 Number edit Three numbers were distinguished singular dual and plural Many possibly all athematic neuter nouns had a special collective form instead of the plural which inflected with singular endings but with the ending h in the direct cases and an amphikinetic accent ablaut pattern see below 12 Gender edit Late PIE had three genders traditionally called masculine feminine and neuter Gender or noun class is an inherent lexical property of each noun all nouns in a language that has grammatical genders are assigned to one of its classes There was probably originally only an animate masculine feminine versus an inanimate neuter distinction 13 This view is supported by the existence of certain classes of Latin and Ancient Greek adjectives which inflect only for two sets of endings one for masculine and feminine the other for neuter Further evidence comes from the Anatolian languages such as Hittite which exhibit only the animate and the neuter genders 14 The feminine ending is thought to have developed from a collective abstract suffix h that also gave rise to the neuter collective 15 16 The existence of combined collective and abstract grammatical forms can be seen in English words such as youth the young people collective or young age abstract 17 Remnants of this period exist in for instance the eh stems ih stems uh stems and bare h stems which are found in daughter languages as a i u and a stems respectively They originally were the feminine equivalents of the o stems i stems u stems and root nouns Already by late PIE times however this system was breaking down eh became generalized as the feminine suffix and eh stem nouns evolved more and more in the direction of thematic o stems with fixed ablaut and accent increasingly idiosyncratic endings and frequent borrowing of endings from the o stems Nonetheless clear traces of the earlier system are seen especially in Sanskrit where i stems and u stems still exist as distinct classes comprising largely feminine nouns Over time these stem classes merged with i stems and u stems with frequent crossover of endings Grammatical gender correlates only partially with sex and almost exclusively when it relates to humans and domesticated animals Even then those correlations may not be consistent nouns referring to adult males are usually masculine father brother priest nouns referring to adult females mother sister priestess are usually feminine but diminutives may be neuter regardless of referent as in both Greek and German Gender may have also had a grammatical function a change of gender within a sentence signaling the end of a noun phrase a head noun and its agreeing adjectives and the start of a new one 18 An alternative hypothesis to the two gender view is that Proto Anatolian inherited a three gender PIE system and subsequently Hittite and other Anatolian languages eliminated the feminine by merging it with the masculine 19 Case endings edit Some endings are difficult to reconstruct and not all authors reconstruct the same sets of endings For example the original form of the genitive plural is a particular thorny issue because different daughter languages appear to reflect different proto forms It is variously reconstructed as ōm om oHom and so on Meanwhile the dual endings of cases other than the merged nominative vocative accusative are often considered impossible to reconstruct because these endings are attested sparsely and diverge radically in different languages The following shows three modern mainstream reconstructions Sihler 1995 20 remains closest to the data often reconstructing multiple forms when daughter languages show divergent outcomes Ringe 2006 21 is somewhat more speculative willing to assume analogical changes in some cases to explain divergent outcomes from a single source form Fortson 2004 10 is between Sihler and Ringe The thematic vowel o ablauts to e only in word final position in the vocative singular and before h in the neuter nominative and accusative plural The vocative singular is also the only case for which the thematic nouns show accent retraction a leftward shift of the accent denoted by ĕ Athematic Thematic Sihler Ringe Fortson Sihler Ringe