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Fracking in the United Kingdom

October 26, 2023

Fracking in the United Kingdom started in the late 1970s with fracturing of the conventional oil and gas fields near the North Sea. It was used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells from the early 1980s.[1] The technique attracted attention after licences use were awarded for onshore shale gas exploration in 2008.[2][3] The topic received considerable public debate on environmental grounds,[4] with a 2019 high court ruling ultimately banning the process.[5] The two remaining high-volume fracturing wells were supposed to be plugged and decommissioned in 2022.[6]

Although fracking is often used synonymously to refer to shale gas and other unconventional oil and gas sources, it is not always correct to associate it with unconventional gas.[7]

For further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out, see Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir § Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs.

History Edit

 
Oil well in Lincolnshire. Around 200 onshore wells such as this have been hydraulically fractured.

The first experimental use of hydraulic fracturing in the world was in 1947, and the first commercially successful applications of hydraulic fracturing were in 1949 in the United States.[8] There has been significant fracking in the US, where it has allowed electricity to be produced using gas rather than coal, halving the associated CO2 emissions.[9]

Offshore Edit

In the United Kingdom, the first hydraulic fracturing of an oil well was carried out shortly after discovery of the West Sole field in the North Sea in 1965. After the industry started to use intermediate and high-strength proppants in the late 1970s, hydraulic fracturing became a common technique in the North Sea oil and gas wells. The first hydraulic fracturing from ship was conducted in the British Southern North Sea in 1980, with massive or high volume hydraulic fracturing used from 1984 onwards.[10]

Onshore Edit

An estimated 200 conventional onshore wells have been subject to low volume hydraulic fracturing; around 10% of all onshore wells in the United Kingdom,[1] including Wytch Farm, which is the largest onshore conventional oil field in western Europe.[11] From 1977 until 1994, a hot dry rock geothermal energy experiment was conducted in the Carnmenellis granite of Cornwall. During that experiment, three geothermal wells with depth of 2.6 kilometres (1.6 mi) were hydraulically fractured "to research the hydraulic stimulation of fracture networks at temperatures below 100 °C (212 °F)".[12]

The surge of public interest in high-volume hydraulic fracturing in the UK can be traced to 2008, when Cuadrilla Resources was granted a petroleum exploration and development licence in the 13th onshore licensing round for unconventional shale gas exploration along the coast of Lancashire.[13][3] The company's first and only high-volume hydraulic fracturing job[14]: 4  was performed in March 2011, near Blackpool, Lancashire.[15][16] Cuadrilla halted operations in May 2011 at their Lancashire drilling site due to seismic activity damaging the casing in the production zone.[17] On 2 November 2019, the UK government imposed a moratorium on fracking in England.[18] Scotland[19] and Wales[20] have moratoria in place against hydraulic fracturing.

In late May 2011, the first UK exploration for shale gas using high-volume hydraulic fracturing was suspended at Preese Hall at Weeton in Lancashire after the process triggered two minor earthquakes.[21] The larger of the earthquakes caused minor deformation of the wellbore[22] and was strong enough to be felt.[23] The report of 2012 by the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering concluded that earthquake risk was minimal, and recommended the process be given nationwide clearance, although it highlighted certain concerns[1] which led to changes in regulations.[24]

In January 2014, the European Commission issued a set of recommendations on the minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons from shale formations using high-volume hydraulic fracturing.[25]

A 2016 government report on the UK shale gas sector was finally made available in 2019 after a three year legal battle to make it public, but with three-quarters of its pages blacked out. The unredacted paragraphs said that the government was “undertaking crucial work on communications to increase public acceptability of shale.”[26] In March 2019, the High Court found the UK government's policy was unlawful and failed to consider the climate impact of shale gas extraction.[5]

In November 2019 the government announced "an indefinite suspension" to fracking, after a report by the Oil and Gas Authority (OGA) said it was not possible to predict the probability or size of tremors caused by the practice. Business Secretary Andrea Leadsom said that the suspension might be temporary - imposed "until and unless" extraction is proved safe.[27] As of February 2022, the two Cuadrilla wells in Lancashire, which had been out of operation since the ban, were supposed to finally be plugged and decommissioned.[6] By mid March and 4 weeks into the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the CEO of Cuadrilla asked the government to keep the wells open for energy security.[28]

Process Edit

Hydraulic fracturing is a well-stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a hydraulically pressurized fluid. This process is also known as 'fracking'. Hydraulic fracturing requires a borehole to be drilled to target depth in the reservoir. For oil and gas production, hydraulically fractured wells can be horizontal or vertical, while the reservoir can be conventional or unconventional. After the well has been drilled, lined, and geophysically logged, the rock can be hydraulically fractured.[29]

Method Edit

Main article: Hydraulic fracturing § Method

There are six stages in hydraulic fracturing: Perforation; Isolation: Stimulation; Flushing; Multi-stage perforation, and; Flowback.[29]

Perforation Edit

In shale plays, the cased well is perforated using "shaped charges (explosives)", which are detonated at selected locations in the production zone. In addition to making perforations in the casing, these detonations also create "finger-like fractures" "up to 2.5 cm in diameter" that "extend up to 60 cm into the formation".[29] In the United Kingdom, geothermal wells normally use barefoot completions, rather than "perforated and cemented completions" within a cased production zone.[30]

Isolation Edit

Each perforated section is isolated using a packer (seal)[29]

Stimulation Edit

For both low and high volume hydraulic fracturing stimulation of a hydrocarbon well, a high-pressure fluid (usually water) containing chemical additives and a proppant is injected into a wellbore to create an extensive system of small cracks in the deep-rock formations. These cracks provide the pathway for: natural gas, (including shale gas, tight gas and coalbed methane); petroleum, (including shale or tight oil); to flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, the small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppant[31] hold the fractures open when the pressure is released.[29]

When a hydrocarbon well is hydraulically fractured, this is done through a production packer (seal), through the drill pipe or tubing. Fluids are circulated down the tubing, to below the point where the packer is sealed against the production casing. Pressure is then applied to only that part of the casing below the packer.[32] The rest of the well casing will not experience any increase in pressure due to the sealing of the packer. The surface casings do not experience the great pressures experienced at the production zone. This means the stresses on a surface casing are no greater than on a normal oil or gas well. Smaller diameter pipes can sustain much larger pressures than large diameter pipes.[citation needed]

In HDR geothermal hydraulic fracturing stimulation, proppants are not added to hydraulic fracturing fluid, as the rough-surfaced shear fractures stay open through self-propping.[12]

Multi-stage perforation Edit

In horizontally drilled sections, it is common to perform as many as 30 separate fracture stages, to evenly divide the production zone. In multi-stage fracturing, segments of a horizontal well, starting at the end furthest from the well head, are split into isolated segments and fractured separately.

Flowback fluid Edit

Flowback fluid contains high levels of salt and is contaminated with organic "solids, heavy metals, fracking chemicals and naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) of varying concentration and low levels of radioactive materials".[33] The Environment Agency strategy for management of NORM-contaminated flowback fluid, after treatment, includes its preferred re-use by re-injection during hydraulic fracturing[34] and its disposal, with caveats, via water treatment sites.[35]

Flowback fluid can be treated and reused in later hydraulic fracturing operations,[34] to reduce the volume of freshwater required and to mitigate issues arising from off-site disposal of flowback fluid.[36] Flowback fluid injection in deep disposal wells, which has been linked to significant increase in earthquake rate,[37] is not currently permitted in the UK by the Environment Agency.[34]

Research by Engelder et alia in 2012, indicated that any water injected into a shale formation that does not flow back to the surface, known as "residual treatment water", would be permanently absorbed, (sequestered) into the shale.[38]

In January 2014, "applications for permits to frack" were withdrawn by Cuadrilla after arrangements for treatment and disposal of NORM-contaminated flowback fluid were considered inadequate by the Environment Agency.[39] Technologies are developing methods of removing salt and radioactive materials, allowing safe disposal of flowback fluid under Environment Agency licence.[40] Research in the US also indicates new methods such as "microbial capacitive desalination cells" may become available.[41]

Fracture fluids Edit

Main article: Hydraulic fracturing § Fracturing fluids

Chemical additives, typically around 1 per cent of the total fluid volume, are added to water to reduce water viscosity and modify fluid properties.[42] The fracturing fluid used at the No 1 well, at Preese Hall in Weeton, Lancashire,was "99.95% water and sand".[43] The chemical additives (0.05 per cent) were:

  • Polyacrylamide emulsion in hydrocarbon oil (0.043 per cent), which reduces the viscosity of the water to allow faster pumping. It is classed as a "non-hazardous pollutant"[44]
  • Sodium salt, for tracing fracturing fluid (0.000005 per cent)[45]

Proppants may comprise up to 10 per cent of hydraulic fracturing fluid volume.[42] The proppants used at Preese Hall 1 were silica sand:

  • Congleton Sand (0.473 per cent)
  • Chelford Sand (1.550 per cent)[46]

Additional chemical additives that were permitted at Preese Hall 1, but not used, were highly dilute hydrochloric acid and glutaraldehyde, which is used as a biocide in very small quantities, to sterilise the water.[47] Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation is another replacement available for water sterilisation.[citation needed] Although some of the chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids such as hydrochloric acid may be classified as toxic, corrosive or irritant,[48] they are non-toxic at lower concentrations.[citation needed]

Waterless fracturing fluid systems Edit

Other fracturing fluid systems[49] such as gels, foams and compressed gases, including nitrogen,[50] carbon dioxide and air, can be injected in place of water. Waterless fracturing fluids that use propane-based LPG[51] have the potential to reduce wastewater toxicity.[1]: 20  There is sometimes a need to hydraulically fracture coalbed methane and these[clarification needed] methods can be used.[52]

Fracture monitoring Edit

Main article: Hydraulic fracturing § Fracture monitoring

The hydraulic fracturing process creates a large number of microseismic events, which require monitoring.[29] A 2012 research paper from ReFINE concludes that the maximum recorded fracture height in US shale plays is 588 metres.[53]

Microseismic monitoring Edit

Microseismic monitoring techniques, using very sensitive microphones and tilt meters can monitor the growth of fractures in the target formation in real time. This can be done using a surface array, or, if there is a nearby offset well, using downhole microphones. This means that the engineers can modify the pump rate based upon the growth of the fractures, and stop pumping if there is evidence of vertical migration into faults. This technology is available from many big oilfield service companies.[54]

Areas of use Edit

Main article: Shale gas in the United Kingdom § Areas

Only high volume hydraulic fracturing[55] combined with horizontal drilling is likely to enable commercial extraction of unconventional hydrocarbon resources, such as shale gas and light tight oil, in the United Kingdom.[1][56][57] The areas where hydraulic fracturing are expected to be used are the Upper Bowland Shale of the Pennine Basin in Lancashire and Yorkshire,[57] and the Jurassic oil-bearing shales of the Weald Basin in Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex and Kent.[58]

The national parks with geologies of possible interest are the North York Moors (shales), the Peak District (shales and coals), the South Downs (shale oil) and to the south of the Yorkshire Dales (shales and coals).[59]

The Eden Project in Cornwall is in the process of drilling and hydraulically fracturing two geothermal wells for utilisation of geothermal energy as a source for a geothermal power station.[60]

Regulation Edit

See also: Regulation of hydraulic fracturing and Shale gas in the United Kingdom § Regulation

Several government agencies, departments and one government company are involved in the regulation of hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom: the Oil and Gas Authority (OGA),[61][62] the Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), the local council planning authority including the Minerals Planning Authority (MPA), the Health and Safety Executive and one of four Environment Agencies[63]: 2  These environmental agencies are: the Environment Agency for England; National Resources for Wales;[64] the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA)[65] for Scotland, and; the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA)[66] for Northern Ireland.

Regulation of hydraulic fracturing Edit

Before onshore hydraulic fracturing can begin, an operator will have obtained a landward licence, known as a Petroleum Exploration and Development Licence (PEDL), from the OGA.[67]

A series of steps are then taken to obtain permissions from the landowner and council planning authorities.[68] The operator then requests a permit from the Minerals Planning Authority (MPA), who together with the local planning authority, determine if an environmental impact assessment (EIA), funded by the operator, is required.[63]

Up to six permits, constituting the Environmental Permitting Regulations (EPR) 2010,[69] two permits "under the Water Resources Act 1991" and one permit "under the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 2015" are obtained from the appropriate environmental agency, to ensure that onshore hydraulic fracturing operators fulfil strict environmental regulations.[63]: 5 

The role of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is to focus on the design and integrity of the well,[70] using an independent expert known as the 'well examiner'.[71] The EA and HSE together will "inspect the next series of hydraulic fracturing operations in England and Wales."[72]

A hydraulic fracture plan (HFP) is required for both conventional hydraulic fracture well stimulation and unconventional high volume hydraulic well stimulation. The HFP is agreed with OGA in consultation with the EA and HSE.[73] Hydraulic fracturing consent (HFC) is granted following an application to BEIS, to be reviewed by the Secretary of State,[74] and; comply with requirements to mitigate any seismic risks.[73]

In October 2022, British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak reinstated England's fracking ban moratorium after it was briefly lifted by his predecessor Liz Truss.[75]

Permitted chemicals Edit

The UK's four environment agencies do not permit chemical additives for hydraulic fracturing fluids that are classed as hazardous to groundwater, as defined by Schedule 22 of Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 (EPR 2010),[76] Schedule 5 of the Pollution Prevention and Control (Scotland) Regulations 2012,[77] and the EU Groundwater Directive (80/68/EEC).[78] The environmental regulator will assess every chemical before it is added to the hydraulic fracturing fluid.[68] The nature of each chemical, but not the concentration, must be made available to the public.[24]

The Joint Agencies Groundwater Directive Advisory Group (JAGDAG) maintains a list of substances that have been assessed as being hazardous substances or non-hazardous pollutants for the groundwater directive. Input of hazardous substances "on the basis of their toxicity, persistence and capacity to bio-accumulate" is not permitted into potable or unpotable groundwater.[79] Substances which are not hazardous are potentially non-hazardous pollutants.[80]

At the Balcombe site, the Environment Agency permitted one requested chemical oxirane, while not permitting the use of antimony trioxide, which "would be hazardous if it came into contact with groundwater".[81]

Criticism Edit

In March 2014, a group of conservation charities including the RSPB and the National Trust released a report containing a 10-point plan for increased regulation, highlighting their concerns about hydraulic fracturing with respect to groundwater pollution, public water supply, wastewater management and treatment both generally and within ecologically sensitive areas including National Parks.[82] UKOOG, the representative body for the UK onshore oil and gas industry, pointed to "a number of critical inaccuracies" and stated that: "many of the recommendations are already in place in the UK or are in the process of being put in place" and welcomed future dialogue with conservation agencies.[83]

