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Akkad (city)

February 16, 2024

Akkad (/ˈækæd/; also spelt Accad, Akkade, or Agade, Akkadian: 𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠 akkadê, also 𒌵𒆠 URIKI in Sumerian during the Ur III period) was the capital of the Akkadian Empire, which was the dominant political force in Mesopotamia during a period of about 150 years in the last third of the 3rd millennium BC.

Map of the Near East showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire and the general area in which Akkad was located

Its location is unknown. In the early days of research various unidentified mounds were considered as the location of Akkad.[1] In modern times most of the attention has focused on an area roughly defined by 1) near Eshnunna, 2) near Sippar, 3) not far from Kish and Babylon, 4) near the Tigris River, and 5) not far from the Diyala River - all within roughly 30 kilometers of modern Baghdad in central Iraq. There are also location proposals as far afield as the Mosul area in northern Iraq.[2][3][4]

The main goddess of Akkad was Ishtar-Annunitum or ‘Aštar-annunîtum (Warlike Ishtar),[5] though it may have been a different aspect, Istar-Ulmašītum.[6] Her husband Ilaba was also revered. Ishtar and Ilaba were later worshipped at Girsu and possibly Sippar in the Old Babylonian period.[2]

The city is possibly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Genesis 10:10) where it is written אַכַּד‎ (ʾAkkaḏ, classically transliterated Accad), in a list of the cities of Nimrod in Sumer (Shinar).

In the early days of Assyriology, it was suggested that the name of Agade is not of Akkadian language origin. Proposals include Sumerian language, Hurrian language or the Lullubian (though that is unattested). The non-Akkadian origin of the city's name would suggest that the site may have been occupied in pre-Sargonic times.[7]

Sources edit

A year name of En-šakušuana (c. 2350 BC), king of Uruk and a contemporary of Lugal-zage-si of Umma, was "Year in which En-šakušuana defeated Akkad". This would have been shortly before the rise of the Akkadian Empire and part of his northern campaign that also defeated Kish and Akshak.[8][9]

A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu (c. 2270–2255 BC), second Akkadian ruler, all bearing portions of a "standard inscription". It mentions Agade[10] An excerpt:

"Man-istusu, king of the world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. ... He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at the quay of Agade"[11]

 
The Bassetki Statue, found in Dohuk Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan, dated to the reign of Naram-Sin (c. 2254–2218 BC) with an inscription mentioning the construction of a temple in Akkad

The inscription on the Bassetki Statue records that the inhabitants of Akkad built a temple for Naram-Sin after he had crushed a revolt against his rule.[12]

"Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, ... In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. ... "[11]

One year name of Naram-Sin reads "The year the wall of Agade <was built>". Another is "Year in which the temple of Isztar in Agade was built".[11]

It is known from textual sources that the late 19th century BC rulers of Eshnunna performed cultic activities at Akkad.[13]

Based on texts found at Mari, the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad (1808–1776 BC), in the final years of his reign, went to the cities of "Rapiqum and Akkad" (they having been captured earlier by his son Yasmah-Adad) as part of one of his military campaigns, in this case against Eshnunna.[14][15]

The prologue of the Laws of Hammurabi (circa 1750 BC) includes the phrase "the one who installs Ištar in the temple Eulmaš inside Akkade city". It also holds a list of cities in order along their watercourse ie "... Tutub, Eshnunna, Agade, Ashur, ..." which would place Akkade off the Tigris between Eshnunna and Ashur.[16][17]

Centuries later, an old Babylonian text (purportedly a copy of an original Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC) statue inscription) refers to ships being docked at the quay of Agade, i.e. "Sargon moo[red] the ships of Meluhha Magan, and Tilmun] a[t the quay of] Ag[ade].".[11][18]

 
Agade-ki ("Country of Akkad"), on a cylinder seal of Shar-Kali-Sharri.

