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Aorist

Aorist (/ˈərɪst/ AY-ər-ist; abbreviated AOR) verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events, similar to a preterite. Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form, and the grammars of other Indo-European languages and languages influenced by the Indo-European grammatical tradition, such as Middle Persian, Sanskrit, Armenian, the South Slavic languages, Georgian, and Pashto, also have forms referred to as aorist.

The word comes from Ancient Greek ἀόριστος (aóristos 'indefinite'),[1] as the aorist was the unmarked (default) form of the verb, and thus did not have the implications of the imperfective aspect, which referred to an ongoing or repeated situation, or the perfect, which referred to a situation with a continuing relevance; instead it described an action "pure and simple".[2]

Because the aorist was the unmarked aspect in Ancient Greek, the term is sometimes applied to unmarked verb forms in other languages, such as the habitual aspect in Turkish.[3]

Indo-European languages edit

Proto-Indo-European edit

In Proto-Indo-European, the aorist appears to have originated as a series of verb forms expressing manner of action.[4] Proto-Indo-European had a three-way aspectual opposition, traditionally called "present", "aorist", and "perfect", which are thought to have been, respectively, imperfective, perfective, and stative (resultant state) aspects. By the time of Classical Greek, this system was maintained largely in independent instances of the non-indicative moods and in the nonfinite forms. But in the indicative, and in dependent clauses with the subjunctive and optative, the aspects took on temporal significance. In this manner, the aorist was often used as an unmarked past tense, and the perfect came to develop a resultative use,[5] which is why the term perfect is used for this meaning in modern languages.

Other Indo-European languages lost the aorist entirely. In the development of Latin, for example, the aorist merged with the perfect.[6] The preterites (past perfectives) of the Romance languages, which are sometimes called 'aorist', are an independent development.

Greek edit

In Ancient Greek, the indicative aorist is one of the two main forms used in telling a story; it is used for undivided events, such as the individual steps in a continuous process (narrative aorist); it is also used for events that took place before the story itself (past-within-past). The aorist indicative is also used to express things that happen in general, without asserting a time (the "gnomic aorist"). It can also be used of present and future[7] events; the aorist also has several specialized senses meaning present action.

Non-indicative forms of the aorist (subjunctives, optatives, imperatives, infinitives) are usually purely aspectual, with certain exceptions including indirect speech constructions and the use of optative as part of the sequence of tenses in dependent clauses. There are aorist infinitives and imperatives that do not imply temporality at all. For example, the Lord's Prayer in Matthew 6:11 uses the aorist imperative in "Give (δός dós) us this day our daily bread",[8] in contrast to the analogous passage in Luke 11:3, which uses the imperfective aspect, implying repetition, with "Give (δίδου dídou, present imperative) us day by day our daily bread."[9]

An example of how the aorist tense contrasts with the imperfect in describing the past occurs in Xenophon's Anabasis, when the Persian aristocrat Orontas is executed: "and those who had been previously in the habit of bowing (προσεκύνουν prosekúnoun, imperfect) to him, bowed (προσεκύνησαν prosekúnēsan, aorist) to him even then."[10] Here the imperfect refers to a past habitual or repeated act, and the aorist to a single one.

There is disagreement as to which functions of the Greek aorist are inherent within it. Some of the disagreement applies to the history of the development of the various functions and forms. Most grammarians differentiate the aorist indicative from the non-indicative aorists. Many authors hold that the aorist tends to be about the past because it is perfective, and perfectives tend to describe completed actions;[11] others that the aorist indicative and to some extent the participle is essentially a mixture of past tense and perfective aspect.[12]

Hermeneutic implications edit

Because the aorist was not maintained in either Latin or the Germanic languages, there have long been difficulties in translating the Greek New Testament into Western languages. The aorist has often been interpreted as making a strong statement about the aspect or even the time of an event, when, in fact, due to its being the unmarked (default) form of the Greek verb, such implications are often left to context. Thus, within New Testament hermeneutics, it is considered an exegetical fallacy to attach undue significance to uses of the aorist.[13] Although one may draw specific implications from an author's use of the imperfective or perfect, no such conclusions can, in general, be drawn from the use of the aorist, which may refer to an action "without specifying whether the action is unique, repeated, ingressive, instantaneous, past, or accomplished."[13] In particular, the aorist does not imply a "once-for-all" action, as it has commonly been misinterpreted, although it frequently refers to a simple, non-repeated action.[14]