In July 2014, the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (CIEH) and Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR) published a report about hydraulic fracturing that was broadly negative. It referred to major shortcomings in regulatory oversight regarding local environmental and public health risks, the potential for undermining efforts to tackle climate change, and the possibility that the process might cause water shortages.[84] The report received a negative review from an academic based upon the lead author being a Green Party candidate, and hydraulic fracturing protester, and the alleged selective nature of some[clarification needed] of the data used.[85]

In March 2015, the shale company funded Task Force on Shale Gas criticised "current regulation" as "complex and relatively unapproachable", and responsible for the public's lack of confidence. The Task Force on Shale Gas recommended that the regulatory requirement for an operator-funded independent well examiner[86] to be passed to a single, new government regulator, who would also "independently monitor fracking sites". UKOOG, the industry's trade and advocacy group, said: "public confidence in the industry is vital". The government responded: "Both the Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency have full authority and responsibility to monitor all shale sites - independent of the industry,"[87]

In June 2015, the UK regulations for hydraulic fracturing were criticised by the chemicals policy charity, CHEM Trust,[88] stating they were not sufficiently protective, and raising concerns about the reductions in funding for the regulators of fracking, like the Environment Agency.[89] UKOOG, responded to the CHEM Trust analysis, criticised the timing of the report: "The timing of this report is clearly designed to influence local councillors" and stated that "The report includes a number of recommendations that are already part of industry common practice or regulation in the UK."[90] and CHEM Trust[91] responded.[92]

Legislation Edit

Community and public engagement Edit

Community and public engagement is a legal requirement[93] of the EU Directive 2003/35/EC.[94]

In June 2013, the industry body UKOOG issued their Shale Community Engagement Charter.[95] The shale gas industry has agreed to two types of community benefit for communities hosting shale gas development, including: a one-off payment of £100,000 per site, after hydraulic fracturing had taken place, and; a 1% share of production revenues; yearly operator commitment publications.[68]

In 2014, the government announced its intent to create of a Shale Wealth Fund.[96] The fund was originally intended to be controlled by "community trusts or councils". A consultation period solicited views from stakeholders, "individuals, organisations, such as charities; businesses; local authorities, and; community groups"; ran between August and October 2016.[97]

In March 2016, Stephenson Halliday for the Planning Advisory Service noted that the UKOOG local community benefits scheme "fails all three of the tests" in Regulation 122(2) of the Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations 2010.[98] In 2016, the chemical company INEOS committed to a "share 6% of revenues. 4% of this would go to homeowners and landowners in the immediate vicinity of a well, and a further 2% to the wider community." In terms of total revenue, Ineos have estimated that "a typical 10 km by 10 km development area would generate £375m for the community over its lifespan".[99]

Infrastructure Act 2015 Sections 43 and 50 Edit

The Infrastructure Act 2015 legislated onshore access for onshore and offshore extraction of shale/tight oil, shale gas[100] and deep geothermal energy.[101] Section 50 of the act defined the hydraulic fracturing of "shale strata", also known as "high-volume hydraulic fracturing" as "more than 1000m3 of fluid per stage, and; more than 10,000m3 in total" and attached conditions that mean no hydraulic fracturing can take place at a depth shallower than 1000m in unprotected areas.

In order for the Secretary of State to give consent to hydraulic fracturing, legislation includes a range of conditions that operators must comply with, such as: "environmental impacts of development", including soil and air monitoring; 12 months of groundwater methane level monitoring prior to "associated" (high-volume) hydraulic fracturing; no associated hydraulic fracturing "within protected groundwater source areas";[102]

Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing (Protected Areas) Regulations 2016 Edit

"The Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing (Protected Areas) Regulations 2016" prohibited "hydraulic fracturing in protected areas" - i.e. National Parks of England and Wales, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, and UNESCO World Heritage sites - at depths of less than 1200m.[103]

Environmental impact Edit

See also: Environmental_impact_of_hydraulic_fracturing and Shale_gas_in_the_United_Kingdom § Environmental_impact

The environmental risks of hydraulic fracturing in conventional and unconventional wells: ground water contamination, surface water contamination, releases to air, water resource depletion, traffic, land take, noise, visual impact and seismicity.

Environmental impact assessments cover a wide range of concerns, including habitat damage, effect on wildlife, traffic, noise, lighting, and air pollution. This reference shows one example.[104] These are presented in less detail in a ' Non Technical Summary'.[105]

According to Professor Mair of the Royal Society, the causation of earthquakes with any significant impact or fractures reaching and contaminating drinking water, were very low risk" if adequate regulations are in place.[1]

A report from AMEC[106] in December 2013 covers many of the environmental issues that would arise were the shale gas industry to become highly developed.

The British Geological Survey are involved with environmental monitoring.[107]

In October 2014, EASAC stated that: "Overall, in Europe more than 1000 horizontal wells and several thousand hydraulic fracturing jobs have been executed in recent decades. None of these operations are known to have resulted in safety or environmental problems".[108]

In October 2016, Amec Foster Wheeler Infrastructure Ltd (AFWI) compared the environmental impacts and risks of unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing with conventional low volume hydraulic fracturing. The study found that volume of fluid injected and flowback were the only significant differences between conventional low volume and unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing and that the impacts and risks for high volume hydraulic fracturing scaled up for land take, traffic, surface water contamination and water resource depletion.[109]

Air Edit

In February 2016, a study by the ReFINE consortium funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Shell, Chevron, Ineos and Centrica, found "substantial increases over the baseline""in local air quality pollutants", during the short-duration high-traffic phase which includes the delivery of hydraulic fracturing equipment, proppant, water, as well as the removal of flowback from the site. According to ReFiNE, these short-duration increases have the potential to breach local air quality standards.[110] The industry group UKOOG criticised the ReFiNE study for failing to take into account that water for hydraulic fracturing fluid might be brought in by pipeline, instead of being transported by truck.[111]

In October 2016, Amec Foster Wheeler Infrastructure Ltd stated that the overall environmental impacts from low volume hydraulic fracturing to local air quality and global warming are low. Local air quality is impacted by dust and SO2 and NOx emissions "from equipment and vehicles used to transport, pressurise and injection fracturing fluids, and process flowback", while "Emissions of CO2 from the equipment used to pressurise and injection fracturing fluids, and process flowback." contributes to global warming.[109]: 161 

Water Edit

The RAE report stated, "Many claims of contaminated water wells due to shale gas extraction have been made. None has shown evidence of chemicals found in hydraulic fracturing fluids".[1] The Environment Agency definitions of groundwater and aquifer are here.[112]

In January 2015, the British Geological Survey released national baseline methane levels, which showed a wide range of readings[113] Poor surface well sealing, which allows methane to leak, methane was identified in the Royal Academy of Engineering report as a risk to groundwater.[114] This was incorporated into the Infrastructure Act 2015 with a requirement that monitoring takes place 12 months before fracturing.[115]

The Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management (CIWEM) have been involved with evaluating the potential water impacts of hydraulic fracturing.[116][clarification needed]

Groundwater contamination Edit

See also: Shale gas in the United Kingdom § Groundwater contamination

Both low and high volume hydraulic fracturing "involve storing and injecting large quantities of chemicals". Any surface spill therefore has "the potential to penetrate groundwater". The likelihood of low volume and high volume hydraulic fracturing contaminating groundwater by surface spills of stored chemicals is rare, however the risk and consequences are moderate.[117] To mitigate the risk, the Environment Agency requires chemical and fluid proof well pads.[63] The 2012 joint Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering report indicated that the distances between potable water supplies and fractured formation in various US shale plays is large, meaning the risk of contamination is very small. No cases of pollution by this route have been identified.[118]

Another 2013 paper from ReFine indicated the potential for surface gas leaks from abandoned wells[119]

UK and US water differences Edit

Treated mains water is the norm in the UK, and standards are required by legislation to be high. As such any pollution would have to be removed by the water companies by law. Private water wells are rare, around 62,000 households, out of 23.4 million households or 2.6%.[120] In rural areas of the US, private wells are common (15%), and small communities are served by investor-owned utilities, or community schemes. UK households would therefore be expected to be less at risk than those in the US.[original research?]

In the US, baseline methane measurements were not made at the start of the shale gas boom, meaning that it became difficult to prove whether a gas problem was due to a leaking well, or was naturally occurring.[citation needed]

Water use Edit

Water use is regulated by the EA (England), the SEPA (Scotland), the NIEA (Northern Ireland) and NRW (Wales) to ensure environmental needs are not compromised.[121] Water companies assess how much water is available, before providing it to operators.[citation needed] The amount of water abstracted nationally is at around 9.4 billion cubic metres.[122] In 2015, the EA indicated that water usage at a peak level[clarification needed] would be 0.1% of national use and hydraulic fracturing may use up to "30 million litres per well".[123] Drier areas, such as south-east England,[124] are concerned about the impact of hydraulic fracturing on water supplies.[125]

Seismicity Edit

As of August 2016, there have been two cases in the United Kingdom of fault reactivation by hydraulic fracturing that caused induced seismicity strong enough to be felt by humans at the surface: both in Lancashire (M 2.3 and M 1.5).[126]

In December 2015, the Centre for Research into Earth Energy Systems (CeREES) at Durham University published the first research of its kind, prior to "planned shale gas and oil exploitation", in order to establish a baseline for anthropogenic, induced seismic events in the UK.[127]

In October 2018, more earthquakes were recorded in Lancashire including two tremors of 0.8 magnitude which called the Energy firm Cuadrilla to call a temporary halt on the drilling operations.[128][129]

Preese Hall, Lancashire Edit

In May 2011, the government suspended Cuadrilla's[106][130][131] hydraulic fracturing operations in their Preese Hall 1 well in Lancashire, after two small earthquakes were triggered, one of magnitude M 2.3.[132] The largest coseismic slip caused minor deformation of the wellbore[22] and was strong enough to be felt.[23]

The company's temporary halt was pending DECC guidance on the conclusions of a study[133] being carried out by the British Geological Survey and Keele University,[130] which concluded in April 2012 that the process posed a seismic risk minimal enough to allow it to proceed with stricter monitoring.[134] Cuadrilla pointed out that a number of such small-magnitude earthquakes occur naturally each month in Britain.[135]

Cuadrilla commissioned an investigation into the seismic activity, which concluded that the tremors were probably caused by the lubrication of an existing fault plane by the unintended spread of hydraulic fracturing fluid below ground.[136][137][138]

In 2012, a report on hydraulic fracturing produced jointly by the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering noted that earthquakes of magnitude M 3.0, which are more intense than the larger of the two quakes caused by Cuadrilla are: "Felt by few people at rest or in the upper floors of buildings; similar to the passing of a truck."[1] The British Geological Survey has published information on seismic issues relating to hydraulic fracturing.[139]

In February 2014, following the small seismic event in the Preese Hall 1 well, and much research, the DECC issued a statement on earthquake risk.[21]

Subsidence Edit

There is no documented evidence of hydraulic fracturing leading to subsidence.[21] Operations are commonly monitored with tiltmeters, and no compaction issues have been documented. Given the mechanical properties of unconventional rocks (their densities, low porosities, low Biot coefficients, and high stiffness), compaction is very unlikely to occur during hydrocarbon extraction.[140]: 18 

Insurance Edit

In an answer to questions from the 'Lets talk about Shale'[141] initiative, run by Westbourne Communications[142] for the industry body, UKOOG, they have stated "According to the Association of British Insurers there is, at present, little evidence of a link between shale gas and property damage, and they are not aware of any claims where seismic activity as a result of fracking has been cited as a cause of damage. Damage as a result of earthquakes, subsidence, heave and landslip are all covered, in general, under buildings insurance. Insurers will continue to monitor the situation for the potential for fracking, or similar explorations, to cause damage."[143]

It was reported in early 2015 that farms would not be covered by issues that may arise due to hydraulic fracturing. A clarification by the insurer indicated that this would only apply to a farmer that permitted this on their land. Surrounding farms would be covered.[144]

In March 2017, the Chartered Insurance Institute (CII) released a report by the CII Claims Faculty New Generation Group, which explored the Insurance implications of fracking.[145] The authors examined the "key perils associated with fracking such as earthquakes, explosions and fire, pollution, injury and death", and found that while "most insurances policies" provided "cover for these risks", "fracking will pose additional complications around liability". The authors also considered that if widespread fracking were to lead to increased claims, "then insurers may have to consider how they underwrite this emerging higher-risk group". The authors recommended: working together within the insurance profession "to monitor and discuss the issues" while remaining "open and transparent about the risks of fracking", and; working with the "energy industry and the government" "to reduce the likelihood of potential risks occurring". The CII emphasised that "insurers need to be prepared for claims in the event of a fracking-related loss and consider policy wordings with increased fracking in mind".[146]

Public health Edit

If the Minerals Planning Authority determine that public health will be significantly impacted, the Director of Public health is consulted so that a "health impact assessment" can be prepared. The Environment Agency then uses the health impact assessment when considering the "potential health effects" during their "permit determination"[63]: 9 

In 2014, Public Health England reviewed the "available evidence on issues including air quality, radon gas, naturally occurring radioactive materials, water contamination and waste water. They concluded that the risks to public health from exposure to emissions from shale gas extraction are low if operations are properly run and regulated."[68] Public Health England's Dr John Harrison, Director for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, stated that: "Where potential risks have been identified in other countries, the reported problems are typically due to operational failure. Good on-site management and appropriate regulation of all aspects of exploratory drilling, gas capture as well as the use and storage of hydraulic fracturing fluid is essential to minimise the risks to the environment and health."[147]

In 2015 the health charity Medact published a paper written by two public health specialists called 'Health & Fracking - The impacts and opportunity costs', which reviewed health impacts of hydraulic fracturing and suggested a moratorium until a more detailed health and environmental impact assessment could be completed.[148] UKOOG criticised Medact's understanding of UK regulations and said they had not declared that one of its consultants, who was standing for parliament in the 2015 general election, had a conflict of interest.[149] The Times journalist Ben Webster also criticised Medact for not declaring one of their consultant's conflict of interest and reported that the Medact director had not realised that this consultant was also an anti-fracking candidate.[150] MedAct published a response to these criticisms.[151]

The content of the Medact Report 2015 was referred to by many objectors in the June 2015 Public reports pack for the Lancashire County Council Development Control Committee. Lancashire County Council were uncertain how much weight to attach to the Medact report due to "questions from some quarters" about the objectivity of the report based on association of two its contributors with campaigns relating to shale gas.[152]

In 2016, Medact released an updated public health report,[153] citing health risks from shale gas development and calling upon the government to "abandon its shale gas plans".[154]