List of slaves from the Old Babylonian city of Sippar include two female slaves who, based on the standard naming scheme, are either from Akkad or were owned by someone from Akkad, ie "Taram-Agade and Taram-Akkadi". The former was also the name of a daughter of Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin several centuries beforehand.[19]

According to a purported brick inscription copy made during the reign of the Neo-Babylonian ruler Nabonidus (556 - 539 BC) many centuries later, the Kassite ruler Kurigalzu I (circa 1375 BC) reported rebuilding the Akitu house of Ishtar at Akkade.[20][21] Another Nabonidus period copy indicates Kurigalzu (unclear if first or second of that name) left an inscription at Akkade recording his fruitless search for the E.ul.mas (temple of Istar-Annunitum).[22] Nabonidus claimed that the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) had rebuilt the E.ul.mas temple of Istar-Annunitum at Agade.[23]

The Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte (1184 to 1155 BC) conquered part of Mesopotamia, noting that he defeated Sippar. As part of the spoils some millennium old royal Akkadian statues were taken back to Susa including the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and a statue of the Akkadian ruler Manishtushu. It is unknown if the statues were taken from Akkad or had been moved to Sippar.[10][24]

Cyrus the Great (c. 600–530 BC), after conquering Mesopotamia, wrote

"... all of them (kings from the entire world) brought their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From (a region) as far as the city of Assur and the city of Susa, the city of Agade, the land of Esnunna, the town Zamban, the town Me-Turnu, the city of Der, as far as the land of the Gutis, (these) sacred cities across the Tigris ..."[25]

The location "Dur(BAD₃)-DA-ga-de₃" (Fortress of Agade) was frequently mentioned in texts of the Ur III period, noting the indication of deification.[26]

Location edit

 
Map showing locations of Sippar, Eshnunna, Kish, and Babylon – cities suggested as close to Akkad

It has been proposed, based on kudurrus from the reigns of Kassite rulers Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1095–1078 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar I (1121–1100 BC), that Akkad had been renamed sometime in the 2nd millennium. The kuduru suggests the new name was Dur-Sharru-Kin, "on the bank of the river Nish-Gatti in the district of Milikku". This is not to be confused with the Dur-Sharukin built by the Neo-Assyrians in the 8th century BC: the most likely site would be Dur-Rimush, nine kilometers north of Dur-Sharukin (Tell el-Mjelaat).[27]

The area of the Little Zab river, which originates in Iran and joins the Tigris just south of Al Zab in the Kurdistan region of Iraq, has also been suggested.[28]

A proposed location of Agade is Ishan Mizyad (Tell Mizyad), a large (1,000 meters by 600 meters) low site 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northwest from Kish and northeast of Babylon.[4] Excavations have shown that the remains at Ishan Mizyad date to the Akkadian period (about 200 Old Akkadian administrative texts found, mainly lists of workers), Ur III period, Isin-Larsa period, and Neo-Babylonian period.[29][2][30][31][32] Until Neo-Babylonian times a canal ran from Kish to Mizyad.[33][34]

On the Kassite Land grant to Marduk-apla-iddina I by Meli-Shipak II (1186–1172 BC) the recipient is given cultivated land in the communal land of the city of Agade located around the settlement of Tamakku adjacent to the Nar Sarri (Canal of the King) in Bīt-Piri’-Amurru, north of the "land of Istar-Agade" and east of Kibati canal.[35]

Based on an Old Babylonian period itinerary from Mari which places Akkade between the cities of Sippar (Sippar and Sippar-Amnanum) and Khafajah (Tutub) on a route to Eshnunna, Akkad would be on the Tigris just downstream of the current city of Baghdad, near the crossing of the Tigris and Diyala River. Mari documents also indicate that Akkad is sited at a river crossing.[36]

An Old Babylonian prisoner record from the time of Rīm-Anum of Uruk in the 18th century BC implies that Akkad is in the area of Eshnunna, in the Diyala Valley north-west of Sumer proper.[37] It has also been suggested that Akkad was under the control of Eshnunna in that period.[38] It is also known that the rulers of Eshnunna continued cult activities in the city of Akkad.[39]

A text from the reign of Zimri-Lim (c. 1775–1761 BC) also suggests a location not far from Eshnunna. After Eshnunna was conquered by Atamrum of Andarig a songstress, Huššutum, was repatriated by Mari and soon reached Agade.