Sanskrit edit

Although quite common in older Sanskrit, the aorist is comparatively infrequent in much of classical Sanskrit, occurring, for example, 66 times in the first book of the Rāmāyaṇa, 8 times in the Hitopadeśa, 6 times in the Bhagavad-Gītā, and 6 times in the story of Śakuntalā in the Mahābhārata.[15]

In the later language, the aorist indicative had the value of a preterite,[clarification needed] while in the older language it was closer in sense to the perfect.[15] The aorist was also used with the ancient injunctive mood, particularly in prohibitions.[16]

Slavic languages edit

The Indo-European aorist was inherited by the Slavic languages but has survived intact only in the South Slavic languages. It retains its function entirely in the Eastern South Slavic languages, Bulgarian and Macedonian. However, in Western South Slavic languages it has become, along with the imperfect and pluperfect, largely obsolete in daily parlance and mostly superseded by the perfect and circumlocution. The aorist is part of the standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian but is no longer part of standard Slovene. In both languages, the aorist appears mostly in older literature, scripture, religious services and legislation and so carries an archaic tone. In Serbo-Croatian, aorist finds natural use only in certain locales while it is completely supplanted by the perfect in others. As such, its use in formal settings can be construed as either pretentious and bombastic or conversely as rustic and unsophisticated, depending on locale. Its disuse does not cause ambiguity, as Slavic verbs have distinct grammatical aspects to convey related yet distinct meaning.

The prevalence of the aorist varied widely by region prior to the grammatical changes during the communists' rise to power in SFR Yugoslavia after World War II. Historically, in Croatia and Croatian dialects, the aorist was naturally displaced by the perfect in most dialects (Chakavian, Kajkavian and Shtokavian).[17][unreliable source?] In Serbia and Serbian dialects, the aorist was historically commonly used to describe the past. In 1933, the Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belić was tasked by the authorities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with creating a formal grammar for the new Serbo-Croatian standard. He decided to curb the use of the aorist by noting that there were many speakers of the language "in Yugoslavia who rarely use aorist, or do not use it at all", alluding to primarily Croats, Slovenes, Bosniaks and Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia whose dialects had long since done away with aorist altogether; Belić redefined aorist as a tense that described an action that happened "immediately before the moment of speech" despite the fact that aorist never carried such a meaning inherently among native speakers.[17][unreliable source?] In an effort to reinforce the use of the unified and standardized language in public discourse and education, the usage of the aorist gradually became prescriptively stigmatized by the communist regime and filtered from official use in PR Serbia and PR Montenegro. Belić's redefinition and use of aorist in fiction writing was tolerated due to abundance of its use in older literature.[17][unreliable source?] Nevertheless, aorist is still widespread in rural parts of Serbia, especially among the older and less educated part of the population.[18][unreliable source?] In standardized forms, the aorist is used for witnessed actions from a specific time in the past, mostly with verbs of perfective aspect.

In modern forms of communication, the aorist has experienced something of a revival among younger speakers in Serbia, as its forms are simpler and shorter to type out than the perfect.[19]

In Bulgarian, which has produced a new regular formation, the aorist is used in indirect and in presumptive quotations.[20] Bulgarian has separate inflections for aorist (past imperfective) and general perfective. The aorist may be used with the imperfective to produce a compound perfective–imperfective aspect.[21][22]

The aorist in Macedonian is called the "past definite complete tense" (минато определено свршено време) and refers to a completed action in the past tense. It most often corresponds to the simple past tense in English: I read the book, I wrote the letter, I ate my supper, etc. In contemporary standard Macedonian, the aorist is formed almost exclusively from perfective verbs. The formation of the aorist for most verbs is not complex, but there are numerous small subcategories that must be learned. All verbs in the aorist (except сум) take the same endings, but there are complexities in the aorist stem vowel and possible consonant alternations. All verbs (except сум) take the following endings in the aorist:[23]

јас ние -вме
ти -∅ / -ше вие -вте
тој -∅ / -ше тие -а / -ја

(The sign ∅ indicates a zero ending: nothing is added after the stem vowel.)

