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Hammurabi

Hammurabi (/ˌxæmʊˈrɑːbi/; Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 Ḫâmmurapi;[a] c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC), also spelled Hammurapi,[3][4] was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.

Hammurabi
𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉
King of Babylon
King of the Four Corners of the World
Hammurabi (standing) receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk).[1]
King of the Old Babylonian Empire
Reignc. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)
PredecessorSin-Muballit
SuccessorSamsu-iluna
Bornc. 1810 BC
Babylon
Diedc. 1750 BC (aged 59–60)
Babylon
IssueSamsu-iluna

Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution. The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.

Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past. Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law.

Life

Background and ascension

 
Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BC

Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC.[5] Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite-ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.[6] Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.[7] The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside of the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and more powerful kingdoms, such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so after its founding. However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.[7]

The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River, while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already inherited centuries-old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia,[8] although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.[9]

Reign and conquests

 
A limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the British Museum

The first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.[10] Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.[11] The powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[12] With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.[13]

In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.[14] Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.[14] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC.[15]

As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.[15] Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest. Soon after, he destroyed Eshnunna.[16] Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.[17][18]

Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.[19]

In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.[18] The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence.[18] However, one stele (stone monument) of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".[20]

Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.[21] These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[22] Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC, under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel.[23]

Code of laws

 
Code of Hammurabi stele. Louvre Museum, Paris

The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues.[24] It is not the earliest surviving law code[25][b] but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations[27][28] as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator.[28] It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in retribution[28] and one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence.[29] The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the use of the Lex Talionis philosophy ("Eye for eye, tooth for tooth").[30][28]

The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets.[27] Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city. At this time, Akkadian replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time.[31] A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice,[32] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people.[33]

Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in law buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.[34] A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.[35][36]

Legacy

Posthumous commemoration

 
Tablet of Hammurabi (𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, 4th line from the top), King of Babylon. British Museum.[37][38][39]

Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC[40] and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime.[41] The personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi is my god" became common during and after his reign. In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice.[41] Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.[42] A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Marduk.[43] The stele declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. I myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk:[42]

I am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of one mind,
I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,
I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,
I am the great net that covers evil intent,
I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
I am the battle net that catches him who offends me.[43]

After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally declares: "I am Hammurabi, the king of justice."[41] In later commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past. A hymn to the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was written during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi. This song for you was composed in his reign. May he be given life forever!"[40] For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.[44]

Political legacy

 
Copy of Hammurabi's stele usurped by Shutruk-Nahhunte I. The stele was only partially erased and was never re-inscribed.[45]

During the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of "most holy city" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, Nippur.[46] Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse. In northern Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time, native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in more or less the region of ancient Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south, Elam to the east, and to the Kassites from the northeast. Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding.[47]

The coup de grace for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia.[48] However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people speaking a language isolate, from the Zagros mountains region. This Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws.[48] Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered.[44] When the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them.[44] On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added.[45] Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of Suhu, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.[49]

A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription, which was intended for display on a stele, commemorates a royal grant of tax exemptions to nine Babylonian cities and presents the royal protagonist as a second Hammurabi.[50]

Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law

In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible") controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts.[51] In January 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi.[52] Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the preceding one about the Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few were sympathetic. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin.[51] The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, Aryan message of the New Testament.[52] In the early twentieth century, many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14:1.[53][54] This view has now been largely rejected,[55][56] and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible.[56]

Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two.[57][58][59][60] Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi.[57][58][59][60][c] Some scholars have disputed this; David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.[61] In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi.[62]

References

Notes

  1. ^ from ʻAmmurāpi ("the kinsman is a healer"), itself from ʻAmmu ("paternal kinsman") and Rāpi ("healer"). The classicist Alan Millard insists that Hammurapi is a more correct spelling.[2]
  2. ^ It is predated by the Code of Ur-Nammu, the Laws of Eshnunna, and the Code of Lipit-Ishtar.[26]
  3. ^ Barton, a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania, stated that while there are similarities between the two texts, a study of the entirety of both laws "convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws." He states that "such resemblances" arose from "a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook" between the two cultures, but that "the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing."[58]