"Gumul-Sin brought the woman out of the city gate and departed. (A report is taken back to my lord.) I gave this instruction to the guides, ‘Until YOU safely guide the woman through a frontier town, modify her garment and head-gear.’ But, being negligent, the men did not modify (the attire) but added three to four (other women) along with her. Having stocked up, they left and reached Agade. They drank beer and, having the woman ride a mule, they led her all the way through the square in Agade. The woman was recognized and she was seized. When news of her capture reached Atamrum in Ešnunna, a troop of 30 men armed with bronze spears surrounded Gumul-Sin saying, ‘Your lord has conveyed to you 5 manas of silver, yet you keep on selling women from Ešnunna."[40][41]

Tell Muhammad (possibly Diniktum) in the south-eastern suburbs of Baghdad near the confluence of the Diyala River with the Tigris, has been proposed as a candidate for the location of Akkad.[3] No remains datable to the Akkadian Empire period have been found at the site. Excavations found remains dating to the Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian, and Kassite periods.[42]

A site, locally called El Sanam (or Makan el Sanam), near Qādisiyyah (Kudsia), has been suggested based on the base fragment of an Old Akkadian statue (now in the British Museum) found there.[43] The statue is of black stone and was originally three meters high and thought to be of ruler Rimush. The upper portion of the statue was reportedly destroyed by a local imam for idolatry. The site in question has been partially eroded away by the Tigris and is located between Samarra and the confluence of the Tigiris and ʿAdhaim rivers.[44][45] The fragment was first observed and described by Claudius Rich in 1821.[46] This location had been suggested much earlier by Lane.[47] More recently this site has been identified in a regional survey (site N) as lying not far south of the site of Samarra on the Tigris river by an old citadel.[48]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Unger, Eckhard (1928), "Akkad", in Ebeling, Erich; Meissner, Bruno (eds.), Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), vol. 1, Berlin: W. de Gruyter, p. 62, OCLC 23582617
  2. ^ a b c Westenholz, C. F., "The Old Akkadian Period: History and Culture", in Mesopotamien: Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 160/3), Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz, Freiburg, Schweiz, pp. 11-110, 1999
  3. ^ a b Wall-Romana, Christophe (1990), "An Areal Location of Agade", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 49 (3): 205–245, doi:10.1086/373442, JSTOR 546244, S2CID 161165836
  4. ^ a b Harvey Weiss, "Kish, Akkad and Agade", Review of "McGuire Gibson, The city and area of Kish", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 434–53, 1975
  5. ^ Meador, Betty De Shong (2001), Inanna, Lady of the Largest Heart. Poems by the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna, Austin: University of Texas Press, ISBN 978-0-292-75242-9
  6. ^ Sharlach, T. M., "Belet-šuhnir and Belet-terraban and Religious Activities of the Queen and the Concubine(s)", in An Ox of One's Own: Royal Wives and Religion at the Court of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 261-286, 2017
  7. ^ Speiser, Ephraim Avigdor, "Elam And Sumer In The Epigraphical Sources", in Mesopotamian Origins: The Basic Population of the Near East, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 26-58, 1930
  8. ^ Pomponio, Francesco, "Further Considerations On KišKI In The Ebla Texts", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 107, pp. 71–83, 2013
  9. ^ A. Westenholz, "Old Sumerian and Old Akkadian Texts in Philadelphia, Chiefly from Nippur", I: Literary and Lexical Texts and the Earliest Administrative Documents from Nippur. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 1. Malibu: Undena Publications, 1975
  10. ^ a b Eppihimer, Melissa, "Assembling King and State: The Statues of Manishtushu and the Consolidation of Akkadian Kingship", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 114, no. 3, pp. 365–80, 2010
  11. ^ a b c d Douglas R. Frayne, The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334-2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993, ISBN 0-8020-0593-4
  12. ^ A. H. al-Fouadi, "Bassetki Statue with an Old Akkadian Royal Inscription of Naram-Sin of Agade (2291-2255 BC)", Sumer, vol. 32, no. 1-2, pp. 63-76, 1976
  13. ^ Nele Ziegler, "Akkad à l’époque paleo- babylonienne", in Entre les fleuves – II: D’Aššur à Mari et au- delà, ed. N. Ziegler and E. Cancik- Kirschbaum, Gladbeck: PeWe, 2014
  14. ^ Lewy, Hildegard, "The Synchronism Assyria—Ešnunna—Babylon", Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 2, no. 5/6, pp. 438–53, 1959
  15. ^ Dossin, G., "Archives royales de Mari1", Paris: Impr. Nationale, 1950 (in french)