Morphology edit

In the Indo-European languages Greek and Sanskrit, the aorist stem is marked by several morphological devices (the aorist indicative also has the past-tense augment ἐ- e-, which contracts with the initial vowel). Three aorist morphological devices stand out as most common:

Morphology Description, examples of aorist tense and aorist imperative
suffixing of s[24] The first, weak, s-, or sigmatic aorist is the most common in Greek.
  • ἀκούω akoúō "I hear"—ἤκουσα ḗkousa "I heard"—ἄκουσον ákouson "Hear!"
zero-grade of ablaut,
lack of suffix / nasal infix[25][26]
The second or strong aorist uses the bare root of the verb without the e of ablaut or the present-tense suffix or nasal infix.
  • λείπω l "I leave"—ἔλιπον élipon "I left"—λίπε lípe "Leave!"
  • λαμβάνω lambánō "I take"—ἔλαβον élabon "I took"—λαβέ labé "Take!"
reduplication[27][28] Reduplication is more common in the perfect, but a few Greek verbs use it in the aorist. The reduplicated aorist is more common in Sanskrit, e.g. ájījanam "I gave birth."[15]
  • ἄγω ágō "I lead"—ἤγαγον ḗgagon "I led"—ἄγαγε ágage "Lead!"

South Caucasian languages edit

In Georgian and Svan, the aorist marks perfective aspect. In the indicative, it marks completed events. In other moods, it marks events that are yet to be completed.[29]

In Mingrelian and Laz, the aorist is basically a past tense and can be combined with both perfective and imperfective aspects as well as the imperative and the subjunctive moods.[30]

Northeast Caucasian languages edit

In Khinalug, the aorist is a perfective aspect, and the two terms ("aorist" and "perfective") are often used interchangeably.[31]

In Udi, the aorist is an imperfective aspect that is usually a past tense but can also replace the present tense.[32]

Turkish edit

In Turkish, the aorist (Turkish: geniş zaman, literally "broad time") is a habitual aspect[3] and is similar to the English present simple.[33] For example, the statement Et yemem ("I do not eat meat") informs the listener that the speaker is a vegetarian and not merely that he happens not to be eating meat at that very moment. To convey the latter message, the present progressive Et yemiyorum ("I am not eating meat") would be appropriate. The Turkish aorist is commonly used in enquiries about someone's wishes, as in Bir şey yemek ister misiniz? ("Would you like to eat something?"). That makes a question like Domuz eti yer misiniz? ambiguous, as the listener may interpret it as an informational question ("Are you someone who eats pork"?) or as an offer ("Would you [like to] eat pork?").[33]