Fortson Singular nominative s O s o s vocative O ĕ accusative m o m nom voc acc neuter O o m instrumental bʰi mi e h e h h h o h e h o h gt note 3 ō dative ey ōy o ey gt ōy ablative s os es s ōt at o ad o h at gt ōt genitive i osyo o syo o s locative i O o y e y e e y o y Dual nom voc acc h e h h e h o h o h e o h gt ō nom voc acc neuter ih oyh o y h oyh inst dat abl gen loc ows eyows oyows Plural nom voc es ōs oy pronominal o es gt ōs accusative ms ns o ms o ns nom voc acc neuter h h O h e h gt a instrumental bʰis mis mis bʰi bʰ ōys o mis o mis ōys o i bʰ dat abl bʰos mos mos o bʰos o mos o mos o y mos genitive om oHom ōm ōm oysōm pronominal o oHom ōm locative su o su oysu pronominal o y su The dative instrumental and ablative plural endings probably contained a bʰ but are of uncertain structure otherwise They might also have been of post PIE date For athematic nouns an endingless locative is reconstructed in addition to the ordinary locative singular in i In contrast to the other weak cases it typically has full or lengthened grade of the stem An alternative reconstruction is found in Beekes 1995 22 This reconstruction does not give separate tables for the thematic and athematic endings assuming that they were originally the same and only differentiated in daughter languages Singular Plural animate neuter animate neuter Nominative s O m O es h O Vocative O Accusative m ns Instrumental e h bʰi Dative e i mus Ablative o s e t ios 23 Genitive o s om Locative i O suAthematic accent ablaut classes editSee also Proto Indo European accent There is a general consensus as to which nominal accent ablaut patterns must be reconstructed for Proto Indo European Given that the foundations for the system were laid by a group of scholars Schindler Eichner Rix and Hoffmann during the 1964 Erlanger Kolloquium which discussed the works of Pedersen and Kuiper on nominal accent ablaut patterns in PIE the system is sometimes referred to as the Erlangen model 24 Early PIE edit Early PIE nouns had complex patterns of ablation according to which the root the stem and the ending all showed ablaut variations Polysyllabic athematic nominals type R S E exhibit four characteristic patterns which include accent and ablaut alternations throughout the paradigm between the root the stem and the ending Acrostatic lt Ancient Greek ἄkros romanized akros lit at the edge beginning statikos statikos coming to a standstill stationary on the beginning The accent stays on the root Proterokinetic lt proteros proteros the former earlier kinhtikos kinetikos moveable mobile moving towards the earlier closer to the root The best evidence for the reconstruction of this type comes from ἄgyiᾰ gen ἀgyiᾶs street lt ideal h eǵ u ih h ǵ u yeh and ὄrgyiᾰ gen ὀrgyiᾱs fathom lt ideal h reǵ u ih h rǵ u yeh in Ancient Greek and be gen sg mna woman lt gwen h gwn eh s in Old Irish 25 Hysterokinetic lt ὕsteros hysteros the latter moving towards the latter of the syllables following the root Amphikinetic lt ἀmfi amphi about around on both sides moving towards both sides Root nouns type R E show a similar behavior but with only two patterns 3 The patterns called Narten are at least formally analogous to the Narten presents in verbs as they alternate between full e and lengthened grades e Type Subtype Case R S E Example Gloss Polysyllabic nominals Acrostatic normal strong o O O nom sg nokʷ t s night weak e O O gen sg nekʷ t s lengthened Narten type strong ḗ O O nom sg mḗh n s moon weak e O O gen sg meh n s os 26 Proterokinetic or proterodynamic Normal strong e O O nom sg men ti s thought weak O e O gen sg mn tey s old acrostatic 3 strong o O O nom sg dor u tree weak O e O gen sg dr ew s Hysterokinetic or hysterodynamic strong O e O nom sg ph tḗr lt note 3 ph ter s note 4 father weak O O e gen sg ph tr es loc sg O e O loc sg ph ter i Amphikinetic or amphidynamic strong e o O nom sg ley mō lt ley mon s lake weak O O e gen sg li mn es loc sg O e O loc sg li men i Root nouns Acrostatic normal strong o O nom sg dṓm lt dom s note 4 house weak e O gen sg dem s lengthened Narten type strong ḗ O nom sg mḗms meat weak e O gen sg mems os Amphikinetic strong e O nom sg wreh d s root weak O e gen sg