The 'Fracking' debate Edit

 
18 August 2013: Fracking protest south of Balcombe, Sussex, England.

Hydraulic fracturing, "or 'fracking' as it has become commonly known, is a big issue for local authorities and communities across the country"[100] and has become part of the Climate Change debate.[citation needed]

Concerns about hydraulic fracturing have been raised across the United Kingdom, including: Sussex, Somerset and Kent in England, and; the Vale of Glamorgan in Wales.[155][156] In 2011, Bath and North East Somerset Council voiced concerns that hydraulic fracturing could contaminate Bath's famous hot springs.[157]

Protests have been held against onshore unconventional fossil fuel exploration that may lead to hydraulic fracturing.[158] In 2012, industry assurances were tarnished when Cuadrilla came under fire for its categorical denials of its plans for hydraulic fracturing near Balcombe after documents from parent company AJ Lucas materialised appearing to indicate the opposite.[159] In 2014, Cuadrilla scrapped its plans to frack at Balcombe.[160] In May 2014, a letter to the Department of Energy and Climate Change dated June 2011 emerged, confirming the company believed that to achieve commercial production, "significant amounts of hydraulic fracturing" would be required at Balcombe.[161]

Opposition and support for fracking Edit

There are a number of anti-fracking groups,[162][163] which range from the nationwide Frack Off, which was engaged in the Balcombe drilling protest, to local groups such as Residents Action on Fylde Fracking,[164] Ribble Estuary Against Fracking,[165] NO Fracking in Sussex, Frack Free Fernhurst[166] and The Vale Says No![167] Environmental NGOs Greenpeace, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Friends of the Earth are also against fracking.[168]

Anti-fracking campaigners say that there are various problems associated with the process including pressure on local transport infrastructure, air and water pollution, the amounts of water used, and potential economic damage to agricultural, food production and tourism industries.[169]

Pro-fracking campaigners such as the Centrica-backed group North West Energy Task Force say the "fracking industry" "could bring a boost to jobs and the economy" and that "shale gas has a pivotal role to play in the region's future success" and "would act as a catalyst to bring the vital investment necessary to secure existing industries and develop new ones."[170] In 2014, Business and Energy Minister Michael Fallon said that the opportunity to release up to 4.4 billion barrels of oil by fracking in the Wealden basin, covering Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex and Kent, "will bring jobs and business opportunities" and significantly help with UK energy self-sufficiency.[171]

In 2019, a government survey showed that public opposition to fracking had risen to its highest level so far, and support dropped to a record low.[172] Those opposed to fracking constituted 40 per cent of participants, up from 35 per cent in December 2018, and up from 21 per cent in 2013. Opposition to fracking was highest in north-west England (50 per cent), Wales (49 per cent) and Scotland (49 per cent). It was lowest in London (30 per cent), east England (31 per cent) and the west midlands (32 per cent). Support for fracking fell to 12 per cent of participants, down slightly on 13 per cent in the previous survey. This was the lowest level recorded by the survey so far, and 17 percentage points below the peak in March 2014. Strong support for fracking remained unchanged at two per cent.[173]

Advertising Standards Authority complaints Edit

Anti-fracking and pro-fracking campaigners have submitted a series of complaints about advertisements, brochures and leaflets to the Advertising Standards Agency.

In April 2013, "fracking activist" Refracktion reported Cuadrilla's brochure to the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), who deemed that of the 18 statements made, 11 were acceptable and six had breached the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP) code,[174] and that the brochure "must not appear again in its present form".[175] In January 2015 Reverend Michael Roberts and Ken Wilkinson reported an anti-fracking group's leaflet to the ASA. The ASA resolved the complaint with an informal ruling that the group, Residents Action On Fylde Fracking (RAFF), had "exaggerated the size and scale of planned fracking operations".[176] RAFF "agreed to amend or withdraw advertising without the need for a formal investigation".[177] In 2015, Cuadrilla and Reverend Michael Roberts reported a leaflet produced by Friends of the Earth to the ASA[178] and the Fundraising Standards Board (FRSB), now known as the Fundraising Regulator.[179] Friends of the Earth gave assurance to the ASA that they would not repeat claims in their advertisements about "the effects of fracking on the health of local populations, drinking water or property prices" "in the absence of adequate evidence".[180] The ASA clarified their position,[181] after it became evident that FoE rejected the results of their investigation.[182][failed verification][original research?]

Wales Edit

In October 2011 the campaign to prohibit Coastal Oil and Gas from test drilling at the Llandow Industrial Estate, in the Vale of Glamorgan, met with initial success after local councillors unanimously refused the company's plans, though Coastal immediately indicated it would appeal.[183] Residents feared that successful exploration would be the prelude for hydraulic fracturing.[156] The basis of the Council's decision was a letter from Welsh Water stating that there was "a very small risk" of contamination of its reserve groundwater sites from exploratory drilling.[184] The rejection came despite the Council being told that, strictly from a planning point of view, there were no "reasonable or sustainable grounds" to refuse, and despite the drilling application containing no explicit mention of hydraulic fracturing. The company had additionally claimed that, since the "gas shales in the Vale are not as thick as elsewhere", any discoveries would be "very unlikely" to require hydraulic fracturing for extraction.[183]

Coastal Oil and Gas decided to appeal to the Welsh Government, rather than undertake legal action against the local authority,[185] and a public enquiry began in May 2012.[186] Coastal's chances of success at the enquiry were boosted by Kent County Council approval of the company's near-identical plans for preliminary drilling in Woodnesborough,[156] and were increased to near certainty after Welsh Water effectively retracted its previous risk assessment.[186]

Industry response Edit

In arguing its case, Cuadrilla contrasts its approach with the one taken in the United States, claiming that only three chemicals—a polyacrylamide lubricant commonly found in cosmetics, hydrochloric acid, and a biocide used to purify drinking water—will be used in the UK, compared with the hundreds that can be used across the Atlantic; that it has invested in more expensive, better equipment than that used by companies operating in the US;[187] that its wells have three layers of pipe casing to line the wells, whereas many American ones only have two; that the barrier between the gas escaping up the pipe and ground water is thicker; that cement will be returned to the surface, blocking identified leak paths; and that drilling fluids will be collected in closed steel tanks, rather than in lined earthen pits, as often happens in the States.[188][189] According to Cuadrilla's communication advisor, "Gasland (the US documentary about shale gas) really changed everything. . . . Before that, shale gas was not seen as routinely controversial."[187]

Effect on house prices Edit

In August 2014, a report called 'Shale Gas:Rural Economic Impacts' was published by the UK Government, in response to a Freedom of Information request, from Greenpeace. It was due for publication in March 2014.[190][191] It was notable as large parts of this had been redacted, leading to criticism about the transparency of information being provided.[192]

The Lancashire 'North West Energy Task Force', a body that broadly supports the extraction of shale gas, commissioned a report on the effect of house prices in the area surrounding the Preese Hall 1 well, after the seismic issues lead to a suspension of activity by the drilling company, Cuadrilla. The report concluded that "Taken together, there is no clear evidence based on this data to suggest that onshore gas operations have had a material impact on local house prices" [193]

In January 2017, Friends of the Earth were instructed not to repeat claims about "plummeting house prices" after complaints and an investigation by the Advertising Standards Authority [194]

See also

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  149. ^ "Shale gas industry says that Medact Report fails to understand UK regulatory system and lacks credibility". UKOOG. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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  151. ^ "Rebutting and Responding to Criticisms of the Medact Report on Fracking and Health" (PDF). Medact. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  152. ^ "Public reports pack 23 June 2015" (PDF). Lancashire County Council Development Control Committee. pp. 723–724. Retrieved 20 June 2015. PHE did not comment on the Medact report in this document. The Council commented: Many objectors refer to the 2015 report of the public health charity Medact. Medact say the risks and serious nature of the hazards associated with fracking, coupled with the concerns and uncertainties about the regulatory system, indicate that shale gas development should be halted until a more detailed health and environmental impact assessment is undertaken. The Medact report has not produced new epidemiological research but has reviewed published literature and has requested short papers from relevant experts in particular subject areas. It has also interviewed academics and experts. Unfortunately, one of the contributors (contributing to three of the report's six chapters – chapters 2, 4 and 5) has led a high profile campaign in the Fylde related to shale gas. Another contributor to the report (chapter 3) has previously expressed firm views on shale gas and has objected to this application. This has led to questions from some quarters about the report's objectivity.In light of these uncertainties it is not clear how much weight the County Council should attach to the report.
  153. ^ "Shale Gas Production in England – an updated public health assessment". Medact. Retrieved 27 February 2017. Key points. Hazardous pollutants are produced at all stages of the shale gas production process. The range of pollutants are outlined in the report. Based on current evidence it is not possible to conclude that there is a strong association between shale gas related pollution and negative local health effects. However, there is clearly potential for negative health impacts. In particular, there are risks of (i) adverse reproductive outcomes due to exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals, (ii) risk of respiratory effects resulting from ozone and smog formation, (iii) stress, anxiety and other psycho-social effects arising from actual and perceived social and economic disruption.
  154. ^ Clark, Pilita (7 July 2016). "Fracking threatens UK's climate change targets, says report: Government's advisers on global warming urge industry to adhere to three conditions". The Financial Times. Retrieved 29 December 2016. Separately, a group of medical professionals repeated their call for the UK to abandon its shale gas plans because of the threats it posed to health. A report from the London-based Medact charity said risks included reproductive problems from exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and respiratory damage from smog.
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  180. ^ "Friends of the Earth ticked off over claims in anti-fracking leaflet". The Guardian. 4 January 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017. We approached Friends of the Earth with the concerns that had been raised about its ad," said a spokesman for the ASA. "The advertiser agreed not to repeat the claims, or claims that had the same meaning. On that basis we closed the case informally. The ad must not appear again in its current form."
    The ASA said that it has told FoE not to make claims about the likely effects of fracking on the health of local populations, drinking water, or property prices "in the absence of adequate evidence
  181. ^ Parker, Guy. "Opinion piece: A fractious debate but a clear outcome". Advertising Standards Authority. Retrieved 27 February 2017. We told Friends of the Earth that based on the evidence we'd seen, claims it made in its anti-fracking leaflet or claims with the same meaning cannot be repeated, and asked for an assurance that they wouldn't be. Friends of the Earth gave us an assurance to that effect. Unless the evidence changes, that means it mustn't repeat in ads claims about the effects of fracking on the health of local populations, drinking water or property prices. Friends of the Earth has said we "dropped the case". That's not an accurate reflection of what's happened. We thoroughly investigated the complaints we received and closed the case on receipt of the above assurance. Because of that, we decided against publishing a formal ruling, but plainly that's not the same thing as "dropping the case". Crucially, the claims under the microscope mustn't reappear in ads, unless the evidence changes.
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  187. ^ a b Fiona Harvey (20 April 2011). "'Gasland changed everything' – fracking firm battles to woo English villagers". Guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  188. ^ Tim Rayment (23 October 2011). "The wonder gas that could cut your energy bills". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
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  192. ^ Mason, Rowena; correspondent, political (10 August 2014). "Fracking campaigners criticise 'censored' report on house prices". Retrieved 6 March 2019 – via www.theguardian.com.
  193. ^ "Residential research report: The Impact of On-Shore Gas Exploration Activities on Local House Prices" (PDF). JLL/NorthWest Energy Task Force. Retrieved 14 March 2017. From 1995 to 2014, Preese Hall has seen a higher trajectory of house price growth when compared with Lancashire and the North West. Although Preese Hall saw a larger decline in house prices between the application being submitted and implementation than Lancashire and the North West, the area has seen a price growth of 7.5% between onshore gas operations commencing in 2011 and 2014. This compares with the North West seeing a prices increase by 0.2% whereas Lancashire saw a price decline of 4.2%. Taken together, there is no clear evidence based on this data to suggest that onshore gas operations have had a material impact on local house prices. 34% of households within three miles [5 km] of the subject site fall into the category of Affluent Achievers. A further indication of the prosperity in the area is that 71% of households are owner/occupied
  194. ^ "Friends of the Earth ticked off over claims in anti-fracking leaflet". 4 January 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017. Other claims made in the ad, entitled "Pat saved her home from fracking. You can save yours too", included that there would be "plummeting house prices"

External links Edit

  • British Geological Survey: Information about shale gas
  • Oil and Gas Authority: Publications, guidance and data including mapping, seismic activity, wells, and licensing and regulation for onshore oil and gas

Videos Edit

  • DECC:6 Aug 2015 - 1. What is shale gas?
  • DECC:6 Aug 2015 - 2. The regulatory regime for hydraulic fracturing (fracking)
  • DECC: 6 Aug 2015 - 3. The role of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in fracking
  • ReFiNE: 2013 - Multimedia Gallery
  • Cuadrilla: 25 Nov 2013 - Surface Story
  • UKOOG: 14 Dec 2016 - Pad Density Visualisation
  • ReFiNE: 30 Sep 2013 - Hydraulic Fractures
  • ReFiNE: 30 Sep 2013 - Induced Seismicity