Constructed languages edit

In J. R. R. Tolkien's constructed language Quenya, the aorist is a gnomic tense or simple present that expresses general facts or simple present actions.[34]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ ἀόριστος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  2. ^ Beetham, Frank (2007). Learning Greek with Plato. Bristol Phoenix Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-904675-56-3. This does not mean, however, that the aorist was aspectually neutral, see Napoli, Maria (2006). Aspect and Actionality in Homeric Greek. Milano: FrancoAngeli. p. 67. ISBN 88-464-7836-3.
  3. ^ a b Lewis, Geoffrey (2000). Turkish Grammar (2nd ed.). Oxford. ISBN 0-19-870036-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ Michael Meier-Brügger, Matthias Fritz, Manfred Mayrhofer, Indo-European Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, 2003, ISBN 3-11-017433-2, pp. 173–176.
  5. ^ Teffeteller (2006). "Ancient Greek". Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd ed.). ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
  6. ^ Palmer, L. R. (1988). The Latin Language. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-8061-2136-X.
  7. ^ Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar, sect. 1934, citing Euripides, Alcestis, 386 "I am destroyed (aorist indicative) if you will leave me".
  8. ^ Matthew 6:11, KJV. In Greek: Τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον.
  9. ^ Luke 11:3, KJV. In Greek: τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δίδου ἡμῖν τὸ καθ' ἡμέραν.
  10. ^ F. Kinchin Smith and T.W. Melluish, Teach Yourself Greek, Hodder and Stoughton, 1968, p. 94.
  11. ^ Egbert Bakker, 1997, Grammar as Interpretation: Greek literature in its linguistic contexts, p 21;
    Constantine Campbell, 2007, Verbal Aspect, the Indicative Mood, and Narrative: Soundings in the Greek of the New Testament, chapter 4;
    Donald Mastronarde, 1993, Introduction to Attic Greek;
    Buist M. Fanning, 1990, Verbal Aspect in New Testament Greek, p 67;
    Heerak Kim, 2008, Intricately Connected: Biblical Studies, Intertextuality, and Literary Genre;
    Maria Napoli, 2006, Aspect and Actionality in Homeric Greek; Brook Pearson, 2001, Corresponding Sense: Paul, Dialectic, and Gadamer, p 75;
    Stanley Porter, 1992, Idioms of the Greek New Testament;
    A.T. Robertson, 1934, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research;
    Max Zerwick, 1963, Biblical Greek.
  12. ^ Martin Haspelmath, ed., 2001, Typologie des langues et les universaux linguistiques, 1:779;
    Roger Woodward, "Attic Greek", in The Ancient Languages of Europe, p 33;
    see also discussion in Stanley Porter, 1992, Idioms of the Greek New Testament, p 38
  13. ^ a b D. A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies, Baker Book House, 1984, ISBN 0-8010-2499-4, p. 70.
  14. ^ Grant R. Osborne, The Hermeneutical Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 2nd ed., InterVarsity Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8308-2826-5, p. 69.
  15. ^ a b c William Dwight Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana, Oxford University Press, 1950, pp. 297-330.
  16. ^ T. Burrow, The Sanskrit Language, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2001, ISBN 81-208-1767-2, p. 299.
  17. ^ a b c Aco Nevski, 'Past Tenses in Serbian language and modern trends of their use'
  18. ^ Ацо Невски, 'Аорист као псовка' (Serbian)
  19. ^ Dr Branko Tošović, Zbornik Matice srpske za slavistiku, knjiga 71-72, p. 393 March 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine (Serbian only)
  20. ^ The Slavonic languages ed. Bernard Comrie, Greville G. Corbett, passim, esp. p.212ff.
  21. ^ Bernard Comrie, Aspect: An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems, Cambridge University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-521-29045-7, p 12.
  22. ^ Östen Dahl, Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3-11-015752-7, p. 290.
  23. ^ Christina E. Kramer (1999), Makedonski Jazik (The University of Wisconsin Press).
  24. ^ Smyth. A Greek grammar for colleges. § 542: first aorist stem.
  25. ^ Smyth. A Greek grammar for colleges. §§ 546, 547: second aorist stem, o-verbs.
  26. ^ Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (eds.), The Indo-European Languages, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-06449-X, pp. 248–251.
  27. ^ Smyth. A Greek grammar for colleges. § 494: reduplication.
  28. ^ Smyth. A Greek grammar for colleges. §§ 549.1: reduplication in 2nd aorist.
  29. ^ Heinz Fãhnrich, "Old Georgian", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 1, The Kartvelian Languages (1991, Caravan Books), pp. 129-217.
    Howard I. Aronson, "Modern Georgian", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 1, The Kartvelian Languages (1991, Caravan Books), pp. 219-312.
    Karl Horst Schmidt, "Svan", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 1, The Kartvelian Languages (1991, Caravan Books), pp. 473-556.
  30. ^ Alice C. Harris, "Mingrelian", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 1, The Kartvelian Languages (1991, Caravan Books), pp. 313-394.
    Dee Ann Holisky, "Laz", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 1, The Kartvelian Languages (1991, Caravan Books), pp. 395-472.
  31. ^ A.E. Kibrik, "Khinalug", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 4, North East Caucasian Languages, Part 2 (1994, Caravan Books), pp. 367-406.
  32. ^ Wolfgang Schulze-Fürhoff, "Udi", The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus, Volume 4, North East Caucasian Languages, Part 2 (1994, Caravan Books), pp. 447-514.
  33. ^ a b Yavaş, Feryal (1979). "The Turkish Aorist" (working paper). Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics. 4. Linguisitcs Graduate Student Association, University of Kansas: 41–49. doi:10.17161/KWPL.1808.656. hdl:1808/656. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. ^ Helge Fauskanger. Ardalambion. Quenya - The Ancient Tongue. The Verb.