Citations

  1. ^ Roux 1992, between 266–267.
  2. ^ Millard 2004.
  3. ^ Khwshnaw 2023.
  4. ^ Hone, Charles F. (1917). The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East . Vol. 1 – via Wikisource. [scan  ]
  5. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 1.
  6. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 1–2.
  7. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 3.
  8. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 3–4.
  9. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 16.
  10. ^ Adolf, Antony (8 May 2013). Peace: A World History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7456-5459-1. An early study claims that 'peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign', though more recent research confines this preponderantly peaceful period to the first two decades Hammurabi ruled.
  11. ^ Arnold 2005, p. 43.
  12. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 15–16.
  13. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 17.
  14. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 18.
  15. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 31.
  16. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 40–41.
  17. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 54–55, 64–65.
  18. ^ a b c Arnold 2005, p. 45.
  19. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1. OCLC 39762695.
  20. ^ Clay, Albert Tobias (1919). The Empire of the Amorites. Yale University Press. p. 97.
  21. ^ Breasted 2003, p. 129.
  22. ^ Breasted 2003, pp. 129–130.
  23. ^ Arnold 2005, p. 42.
  24. ^ H. Otto Sommer (1908). The Laws of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia . Records of the Past, Volume II, Part III. – via Wikisource.
  25. ^ Driver & Miles (1952), p. 9.
  26. ^ Roth 1995, pp. 13, 23, 57.
  27. ^ a b Breasted 2003, p. 141.
  28. ^ a b c d Bertman 2003, p. 71.
  29. ^ Victimology: Theories and Applications, Ann Wolbert Burgess, Albert R. Roberts, Cheryl Regehr, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2009, p. 103
  30. ^ Prince 1904, pp. 606–607.
  31. ^ Maher, John C. (2017). Multilingualism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-19-872499-5. ... Akkadian (Babylonian) replaced Sumerian ... The Code of Hammurabi was written in the daily language of Babylon, Akkadian. Hammurabi (c.1810–1750 BC), the sixth king of the First Babylonian Empire, initiated language reforms to make Akkadian the pre-eminent lingua franca of antiquity; inscriptions have been found on stone, silver and clay artefacts.
  32. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Vol. 1 (Thirteenth ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-495-57360-9. from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  33. ^ Smith, J. M. Powis (2005). The Origin and History of Hebrew Law. Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-58477-489-1. from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  34. ^ "Hammurabi". Architect of the Capitol. from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
  35. ^ (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
  36. ^ Biskupic, Joan (11 March 1998). "Lawgivers: From Two Friezes, Great Figures of Legal History Gaze Upon the Supreme Court Bench". WP Company LLC. The Washington Post. from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
  37. ^ Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum (PDF). British Museum. 1905. pp. Plates 44 and 45. (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  38. ^ Budge, E. A. Wallis (Ernest Alfred Wallis); King, L. W. (Leonard William) (1908). A guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities. London : Printed by the order of the Trustees. p. 147.
  39. ^ For full transcription: "CDLI-Archival View". cdli.ucla.edu. from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
  40. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 128.
  41. ^ a b c Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 127.
  42. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 126.
  43. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 126–127.
  44. ^ a b c Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 129.
  45. ^ a b Van De Mieroop 2005, pp. 129–130.
  46. ^ Schneider, Tammi J. (2011), An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, pp. 58–59, ISBN 978-0-8028-2959-7, from the original on 12 November 2021, retrieved 1 November 2020
  47. ^ Roux 1992, pp. 243–246.
  48. ^ a b DeBlois 1997, p. 19.
  49. ^ Van De Mieroop 2005, p. 130.
  50. ^ Frazer, Mary; Adalı, Selim Ferruh (25 November 2021). ""The just judgements that Ḫammu-rāpi, a former king, rendered": A New Royal Inscription in the Istanbul Archaeological Museums". Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie. 111 (2): 231–262. doi:10.1515/za-2021-2004. ISSN 0084-5299. S2CID 244530410. from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  51. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012, p. 25.
  52. ^ a b Ziolkowski 2012, pp. 23–25.
  53. ^ Rogers, Robert W.; Kohler, Kaufmann; Jastrow, Marcus. "Amraphel". The Jewish Encyclopedia. from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  54. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 14 - New International Version". from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  55. ^ North, Robert (1993). "Abraham". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-504645-8.
  56. ^ a b Granerød, Gard (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 120. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.
  57. ^ a b Douglas, J. D.; Tenney, Merrill C. (2011). Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 1323. ISBN 978-0-310-22983-4.
  58. ^ a b c Barton 1916, p. 406.
  59. ^ a b Unger, M.F.: Archaeology and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1954, pp. 156–157
  60. ^ a b Free, J.P.: Archaeology and Biblical History. Wheaton: Scripture Press, 1950, 1969, p. 121
  61. ^ Wright, David P. (2009). Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 3 and passim. ISBN 978-0-19-530475-6.
  62. ^ Horowitz, Wayne; Oshima, Takayoshi; Vukosavović, Filip (2012). "Hazor 18: Fragments of a Cuneiform Law Collection from Hazor". Israel Exploration Journal. 62 (2): 158–176. ISSN 0021-2059. JSTOR 43855622.