October 26, 2023
fracking, united, kingdom, started, late, 1970s, with, fracturing, conventional, fields, near, north, used, about, british, onshore, wells, from, early, 1980s, technique, attracted, attention, after, licences, were, awarded, onshore, shale, exploration, 2008, . Fracking in the United Kingdom started in the late 1970s with fracturing of the conventional oil and gas fields near the North Sea It was used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells from the early 1980s 1 The technique attracted attention after licences use were awarded for onshore shale gas exploration in 2008 2 3 The topic received considerable public debate on environmental grounds 4 with a 2019 high court ruling ultimately banning the process 5 The two remaining high volume fracturing wells were supposed to be plugged and decommissioned in 2022 6 Although fracking is often used synonymously to refer to shale gas and other unconventional oil and gas sources it is not always correct to associate it with unconventional gas 7 For further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out see Unconventional oil amp gas reservoir Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs Contents 1 History 1 1 Offshore 1 2 Onshore 2 Process 2 1 Method 2 1 1 Perforation 2 1 2 Isolation 2 1 3 Stimulation 2 1 4 Multi stage perforation 2 1 4 1 Flowback fluid 2 2 Fracture fluids 2 2 1 Waterless fracturing fluid systems 2 3 Fracture monitoring 2 3 1 Microseismic monitoring 3 Areas of use 4 Regulation 4 1 Regulation of hydraulic fracturing 4 2 Permitted chemicals 4 3 Criticism 5 Legislation 5 1 Community and public engagement 5 2 Infrastructure Act 2015 Sections 43 and 50 5 3 Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing Protected Areas Regulations 2016 6 Environmental impact 6 1 Air 6 2 Water 6 2 1 Groundwater contamination 6 2 2 UK and US water differences 6 2 3 Water use 6 3 Seismicity 6 3 1 Preese Hall Lancashire 6 3 2 Subsidence 6 3 3 Insurance 6 4 Public health 7 The Fracking debate 7 1 Opposition and support for fracking 7 2 Advertising Standards Authority complaints 7 3 Wales 7 4 Industry response 7 5 Effect on house prices 8 See also 9 References 10 External links 10 1 VideosHistory Edit nbsp Oil well in Lincolnshire Around 200 onshore wells such as this have been hydraulically fractured The first experimental use of hydraulic fracturing in the world was in 1947 and the first commercially successful applications of hydraulic fracturing were in 1949 in the United States 8 There has been significant fracking in the US where it has allowed electricity to be produced using gas rather than coal halving the associated CO2 emissions 9 Offshore Edit In the United Kingdom the first hydraulic fracturing of an oil well was carried out shortly after discovery of the West Sole field in the North Sea in 1965 After the industry started to use intermediate and high strength proppants in the late 1970s hydraulic fracturing became a common technique in the North Sea oil and gas wells The first hydraulic fracturing from ship was conducted in the British Southern North Sea in 1980 with massive or high volume hydraulic fracturing used from 1984 onwards 10 Onshore Edit An estimated 200 conventional onshore wells have been subject to low volume hydraulic fracturing around 10 of all onshore wells in the United Kingdom 1 including Wytch Farm which is the largest onshore conventional oil field in western Europe 11 From 1977 until 1994 a hot dry rock geothermal energy experiment was conducted in the Carnmenellis granite of Cornwall During that experiment three geothermal wells with depth of 2 6 kilometres 1 6 mi were hydraulically fractured to research the hydraulic stimulation of fracture networks at temperatures below 100 C 212 F 12 The surge of public interest in high volume hydraulic fracturing in the UK can be traced to 2008 when Cuadrilla Resources was granted a petroleum exploration and development licence in the 13th onshore licensing round for unconventional shale gas exploration along the coast of Lancashire 13 3 The company s first and only high volume hydraulic fracturing job 14 4 was performed in March 2011 near Blackpool Lancashire 15 16 Cuadrilla halted operations in May 2011 at their Lancashire drilling site due to seismic activity damaging the casing in the production zone 17 On 2 November 2019 the UK government imposed a moratorium on fracking in England 18 Scotland 19 and Wales 20 have moratoria in place against hydraulic fracturing In late May 2011 the first UK exploration for shale gas using high volume hydraulic fracturing was suspended at Preese Hall at Weeton in Lancashire after the process triggered two minor earthquakes 21 The larger of the earthquakes caused minor deformation of the wellbore 22 and was strong enough to be felt 23 The report of 2012 by the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering concluded that earthquake risk was minimal and recommended the process be given nationwide clearance although it highlighted certain concerns 1 which led to changes in regulations 24 In January 2014 the European Commission issued a set of recommendations on the minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons from shale formations using high volume hydraulic fracturing 25 A 2016 government report on the UK shale gas sector was finally made available in 2019 after a three year legal battle to make it public but with three quarters of its pages blacked out The unredacted paragraphs said that the government was undertaking crucial work on communications to increase public acceptability of shale 26 In March 2019 the High Court found the UK government s policy was unlawful and failed to consider the climate impact of shale gas extraction 5 In November 2019 the government announced an indefinite suspension to fracking after a report by the Oil and Gas Authority OGA said it was not possible to predict the probability or size of tremors caused by the practice Business Secretary Andrea Leadsom said that the suspension might be temporary imposed until and unless extraction is proved safe 27 As of February 2022 the two Cuadrilla wells in Lancashire which had been out of operation since the ban were supposed to finally be plugged and decommissioned 6 By mid March and 4 weeks into the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the CEO of Cuadrilla asked the government to keep the wells open for energy security 28 Process EditHydraulic fracturing is a well stimulation technique in which rock is fractured by a hydraulically pressurized fluid This process is also known as fracking Hydraulic fracturing requires a borehole to be drilled to target depth in the reservoir For oil and gas production hydraulically fractured wells can be horizontal or vertical while the reservoir can be conventional or unconventional After the well has been drilled lined and geophysically logged the rock can be hydraulically fractured 29 Method Edit Main article Hydraulic fracturing Method There are six stages in hydraulic fracturing Perforation Isolation Stimulation Flushing Multi stage perforation and Flowback 29 Perforation Edit In shale plays the cased well is perforated using shaped charges explosives which are detonated at selected locations in the production zone In addition to making perforations in the casing these detonations also create finger like fractures up to 2 5 cm in diameter that extend up to 60 cm into the formation 29 In the United Kingdom geothermal wells normally use barefoot completions rather than perforated and cemented completions within a cased production zone 30 Isolation Edit Each perforated section is isolated using a packer seal 29 Stimulation Edit For both low and high volume hydraulic fracturing stimulation of a hydrocarbon well a high pressure fluid usually water containing chemical additives and a proppant is injected into a wellbore to create an extensive system of small cracks in the deep rock formations These cracks provide the pathway for natural gas including shale gas tight gas and coalbed methane petroleum including shale or tight oil to flow more freely When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well the small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppant 31 hold the fractures open when the pressure is released 29 When a hydrocarbon well is hydraulically fractured this is done through a production packer seal through the drill pipe or tubing Fluids are circulated down the tubing to below the point where the packer is sealed against the production casing Pressure is then applied to only that part of the casing below the packer 32 The rest of the well casing will not experience any increase in pressure due to the sealing of the packer The surface casings do not experience the great pressures experienced at the production zone This means the stresses on a surface casing are no greater than on a normal oil or gas well Smaller diameter pipes can sustain much larger pressures than large diameter pipes citation needed In HDR geothermal hydraulic fracturing stimulation proppants are not added to hydraulic fracturing fluid as the rough surfaced shear fractures stay open through self propping 12 Multi stage perforation Edit In horizontally drilled sections it is common to perform as many as 30 separate fracture stages to evenly divide the production zone In multi stage fracturing segments of a horizontal well starting at the end furthest from the well head are split into isolated segments and fractured separately Flowback fluid Edit Flowback fluid contains high levels of salt and is contaminated with organic solids heavy metals fracking chemicals and naturally occurring radioactive material NORM of varying concentration and low levels of radioactive materials 33 The Environment Agency strategy for management of NORM contaminated flowback fluid after treatment includes its preferred re use by re injection during hydraulic fracturing 34 and its disposal with caveats via water treatment sites 35 Flowback fluid can be treated and reused in later hydraulic fracturing operations 34 to reduce the volume of freshwater required and to mitigate issues arising from off site disposal of flowback fluid 36 Flowback fluid injection in deep disposal wells which has been linked to significant increase in earthquake rate 37 is not currently permitted in the UK by the Environment Agency 34 Research by Engelder et alia in 2012 indicated that any water injected into a shale formation that does not flow back to the surface known as residual treatment water would be permanently absorbed sequestered into the shale 38 In January 2014 applications for permits to frack were withdrawn by Cuadrilla after arrangements for treatment and disposal of NORM contaminated flowback fluid were considered inadequate by the Environment Agency 39 Technologies are developing methods of removing salt and radioactive materials allowing safe disposal of flowback fluid under Environment Agency licence 40 Research in the US also indicates new methods such as microbial capacitive desalination cells may become available 41 Fracture fluids Edit Main article Hydraulic fracturing Fracturing fluids Chemical additives typically around 1 per cent of the total fluid volume are added to water to reduce water viscosity and modify fluid properties 42 The fracturing fluid used at the No 1 well at Preese Hall in Weeton Lancashire was 99 95 water and sand 43 The chemical additives 0 05 per cent were Polyacrylamide emulsion in hydrocarbon oil 0 043 per cent which reduces the viscosity of the water to allow faster pumping It is classed as a non hazardous pollutant 44 Sodium salt for tracing fracturing fluid 0 000005 per cent 45 Proppants may comprise up to 10 per cent of hydraulic fracturing fluid volume 42 The proppants used at Preese Hall 1 were silica sand Congleton Sand 0 473 per cent Chelford Sand 1 550 per cent 46 Additional chemical additives that were permitted at Preese Hall 1 but not used were highly dilute hydrochloric acid and glutaraldehyde which is used as a biocide in very small quantities to sterilise the water 47 Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation is another replacement available for water sterilisation citation needed Although some of the chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids such as hydrochloric acid may be classified as toxic corrosive or irritant 48 they are non toxic at lower concentrations citation needed Waterless fracturing fluid systems Edit Other fracturing fluid systems 49 such as gels foams and compressed gases including nitrogen 50 carbon dioxide and air can be injected in place of water Waterless fracturing fluids that use propane based LPG 51 have the potential to reduce wastewater toxicity 1 20 There is sometimes a need to hydraulically fracture coalbed methane and these clarification needed methods can be used 52 Fracture monitoring Edit Main article Hydraulic fracturing Fracture monitoring The hydraulic fracturing process creates a large number of microseismic events which require monitoring 29 A 2012 research paper from ReFINE concludes that the maximum recorded fracture height in US shale plays is 588 metres 53 Microseismic monitoring Edit Microseismic monitoring techniques using very sensitive microphones and tilt meters can monitor the growth of fractures in the target formation in real time This can be done using a surface array or if there is a nearby offset well using downhole microphones This means that the engineers can modify the pump rate based upon the growth of the fractures and stop pumping if there is evidence of vertical migration into faults This technology is available from many big oilfield service companies 54 Areas of use EditMain article Shale gas in the United Kingdom Areas Only high volume hydraulic fracturing 55 combined with horizontal drilling is likely to enable commercial extraction of unconventional hydrocarbon resources such as shale gas and light tight oil in the United Kingdom 1 56 57 The areas where hydraulic fracturing are expected to be used are the Upper Bowland Shale of the Pennine Basin in Lancashire and Yorkshire 57 and the Jurassic oil bearing shales of the Weald Basin in Hampshire Surrey Sussex and Kent 58 The national parks with geologies of possible interest are the North York Moors shales the Peak District shales and coals the South Downs shale oil and to the south of the Yorkshire Dales shales and coals 59 The Eden Project in Cornwall is in the process of drilling and hydraulically fracturing two geothermal wells for utilisation of geothermal energy as a source for a geothermal power station 60 Regulation EditSee also Regulation of hydraulic fracturing and Shale gas in the United Kingdom Regulation Several government agencies departments and one government company are involved in the regulation of hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom the Oil and Gas Authority OGA 61 62 the Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy BEIS the local council planning authority including the Minerals Planning Authority MPA the Health and Safety Executive and one of four Environment Agencies 63 2 These environmental agencies are the Environment Agency for England National Resources for Wales 64 the Scottish Environment Protection Agency SEPA 65 for Scotland and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency NIEA 66 for Northern Ireland Regulation of hydraulic fracturing Edit Before onshore hydraulic fracturing can begin an operator will have obtained a landward licence known as a Petroleum Exploration and Development Licence PEDL from the OGA 67 A series of steps are then taken to obtain permissions from the landowner and council planning authorities 68 The operator then requests a permit from the Minerals Planning Authority MPA who together with the local planning authority determine if an environmental impact assessment EIA funded by the operator is required 63 Up to six permits constituting the Environmental Permitting Regulations EPR 2010 69 two permits under the Water Resources Act 1991 and one permit under the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 2015 are obtained from the appropriate environmental agency to ensure that onshore hydraulic fracturing operators fulfil strict environmental regulations 63 5 The role of the Health and Safety Executive HSE is to focus on the design and integrity of the well 70 using an independent expert known as the well examiner 71 The EA and HSE together will inspect the next series of hydraulic fracturing operations in England and Wales 72 A hydraulic fracture plan HFP is required for both conventional hydraulic fracture well stimulation and unconventional high volume hydraulic well stimulation The HFP is agreed with OGA in consultation with the EA and HSE 73 Hydraulic fracturing consent HFC is granted following an application to BEIS to be reviewed by the Secretary of State 74 and comply with requirements to mitigate any seismic risks 73 In October 2022 British Prime Minister Rishi Sunak reinstated England s fracking ban moratorium after it was briefly lifted by his predecessor Liz Truss 75 Permitted chemicals Edit The UK s four environment agencies do not permit chemical additives for hydraulic fracturing fluids that are classed as hazardous to groundwater as defined by Schedule 22 of Environmental Permitting England and Wales Regulations 2010 EPR 2010 76 Schedule 5 of the Pollution Prevention and Control Scotland Regulations 2012 77 and the EU Groundwater Directive 80 68 EEC 78 The environmental regulator will assess every chemical before it is added to the hydraulic fracturing fluid 68 The nature of each chemical but not the concentration must be made available to the public 24 The Joint Agencies Groundwater Directive Advisory Group JAGDAG maintains a list of substances that have been assessed as being hazardous substances or non hazardous pollutants for the groundwater directive Input of hazardous substances on the basis of their toxicity persistence and capacity to bio accumulate is