External links edit

  • Greek tenses

aorist, this, article, about, aorists, various, languages, greek, aorist, ancient, greek, abbreviated, verb, forms, usually, express, perfective, aspect, refer, past, events, similar, preterite, ancient, greek, grammar, aorist, form, grammars, other, indo, eur. This article is about the aorists of various languages For the Greek aorist see Aorist Ancient Greek Aorist ˈ eɪ e r ɪ s t AY er ist abbreviated AOR verb forms usually express perfective aspect and refer to past events similar to a preterite Ancient Greek grammar had the aorist form and the grammars of other Indo European languages and languages influenced by the Indo European grammatical tradition such as Middle Persian Sanskrit Armenian the South Slavic languages Georgian and Pashto also have forms referred to as aorist The word comes from Ancient Greek ἀoristos aoristos indefinite 1 as the aorist was the unmarked default form of the verb and thus did not have the implications of the imperfective aspect which referred to an ongoing or repeated situation or the perfect which referred to a situation with a continuing relevance instead it described an action pure and simple 2 Because the aorist was the unmarked aspect in Ancient Greek the term is sometimes applied to unmarked verb forms in other languages such as the habitual aspect in Turkish 3 Contents 1 Indo European languages 1 1 Proto Indo European 1 2 Greek 1 2 1 Hermeneutic implications 1 3 Sanskrit 1 4 Slavic languages 1 5 Morphology 2 South Caucasian languages 3 Northeast Caucasian languages 4 Turkish 5 Constructed languages 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksIndo European languages editProto Indo European edit In Proto Indo European the aorist appears to have originated as a series of verb forms expressing manner of action 4 Proto Indo European had a three way aspectual opposition traditionally called present aorist and perfect which are thought to have been respectively imperfective perfective and stative resultant state aspects By the time of Classical Greek this system was maintained largely in independent instances of the non indicative moods and in the nonfinite forms But in the indicative and in dependent clauses with the subjunctive and optative the aspects took on temporal significance In this manner the aorist was often used as an unmarked past tense and the perfect came to develop a resultative use 5 which is why the term perfect is used for this meaning in modern languages Other Indo European languages lost the aorist entirely In the development of Latin for example the aorist merged with the perfect 6 The preterites past perfectives of the Romance languages which are sometimes called aorist are an independent development Greek edit Main article Aorist Ancient Greek In Ancient Greek the indicative aorist is one of the two main forms used in telling a story it is used for undivided events such as the individual steps in a continuous process narrative aorist it is also used for events that took place before the story itself past within past The aorist indicative is also used to express things that happen in general without asserting a time the gnomic aorist It can also be used of present and future 7 events the aorist also has several specialized senses meaning present action Non indicative forms of the aorist subjunctives optatives imperatives infinitives are usually purely aspectual with certain exceptions including indirect speech constructions and the use of optative as part of the sequence of tenses in dependent clauses There are aorist infinitives and imperatives that do not imply temporality at all For example the Lord s Prayer in Matthew 6 11 uses the aorist imperative in Give dos dos us this day our daily bread 8 in contrast to the analogous passage in Luke 11 3 which uses the imperfective aspect implying repetition with Give didoy didou present imperative us day by day our daily bread 9 An example of how the aorist tense contrasts with the imperfect in describing the past occurs in Xenophon s Anabasis when the Persian aristocrat Orontas is executed and those who had been previously in the habit of bowing prosekynoyn prosekunoun imperfect to him bowed prosekynhsan prosekunesan aorist to him even then 10 Here the imperfect refers to a past habitual or repeated act and the aorist to a single one There is disagreement as to which functions of the Greek aorist are inherent within it Some of the disagreement applies to the history of the development of the various functions and forms Most grammarians differentiate the aorist indicative from the non indicative aorists Many authors hold that the aorist tends to be about the past because it is perfective