  16. ^ Steinert, Ulrike, "Akkadian Terms for Streets and the Topography of Mesopotamian Cities", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 309-347, 2011
  17. ^ Composite of Laws of Hammurabi at CDLI - RIME 4.03.06.add21 (P464358)
  18. ^ Cuneiform Inscription Of Defeat Of Oman & Indus Valley - MS-2814 Schoyen Collection
  19. ^ Harris, Rivkah, "Notes on the Slave Names of Old Babylonian Sippar", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 46–51, 1977
  20. ^ Clayden, T., "Kurigalzu I and the restoration of Babylonia", Iraq 58, pp. 109–121, 1996
  21. ^ Frame, G., "Nabonidus and the history of the Eulmas temple at Akkad", Mesopotamia 28, pp. 21-50, 1993
  22. ^ George, A. R., "House Most High. The temples of ancient Mesopotamia", Winona Lake, 1993 ISBN 978-0931464805
  23. ^ S. Langdon, "New Inscriptions of Nabuna'id", American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 32, 1915-16
  24. ^ Winter, Irene J., "How Tall Was Naram-Sîn’s Victory Stele? Speculation on the Broken Bottom", in Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen, edited by Erica Ehrenberg, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 301-312, 2021
  25. ^ Rawlinson, Henry Creswicke, "A selection from the miscellaneous inscriptions of Assyria and Babylonia", in The Cuneiform inscriptions of Western Asia, vol. 5, London, 1884
  26. ^ Steinkeller, Piotr, "The Divine Rulers of Akkade and Ur: Toward a Definition of the Deification of Kings in Babylonia", History, Texts and Art in Early Babylonia: Three Essays, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 107-157, 2017
  27. ^ [1] Khalid al-Admi, "A New Kudurru of Maroduk-Nadin-Ahhe IM. 90585", Sumer, vol. 38, no. 1–2, pp. 121–133, 1982
  28. ^ [2] McGuire Gibson, The city and area of Kish, Field Research Projects, 1972
  29. ^ "Excavations in Iraq, 1979–80." Iraq, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 167–98, 1981
  30. ^ Mahmoud, N. Ahmed, "The Ur III tablets from Ishan Mizyad", Acta Sumerologica, vol. 11, pp. 330–352, 1989
  31. ^ "Excavations in Iraq, 1981–82." Iraq, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 199–224, 1983
  32. ^ al-Mutawali, Nawala A., "Clay Tablets from Tell Mizyad", Sumer 41, pp. 135–136, 1985 (arabic)
  33. ^ Buccellati, Marilyn K., "Orientalists Meet at Berkeley", Archaeology, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 303–304, 1968
  34. ^ Al-Mutawally, N.A.M., "Economical Texts from Išān-Mazyad", in De Meyer, L. and Gasche, H., (eds.), Mésopotamie et Élam, Actes de la XXXVIème Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Gand, 10-14 juillet 1989, Ghent, pp. 45-46, 1991
  35. ^ [3] W. J. Hinke, "A New Boundary Stone of Nebuchadrezzar I from Nippur (BE IV)", University of Philadelphia, 1907
  36. ^ [4] Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: a history of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N. (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern, London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2007
  37. ^ Michael Jursa, "A 'Prisoner Text' from Birmingham", in G. Chambon, M. Guichard & A.-I. Langlois (eds), De l’argile au numérique. Mélanges assyriologiques en l’honneur de Dominique Charpin (Leuven), pp. 507-512, 2019 ISBN 978-9042938724
  38. ^ Ziegler N. & A.-I. Langlois, "Les toponymes paléo-babyloniens de la Haute-Mésopotamie", Matériaux pour l’étude de la toponymie et de la topographie I/1, Paris, 2016
  39. ^ Nele Ziegler, "Akkad à l’époque paleo- babylonienne," in Entre les fleuves – II: D’Aššur à Mari et au- delà, ed. N. Ziegler and E. Cancik- Kirschbaum, Gladbeck: PeWe, 2014
  40. ^ Sasson, Jack M., "Warfare", From the Mari Archives: An Anthology of Old Babylonian Letters, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2015, pp. 181-214, 2015
  41. ^ [5]Chaffey, Ilana. Come as you are, as you were, as I want you to be: A Study of Foreign Musicians in the Mari Archives. Diss. Macquarie University, 2022
  42. ^ Gentili, Paolo, "Wandering Through Time: The Chronology Of Tell Mohammed", Studi Classici e Orientali, vol. 57, pp. 39–55, 2011
  43. ^ Ross, John, "A Journey from Baghdád to the Ruins of Opis, and the Median Wall, in 1834", The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, vol. 11, pp. 121–36, 1841
  44. ^ Reade, Julian (2002), "Early Monuments in Gulf Stone at the British Museum, with Observations on Some Gudea Statues and the Location of Agade", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, 92 (2): 258–295, doi:10.1515/zava.2002.92.2.258, S2CID 161326049
  45. ^ Thomas, Ariane, "The Akkadian Royal Image: On a Seated Statue of Manishtushu", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 105, no. 1–2, pp. 86–117, 2015
  46. ^ [6] Rich, C. J., "Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan &c, edited by his widow", London, 1836
  47. ^ [7] Lane, W. H., Babylonian Problems, John Murray, London, 1923
  48. ^ Northedge, Alastair, and Robin Falkner, "The 1986 Survey Season at Sāmarrā", Iraq, vol. 49, pp. 143–73, 1987