not permitted into potable or unpotable groundwater 79 Substances which are not hazardous are potentially non hazardous pollutants 80 At the Balcombe site the Environment Agency permitted one requested chemical oxirane while not permitting the use of antimony trioxide which would be hazardous if it came into contact with groundwater 81 Criticism Edit In March 2014 a group of conservation charities including the RSPB and the National Trust released a report containing a 10 point plan for increased regulation highlighting their concerns about hydraulic fracturing with respect to groundwater pollution public water supply wastewater management and treatment both generally and within ecologically sensitive areas including National Parks 82 UKOOG the representative body for the UK onshore oil and gas industry pointed to a number of critical inaccuracies and stated that many of the recommendations are already in place in the UK or are in the process of being put in place and welcomed future dialogue with conservation agencies 83 In July 2014 the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health CIEH and Scientists for Global Responsibility SGR published a report about hydraulic fracturing that was broadly negative It referred to major shortcomings in regulatory oversight regarding local environmental and public health risks the potential for undermining efforts to tackle climate change and the possibility that the process might cause water shortages 84 The report received a negative review from an academic based upon the lead author being a Green Party candidate and hydraulic fracturing protester and the alleged selective nature of some clarification needed of the data used 85 In March 2015 the shale company funded Task Force on Shale Gas criticised current regulation as complex and relatively unapproachable and responsible for the public s lack of confidence The Task Force on Shale Gas recommended that the regulatory requirement for an operator funded independent well examiner 86 to be passed to a single new government regulator who would also independently monitor fracking sites UKOOG the industry s trade and advocacy group said public confidence in the industry is vital The government responded Both the Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency have full authority and responsibility to monitor all shale sites independent of the industry 87 In June 2015 the UK regulations for hydraulic fracturing were criticised by the chemicals policy charity CHEM Trust 88 stating they were not sufficiently protective and raising concerns about the reductions in funding for the regulators of fracking like the Environment Agency 89 UKOOG responded to the CHEM Trust analysis criticised the timing of the report The timing of this report is clearly designed to influence local councillors and stated that The report includes a number of recommendations that are already part of industry common practice or regulation in the UK 90 and CHEM Trust 91 responded 92 Legislation EditCommunity and public engagement Edit Community and public engagement is a legal requirement 93 of the EU Directive 2003 35 EC 94 In June 2013 the industry body UKOOG issued their Shale Community Engagement Charter 95 The shale gas industry has agreed to two types of community benefit for communities hosting shale gas development including a one off payment of 100 000 per site after hydraulic fracturing had taken place and a 1 share of production revenues yearly operator commitment publications 68 In 2014 the government announced its intent to create of a Shale Wealth Fund 96 The fund was originally intended to be controlled by community trusts or councils A consultation period solicited views from stakeholders individuals organisations such as charities businesses local authorities and community groups ran between August and October 2016 97 In March 2016 Stephenson Halliday for the Planning Advisory Service noted that the UKOOG local community benefits scheme fails all three of the tests in Regulation 122 2 of the Community Infrastructure Levy Regulations 2010 98 In 2016 the chemical company INEOS committed to a share 6 of revenues 4 of this would go to homeowners and landowners in the immediate vicinity of a well and a further 2 to the wider community In terms of total revenue Ineos have estimated that a typical 10 km by 10 km development area would generate 375m for the community over its lifespan 99 Infrastructure Act 2015 Sections 43 and 50 Edit The Infrastructure Act 2015 legislated onshore access for onshore and offshore extraction of shale tight oil shale gas 100 and deep geothermal energy 101 Section 50 of the act defined the hydraulic fracturing of shale strata also known as high volume hydraulic fracturing as more than 1000m3 of fluid per stage and more than 10 000m3 in total and attached conditions that mean no hydraulic fracturing can take place at a depth shallower than 1000m in unprotected areas In order for the Secretary of State to give consent to hydraulic fracturing legislation includes a range of conditions that operators must comply with such as environmental impacts of development including soil and air monitoring 12 months of groundwater methane level monitoring prior to associated high volume hydraulic fracturing no associated hydraulic fracturing within protected groundwater source areas 102 Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing Protected Areas Regulations 2016 Edit The Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing Protected Areas Regulations 2016 prohibited hydraulic fracturing in protected areas i e National Parks of England and Wales Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads and UNESCO World Heritage sites at depths of less than 1200m 103 Environmental impact EditSee also Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing and Shale gas in the United Kingdom Environmental impact The environmental risks of hydraulic fracturing in conventional and unconventional wells ground water contamination surface water contamination releases to air water resource depletion traffic land take noise visual impact and seismicity Environmental impact assessments cover a wide range of concerns including habitat damage effect on wildlife traffic noise lighting and air pollution This reference shows one example 104 These are presented in less detail in a Non Technical Summary 105 According to Professor Mair of the Royal Society the causation of earthquakes with any significant impact or fractures reaching and contaminating drinking water were very low risk if adequate regulations are in place 1 A report from AMEC 106 in December 2013 covers many of the environmental issues that would arise were the shale gas industry to become highly developed The British Geological Survey are involved with environmental monitoring 107 In October 2014 EASAC stated that Overall in Europe more than 1000 horizontal wells and several thousand hydraulic fracturing jobs have been executed in recent decades None of these operations are known to have resulted in safety or environmental problems 108 In October 2016 Amec Foster Wheeler Infrastructure Ltd AFWI compared the environmental impacts and risks of unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing with conventional low volume hydraulic fracturing The study found that volume of fluid injected and flowback were the only significant differences between conventional low volume and unconventional high volume hydraulic fracturing and that the impacts and risks for high volume hydraulic fracturing scaled up for land take traffic surface water contamination and water resource depletion 109 Air Edit In February 2016 a study by the ReFINE consortium funded by the Natural Environment Research Council NERC Shell Chevron Ineos and Centrica found substantial increases over the baseline in local air quality pollutants during the short duration high traffic phase which includes the delivery of hydraulic fracturing equipment proppant water as well as the removal of flowback from the site According to ReFiNE these short duration increases have the potential to breach local air quality standards 110 The industry group UKOOG criticised the ReFiNE study for failing to take into account that water for hydraulic fracturing fluid might be brought in by pipeline instead of being transported by truck 111 In October 2016 Amec Foster Wheeler Infrastructure Ltd stated that the overall environmental impacts from low volume hydraulic fracturing to local air quality and global warming are low Local air quality is impacted by dust and SO2 and NOx emissions from equipment and vehicles used to transport pressurise and injection fracturing fluids and process flowback while Emissions of CO2 from the equipment used to pressurise and injection fracturing fluids and process flowback contributes to global warming 109 161 Water Edit The RAE report stated Many claims of contaminated water wells due to shale gas extraction have been made None has shown evidence of chemicals found in hydraulic fracturing fluids 1 The Environment Agency definitions of groundwater and aquifer are here 112 In January 2015 the British Geological Survey released national baseline methane levels which showed a wide range of readings 113 Poor surface well sealing which allows methane to leak methane was identified in the Royal Academy of Engineering report as a risk to groundwater 114 This was incorporated into the Infrastructure Act 2015 with a requirement that monitoring takes place 12 months before fracturing 115 The Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management CIWEM have been involved with evaluating the potential water impacts of hydraulic fracturing 116 clarification needed Groundwater contamination Edit See also Shale gas in the United Kingdom Groundwater contamination Both low and high volume hydraulic fracturing involve storing and injecting large quantities of chemicals Any surface spill therefore has the potential to penetrate groundwater The likelihood of low volume and high volume hydraulic fracturing contaminating groundwater by surface spills of stored chemicals is rare however the risk and consequences are moderate 117 To mitigate the risk the Environment Agency requires chemical and fluid proof well pads 63 The 2012 joint Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering report indicated that the distances between potable water supplies and fractured formation in various US shale plays is large meaning the risk of contamination is very small No cases of pollution by this route have been identified 118 Another 2013 paper from ReFine indicated the potential for surface gas leaks from abandoned wells 119 UK and US water differences Edit Treated mains water is the norm in the UK and standards are required by legislation to be high As such any pollution would have to be removed by the water companies by law Private water wells are rare around 62 000 households out of 23 4 million households or 2 6 120 In rural areas of the US private wells are common 15 and small communities are served by investor owned utilities or community schemes UK households would therefore be expected to be less at risk than those in the US original research In the US baseline methane measurements were not made at the start of the shale gas boom meaning that it became difficult to prove whether a gas problem was due to a leaking well or was naturally occurring citation needed Water use Edit Water use is regulated by the EA England the SEPA Scotland the NIEA Northern Ireland and NRW Wales to ensure environmental needs are not compromised 121 Water companies assess how much water is available before providing it to operators citation needed The amount of water abstracted nationally is at around 9 4 billion cubic metres 122 In 2015 the EA indicated that water usage at a peak level clarification needed would be 0 1 of national use and hydraulic fracturing may use up to 30 million litres per well 123 Drier areas such as south east England 124 are concerned about the impact of hydraulic fracturing on water supplies 125 Seismicity Edit As of August 2016 there have been two cases in the United Kingdom of fault reactivation by hydraulic fracturing that caused induced seismicity strong enough to be felt by humans at the surface both in Lancashire M 2 3 and M 1 5 126 In December 2015 the Centre for Research into Earth Energy Systems CeREES at Durham University published the first research of its kind prior to planned shale gas and oil exploitation in order to establish a baseline for anthropogenic induced seismic events in the UK 127 In October 2018 more earthquakes were recorded in Lancashire including two tremors of 0 8 magnitude which called the Energy firm Cuadrilla to call a temporary halt on the drilling operations 128 129 Preese Hall Lancashire Edit In May 2011 the government suspended Cuadrilla s 106 130 131 hydraulic fracturing operations in their Preese Hall 1 well in Lancashire after two small earthquakes were triggered one of magnitude M 2 3 132 The largest coseismic slip caused minor deformation of the wellbore 22 and was strong enough to be felt 23 The company s temporary halt was pending DECC guidance on the conclusions of a study 133 being carried out by the British Geological Survey and Keele University 130 which concluded in April 2012 that the process posed a seismic risk minimal enough to allow it to proceed with stricter monitoring 134 Cuadrilla pointed out that a number of such small magnitude earthquakes occur naturally each month in Britain 135 Cuadrilla commissioned an investigation into the seismic activity which concluded that the tremors were probably caused by the lubrication of an existing fault plane by the unintended spread of hydraulic fracturing fluid below ground 136 137 138 In 2012 a report on hydraulic fracturing produced jointly by the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering noted that earthquakes of magnitude M 3 0 which are more intense than the larger of the two quakes caused by Cuadrilla are Felt by few people at rest or in the upper floors of buildings similar to the passing of a truck 1 The British Geological Survey has published information on seismic issues relating to hydraulic fracturing 139 In February 2014 following the small seismic event in the Preese Hall 1 well and much research the DECC issued a statement on earthquake risk 21 Subsidence Edit There is no documented evidence of hydraulic fracturing leading to subsidence 21 Operations are commonly monitored with tiltmeters and no compaction issues have been documented Given the mechanical properties of unconventional rocks their densities low porosities low Biot coefficients and high stiffness compaction is very unlikely to occur during hydrocarbon extraction 140 18 Insurance Edit In an answer to questions from the Lets talk about Shale 141 initiative run by Westbourne Communications 142 for the industry body UKOOG they have stated According to the Association of British Insurers there is at present little evidence of a link between shale gas and property damage and they are not aware of any claims where seismic activity as a result of fracking has been cited as a cause of damage Damage as a result of earthquakes subsidence heave and landslip are all covered in general under buildings insurance Insurers will continue to monitor the situation for the potential for fracking or similar explorations to cause damage 143 It was reported in early 2015 that farms would not be covered by issues that may arise due to hydraulic fracturing A clarification by the insurer indicated that this would only apply to a farmer that permitted this on their land Surrounding farms would be covered 144 In March 2017 the Chartered Insurance Institute CII released a report by the CII Claims Faculty New Generation Group which explored the Insurance implications of fracking 145 The authors examined the key perils associated with fracking such as earthquakes explosions and fire pollution injury and death and found that while most insurances policies provided cover for these risks fracking will pose additional complications around liability The authors also considered that if widespread fracking were to lead to increased claims then insurers may have to consider how they underwrite this emerging higher risk group The authors recommended working together within the insurance profession to monitor and discuss the issues while remaining open and transparent about the risks of fracking and working with the energy industry and the government to reduce the likelihood of potential risks occurring The CII emphasised that insurers need to be prepared for claims in the event of a fracking related loss and consider policy wordings with increased fracking in mind 146 Public health Edit If the Minerals Planning Authority determine that public health will be significantly impacted the Director of Public health is consulted so that a health impact assessment can be prepared The Environment Agency then uses the health impact assessment when considering the potential health effects during their permit determination 63 9 In 2014 Public Health England reviewed the available evidence on issues including air quality radon gas naturally occurring radioactive materials water contamination and waste water They concluded that the risks to public health from exposure to emissions from shale gas extraction are low if operations are properly run and regulated 68 Public Health England s Dr John Harrison Director for Radiation Chemical and Environmental Hazards stated that Where potential risks have been identified in other countries the reported problems are typically due to operational failure Good on site management and appropriate regulation of all aspects of exploratory drilling gas capture as well as the use and storage of hydraulic fracturing fluid is essential to minimise the risks to the environment and health 147 In 2015 the health charity Medact published a paper written by two public health specialists called