and perfectives tend to describe completed actions 11 others that the aorist indicative and to some extent the participle is essentially a mixture of past tense and perfective aspect 12 Hermeneutic implications edit Because the aorist was not maintained in either Latin or the Germanic languages there have long been difficulties in translating the Greek New Testament into Western languages The aorist has often been interpreted as making a strong statement about the aspect or even the time of an event when in fact due to its being the unmarked default form of the Greek verb such implications are often left to context Thus within New Testament hermeneutics it is considered an exegetical fallacy to attach undue significance to uses of the aorist 13 Although one may draw specific implications from an author s use of the imperfective or perfect no such conclusions can in general be drawn from the use of the aorist which may refer to an action without specifying whether the action is unique repeated ingressive instantaneous past or accomplished 13 In particular the aorist does not imply a once for all action as it has commonly been misinterpreted although it frequently refers to a simple non repeated action 14 Sanskrit edit Main article Sanskrit verbs Aorist system Although quite common in older Sanskrit the aorist is comparatively infrequent in much of classical Sanskrit occurring for example 66 times in the first book of the Ramayaṇa 8 times in the Hitopadesa 6 times in the Bhagavad Gita and 6 times in the story of Sakuntala in the Mahabharata 15 In the later language the aorist indicative had the value of a preterite clarification needed while in the older language it was closer in sense to the perfect 15 The aorist was also used with the ancient injunctive mood particularly in prohibitions 16 Slavic languages edit Further information Past Aorist Aoristus in Bulgarian verbs and Verbs in Macedonian grammar The Indo European aorist was inherited by the Slavic languages but has survived intact only in the South Slavic languages It retains its function entirely in the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian However in Western South Slavic languages it has become along with the imperfect and pluperfect largely obsolete in daily parlance and mostly superseded by the perfect and circumlocution The aorist is part of the standardized varieties of Serbo Croatian but is no longer part of standard Slovene In both languages the aorist appears mostly in older literature scripture religious services and legislation and so carries an archaic tone In Serbo Croatian aorist finds natural use only in certain locales while it is completely supplanted by the perfect in others As such its use in formal settings can be construed as either pretentious and bombastic or conversely as rustic and unsophisticated depending on locale Its disuse does not cause ambiguity as Slavic verbs have distinct grammatical aspects to convey related yet distinct meaning The prevalence of the aorist varied widely by region prior to the grammatical changes during the communists rise to power in SFR Yugoslavia after World War II Historically in Croatia and Croatian dialects the aorist was naturally displaced by the perfect in most dialects Chakavian Kajkavian and Shtokavian 17 unreliable source In Serbia and Serbian dialects the aorist was historically commonly used to describe the past In 1933 the Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belic was tasked by the authorities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia with creating a formal grammar for the new Serbo Croatian standard He decided to curb the use of the aorist by noting that there were many speakers of the language in Yugoslavia who rarely use aorist or do not use it at all alluding to primarily Croats Slovenes Bosniaks and Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia whose dialects had long since done away with aorist altogether Belic redefined aorist as a tense that described an action that happened immediately before the moment of speech despite the fact that aorist never carried such a meaning inherently among native speakers 17 unreliable source In an effort to reinforce the use of the unified and standardized language in public discourse and education the usage of the aorist gradually became prescriptively stigmatized by the communist regime and filtered from official use in PR Serbia and PR Montenegro Belic s redefinition and use of aorist in fiction writing was tolerated due to abundance of its use in older literature 17 unreliable source Nevertheless aorist is still widespread in rural parts of Serbia especially among the older and less educated part of the population 