wr h d es loc sg e O loc sg wreh d i Notes For the strong cases of proterokinetic nominals the accent is placed on the penultimate syllable of the stem If there is only one suffix the root will be the penultimate syllable when there is more than one suffix the penultimate syllable will be a suffix and the root will appear unaccented and in the zero grade 27 There is an unexpected o grade of the suffix in the strong cases of polysyllabic amphikinetic nominals Another unusual property of this class is the locative singular having a stressed e grade suffix The classification of the amphikinetic root nouns is disputed 28 Since those words have no suffix they differ from the amphikinetic polysyllables in the strong cases no o grade and in the locative singular no e grade suffix Some scholars prefer to call them amphikinetic and the corresponding polysyllables holokinetic or holodynamic from holos whole 29 Some 16 also list mesostatic meso middle and teleutostatic types with the accent fixed on the suffix and the ending respectively but their existence in PIE is disputed 30 The classes can then be grouped into three static acrostatic mesostatic teleutostatic and three or four mobile proterokinetic hysterokinetic amphikinetic holokinetic paradigms Late PIE edit By late PIE the above system had been already significantly eroded with one of the root ablaut grades tending to be extended throughout the paradigm The erosion is much more extensive in all the daughter languages with only the oldest stages of most languages showing any root ablaut and typically only in a small number of irregular nouns Vedic Sanskrit da ru wood gen drṓs lt PIE dor u dr eu s Old Irish ben woman gen mna lt PIE gʷen eh gʷn eh s Old Avestan zya winter gen zimō lt PIE ǵʰyem s ǵʰim os Ancient Greek Zdeus Zeus gen Di w os Vedic Sanskrit d i yauḥ heaven gen divaḥ dyōḥ both lt PIE dyeu s diw os sky day god citation needed Proto Germanic reconstructed tan th s tooth gen tundiz 31 lt PIE Hd ont s Hd n t es with the nominative stem preserved in Old Norse tǫnn Old Saxon tand Old English tōth and the genitive stem in Gothic tundus The most extensive remains are in Vedic Sanskrit and Old Avestan the oldest recorded stages of the oldest Indic and Iranian languages c 1700 1300 BC the younger stages of the same languages already show extensive regularization In many cases a former ablauting paradigm was generalized in the daughter languages but in different ways in each language For example Ancient Greek doru spear lt PIE nominative doru wood tree and Old English treo tree lt PIE genitive dreu s reflect different stems of a PIE ablauting paradigm doru dreus which is still reflected directly in Vedic Sanskrit nom da ru wood gen drṓs Similarly PIE ǵonu ǵneus can be reconstructed for knee from Ancient Greek gonu and Old English cneo In that case there is no extant ablauting paradigm in a single language but Avestan accusative znum and Modern Persian zanu are attested which strongly implies that Proto Iranian had an ablauting paradigm That is quite possible for Avestan as well but that cannot be certain since the nominative is not extant An ablauting paradigm pōds ped can also clearly be reconstructed from foot based on Greek pous gen podos lt pō d s pod vs Latin pes gen pedis lt ped vs Old English fōt lt pōd with differing ablaut grades among cognate forms in different languages In some cases ablaut would be expected based on the form given numerous other examples of ablauting nouns of the same form but a single ablaut variant is found throughout the paradigm In such cases it is often assumed that the noun had showed ablaut in early PIE but was generalized to a single form by late PIE or shortly afterwards An example is Greek genus chin jaw Sanskrit hanus jaw Latin gena cheek Gothic kinnus cheek All except the Latin form suggest a masculine u stem with non ablauting PIE root ǵen but certain irregularities the position of the accent the unexpected feminine a stem form in Latin the unexpected Gothic stem kinn lt ǵenw the ablaut found in Greek gnathos jaw lt PIE ǵnHdʰ Lithuanian zandas jawbone lt ǵonHdʰ os suggest an original ablauting neuter noun ǵenu ǵneus in early PIE It