Health amp Fracking The impacts and opportunity costs which reviewed health impacts of hydraulic fracturing and suggested a moratorium until a more detailed health and environmental impact assessment could be completed 148 UKOOG criticised Medact s understanding of UK regulations and said they had not declared that one of its consultants who was standing for parliament in the 2015 general election had a conflict of interest 149 The Times journalist Ben Webster also criticised Medact for not declaring one of their consultant s conflict of interest and reported that the Medact director had not realised that this consultant was also an anti fracking candidate 150 MedAct published a response to these criticisms 151 The content of the Medact Report 2015 was referred to by many objectors in the June 2015 Public reports pack for the Lancashire County Council Development Control Committee Lancashire County Council were uncertain how much weight to attach to the Medact report due to questions from some quarters about the objectivity of the report based on association of two its contributors with campaigns relating to shale gas 152 In 2016 Medact released an updated public health report 153 citing health risks from shale gas development and calling upon the government to abandon its shale gas plans 154 The Fracking debate Edit nbsp 18 August 2013 Fracking protest south of Balcombe Sussex England Hydraulic fracturing or fracking as it has become commonly known is a big issue for local authorities and communities across the country 100 and has become part of the Climate Change debate citation needed Concerns about hydraulic fracturing have been raised across the United Kingdom including Sussex Somerset and Kent in England and the Vale of Glamorgan in Wales 155 156 In 2011 Bath and North East Somerset Council voiced concerns that hydraulic fracturing could contaminate Bath s famous hot springs 157 Protests have been held against onshore unconventional fossil fuel exploration that may lead to hydraulic fracturing 158 In 2012 industry assurances were tarnished when Cuadrilla came under fire for its categorical denials of its plans for hydraulic fracturing near Balcombe after documents from parent company AJ Lucas materialised appearing to indicate the opposite 159 In 2014 Cuadrilla scrapped its plans to frack at Balcombe 160 In May 2014 a letter to the Department of Energy and Climate Change dated June 2011 emerged confirming the company believed that to achieve commercial production significant amounts of hydraulic fracturing would be required at Balcombe 161 Opposition and support for fracking Edit There are a number of anti fracking groups 162 163 which range from the nationwide Frack Off which was engaged in the Balcombe drilling protest to local groups such as Residents Action on Fylde Fracking 164 Ribble Estuary Against Fracking 165 NO Fracking in Sussex Frack Free Fernhurst 166 and The Vale Says No 167 Environmental NGOs Greenpeace World Wide Fund for Nature WWF and Friends of the Earth are also against fracking 168 Anti fracking campaigners say that there are various problems associated with the process including pressure on local transport infrastructure air and water pollution the amounts of water used and potential economic damage to agricultural food production and tourism industries 169 Pro fracking campaigners such as the Centrica backed group North West Energy Task Force say the fracking industry could bring a boost to jobs and the economy and that shale gas has a pivotal role to play in the region s future success and would act as a catalyst to bring the vital investment necessary to secure existing industries and develop new ones 170 In 2014 Business and Energy Minister Michael Fallon said that the opportunity to release up to 4 4 billion barrels of oil by fracking in the Wealden basin covering Hampshire Surrey Sussex and Kent will bring jobs and business opportunities and significantly help with UK energy self sufficiency 171 In 2019 a government survey showed that public opposition to fracking had risen to its highest level so far and support dropped to a record low 172 Those opposed to fracking constituted 40 per cent of participants up from 35 per cent in December 2018 and up from 21 per cent in 2013 Opposition to fracking was highest in north west England 50 per cent Wales 49 per cent and Scotland 49 per cent It was lowest in London 30 per cent east England 31 per cent and the west midlands 32 per cent Support for fracking fell to 12 per cent of participants down slightly on 13 per cent in the previous survey This was the lowest level recorded by the survey so far and 17 percentage points below the peak in March 2014 Strong support for fracking remained unchanged at two per cent 173 Advertising Standards Authority complaints Edit Anti fracking and pro fracking campaigners have submitted a series of complaints about advertisements brochures and leaflets to the Advertising Standards Agency In April 2013 fracking activist Refracktion reported Cuadrilla s brochure to the Advertising Standards Authority ASA who deemed that of the 18 statements made 11 were acceptable and six had breached the Committee of Advertising Practice CAP code 174 and that the brochure must not appear again in its present form 175 In January 2015 Reverend Michael Roberts and Ken Wilkinson reported an anti fracking group s leaflet to the ASA The ASA resolved the complaint with an informal ruling that the group Residents Action On Fylde Fracking RAFF had exaggerated the size and scale of planned fracking operations 176 RAFF agreed to amend or withdraw advertising without the need for a formal investigation 177 In 2015 Cuadrilla and Reverend Michael Roberts reported a leaflet produced by Friends of the Earth to the ASA 178 and the Fundraising Standards Board FRSB now known as the Fundraising Regulator 179 Friends of the Earth gave assurance to the ASA that they would not repeat claims in their advertisements about the effects of fracking on the health of local populations drinking water or property prices in the absence of adequate evidence 180 The ASA clarified their position 181 after it became evident that FoE rejected the results of their investigation 182 failed verification original research Wales Edit In October 2011 the campaign to prohibit Coastal Oil and Gas from test drilling at the Llandow Industrial Estate in the Vale of Glamorgan met with initial success after local councillors unanimously refused the company s plans though Coastal immediately indicated it would appeal 183 Residents feared that successful exploration would be the prelude for hydraulic fracturing 156 The basis of the Council s decision was a letter from Welsh Water stating that there was a very small risk of contamination of its reserve groundwater sites from exploratory drilling 184 The rejection came despite the Council being told that strictly from a planning point of view there were no reasonable or sustainable grounds to refuse and despite the drilling application containing no explicit mention of hydraulic fracturing The company had additionally claimed that since the gas shales in the Vale are not as thick as elsewhere any discoveries would be very unlikely to require hydraulic fracturing for extraction 183 Coastal Oil and Gas decided to appeal to the Welsh Government rather than undertake legal action against the local authority 185 and a public enquiry began in May 2012 186 Coastal s chances of success at the enquiry were boosted by Kent County Council approval of the company s near identical plans for preliminary drilling in Woodnesborough 156 and were increased to near certainty after Welsh Water effectively retracted its previous risk assessment 186 Industry response Edit In arguing its case Cuadrilla contrasts its approach with the one taken in the United States claiming that only three chemicals a polyacrylamide lubricant commonly found in cosmetics hydrochloric acid and a biocide used to purify drinking water will be used in the UK compared with the hundreds that can be used across the Atlantic that it has invested in more expensive better equipment than that used by companies operating in the US 187 that its wells have three layers of pipe casing to line the wells whereas many American ones only have two that the barrier between the gas escaping up the pipe and ground water is thicker that cement will be returned to the surface blocking identified leak paths and that drilling fluids will be collected in closed steel tanks rather than in lined earthen pits as often happens in the States 188 189 According to Cuadrilla s communication advisor Gasland the US documentary about shale gas really changed everything Before that shale gas was not seen as routinely controversial 187 Effect on house prices Edit In August 2014 a report called Shale Gas Rural Economic Impacts was published by the UK Government in response to a Freedom of Information request from Greenpeace It was due for publication in March 2014 190 191 It was notable as large parts of this had been redacted leading to criticism about the transparency of information being provided 192 The Lancashire North West Energy Task Force a body that broadly supports the extraction of shale gas commissioned a report on the effect of house prices in the area surrounding the Preese Hall 1 well after the seismic issues lead to a suspension of activity by the drilling company Cuadrilla The report concluded that Taken together there is no clear evidence based on this data to suggest that onshore gas operations have had a material impact on local house prices 193 In January 2017 Friends of the Earth were instructed not to repeat claims about plummeting house prices after complaints and an investigation by the Advertising Standards Authority 194 See alsoUnconventional oil amp gas reservoir Cost of electricity by source Oil and gas industry in the United Kingdom Refracktion an environmental organisationReferences Edit a b c d e f g h Mair Robert June 2012 Shale gas extraction in the UK A review of hydraulic fracturing PDF Report The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering Retrieved 10 October 2014 British Geological Survey 2010 The Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources of Britain s Onshore Basins Shale Gas PDF Republished 2012 Department of Energy and Climate Change Retrieved 17 April 2013 a b Kahya Damian 20 January 2011 Can Europe benefit from shale gas BBC News Retrieved 6 September 2016 Attention is focused on little known Cuadrilla Resources and its well in Lancashire where it plans a test drill soon What is fracking and why is it controversial BBC 16 December 2015 Retrieved 20 December 2016 a b Government fracking policy declared unlawful by High Court The Independent 6 March 2019 Retrieved 6 March 2019 a b Fracking firm Cuadrilla to permanently abandon UK shale gas sites TheGuardian com 10 February 2022 Reid Alasdair 24 October 2013 Unconventional Gas in Scotland PDF SPICe Briefing SPICe 68 13 Retrieved 8 November 2014 Montgomery Carl T Smith Michael B December 2010 Hydraulic fracturing History of an enduring technology PDF JPT Online Society of Petroleum Engineers 62 12 26 41 doi 10 2118 1210 0026 JPT Archived from the original PDF on 27 September 2011 Retrieved 13 May 2012 What is fracking BBC News 15 October 2018 Retrieved 6 March 2019 Mader Detlef 1989 Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing Elsevier pp 174 250 ISBN 9780444873521 Decision to extend oil production at Wytch Farm illogical say green campaigners PDF 9 September 2013 Retrieved 26 December 2016 We believe that the current public concern about fracking relates to extensive high pressure hydraulic fracturing using high volumes of liquid in very low permeability rock to extract gas from shale and methane from coal beds High volume hydraulic fracturing of this type has not been carried out at Wytch Farm In the meantime we look forward to maintaining the highest operating standards and making a positive economic and social contribution to the area a b Busby Jon 25 29 April 2010 Geothermal Prospects in the United Kingdom PDF Proceedings World Geothermal Congress Bali Indonesia Retrieved 1 May 2013 Westcott Catherine 31 July 2014 UK Parliament Announces the 14th Landward Licensing Round Inside Energy amp Environment Retrieved 23 December 2016 Department of Energy and Climate Change February 2014 Fracking UK shale Water PDF Archived from the original PDF on 14 July 2014 Retrieved 22 October 2014 Blackpool shale gas drilling begins BBC News 28 March 2011 Retrieved 29 February 2012 Charles Hendry 22 September 2011 The potential for shale gas is worth exploration guardian co uk Retrieved 26 February 2012 Terry Macalister 13 March 2013 Fracking company Cuadrilla halts operations at Lancashire drilling site guardian co uk Retrieved 7 October 2014 Ambrose Jillian 2 November 2019 Fracking halted in England in major government U turn The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 6 November 2019 This article was corrected on 2 November 2019 to make clear that the government has halted but not banned fracking as stated in an earlier version Oil and gas Unconventional oil and gas gov scot www gov scot Retrieved 6 November 2019 On 28 January 2015 we put in place a moratorium on UOG development in Scotland which prevents hydraulic fracturing and coalbed methane extraction taking place Messenger Steffan 3 July 2018 Fracking plans face cold shoulder Retrieved 6 November 2019 Future applications from developers wanting to drill for oil and gas in Wales will not be supported ministers have confirmed The Welsh Government has set out an updated policy on petroleum extraction which includes fracking It comes ahead of the devolution of powers of consent for licensing new developments to Cardiff Bay in October The Welsh Government has opposed fracking for several years with a moratorium in place since 2015 a b c DECC February 2014 Fracking UK shale understanding earthquake risk PDF Archived from the original PDF on 9 October 2015 Retrieved 31 August 2016 a b Harvey Fiona Carrington Damian Macalister Terry 13 March 2013 Fracking company Cuadrilla halts operations at Lancashire drilling site Retrieved 24 August 2016 a b White Garry 2 November 2011 Cuadrilla admits drilling caused Blackpool earthquakes Retrieved 24 August 2016 a b Onshore oil and gas exploration in the UK regulation and best practice PDF Department of Energy and Climate Change December 2013 Retrieved 10 October 2014 2014 70 EU Commission Recommendation of 22 January 2014 on minimum principles for the exploration and production of hydrocarbons such as shale gas using high volume hydraulic fracturing EUR Lex Access to European Law Report EU Commission 22 January 2014 Retrieved 23 August 2016 Black wall of redacted pages as UK fracking report finally released The Guardian 2 December 2019 Retrieved 24 January 2020 Fracking halted after government pulls support BBC News 2 November 2019 Dominic Glover 17 March 2022 Britain considers lifting fracking ban amid soaring gas prices Retrieved 1 April 2022 a b c d e f Cuss RJ Wiseall CA Hennissen JAI Waters CN Kemp SJ Ougier Simonin A Holyoake S Haslam RB 25 November 2015 Hough E Stephenson MH eds Hydraulic Fracturing A review of theory and field experience PDF Energy amp Marine Geoscience Programme Open Report OR 15 066 BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Retrieved 31 March 2017 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Successful Perforation Operation Experience in a Geothermal Well of Salavatli Geothermal Field PDF PROCEEDINGS Fourtieth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Stanford University Stanford California January 26 28 2015 Stanford University January 2015 Archived from the original PDF on 3 April 2017 Retrieved 2 April 2017 Mitchell Clive UK silica sand resources for fracking PDF Natural Environment Research Council British Geological Survey and Natural Environment Research Council Retrieved 30 March 2017 How Does A Swellable Packer Work Rigzone Training How it works Retrieved 31 August 2016 Almond S Clancy S A Davies R J Worrall F 2014 The flux of radionuclides in flowback fluid from shale gas exploitation Environmental Science and Pollution Research 21 21 12316 24 doi 10 1007 s11356 014 3118 y PMC 4200344 PMID 24938807 a b c Onshore Oil amp Gas Sector Guidance Version 1 17 August 2016 PDF Environment Agency 17 August 2016 Retrieved 3 September 2016 Flowback fluid can be treated and re used as fresh injection fluid for the purpose of hydraulic fracturing and we consider this to be a suitable environmental option Flowback fluid must be reused where it is reasonably practicable to do so to meet the MWD obligation to minimise waste However waste flowback fluid may contain a concentration of NORM radionuclide s above the out of scope values It will then require a radioactive substances activity permit for its disposal You must send this to an appropriate permitted waste facility for treatment or disposal 4 7 PDF Strategy for the management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material NORM waste in the United Kingdom Report p 30 Retrieved 2 September 2016 Treatment and disposal may take place by re injection during subsequent hydraulic fracturing or it may be carried out at sites remote from the shale gas production facilities for example sewage or effluent treatment sites and would be expected to remove up to 90 of NORM only very low levels would still remain After treatment the water may still retain some of this natural radioactivity and disposal to rivers estuaries sea or groundwater may lead to intakes of radioactivity through consumption of drinking water and contaminated foodstuffs or by direct exposure pathways Green Dr Christopher A Styles Professor Peter Baptie Dr Brian J April 2012 Preese Hall Shale Gas Fracturing Review amp Recommendations for Induced Seismic Mitigation PDF Report p 22 Retrieved 5 September 2016 Peterson Mark D Mueller Charles S Moschetti Morgan P Hoover Susan