18 unreliable source In standardized forms the aorist is used for witnessed actions from a specific time in the past mostly with verbs of perfective aspect In modern forms of communication the aorist has experienced something of a revival among younger speakers in Serbia as its forms are simpler and shorter to type out than the perfect 19 In Bulgarian which has produced a new regular formation the aorist is used in indirect and in presumptive quotations 20 Bulgarian has separate inflections for aorist past imperfective and general perfective The aorist may be used with the imperfective to produce a compound perfective imperfective aspect 21 22 The aorist in Macedonian is called the past definite complete tense minato opredeleno svrsheno vreme and refers to a completed action in the past tense It most often corresponds to the simple past tense in English I read the book I wrote the letter I ate my supper etc In contemporary standard Macedonian the aorist is formed almost exclusively from perfective verbs The formation of the aorist for most verbs is not complex but there are numerous small subcategories that must be learned All verbs in the aorist except sum take the same endings but there are complexities in the aorist stem vowel and possible consonant alternations All verbs except sum take the following endings in the aorist 23 јas v nie vmeti she vie vtetoј she tie a јa The sign indicates a zero ending nothing is added after the stem vowel Morphology edit In the Indo European languages Greek and Sanskrit the aorist stem is marked by several morphological devices the aorist indicative also has the past tense augment ἐ e which contracts with the initial vowel Three aorist morphological devices stand out as most common Morphology Description examples of aorist tense and aorist imperativesuffixing of s 24 The first weak s or sigmatic aorist is the most common in Greek ἀkoyw akouō I hear ἤkoysa ḗkousa I heard ἄkoyson akouson Hear zero grade of ablaut lack of suffix nasal infix 25 26 The second or strong aorist uses the bare root of the verb without the e of ablaut or the present tense suffix or nasal infix leipw leipō I leave ἔlipon elipon I left lipe lipe Leave lambanw lambanō I take ἔlabon elabon I took labe labe Take reduplication 27 28 Reduplication is more common in the perfect but a few Greek verbs use it in the aorist The reduplicated aorist is more common in Sanskrit e g ajijanam I gave birth 15 ἄgw agō I lead ἤgagon ḗgagon I led ἄgage agage Lead South Caucasian languages editIn Georgian and Svan the aorist marks perfective aspect In the indicative it marks completed events In other moods it marks events that are yet to be completed 29 In Mingrelian and Laz the aorist is basically a past tense and can be combined with both perfective and imperfective aspects as well as the imperative and the subjunctive moods 30 Northeast Caucasian languages editIn Khinalug the aorist is a perfective aspect and the two terms aorist and perfective are often used interchangeably 31 In Udi the aorist is an imperfective aspect that is usually a past tense but can also replace the present tense 32 Turkish editIn Turkish the aorist Turkish genis zaman literally broad time is a habitual aspect 3 and is similar to the English present simple 33 For example the statement Et yemem I do not eat meat informs the listener that the speaker is a vegetarian and not merely that he happens not to be eating meat at that very moment To convey the latter message the present progressive Et yemiyorum I am not eating meat would be appropriate The Turkish aorist is commonly used in enquiries about someone s wishes as in Bir sey yemek ister misiniz Would you like to eat something That makes a question like Domuz eti yer misiniz ambiguous as the listener may interpret it as an informational question Are you someone who eats pork or as an offer Would you like to eat pork 33 Constructed languages editIn J R R Tolkien s constructed language Quenya the aorist is a gnomic tense or simple present that expresses general facts or simple present actions 34 See also editAncient Greek grammar Mood of the dependent verb PreteriteReferences edit ἀoristos Liddell Henry George Scott Robert A Greek English Lexicon at the Perseus Project Beetham Frank 2007 Learning Greek with Plato Bristol Phoenix Press p 362 ISBN 978 1 904675 56 3 This does not mean however that the aorist was aspectually neutral see Napoli Maria 2006 Aspect and Actionality in Homeric Greek Milano FrancoAngeli p 67 ISBN 88 464 7836 3 a b Lewis Geoffrey 2000 Turkish Grammar 2nd ed Oxford ISBN 0 19 870036 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Michael Meier Brugger Matthias Fritz Manfred Mayrhofer Indo European