Further reading edit

  • [8]Kawakami, Naohiko, "The northwestern territorial extent of Sargon's Empire of Akkad: studies on the royal inscriptions and the historical literary texts on the horizons of the historical geography", Dissertation, University of Liverpool, 2004
  • Naohiko Kawakami, "Searching for the Location of the Ancient City of Akkade in Relation to the Ancient Course of the Tigris Using Historical Geographical and GIS Analyses", AKKADICA, vol. 143, pp. 101–135, 2022
  • Naohiko Kawakami, "The Location of the Ancient City of Akkade: Review of Past Theories and Identification of Issues for Formulating a Specific Methodology for Searching Akkade", AL-RĀFIDĀN: Journal of Western Asiatic Studies, vol. 45, pp. 45–68, 2023
  • G.J. P. McEwan, "Agade after the Gutian Destruction: The Afterlife of a Mesopotamian City", AfO Beiheft 19, pp. 8–15, 1982
  • [9] Nowicki, Stefan, "Sargon of Akkade and his god: Comments on the worship of the god of the father among the ancient Semites", Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 69.1, pp. 63–82, 2016
  • Pruß, Alexander (2004), "Remarks on the Chronological Periods", in Lebeau, Marc; Sauvage, Martin (eds.), Atlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu, vol. 13, pp. 7–21, ISBN 2503991203
  • Sallaberger, W./I. Schrakamp, "Philological data for a historical chronology of Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium", in: W. Sallaberger/I. Schrakamp (eds.), History & philology, ARCANE 3. Turnhout, pp. 1–13, 2015 ISBN 978-2503534947
  • van de Mieroop, Marc (2007), A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. Second Edition, Blackwell History of the Ancient World, Malden: Blackwell, ISBN 9781405149112