generalized the nominative ablaut in late PIE and switched to the masculine u stem in the post PIE period Another example is nokʷts night an acrostatic root paradigm might be expected based on the form but the consistent stem nokʷt is found throughout the family With the discovery of Hittite however the form nekʷts in the evening was found which is evidently a genitive it indicates that early PIE actually had an acrostatic paradigm that was regularized by late PIE but after the separation of Hittite Leiden model edit Kuiper s student Beekes together with his colleague Kortlandt developed an alternative model on the basis of Pedersen s and Kuiper s works described in detail in Beekes 1985 Since the scholars who developed it and generally accept it are mostly from the University of Leiden it is generally dubbed the Leiden model It states that for earlier PIE three accent types of inflection of consonant stems are to be reconstructed and from them all of the attested types can be derived 32 Case Hysterodynamic Proterodynamic Static nominative singular CeC C s CeC C s CeC C s accusative singular CC eC m CeC C m CeC C m genitive singular CC C es CC eC s CeC C s For root nouns accentuation could have been either static or mobile Case Static root nouns Mobile root nouns nominative singular Ce oC s Ce oC s accusative singular Ce oC m Ce oC m genitive singular Ce oC s CC os The thematic stem type was a recent innovation with a thematic vowel o originating from the hysterodynamic genitive singular form of athematic inflection which had in pre PIE the function of ergative 33 That is why there are o stems but no e stems 34 and is suggested to be why thematic nouns show no ablaut or accentual mobility in inflection for other theories on the origin of thematic vowel see Thematic vowel Origin in nouns The general points of departure to the Erlangen model are Both models share acro static and proterodynamic patterns The hysterokinetic and amphikinetic patterns are reconstructed only in the Erlangen model The hysterodynamic model exists only in the Leiden model and represents an earlier stage of the hysterokinetic and amphikinetic patterns of the Erlangen model The reconstruction of the paradigm is not based only on internal reconstruction It is synchronically still attested in the Hittite paradigm of the word for hand kessar kisseran kisras That is therefore one of the most archaic paradigms in PIE 35 The Leiden model describes a stage Early PIE that is relatively older than the Erlangen model The Leiden model has a one to one correlation between the presence of the full grade vowel and the position of the accent which indicates a historical connection between the two At the stage of the Leiden model there was only one phonemic vowel as e was always accented and the new vowel o was always unaccented Both were therefore in complementary distribution 36 Heteroclitic stems editSome athematic noun stems have different final consonants in different cases and are termed heteroclitic stems Most of the stems end in r in the nominative and accusative singular and in n in the other cases An example of such r n stems is the acrostatic neuter wod r water genitive wed n s The suffixes mer n ser n ter n and wer n are also attested as in the probably proterokinetic peh wr fire genitive ph wen s or similar An l n stem is seh wl or seh wōl sun genitive sh wen s or the like 8 37 Derivation editPIE had a number of ways to derive nominals from verbs or from other nominals These included simply adding a nominal ending to a verbal root for example domh s house from demh build accent ablaut alternations of existing nominals derivational prefixes including reduplication and suffixes added to verbal roots or nominal stems and combining lexical morphemes compounding Accent ablaut alternations edit From athematic nouns derivatives could be created by shifting the accent to the right and thus switching to another accent ablaut class acrostatic to proterokinetic or amphikinetic proterokinetic to amphikinetic or hysterokinetic and so on Such derivations signified possessing associated with An example is proterokinetic bʰleǵʰ mn bʰl ǵʰ men s sacred formulation Vedic