Linguistics Walter de Gruyter 2003 ISBN 3 11 017433 2 pp 173 176 Teffeteller 2006 Ancient Greek Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 2nd ed ISBN 0 08 044299 4 Palmer L R 1988 The Latin Language University of Oklahoma Press p 8 ISBN 0 8061 2136 X Herbert Weir Smyth Greek Grammar sect 1934 citing Euripides Alcestis 386 I am destroyed aorist indicative if you will leave me Matthew 6 11 KJV In Greek Tὸn ἄrton ἡmῶn tὸn ἐpioysion dὸs ἡmῖn shmeron Luke 11 3 KJV In Greek tὸn ἄrton ἡmῶn tὸn ἐpioysion didoy ἡmῖn tὸ ka8 ἡmeran F Kinchin Smith and T W Melluish Teach Yourself Greek Hodder and Stoughton 1968 p 94 Egbert Bakker 1997 Grammar as Interpretation Greek literature in its linguistic contexts p 21 Constantine Campbell 2007 Verbal Aspect the Indicative Mood and Narrative Soundings in the Greek of the New Testament chapter 4 Donald Mastronarde 1993 Introduction to Attic Greek Buist M Fanning 1990 Verbal Aspect in New Testament Greek p 67 Heerak Kim 2008 Intricately Connected Biblical Studies Intertextuality and Literary Genre Maria Napoli 2006 Aspect and Actionality in Homeric Greek Brook Pearson 2001 Corresponding Sense Paul Dialectic and Gadamer p 75 Stanley Porter 1992 Idioms of the Greek New Testament A T Robertson 1934 A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research Max Zerwick 1963 Biblical Greek Martin Haspelmath ed 2001 Typologie des langues et les universaux linguistiques 1 779 Roger Woodward Attic Greek in The Ancient Languages of Europe p 33 see also discussion in Stanley Porter 1992 Idioms of the Greek New Testament p 38 a b D A Carson Exegetical Fallacies Baker Book House 1984 ISBN 0 8010 2499 4 p 70 Grant R Osborne The Hermeneutical Spiral A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation 2nd ed InterVarsity Press 2006 ISBN 0 8308 2826 5 p 69 a b c William Dwight Whitney Sanskrit Grammar Including both the Classical Language and the older Dialects of Veda and Brahmana Oxford University Press 1950 pp 297 330 T Burrow The Sanskrit Language Motilal Banarsidass Publ 2001 ISBN 81 208 1767 2 p 299 a b c Aco Nevski Past Tenses in Serbian language and modern trends of their use Aco Nevski Aorist kao psovka Serbian Dr Branko Tosovic Zbornik Matice srpske za slavistiku knjiga 71 72 p 393 Archived March 15 2012 at the Wayback Machine Serbian only The Slavonic languages ed Bernard Comrie Greville G Corbett passim esp p 212ff Bernard Comrie Aspect An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems Cambridge University Press 1976 ISBN 0 521 29045 7 p 12 Osten Dahl Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe Walter de Gruyter 2000 ISBN 3 11 015752 7 p 290 Christina E Kramer 1999 Makedonski Jazik The University of Wisconsin Press Smyth A Greek grammar for colleges 542 first aorist stem Smyth A Greek grammar for colleges 546 547 second aorist stem o verbs Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat eds The Indo European Languages Routledge 1998 ISBN 0 415 06449 X pp 248 251 Smyth A Greek grammar for colleges 494 reduplication Smyth A Greek grammar for colleges 549 1 reduplication in 2nd aorist Heinz Fahnrich Old Georgian The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 1 The Kartvelian Languages 1991 Caravan Books pp 129 217 Howard I Aronson Modern Georgian The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 1 The Kartvelian Languages 1991 Caravan Books pp 219 312 Karl Horst Schmidt Svan The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 1 The Kartvelian Languages 1991 Caravan Books pp 473 556 Alice C Harris Mingrelian The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 1 The Kartvelian Languages 1991 Caravan Books pp 313 394 Dee Ann Holisky Laz The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 1 The Kartvelian Languages 1991 Caravan Books pp 395 472 A E Kibrik Khinalug The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 4 North East Caucasian Languages Part 2 1994 Caravan Books pp 367 406 Wolfgang Schulze Furhoff Udi The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus Volume 4 North East Caucasian Languages Part 2 1994 Caravan Books pp 447 514 a b Yavas Feryal 1979 The Turkish Aorist working paper Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 4 Linguisitcs Graduate Student Association University of Kansas 41 49 doi 10 17161 KWPL 1808 656 hdl 1808 656 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Helge Fauskanger Ardalambion Quenya The Ancient Tongue The Verb External links edit nbsp Look up aorist in Wiktionary the free dictionary Greek tenses Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aorist amp oldid 1205043136, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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