February 16, 2024
akkad, city, akkad, also, spelt, accad, akkade, agade, akkadian, 𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠, akkadê, also, 𒌵𒆠, uriki, sumerian, during, period, capital, akkadian, empire, which, dominant, political, force, mesopotamia, during, period, about, years, last, third, millennium, near, ea. Akkad ˈ ae k ae d also spelt Accad Akkade or Agade Akkadian 𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠 akkade also 𒌵𒆠 URIKI in Sumerian during the Ur III period was the capital of the Akkadian Empire which was the dominant political force in Mesopotamia during a period of about 150 years in the last third of the 3rd millennium BC Map of the Near East showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire and the general area in which Akkad was locatedIts location is unknown In the early days of research various unidentified mounds were considered as the location of Akkad 1 In modern times most of the attention has focused on an area roughly defined by 1 near Eshnunna 2 near Sippar 3 not far from Kish and Babylon 4 near the Tigris River and 5 not far from the Diyala River all within roughly 30 kilometers of modern Baghdad in central Iraq There are also location proposals as far afield as the Mosul area in northern Iraq 2 3 4 The main goddess of Akkad was Ishtar Annunitum or Astar annunitum Warlike Ishtar 5 though it may have been a different aspect Istar Ulmasitum 6 Her husband Ilaba was also revered Ishtar and Ilaba were later worshipped at Girsu and possibly Sippar in the Old Babylonian period 2 The city is possibly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible Genesis 10 10 where it is written א כ ד ʾAkkaḏ classically transliterated Accad in a list of the cities of Nimrod in Sumer Shinar In the early days of Assyriology it was suggested that the name of Agade is not of Akkadian language origin Proposals include Sumerian language Hurrian language or the Lullubian though that is unattested The non Akkadian origin of the city s name would suggest that the site may have been occupied in pre Sargonic times 7 Contents 1 Sources 2 Location 3 See also 4 References 5 Further readingSources editA year name of En sakusuana c 2350 BC king of Uruk and a contemporary of Lugal zage si of Umma was Year in which En sakusuana defeated Akkad This would have been shortly before the rise of the Akkadian Empire and part of his northern campaign that also defeated Kish and Akshak 8 9 A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu c 2270 2255 BC second Akkadian ruler all bearing portions of a standard inscription It mentions Agade 10 An excerpt Man istusu king of the world when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum had ships cross the Lower Sea He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea loaded it on ships and moored the ships at the quay of Agade 11 nbsp The Bassetki Statue found in Dohuk Governorate Iraqi Kurdistan dated to the reign of Naram Sin c 2254 2218 BC with an inscription mentioning the construction of a temple in AkkadThe inscription on the Bassetki Statue records that the inhabitants of Akkad built a temple for Naram Sin after he had crushed a revolt against his rule 12 Naram Sin the mighty king of Agade when the four quarters together revolted against him In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna Enlil in Nippur Dagan in Tuttul Ninhursag in Kes Ea in Eridu Sin in Ur Samas in Sippar and Nergal in Kutha that Naram Sin be made the god of their city and they built within Agade a temple dedicated to him 11 One year name of Naram Sin reads The year the wall of Agade lt was built gt Another is Year in which the temple of Isztar in Agade was built 11 It is known from textual sources that the late 19th century BC rulers of Eshnunna performed cultic activities at Akkad 13 Based on texts found at Mari the Amorite king Shamshi Adad 1808 1776 BC in the final years of his reign went to