M Llenos Andrea L Ellsworth William L Michael Andrew J Rubinstein Justin L McGarr Arthur F Rukstales Kenneth S June 2016 2016 One Year Seismic Hazard Forecast for the Central and Eastern United States from Induced and Natural Earthquakes PDF Report 1 1 United States Geological Survey Retrieved 2 September 2016 Craig Patricia 10 September 2014 Residual hydraulic fracturing water not a risk to groundwater Retrieved 11 September 2014 Cuadrilla fracking delays over radioactive waste water BBC News 27 January 2014 Retrieved 24 October 2014 The Environment Agency EA said it would not grant a radioactive substances permit until it was sure the water will be disposed of safely Altaee Ali Hilal Nidal 2014 Dual stage forward osmosis pressure retarded osmosis process for hypersaline solutions and fracking wastewater treatment Desalination 350 79 85 doi 10 1016 j desal 2014 07 013 Bowley Elisabeth 5 November 2014 Energy positive treatment for fracking water Chemistry World Retrieved 27 February 2017 a b Fracturing fluids and additives PetroWiki org SPE International Retrieved 16 October 2014 Cuadrilla Resources Ltd Composition of Bowland Shale Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid for Preese Hall 1 well Archived from the original on 28 October 2016 Retrieved 4 April 2017 Substance determinations PDF Water Framework Directive JAGDAG Environment Agency Retrieved 28 March 2017 Hardy Peter 1 January 2014 CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Overview the Role of Shale Gas in Securing Our Energy Future Fracking Issues in Environmental Science and Technology Royal Society of Chemistry pp 1 45 doi 10 1039 9781782620556 00001 ISBN 978 1 84973 920 7 Retrieved 28 March 2017 The fracturing fluid that Cuadrilla has used at the Preese Hall exploration well site and plans to use at future exploration well sites is composed almost entirely of fresh water and sand Cuadrilla also has approval to use the following additives Polyacrylamide friction reducer Sodium salt for tracing fracturing fluid Hydrochloric acid diluted with water Glutaraldehyde biocide used to cleanse water and remove bacteria So far as additives to fracturing fluid Cuadrilla has only used polyacrylamide friction reducer along with a minuscule amount of salt which acts as a tracer Cuadrilla have not needed to use biocide as the water supplied by United Utilities to their Lancashire exploration well sites has already been treated to remove bacteria nor have they used diluted hydrochloric acid in fracturing fluid Additives proposed in the quantities proposed have resulted in the fracturing fluid being classified as non hazardous by the Environment Agency Broderick Dr John Anderson Professor Kevin Wood Dr Ruth Gilbert Dr Paul Sharmina Mrs Maria Footitt Mr Anthony Glynn Dr Steven Nicholls Ms Fiona November 2011 Shale gas an updated assessment of environmental and climate change impacts PDF The University of Manchester Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research p 24 Retrieved 30 March 2017 Table 2 4 Composition of Fracking Fluid for Preese Hall Well 1 Total of 6 frack stages Bomgardner Melody M 13 April 2015 Better Chemistry Flows To The Oil And Gas Industry April 13 2015 Issue Vol 93 Issue 15 Chemical amp Engineering News Cen acs org Archived from the original on 28 March 2017 Retrieved 28 March 2017 One of Dow s leading microbicides glutaraldehyde is a favorite among those formulating low toxic fracking fluids Although it is classified as acutely toxic and requires safe handling procedures similar to bleach glutaraldehyde has a fan in Apache s Durham because it has very little chronic toxicity and fares very well in bioaccumulation and biodegradation testing Compendium of Hazardous Substances Hydrogen Chloride Hydrochloric Acid Incident Management PDF June 2016 Retrieved 3 April 2017 Fracturing fluid systems PDF Halliburton 2013 Retrieved 16 October 2014 Gurule Kendall 9 July 2013 Nitrogen gas fracking frackwire Retrieved 16 October 2014 Waterless fluid solutions GasFrac Energy Services Archived from the original on 16 October 2014 Retrieved 16 October 2014 Batley Kookana 2012 Environmental issues associated with coal seam gas recovery managing the fracking boom Environmental Chemistry CSIRO Publishing 9 5 425 doi 10 1071 EN12136 Retrieved 15 February 2017 Davies et al Hydraulic fractures How far can they go PDF ReFine p 1 Retrieved 22 February 2017 The maximum reported height of an upward propagating hydraulic fracture from several thousand fracturing operations in the Marcellus Barnett Woodford Eagle Ford and Niobrara shale USA is 588 m Based on these empirical data the probability of a stimulated hydraulic fracture extending vertically less than 350 m is less than 1 Constraining the probability of stimulating unusually tall hydraulic fractures in sedimentary rocks is extremely important as an evidence base for decisions on the safe vertical separation between the depth of stimulation and rock strata not intended for penetration Microseismic Knowledgebase Microseismic Monitoring 101 ESG Solutions Retrieved 31 August 2016 Regulation of exploratory shale gas operations guidance note PDF Environment Agency 27 November 2012 Retrieved 12 September 2016 Developing Onshore Shale Gas and Oil Facts about Fracking PDF Department of Energy and Climate Change December 2013 Retrieved 7 November 2014 a b Unconventional Gas PDF POSTnote Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 374 April 2011 Retrieved 8 November 2014 British Geological Survey 2014 Weald Basin Summary Unconventional Resources in Great Britain Weald Basin Jurassic BGS Study PDF DECC Retrieved 26 March 2017 Herringshaw Dr Liam March 2015 From national to fracktional will fracking come to Britain s National Parks PDF Durham Energy Institute Durham University Retrieved 12 September 2016 Eden Project Eden Deep Geothermal Energy Project Retrieved 17 October 2014 Oil and Gas Authority to become new independent regulator Infrastructure Intelligence Retrieved 8 April 2017 From 1 October 2016 the Oil and Gas Authority OGA will be an independent regulator for the UK government with a new set of powers to fulfil government expectations for the oil and gas industry Hydraulic Fracturing Regulatory Process PDF Oil and Gas Authority Retrieved 8 April 2017 a b c d e Onshore Oil amp Gas Sector Guidance Version 1 17 August 2016 PDF Environment Agency 17 August 2016 Retrieved 3 September 2016 Natural Resources Wales Archived from the original on 14 May 2016 Retrieved 16 October 2014 Scottish Environment Protection Agency SEPA Archived from the original on 14 April 2016 Retrieved 16 October 2014 NIA Written Ministerial Statement Department of the Environment High volume Hydraulic Fracturing Retrieved 22 December 2016 Within my Department the Northern Ireland Environment Agency NIEA seeks to safeguard the quality of the environment as a whole through effective regulation of activities that have the potential to impact on the environment High volume hydraulic fracturing fracking is considered by the Agency to be such an activity Licensing amp consents 2017 Retrieved 8 April 2017 The OGA regulates the licensing of exploration and development of the UK s offshore and onshore oil and gas resources gas storage and unloading activities a b c d Guidance on fracking developing shale gas in the UK Department for Business Energy amp Industrial Strategy BEIS 13 January 2017 Retrieved 13 September 2016 Environmental Permitting Regulations EPR 2010 Retrieved 14 September 2016 HSE Shale requirements PDF Archived from the original PDF on 1 March 2014 Retrieved 24 February 2014 HSE s role in regulating onshore shale gas and hydraulic fracturing The Environment Agency and the Health and Safety Executive Working together to regulate unconventional oil and gas developments PDF November 2012 Archived from the original PDF on 28 March 2014 a b Guidance for EWTs and HFPs Hydraulic Fracture Plan HFP PDF Oil and Gas Authority Ltd 5 January 2017 pp 2 3 Retrieved 8 April 2017 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING CONSENT PDF Guidance on application for hydraulic fracturing consent HFC under section 4A of the Petroleum Act 1998 inserted by section 50 of the Infrastructure Act 2015 UK Govt 16 February 2017 Morton Becky 26 October 2022 Rishi Sunak reimposes fracking ban in England BBC News Retrieved 26 October 2022 The Environmental Permitting England and Wales Regulations 2010 UK Government 2010 Retrieved 28 August 2016 The Pollution Prevention and Control Scotland Regulations 2012 Legislation gov uk Queen s Printer for Scotland QPS Retrieved 1 April 2017 DIRECTIVE 2006 118 EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration Eur lex europa eu EUR Lex 32006L0118 EN EUR Lex 12 December 2006 Retrieved 18 October 2014 It is necessary to distinguish between hazardous substances inputs of which should be prevented and other pollutants inputs of which should be limited Annex VIII to Directive 2000 60 EC listing the main pollutants relevant for the water environment should be used to identify hazardous and non hazardous substances which present an existing or potential risk of pollution 170116 Substance Determinations final PDF JAGDAG Environment Agency Retrieved 16 March 2017 Chapter 4 PDF Environmental Permitting Guidance Groundwater Activities p 15 Retrieved 16 March 2017 4 6 The List I and List II groupings of substances under the GWD and 1998 Regulations no longer apply Substances are instead treated as either hazardous substances initially broadly equating to the former List I or non hazardous pollutants analogous to the former List II but potentially applying to all other pollutants Hazardous substance is defined in Article 2 29 of the Water FD as meaning substances or groups of substances that are toxic persistent and liable to bio accumulate and other substances or groups of substances which give rise to an equivalent level of concern The GWDD requires a different approach by which Member States or their competent authorities determine which substances should be determined as hazardous on the basis of their toxicity persistence and capacity to bio accumulate i e positive determination rather than removal from a pre determined list This provides greater flexibility to include substances within or alternatively exclude them from the hazardous category In practice substances which have been determined as List I will continue to be regarded as hazardous and will only be reviewed if new evidence becomes available a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a website ignored help Harvey Fiona Vaughan Adam 10 October 2013 Fracking firm was barred from using chemical Balcombe meeting told The Guardian Retrieved 5 September 2014 Are we fit to frack RSPB 20 March 2014 5 Make water companies statutory consultees in the planning process 6 Require all hydraulic fracturing operations to operate under a Groundwater Permit 7 Make sure Best Available Techniques BAT for mine waste management are rigorously defined and regularly reviewed UKOOG Fit to Frack response Ukoog org uk 14 March 2014 UK Onshore Oil and Gas the representative body of the UK s onshore oil and gas industry notes the contribution made by leading conservation charities to the debate on shale gas regulation in their report Are We Fit To Frack Of the 10 recommendations in the report the vast majority are already in place or are in discussion We look forward to being able to discuss with the six bodies who contributed to this report about the best way forward so that we ensure all misconceptions about the shale gas industry in the UK can be addressed Ken Cronin Chief Executive UKOOG commented We have studied this report and the fact that many of the recommendations are already in place in the UK or are in the process of being put in place We hope that the publication of this report despite a number of critical inaccuracies will kickstart a process of open dialogue which we have already proposed to conservation agencies Gwen Harrison Stuart Parkinson Gary McFarlane July 2014 Shale gas and fracking examining the evidence Report SGR and CIEH Retrieved 16 October 2014 Verdon James 23 July 2014 Critique authored by Dr James Verdon of the report authored by the Chartered Institute for Environmental Health on hydraulic fracturing fracking and shale gas extraction in the UK Scribd Retrieved 16 October 2014 HSE s role in regulating onshore shale gas and hydraulic fracturing Shale gas HSE Hse gov uk Retrieved 5 April 2017 the Offshore Installations and Wells Design and Construction etc Regulations 1996 known as DCR These regulations include specific requirements for all wells whether onshore or offshore and include well integrity provisions which apply throughout the life of shale gas wells They also require a well operator to provide HSE with regular reports of any activities on the well and to appoint an independent well examiner to undertake regular assessments of well integrity New fracking regulator needed report says 25 March 2015 Retrieved 5 April 2017 Lord Smith said He said the new regulator would also involve the local community in the monitoring process and assess the integrity of wells to make sure any problems that could lead to leaks are discovered and remedied CHEM Trust 21 June 2015 Chemicals from fracking could cause significant pollution and damage to wildlife Retrieved 29 July 2015 Rowell Andy 20 June 2015 Fracking poses a significant risk to humans and wildlife says a new report A major scientific study says the process uses toxic and carcinogenic chemicals and that an EU wide ban should be issued until safeguards are in place The Independent Retrieved 8 September 2016 UKOOG 22 June 2015 UKOOG Response to Chemtrust report on Fracking Retrieved 1 August 2015 CHEM Trust 23 June 2015 Fracking pollution A response to the claims made by the UK fracking industry Retrieved 1 August 2015 Gosden Emily 22 June 2015 Anti fracking report cited by Andy Burnham was based on scare stories The Daily Telegraph Retrieved 8 September 2016 Scottish Government 31 January 2017 Talking Fracking A Consultation on Unconventional Oil and Gas Gov scot p 338009 Retrieved 31 March 2017 Directive 2003 35 EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 providing for public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment and amending with regard to public participation and access to justice Council Directives 85 337 EEC and 96 61 EC Statement by the Commission Eur lex europa eu EUR lex 26 May 2003 Retrieved 31 March 2017 Shale Community Engagement Charter UKOOG Archived from the original on 30 March 2017 Retrieved 25 February 2017 In June 2013 United Kingdom Onshore Oil and Gas launched a Shale Community Engagement Charter which outlines the steps the industry will take to address concerns around safety noise dust truck movements and other environmental issues Shale gas George Osborne proposes north of England fund BBC News 8 November 2014 Retrieved 31 March 2017 PM rewrites plan to put money from infrastructure in the hands of local people gov uk 7 August 2016 Retrieved 30 March 2017 Stephenson Halliday March 2016 FINANCIAL MATTERS PLANNING FOR SHALE GAS AND OIL BRIEFING NOTE MARCH 2016 PDF Local gov uk p 26 Retrieved 16 December 2017 COMMUNITY AND THE INEOS PROMISE PDF INEOS Retrieved 25 February 2017 a b Stephenson Halliday for PAS March 2016 Planning for Shale Gas and Oil Briefing Note March 2016 Planning Advisory Service Archived from the original on 23 December 2016 Retrieved 22 December 2016 Controller of HMSO Infrastructure Act Section 43 Petroleum and geothermal energy right to use deep level land Her Majesty s Stationery Office HMSO Retrieved 28 August 2016 Controller of HMSO Infrastructure Act Section 50 Onshore hydraulic fracturing safeguards Her Majesty s Stationery Office HMSO Retrieved 24 March 2017 Controller of HMSO The Onshore Hydraulic Fracturing Protected Areas Regulations 2016 Regulation 3 Her Majesty s Stationery Office HMSO Retrieved 27 February 2017 Full Statement dead link Non Tech Summary dead link a b AMEC Environment amp Infrastructure UK December 2013 Strategic environmental assessment for further onshore oil and gas licensing PDF Report Oil and Gas Policy Unit DECC 33917mr007i3 Retrieved 16 October 2014 Potential environmental considerations associated with shale gas British Geological Survey NERC Retrieved 21 October 2014 Shale gas extraction issues of particular relevance to the European Union PDF Report European Academies Science Advisory Council October 2014 Retrieved 10 December 2014 This EASAC analysis provides no basis for a ban on shale gas exploration or extraction using hydraulic fracturing on scientific and technical grounds although EASAC supports calls for effective regulations in the health safety and environment fields highlighted by other science and engineering academies and in this statement a b Amec Foster Wheeler Infrastructure Ltd October 2016 Study on the assessment and management of environmental impacts and risks resulting from the exploration and production of hydrocarbons PDF European Commission Retrieved 9 April 2017 Goodman Paul S Galatioto Fabio Thorpe Neil Namdeo Anil K Davies Richard J Bird Roger N 1 April 2016 Investigating the traffic related environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing fracking operations Environment International 89 90 248 260 doi 10 1016 j envint 2016 02 002 PMID 26922565 Vaughan Adam 24 February 2016 UK fracking traffic would increase local air pollution finds study The Guardian Retrieved 9 April 2017 Additionally the report s conclusions fail to take into account that in the UK water is more often available through pipelines so there is no need to transport it across the country by truck Chapter 2 Protect groundwater and prevent groundwater pollution Environment Agency Retrieved 16 March 2017 Water stored below the ground in rocks or other geological strata is called groundwater The geological strata that hold water are called aquifers Groundwater may rise to the surface through