brahmaṇ from which amphikinetic bʰleǵʰ mō n bʰl ǵʰ mn es priest Vedic brahmaṇ was derived 8 Another ablaut alternation is ḱernes horned from ḱernos horn roe Many PIE adjectives formed this way were subsequently nominalized in daughter languages citation needed Thematic nominals could also be derived by accent or ablaut changes Leftward shift of the accent could turn an agentive word into a resultative one for example tomos sharp but tomos a slice from tem to cut bʰoros carrier but bʰoros burden from bʰer carry A special type of ablaut alternation was vṛddhi derivation which typically lengthened a vowel signifying of belonging to descended from 6 Affixation edit These are some of the nominal affixes found in Proto Indo European 38 o forms action or agent nouns u unproductive suffix of uncertain function Only used in a few old nouns such as gon u knee and dor u wood it marks elemental foodstuff such as mel it honey sep it wheat and h elbʰ it barley men forms abstractions This is probably a reduced form of the noun men s mind ter forms agentives er Compounding edit PIE had a number of possibilities to compound nouns Endocentric or determinative compounds denote subclasses of their head usually the second part as in English smalltalk or blackbird Exocentric or possessive compounds usually called bahuvrihis denote something possessing something as in Flatfoot somebody having flat feet or redthroat a bird with a red throat This type was much more common in old Indo European languages some 39 doubt the existence of determinative compounds in PIE altogether Compounds consisting of a nominal plus a verb akin to English cowherd were common those of a verb plus a nominal pickpocket less so Other parts of speech also occurred as first part of compounds such as prepositions numerals tri from treyes three other particles n zero grade of ne not seen in English un Latin in Greek a n and adjectives 39 40 drḱ h ḱru tear literally bitter eye Adjectives editAdjectives in PIE generally have the same form as nouns although when paradigms are gender specific more than one may be combined to form an adjectival paradigm which must be declined for gender as well as number and case The main example of this is the o eh stem adjectives which have masculine forms following masculine o stems os feminine forms following eh stems and neuter forms following neuter o stems om Caland system adjectives edit Main article Caland system A number of adjectival roots form part of the Caland system named after Dutch Indologist Willem Caland who first formulated part of the system The cognates derived from these roots in different daughter languages often do not agree in formation but show certain characteristic properties 41 42 note 5 Adjectives are formed using zero ablaut ro stems u stems or nt stems h rudʰ ro zero grade of the root h rewdʰ gt Ancient Greek eruthros red h rǵ ro gt argros gt Ancient Greek argos white bright Adjectives are sometimes formed using i stems especially in the first part of a compound Ancient Greek argi keraunos with bright lightning There are often corresponding stative verbs in eh h rudʰ eh gt Latin rubeō be red Comparison edit Comparative edit Suffixes yos and tero The comparative form bigger more beautiful could be formed by replacing an adjective s suffix with yos the resulting word is amphikinetic meǵ no 43 big Latin magnus meǵ yos bigger Latin maior maius weak cases meǵ is A second suffix tero originally expressed contrast as in Ancient Greek po tero s which of two or deksi tero s right as opposed to left It later attained comparative function For example the meaning of Ancient Greek sophṓteros wiser the wiser one developed from the wise one of the two English far ther also contains this suffix 44 45 Superlative edit Suffixes m mo m h o and isto isth o PIE probably expressed the superlative biggest most beautiful by adding a genitive plural noun to the adjective Instead of the greatest of the gods people said great of among the gods Still two suffixes have been reconstructed that have superlative meaning in daughter languages one is m mo or m h o the other isto or isth o composed of the zero grade of the comparative suffix plus an