Sources

External links

  • A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi at the Louvre museum
  • Works by Hammurabi at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Hammurabi at Internet Archive
  • Year Names of Hammurabi
Regnal titles
Preceded by Kings of Babylon
c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC (MC)
Succeeded by

hammurabi, other, uses, disambiguation, hamurabi, redirects, here, video, game, hamurabi, video, game, ɑː, akkadian, 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, Ḫâmmurapi, 1810, 1750, also, spelled, hammurapi, sixth, amorite, king, babylonian, empire, reigning, from, 1792, 1750, preceded, father,. For other uses see Hammurabi disambiguation Hamurabi redirects here For the video game see Hamurabi video game Hammurabi ˌ x ae m ʊ ˈ r ɑː b i Akkadian 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 Ḫammurapi a c 1810 c 1750 BC also spelled Hammurapi 3 4 was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire reigning from c 1792 to c 1750 BC He was preceded by his father Sin Muballit who abdicated due to failing health During his reign he conquered the city states of Larsa Eshnunna and Mari He ousted Ishme Dagan I the king of Assyria and forced his son Mut Ashkur to pay tribute bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule Hammurabi𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉King of BabylonKing of the Four Corners of the WorldHammurabi standing receiving his royal insignia from Shamash or possibly Marduk 1 King of the Old Babylonian EmpireReignc 1792 c 1750 BC MC PredecessorSin MuballitSuccessorSamsu ilunaBornc 1810 BCBabylonDiedc 1750 BC aged 59 60 BabylonIssueSamsu ilunaHammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi which he claimed to have received from Shamash the Babylonian god of justice Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes such as the Code of Ur Nammu which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime After his death Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk the national god of the Babylonians Later his military accomplishments became de emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy For later Mesopotamians Hammurabi s reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past Even after the empire he built collapsed he was still revered as a model ruler and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law Contents 1 Life 1 1 Background and ascension 1 2 Reign and conquests 2 Code of laws 3 Legacy 3 1 Posthumous commemoration 3 2 Political legacy 3 3 Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law 4 References 4 1 Notes 4 2 Citations 4 3 Sources 5 External linksLifeBackground and ascension nbsp Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi s ascension in c 1792 BC and upon his death in c 1750 BCHammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city state of Babylon and inherited the power from his father Sin Muballit in c 1792 BC 5 Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled city states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land 6 Though many cultures co existed in Mesopotamia Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi 7 The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city state in 1894 BC which controlled little territory outside of the city itself Babylon was overshadowed by older larger and more powerful kingdoms such as Elam Assyria Isin Eshnunna and Larsa for a century or so after its founding However his father Sin Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and by the time of his reign had conquered the minor city states of Borsippa Kish and Sippar 7 The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia In northern Mesopotamia the Assyrian king Shamshi Adad I who had already inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia 8 although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire 9 Reign and conquests nbsp A limestone votive monument from Sippar Iraq dating to c 1792 c 1750 BC showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship now held in the British MuseumThe first few years of Hammurabi s reign were quite peaceful 10 Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes and expanding the temples 11 The powerful kingdom of Elam which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains invaded the Mesopotamian plain 12 With allies among the plain states Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time 13 In order to consolidate its position Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi s Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa 14 Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort 14 Angered by Larsa s failure to come to his aid Hammurabi turned on that southern power thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c 1763 BC 15 As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest 15 Continuing his expansion Hammurabi turned his attention northward quelling the unrest Soon after he destroyed Eshnunna 16 Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states including Babylon s former ally Mari although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict 17 18 Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand Eventually Hammurabi prevailed ousting Ishme Dagan I just before his own death Mut Ashkur the new king of Assyria was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi 19 In just a few years Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule 18 The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign and of the major city states in the region only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence 18 However one stele stone monument of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir where he claims the title King of the Amorites 