naturally occurring springs or be abstracted using boreholes and wells Groundwater may also naturally flow into rivers called base flow and support wetlands forming part of local ecosystems The legal definition of groundwater is All water which is below the surface of the ground in the saturation zone and in direct contact with the ground or subsoil Aquifers are A subsurface layer or layers of rock or other geological strata of sufficient porosity and permeability to allow either a significant flow of groundwater or the abstraction of significant quantities of groundwater Results summary National methane baseline survey of UK groundwaters British Geological Survey BGS Bgs ac uk Retrieved 6 March 2019 Shale gas extraction in the UK a review of hydraulic fracturing Summary Recommendation 1 Royal Academy of engineering Retrieved 5 March 2017 To detect groundwater contamination the UK s environmental regulators should work with the British Geological Survey BGS to carry out comprehensive national baseline surveys of methane and other contaminants in groundwater Operators should carry out site specific monitoring of methane and other contaminants in groundwater before during and after shale gas operations 2015 Infrastructure Act UK Legislation Retrieved 13 September 2016 Shale Gas and Water 2016 An independent review of shale gas extraction in the UK and the implications for the water environment PDF Ciwem org CIWEM Archived from the original PDF on 11 September 2016 Retrieved 31 August 2016 Amec Foster Wheeler Environment amp Infrastructure UK Ltd October 2016 Study on the assessment and management of environmental impacts and risks resulting from the exploration and production of hydrocarbons PDF European Commission p 277 Retrieved 1 April 2017 Shale gas extraction in the UK A review of hydraulic fracturing chapter 4 3 3 RAENG Royal Academy of Engineering p 37 Retrieved 22 February 2017 The very unlikely event of fractures propagating all the way to overlying aquifers would provide a possible route for fracture fluids to flow However suitable pressure and permeability conditions would also be necessary for fluids to flow Sufficiently high upward pressures would be required during the fracturing process and then sustained afterwards over the long term once the fracturing process had ceased It is very difficult to conceive of how this might occur given the UK s shale gas hydrogeological environments Upward flow of fluids from the zone of shale gas extraction to overlying aquifers via fractures in the intervening strata is highly unlikely Boothroyd I M Almond S Qassim S M Worrall F Davies R J 2016 Fugitive emissions of methane from abandoned decommissioned oil and gas wells Science of the Total Environment 547 461 9 Bibcode 2016ScTEn 547 461B doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2015 12 096 PMID 26822472 Chief Inspector of Drinking Water July 2013 Drinking water 2012 Private water supplies in England PDF Report Drinking Water Inspectorate Retrieved 16 October 2014 CIWEM February 2016 Shale Gas and Water 2016 PDF The Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management CIWEM p 32 Archived from the original PDF on 11 September 2016 Retrieved 24 March 2017 DEFRA 16 March 2017 Water Abstraction statistics England 2000 to 2015 PDF Department for Food and Rural Affairs DEFRA Retrieved 23 March 2017 Environment Agency Written evidence submitted by the Environment Agency Environment Agency Retrieved 7 January 2015 Water resources in England and Wales current state and future pressures PDF Environment Agency Southern Region December 2008 p 6 Archived from the original on 28 March 2014 Retrieved 1 March 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Fiona Harvey 27 November 2013 Water shortages may make fracking impractical industry says Quantities required for the fracking process may make it problematic in areas of the UK where resources are scarce The Guardian Retrieved 25 March 2017 Water UK told the Guardian there could be risks to the water supply particularly in the south east where the pressure of population puts supplies under stress British Geological Survey Earthquakes induced by Hydraulic Fracturing Operations near Blackpool UK Earthquakes bgs ac uk Retrieved 29 December 2016 Wilson Miles P Davies Richard J Foulger Gillian R Julian Bruce R Styles Peter Gluyas Jon G Almond Sam 2015 Anthropogenic earthquakes in the UK A national baseline prior to shale exploitation Marine and Petroleum Geology 68 1 17 doi 10 1016 j marpetgeo 2015 08 023 Fracking suspended following earthquake BBC News 26 October 2018 Retrieved 27 October 2018 Fracking in Lancashire Second 0 8 tremor in 24 hours BBC News 27 October 2018 a b Sylvia Pfeifer and Elizabeth Rigby 1 June 2011 Earthquake fears halt shale gas fracking The Financial Times Retrieved 1 March 2012 Shale gas drilling update Mark Menzies website 5 June 2011 Archived from the original on 3 January 2013 Retrieved 1 March 2012 Shale gas fracking MPs call for safety inquiry after tremors BBC News 8 June 2011 Retrieved 26 February 2012 PH1Frac review PDF Retrieved 6 March 2019 Fiona Harvey 17 April 2012 Gas fracking gets green light The Guardian Retrieved 17 April 2012 Matt McGrath Fracking Untangling fact from fiction BBC 13 December 2012 de Pater C J Baisch S 2 November 2011 Geomechanical Study of Bowland Shale Seismicity PDF Cuadrilla Resources Retrieved 22 February 2012 Rearden Sarah 2 November 2011 U K Quakes Likely Caused by Fracking HighWire Press American Association for the Advancement of Science Archived from the original on 3 November 2011 Retrieved 26 February 2012 Fracking tests near Blackpool likely cause of tremors BBC News 2 November 2011 Retrieved 26 February 2012 Fracking and Earthquake Hazard British Geological Survey Retrieved 2 September 2016 About shale gas and hydraulic fracturing fracking Report Department of Energy and Climate Change 19 December 2013 Archived from the original on 24 August 2013 Retrieved 30 August 2013 Lets talk about shale UKOOG Archived from the original on 7 March 2017 Retrieved 6 March 2017 Doniya Soni LinkedIn Retrieved 4 June 2017 Website and feedback management for Let s Talk about Shale an UKOOG initiative where more than 8 000 stakeholders were engaged with Does home insurance covers any damage caused by shale gas extraction UKOOG Archived from the original on 7 March 2017 Retrieved 6 March 2017 Ben Briggs NFU Mutual clarifies its position on fracking insurance Farmers Guardian Archived from the original on 31 January 2015 Retrieved 19 February 2015 Chartered Insurance Institute Claims Faculty New Generation Group March 2017 Insurance implications of fracking PDF Retrieved 15 May 2017 Insurance implications of fracking Cii co uk Chartered Insurance Institute Retrieved 14 May 2017 Public Health England 25 June 2014 PHE CRCE 009 Review of the potential public health impacts of exposures to chemical and radioactive pollutants as a result of shale gas extraction ISBN 978 0 85951 752 2 McCoy Dr David Saunders Dr Patrick 2015 Health amp Fracking The impacts and opportunity costs PDF Medact Retrieved 20 June 2015 Shale gas industry says that Medact Report fails to understand UK regulatory system and lacks credibility UKOOG Retrieved 20 June 2015 Webster Ben 31 March 2015 A report that persuaded doctors to oppose fracking was partly written by a campaigner opposing shale gas extraction near his home The Times Retrieved 28 August 2016 Rebutting and Responding to Criticisms of the Medact Report on Fracking and Health PDF Medact Retrieved 20 June 2015 Public reports pack 23 June 2015 PDF Lancashire County Council Development Control Committee pp 723 724 Retrieved 20 June 2015 PHE did not comment on the Medact report in this document The Council commented Many objectors refer to the 2015 report of the public health charity Medact Medact say the risks and serious nature of the hazards associated with fracking coupled with the concerns and uncertainties about the regulatory system indicate that shale gas development should be halted until a more detailed health and environmental impact assessment is undertaken The Medact report has not produced new epidemiological research but has reviewed published literature and has requested short papers from relevant experts in particular subject areas It has also interviewed academics and experts Unfortunately one of the contributors contributing to three of the report s six chapters chapters 2 4 and 5 has led a high profile campaign in the Fylde related to shale gas Another contributor to the report chapter 3 has previously expressed firm views on shale gas and has objected to this application This has led to questions from some quarters about the report s objectivity In light of these uncertainties it is not clear how much weight the County Council should attach to the report Shale Gas Production in England an updated public health assessment Medact Retrieved 27 February 2017 Key points Hazardous pollutants are produced at all stages of the shale gas production process The range of pollutants are outlined in the report Based on current evidence it is not possible to conclude that there is a strong association between shale gas related pollution and negative local health effects However there is clearly potential for negative health impacts In particular there are risks of i adverse reproductive outcomes due to exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals ii risk of respiratory effects resulting from ozone and smog formation iii stress anxiety and other psycho social effects arising from actual and perceived social and economic disruption Clark Pilita 7 July 2016 Fracking threatens UK s climate change targets says report Government s advisers on global warming urge industry to adhere to three conditions The Financial Times Retrieved 29 December 2016 Separately a group of medical professionals repeated their call for the UK to abandon its shale gas plans because of the threats it posed to health A report from the London based Medact charity said risks included reproductive problems from exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and respiratory damage from smog Fracking fears over gas drilling in Vale of Glamorgan BBC News 26 September 2011 Retrieved 27 February 2012 a b c Peter Collins 9 December 2011 New bid to drill for gas in the Vale South Wales Echo Retrieved 4 March 2012 Fracking threat to Bath s hot springs says council BBC News 28 September 2011 Retrieved 26 February 2011 Wrexham public meeting over gas test drilling plan BBC 15 October 2013 Retrieved 15 November 2014 Company documents contradict Miller s We have no intention to frack in Balcombe Gas Drilling in Balcombe NO Fracking in Sussex 13 January 2012 Retrieved 29 February 2012 Fiona Harvey 23 January 2014 Cuadrilla scraps plan to frack at Balcombe site Natural fractures in shale rock rules out need for hydraulic fracking company says Retrieved 20 March 2016 Letter reveals Cuadrilla had to frack Balcombe area of the Sussex Weald to be commercially productive 8 May 2014 Retrieved 20 March 2017 James Melley 28 September 2011 New groups protest at shale gas BBC News Retrieved 2 November 2011 Carruthers Ross 7 October 2014 List of regional national groups united in demanding that our green islands stay Frack Free Residents Action on Fylde Fracking Blackpool amp Fylde Coast stopfyldefracking org uk Ribble Estuary Against Fracking News Reaf org uk Retrieved 4 March 2012 Frack Free Fernhurst FrackFreeFernHurst com Archived from the original on 16 July 2013 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Help us say NO to toxic gas drilling in the Vale of Glamorgan The Vale Says No 8 November 2011 Archived from the original on 13 May 2011 Retrieved 4 March 2012 Grafton R Quentin Cronshaw Ian G Moore Michal C 2016 Risks Rewards and Regulation of Unconventional Gas A Global Perspective Cambridge University Press p 177 ISBN 9781316869888 Retrieved 20 March 2017 Shale gas Frack Off Retrieved 22 December 2016 Pro frackers launch drive to get people behind shale gas drilling Johnstone Press 2 June 2015 Retrieved 24 December 2016 Prynn Jonathan 23 May 2014 Massive oil reserves lie under commuter belt in South says report London Evening Standard p 8 Fracking support falls to its lowest ever level The Independent 10 May 2019 Support for fracking at record low The Ecologist Harvey Fiona 24 April 2013 Cuadrilla censured by advertising watchdog over fracking safety claims The Guardian Retrieved 5 September 2016 ASA Ruling on Cuadrilla Resources Ltd Advertising Standards Authority 24 April 2013 Archived from the original on 28 April 2013 Retrieved 5 September 2016 Merrill Jamie 6 January 2015 Anti Cuadrilla group s fracking protest leaflet misleading says watchdog The Independent Retrieved 5 September 2016 Informal ruling on Residents Against Fylde Fracking Advertising Standards Authority 7 January 2015 Retrieved 5 September 2016 Friends of the Earth accused of misleading over fracking BBC 19 October 2015 Retrieved 5 September 2016 Complaints to ASA and FRSB about Friends of the Earth fracking leaflet 20 October 2015 Retrieved 20 March 2016 Friends of the Earth ticked off over claims in anti fracking leaflet The Guardian 4 January 2017 Retrieved 27 February 2017 We approached Friends of the Earth with the concerns that had been raised about its ad said a spokesman for the ASA The advertiser agreed not to repeat the claims or claims that had the same meaning On that basis we closed the case informally The ad must not appear again in its current form The ASA said that it has told FoE not to make claims about the likely effects of fracking on the health of local populations drinking water or property prices in the absence of adequate evidence Parker Guy Opinion piece A fractious debate but a clear outcome Advertising Standards Authority Retrieved 27 February 2017 We told Friends of the Earth that based on the evidence we d seen claims it made in its anti fracking leaflet or claims with the same meaning cannot be repeated and asked for an assurance that they wouldn t be Friends of the Earth gave us an assurance to that effect Unless the evidence changes that means it mustn t repeat in ads claims about the effects of fracking on the health of local populations drinking water or property prices Friends of the Earth has said we dropped the case That s not an accurate reflection of what s happened We thoroughly investigated the complaints we received and closed the case on receipt of the above assurance Because of that we decided against publishing a formal ruling but plainly that s not the same thing as dropping the case Crucially the claims under the microscope mustn t reappear in ads unless the evidence changes Bennett Craig Let s talk about the fracking facts Friends of the Earth Retrieved 27 February 2017 a b Peter Collins 21 October 2011 Delight at refusal of shale gas test drilling Western Mail Retrieved 4 March 2012 Peter Collins 22 October 2011 Gas drill bid firm considers legal action South Wales Echo Retrieved 4 March 2012 Peter Collins 25 November 2011 Fracking firm considers legal action against Vale Council South Wales Echo Retrieved 4 March 2012 a b Peter Collins 27 February 2012 Campaign against Vale of Glamorgan gas drilling plan suffers setback South Wales Echo Retrieved 4 March 2012 a b Fiona Harvey 20 April 2011 Gasland changed everything fracking firm battles to woo English villagers Guardian co uk Retrieved 27 February 2012 Tim Rayment 23 October 2011 The wonder gas that could cut your energy bills The Sunday Times Retrieved 5 March 2012 Fiona Harvey 20 April 2011 Shale gas is it as green as the oil companies say Guardian co uk Retrieved 28 February 2012 Shale Gas Rural Economic Impacts PDF Retrieved 6 March 2019 DEFRA cover letter PDF Retrieved 6 March 2019 Mason Rowena correspondent political 10 August 2014 Fracking campaigners criticise censored report on house prices Retrieved 6 March 2019 via www theguardian com Residential research report The Impact of On Shore Gas Exploration Activities on Local House Prices PDF JLL NorthWest Energy Task Force Retrieved 14 March 2017 From 1995 to 2014 Preese Hall has seen a higher trajectory of house price growth when compared with Lancashire and the North West Although Preese Hall saw a larger decline in house prices between the application being submitted and implementation than Lancashire and the North West the area has seen a price growth of 7 5 between onshore gas operations commencing in 2011 and 2014 This compares with the North West seeing a prices increase by 0 2 whereas Lancashire saw a price decline of 4 2 Taken together there is no clear evidence based on this data to suggest that onshore gas operations have had a material impact on local house prices 34 of households within three miles 5 km of the subject site fall into the category of Affluent Achievers A further indication of the prosperity in the area is that 71 of households are owner occupied Friends of the Earth ticked off over claims in anti fracking leaflet 4 January 2017 Retrieved 14 March 2017 Other claims made in the ad entitled Pat saved her home from fracking You can save yours too included that there would be plummeting house prices External links EditBritish Geological Survey Information about shale gas Oil and Gas Authority Publications guidance and data including mapping seismic activity wells and licensing and regulation for onshore oil and gasVideos Edit DECC 6 Aug 2015 1 What is shale gas DECC 6 Aug 2015 2 The regulatory regime for hydraulic fracturing fracking DECC 6 Aug 2015 3 The role of the Health and Safety Executive HSE in fracking ReFiNE 2013 Multimedia Gallery Cuadrilla 25 Nov 2013 Surface Story UKOOG 14 Dec 2016 Pad Density Visualisation ReFiNE 30 Sep 2013 Hydraulic Fractures ReFiNE 30 Sep 2013 Induced Seismicity Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fracking in the United Kingdom amp oldid 1175876298, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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