additional syllable They are generalisations of the ordinal numbers 44 45 Sample declensions editThe following are example declensions of a number of different types of nouns based on the reconstruction of Ringe 2006 46 The last two declensions the o stems are thematic and all others are athematic Morpheme boundaries boundaries between root suffix and ending are given only in the nominative singular Acrostatic root noun Acrostatic lengthened root noun Amphikinetic root noun Hysterokinetic r stem Amphikinetic n stem Hysterokinetic n stem Gloss night f moon m foot m father m lake m bull ox m Singular nom nokʷt s mḗh n s pṓd s ph t er s note 4 leymō uksḗn voc nokʷt mḗh n s pod ph ter leymon uksen acc nokʷtm mḗh n sm podm ph term leymonm uksenm inst nekʷt e h meh n s e h pedeh ph tr eh limneh uksn eh dat nekʷtey meh n sey pedey ph tr ey limney uksn ey abl gen nekʷts meh n sos pedes ph tr es limnes uksn es loc nekʷt i meh n s i ped i ph ter i limen i uksen i Dual nom voc acc nokʷth e mḗh n sh e podh e ph terh e leymonh e uksenh e Plural nom voc nokʷtes mḗh n ses podes ph teres leymones uksenes acc nokʷtn s mḗh n sn s podn s ph tern s leymonn s uksenn s inst nekʷtbʰi meh n sbʰi pedbʰi ph tr bʰi limn bʰi uksn bʰi dat abl nekʷtm os meh n smos pedmos ph tr mos limn mos uksn mos gen nekʷtoHom meh n soHom pedoHom ph tr oHom limn oHom uksn oHom loc nekʷtsu meh n su pedsu ph tr su limn su uksn su Proterokinetic neuter r n stem Amphikinetic collective neuter r n stem Amphikinetic m stem Proterokinetic ti stem Proterokinetic tu stem Proterokinetic neuter u stem Gloss water n waters n earth f thought f taste m tree n Singular nom wodr wedōr dʰeǵʰō m ment i s ǵewstu s doru voc dʰeǵʰom menti ǵewstu acc dʰeǵʰōm mentim ǵewstum inst udenh udneh ǵʰmeh mn tih ǵustuh druh dat udeney udney ǵʰmey mn teyey ǵustewey drewey abl gen udens udnes ǵʰmes mn teys ǵustews drews loc uden i uden i ǵʰdʰsem i mn tey ey ǵustew i drew i Dual nom voc acc mentih ǵewstuh dorwih Plural nom voc menteyes ǵewstewes doruh acc mentins ǵewstuns inst mn tibʰi ǵustubʰi drubʰi dat abl mn timos ǵustumos drumos gen mn teyoHom ǵustewoHom drewoHom loc mn tisu ǵustusu drusu Neuter s stem Proterokinetic h stem Hysterokinetic h stem eh stem a stem o stem Neuter o stem Gloss cloud n woman f gt queen tongue f grain f nest m work n Singular nom nebʰo s gʷḗn dn ǵʰweh s dʰoHn eh nisd o s werǵ o m voc dn ǵʰweh dʰoHn a nisde acc gʷenh m dn ǵʰweh m am dʰoHneh m a m nisdom inst nebʰes e h gʷneh e h dn ǵʰuh eh dʰoHneh e h nisdoh werǵoh dat nebʰesey gʷneh ey dn ǵʰuh ey dʰoHneh ey nisdoey werǵoey abl nebʰesos gʷneh s dn ǵʰuh es dʰoHneh s nisdead werǵead gen nisdosyo werǵosyo loc nebʰes i gʷneh i dn ǵʰweh i dʰoHneh i nisdey werǵey Dual nom voc acc nebʰesih gʷenh h e dn ǵʰweh h e nisdoh werǵoy h Plural nom voc nebʰōs gʷenh es dn ǵʰweh es dʰoHneh es nisdoes werǵeh acc gʷenh n s dn ǵʰweh ns as dʰoHneh ns as nisdons inst nebʰesbʰi gʷneh bʰi dn ǵʰuh bʰi dʰoHneh bʰi nisdṓys werǵōys dat abl nebʰesmos gʷneh mos dn ǵʰuh mos dʰoHneh mos nisdo y mos werǵo y mos gen nebʰesoHom gʷneh oHom dn ǵʰuh oHom dʰoHneh oHom nisdooHom werǵooHom loc nebʰesu gʷneh su dn ǵʰuh su dʰoHneh su nisdoysu werǵoysuReferences editNotes The asterisk indicates that the form is not directly attested but has been reconstructed on the basis of other linguistic material a b i and y are actually the same sound technically speaking i is the vocalic allophone of y The same applies to the pairs u w m m etc See Proto Indo European phonology Vowels for further information on spelling and syllabification rules for PIE sonorants a b lt means comes from gt means turns into a b c Actually only ph tḗr and dṓm can be reconstructed but those forms could have developed from regular forms ph ters and domh s respectively via Szemerenyi s law A comparison of such characteristic properties of derivatives of PIE s nt suffix is available in Lowe 2011 Citations Fortson 2004 76f Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 F 323 a b c d Fortson 2004 108f Rix amp Kummel 2001 115 Fortson 2004 55 a b Fortson 2004 116 118 Rix amp Kummel 2001 386f a b c Fortson 2004 110 113 Fortson 2004 77f a b Fortson 2004 113 Fortson 2004 102 Ringe 2006 Fortson 2004 103 