20 Vast numbers of contract tablets dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors have been discovered as well as 55 of his own letters 21 These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar to taking care of Babylon s massive herds of livestock 22 Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu iluna in c 1750 BC under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel 23 Code of lawsMain article Code of Hammurabi nbsp Code of Hammurabi stele Louvre Museum ParisThe Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues 24 It is not the earliest surviving law code 25 b but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations 27 28 as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime as in earlier Sumerian law codes the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator 28 It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in retribution 28 and one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence 29 The structure of the code is very specific with each offense receiving a specified punishment Many offenses resulted in death disfigurement or the use of the Lex Talionis philosophy Eye for eye tooth for tooth 30 28 The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it although it is thought that few were literate The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital Susa it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws written by scribes on 12 tablets 27 Unlike earlier laws it was written in Akkadian the daily language of Babylon and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city At this time Akkadian replaced Sumerian and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time 31 A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash the Babylonian god of justice 32 and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people 33 Because of Hammurabi s reputation as a lawgiver his depiction can be found in law buildings throughout the world Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas reliefs in the chamber of the U S House of Representatives in the United States Capitol 34 A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the great lawgivers of history including Hammurabi is on the south wall of the U S Supreme Court building 35 36 LegacyPosthumous commemoration nbsp Tablet of Hammurabi 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉 4th line from the top King of Babylon British Museum 37 38 39 Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC 40 and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime 41 The personal name Hammurabi ili meaning Hammurabi is my god became common during and after his reign In writings from shortly after his death Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements bringing victory in war bringing peace and bringing justice 41 Hammurabi s conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations 42 A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Marduk 43 The stele declares The people of Elam Gutium Subartu and Tukrish whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure I placed into Marduk s hand I myself continued to put straight their confused minds A later hymn also written in Hammurabi s own voice extols him as a powerful supernatural force for Marduk 42 I am the king the brace that grasps wrongdoers that makes people of one mind I am the great dragon among kings who throws their counsel in disarray I am the net that is stretched over the enemy I am the fear inspiring who when lifting his fierce eyes gives the disobedient the death sentence I am the great net that covers evil intent I am the young lion who breaks nets and scepters I am the battle net that catches him who offends me 43 After extolling Hammurabi s military accomplishments the hymn finally declares I am Hammurabi the king of justice 41 In later commemorations Hammurabi s role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de emphasized Hammurabi s reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past A hymn to the goddess Ishtar whose language suggests it was written during the reign of Ammisaduqa Hammurabi s fourth successor declares The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi This song for you was composed in his reign May he be given life forever 40 For centuries after his death Hammurabi s laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian 44 Political legacy nbsp Copy of Hammurabi s stele usurped by Shutruk Nahhunte I The stele was only partially erased and was never re inscribed 45 During the reign of Hammurabi Babylon usurped the position of most holy city in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor Nippur 46 Under the rule of Hammurabi s successor Samsu iluna the short lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse In northern Mesopotamia both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur Sin a native Akkadian speaking ruler c 1740 BC Around the same time native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia creating the Sealand Dynasty in more or less the region of ancient Sumer Hammurabi s ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel ibni as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south Elam to the east and to the Kassites from the northeast Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding 47 The coup de grace for the Hammurabi s Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia 48 However the Indo European speaking Hittites did not remain turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies a people speaking a language isolate from the Zagros mountains region This Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the Babylonian culture including Hammurabi s code of laws 48 Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty however Hammurabi was still remembered and revered 44 When the Elamite king Shutruk Nahhunte I raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them 44 On the stele containing Hammurabi s laws however only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added 45 Over a thousand years after Hammurabi s death the kings of Suhu a land along the Euphrates river just northwest of Babylon claimed him as their ancestor 49 A Neo Babylonian royal inscription which was intended for display on a stele commemorates a royal grant of tax exemptions to nine Babylonian cities and presents the royal protagonist as a second Hammurabi 50 Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law In the late nineteenth century the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated Babel und Bibel Babylon and Bible controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts 51 In January 1902 the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi 52 Delitzsch s lecture was so controversial that by September 1903 he had managed to collect 1 350 short articles from newspapers and journals over 300 longer ones and twenty eight pamphlets all written in response to this lecture as well as the preceding one about the Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch though a few were sympathetic The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and in fall of 1904 Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin 51 The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch s argument in his 1920 21 book Die grosse Tauschung The Great Deception that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true Aryan message of the New Testament 52 In the early twentieth century many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14 1 53 54 This view has now been largely rejected 55 56 and Amraphael s existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible 56 Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two 57 58 59 60 Nonetheless fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi 57 58 59 60 c Some scholars have disputed this David P Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is directly primarily and throughout based upon the Laws of Hammurabi 61 In 2010 a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi 62 ReferencesNotes from ʻAmmurapi the kinsman is a healer itself from ʻAmmu paternal kinsman and Rapi healer The classicist Alan Millard insists that Hammurapi is a more correct spelling 2 It is predated by the Code of Ur Nammu the Laws of Eshnunna and the Code of Lipit Ishtar 26 Barton a former professor of Semitic languages at the University of Pennsylvania stated that while there are similarities between the two texts a study of the entirety of both laws convinces the student that the laws of the Old Testament are in no essential way dependent upon the Babylonian laws He states that such resemblances arose from a similarity of antecedents and of general intellectual outlook between the two cultures but that the striking differences show that there was no direct borrowing 58 Citations Roux 1992 between 266 267 Millard 2004 Khwshnaw 2023 Hone Charles F 1917 The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East Vol 1 via Wikisource scan nbsp Van De Mieroop 2005 p 1 Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 1 2 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 p 3 Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 3 4 Van De Mieroop 2005 p 16 Adolf Antony 8 May 2013 Peace A World History John Wiley amp Sons p 3 ISBN 978 0 7456 5459 1 An early study claims that peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign though more recent research confines this preponderantly peaceful period to the first two decades Hammurabi ruled Arnold 2005 p 43 Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 15 16 Van De Mieroop 2005 p 17 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 p 18 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 p 31 Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 40 41 Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 54 55 64 65 a b c Arnold 2005 p 45 Beck Roger B Black Linda Krieger Larry S Naylor Phillip C Shabaka Dahia Ibo 1999 World History Patterns of Interaction Evanston IL McDougal Littell ISBN 978 0 395 87274 1 OCLC 39762695 Clay Albert Tobias 1919 The Empire of the Amorites Yale University Press p 97 Breasted 2003 p 129 Breasted 2003 pp 129 130 Arnold 2005 p 42 H Otto Sommer 1908 The Laws of Hammurabi King of Babylonia Records of the Past Volume II Part III via Wikisource Driver amp Miles 1952 p 9 Roth 1995 pp 13 23 57 a b Breasted 2003 p 141 a b c d Bertman 2003 p 71 Victimology Theories and Applications Ann Wolbert Burgess Albert R Roberts Cheryl Regehr Jones amp Bartlett Learning 2009 p 103 Prince 1904 pp 606 607 Maher John C 2017 Multilingualism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press p 108 ISBN 978 0 19 872499 5 Akkadian Babylonian replaced Sumerian The Code of Hammurabi was written in the daily language of Babylon Akkadian Hammurabi c 1810 1750 BC the sixth king of the First Babylonian Empire initiated language reforms to make Akkadian the pre eminent lingua franca of antiquity inscriptions have been found on stone silver and clay artefacts Kleiner Fred S 2010 Gardner s Art through the Ages The Western Perspective Vol 1 Thirteenth ed Boston Massachusetts Wadsworth Cengage Learning p 29 ISBN 978 0 495 57360 9 Archived from the original on 17 June 2014 Retrieved 1 November 2020 Smith J M Powis 2005 The Origin and History of Hebrew Law Clark New Jersey The Lawbook Exchange Ltd p 13 ISBN 978 1 58477 489 1 Archived from the original on 15 April 2021 Retrieved 1 November 2020 Hammurabi Architect of the Capitol Archived from the original on 22 November 2021 Retrieved 19 May 2008 