Mallory amp Adams 2006 59 Luraghi 2009 a b Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 F 315 Fortson 2004 118 Mallory J P Adams Douglas Q eds 1997 Proto Indo European Encyclopedia of Indo European Culture Taylor amp Francis p 465 Woodard 2008 Sihler 1995 248 Ringe 2006 41 Beekes amp de Vaan 2011 186 Compare also Jay Jasanoff s bhi bhis is following the trail of the PIE instrumental plural 2009 which reconstructs the original ablative plural as os based on Hittite as and believes that it was secondarily added to the adverbial suffix bʰi that replaced it He also argues for an original instrumental plural ending is forming the familiar bhis in the same way Kloekhorst 2013 108 Jasanoff Jay 2017 The Prehistory of the Balto Slavic Accent Leiden Brill p 18 and p 28 Ringe 2006 47 Ringe 2006 45 Fortson 2004 109f Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 F 315 Fortson 2004 107 Ringe 2006 280 Kloekhorst 2008 103 Beekes amp de Vaan 2011 215 Beekes amp de Vaan 2011 216 Kloekhorst 2013 124 Kloekhorst 2013 119 Wodtko Irslinger amp Schneider 2008 540f 606ff 706ff Ramat Anna Giacalone Ramat Paolo 29 April 2015 The Indo European Languages Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 92187 4 a b Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 W 207 211 Fortson 2004 122f Fortson 2004 91 121 123 Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 W 206 Wodtko Irslinger amp Schneider 2008 468ff a b Fortson 2004 121f a b Meier Brugger Fritz amp Mayrhofer 2003 F 325 Ringe 2006 47 50 Bibliography Beekes Robert S P de Vaan Michiel 2011 Comparative Indo European Linguistics An Introduction 2nd ed Amsterdam Philadelphia John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN 978 90 272 1186 6 PB ISBN 978 90 272 1185 9 HB alk paper ISBN 978 90 272 8500 3 EB Beekes Robert S P 1985 The Origins of the Indo European Nominal Inflection Innsbruck ISBN 3 85124 578 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Buck Carl Darling 1933 Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 07931 7 Fortson Benjamin W IV 2004 Indo European Language and Culture Blackwell Publishing ISBN 1 4051 0316 7 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Kloekhorst Alwin 2008 Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon Leiden Brill Kloekhorst Alwin 2013 Olander Thomas Widmer Paul Keydana Gotz eds Indo European nominal ablaut patterns The Anatolian evidence PDF Vol Indo European Accent and Ablaut Museum Tusculanum Press ISBN 978 87 635 4043 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a journal ignored help Lowe John J 2011 Caland Adjectives and Participles in Sanskrit and Proto Indo European PDF handout 23rd Annual UCLA Indo European Conference Luraghi Silvia 2009 The origin of the feminine gender in PIE An old problem in a new perspective PDF In Bubenik V Hewson J Rose S eds Grammatical change in Indo European languages John Benjamins ISBN 978 90 272 4821 3 Mallory J P Adams D Q 2006 The Oxford introduction to Proto Indo European and the Proto Indo European world Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 929668 5 Meier Brugger Michael Fritz Matthias Mayrhofer Manfred 2003 Indo European Linguistics Berlin New York Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3 11 017433 2 Ringe Don 2006 From Proto Indo European to Proto Germanic Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 955229 0 Rix Helmut Kummel Martin 2001 Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben Lexicon of the Indo European Verbs in German 2nd ed Dr Ludwig Reichert Verlag ISBN 3 89500 219 4 Sihler Andrew L 1995 New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 508345 8 Whitney William Dwight 1889 Sanskrit Grammar Harvard University Press ISBN 0 486 43136 3 Wodtko Dagmar S Irslinger Britta Schneider Carolin 2008 Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon Nominals in the Indo European Lexicon in German Universitatsverlag Winter ISBN 978 3 8253 5359 9 Woodard Roger D 2008 The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 68496 5 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Proto Indo European nominals amp oldid 1218441457, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.