Courtroom Friezes PDF Supreme Court of the United States Archived from the original PDF on 1 June 2010 Retrieved 19 May 2008 Biskupic Joan 11 March 1998 Lawgivers From Two Friezes Great Figures of Legal History Gaze Upon the Supreme Court Bench WP Company LLC The Washington Post Archived from the original on 18 August 2020 Retrieved 28 November 2017 Cuneiform Tablets in the British Museum PDF British Museum 1905 pp Plates 44 and 45 Archived PDF from the original on 29 January 2021 Retrieved 14 March 2020 Budge E A Wallis Ernest Alfred Wallis King L W Leonard William 1908 A guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities London Printed by the order of the Trustees p 147 For full transcription CDLI Archival View cdli ucla edu Archived from the original on 4 November 2021 Retrieved 4 November 2021 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 p 128 a b c Van De Mieroop 2005 p 127 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 p 126 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 126 127 a b c Van De Mieroop 2005 p 129 a b Van De Mieroop 2005 pp 129 130 Schneider Tammi J 2011 An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion Grand Rapids Michigan William B Eerdmans Publishing Company pp 58 59 ISBN 978 0 8028 2959 7 archived from the original on 12 November 2021 retrieved 1 November 2020 Roux 1992 pp 243 246 a b DeBlois 1997 p 19 Van De Mieroop 2005 p 130 Frazer Mary Adali Selim Ferruh 25 November 2021 The just judgements that Ḫammu rapi a former king rendered A New Royal Inscription in the Istanbul Archaeological Museums Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie 111 2 231 262 doi 10 1515 za 2021 2004 ISSN 0084 5299 S2CID 244530410 Archived from the original on 20 March 2023 Retrieved 20 March 2023 a b Ziolkowski 2012 p 25 a b Ziolkowski 2012 pp 23 25 Rogers Robert W Kohler Kaufmann Jastrow Marcus Amraphel The Jewish Encyclopedia Archived from the original on 22 November 2021 Retrieved 24 November 2012 Bible Gateway passage Genesis 14 New International Version Archived from the original on 20 November 2021 Retrieved 24 November 2012 North Robert 1993 Abraham In Metzger Bruce M Coogan Michael D eds The Oxford Companion to the Bible Oxford Oxford University Press p 5 ISBN 978 0 19 504645 8 a b Granerod Gard 26 March 2010 Abraham and Melchizedek Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110 Berlin Germany Walter de Gruyter p 120 ISBN 978 3 11 022346 0 a b Douglas J D Tenney Merrill C 2011 Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary Grand Rapids Michigan Zondervan p 1323 ISBN 978 0 310 22983 4 a b c Barton 1916 p 406 a b Unger M F Archaeology and the Old Testament Grand Rapids Zondervan Publishing Co 1954 pp 156 157 a b Free J P Archaeology and Biblical History Wheaton Scripture Press 1950 1969 p 121 Wright David P 2009 Inventing God s Law How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi Oxford England Oxford University Press pp 3 and passim ISBN 978 0 19 530475 6 Horowitz Wayne Oshima Takayoshi Vukosavovic Filip 2012 Hazor 18 Fragments of a Cuneiform Law Collection from Hazor Israel Exploration Journal 62 2 158 176 ISSN 0021 2059 JSTOR 43855622 Sources Arnold Bill T 2005 Who Were the Babylonians Brill Publishers ISBN 978 90 04 13071 5 OCLC 225281611 Barton George A 1916 Archaeology and the Bible Philadelphia American Sunday School Union OCLC 38608139 Archived from the original on 29 December 2022 Retrieved 29 December 2022 Bertman Stephen 2003 Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 518364 1 Archived from the original on 14 April 2021 Retrieved 1 November 2020 Breasted James Henry 2003 Ancient Time or a History of the Early World Part 1 Kessinger Publishing ISBN 978 0 7661 4946 5 OCLC 69651827 DeBlois Lukas 1997 An Introduction to the Ancient World Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 12773 8 OCLC 231710353 Driver Godfrey R Miles John C 1952 The Babylonian Laws Edited with Translation and Commentary Vol 1 Legal Commentary Oxford Clarendon Press ISBN 978 1 55635 229 4 OCLC 493362814 Khwshnaw Ardalan 10 February 2023 A New Old Babylonian Date List with Hammurapi Year Names Journal of Studies in History and Archeology 84 665 686 Archived from the original on 10 March 2023 Retrieved 10 March 2023 Millard Alan 2004 1993 Hammurapi In Metzger Bruce M Coogan Michael D eds The Oxford Companion to the Bible Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 504645 8 Prince J Dyneley 1904 The Code of Hammurabi The American Journal of Theology 8 3 601 609 doi 10 1086 478479 JSTOR 3153895 Roth Martha T 1995 Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor Atlanta Society of Biblical Literature ISBN 978 0 7885 0104 3 Archived from the original on 5 October 2022 Retrieved 13 December 2022 Roux Georges 1992 1864 Ancient Iraq London Penguin Group ISBN 978 0 14 012523 8 Van De Mieroop Marc 2005 King Hammurabi of Babylon A Biography Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1 4051 2660 1 OCLC 255676990 Ziolkowski Theodore 2012 Gilgamesh among Us Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic Ithaca New York and London England Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 5035 8 archived from the original on 9 October 2021 retrieved 1 November 2020External linksA Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi at the Louvre museum Works by Hammurabi at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Hammurabi at Internet Archive Year Names of HammurabiRegnal titlesPreceded bySin muballit Kings of Babylonc 1792 c 1750 BC MC Succeeded bySamsu iluna Portals nbsp Asia nbsp BiographyHammurabi at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hammurabi amp oldid 1182574319, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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