the cities of Rapiqum and Akkad they having been captured earlier by his son Yasmah Adad as part of one of his military campaigns in this case against Eshnunna 14 15 The prologue of the Laws of Hammurabi circa 1750 BC includes the phrase the one who installs Istar in the temple Eulmas inside Akkade city It also holds a list of cities in order along their watercourse ie Tutub Eshnunna Agade Ashur which would place Akkade off the Tigris between Eshnunna and Ashur 16 17 Centuries later an old Babylonian text purportedly a copy of an original Sargon of Akkad 2334 2279 BC statue inscription refers to ships being docked at the quay of Agade i e Sargon moo red the ships of Meluhha Magan and Tilmun a t the quay of Ag ade 11 18 nbsp Agade ki Country of Akkad on a cylinder seal of Shar Kali Sharri List of slaves from the Old Babylonian city of Sippar include two female slaves who based on the standard naming scheme are either from Akkad or were owned by someone from Akkad ie Taram Agade and Taram Akkadi The former was also the name of a daughter of Akkadian ruler Naram Sin several centuries beforehand 19 According to a purported brick inscription copy made during the reign of the Neo Babylonian ruler Nabonidus 556 539 BC many centuries later the Kassite ruler Kurigalzu I circa 1375 BC reported rebuilding the Akitu house of Ishtar at Akkade 20 21 Another Nabonidus period copy indicates Kurigalzu unclear if first or second of that name left an inscription at Akkade recording his fruitless search for the E ul mas temple of Istar Annunitum 22 Nabonidus claimed that the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon 681 669 BC had rebuilt the E ul mas temple of Istar Annunitum at Agade 23 The Elamite ruler Shutruk Nakhunte 1184 to 1155 BC conquered part of Mesopotamia noting that he defeated Sippar As part of the spoils some millennium old royal Akkadian statues were taken back to Susa including the Victory Stele of Naram Sin and a statue of the Akkadian ruler Manishtushu It is unknown if the statues were taken from Akkad or had been moved to Sippar 10 24 Cyrus the Great c 600 530 BC after conquering Mesopotamia wrote all of them kings from the entire world brought their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon From a region as far as the city of Assur and the city of Susa the city of Agade the land of Esnunna the town Zamban the town Me Turnu the city of Der as far as the land of the Gutis these sacred cities across the Tigris 25 The location Dur BAD DA ga de Fortress of Agade was frequently mentioned in texts of the Ur III period noting the indication of deification 26 Location edit nbsp Map showing locations of Sippar Eshnunna Kish and Babylon cities suggested as close to AkkadIt has been proposed based on kudurrus from the reigns of Kassite rulers Marduk nadin ahhe 1095 1078 BC and Nebuchadnezzar I 1121 1100 BC that Akkad had been renamed sometime in the 2nd millennium The kuduru suggests the new name was Dur Sharru Kin on the bank of the river Nish Gatti in the district of Milikku This is not to be confused with the Dur Sharukin built by the Neo Assyrians in the 8th century BC the most likely site would be Dur Rimush nine kilometers north of Dur Sharukin Tell el Mjelaat 27 The area of the Little Zab river which originates in Iran and joins the Tigris just south of Al Zab in the Kurdistan region of Iraq has also been suggested 28 A proposed location of Agade is Ishan Mizyad Tell Mizyad a large 1 000 meters by 600 meters low site 5 kilometres 3 1 mi northwest from Kish and northeast of Babylon 4 Excavations have shown that the remains at Ishan Mizyad date to the Akkadian period about 200 Old Akkadian administrative texts found mainly lists of workers Ur III period Isin Larsa period and Neo Babylonian period 29 2 30 31 32 Until Neo Babylonian times a canal ran from Kish to Mizyad 33 34 On the Kassite Land grant to Marduk apla iddina I by Meli Shipak II 1186 1172 BC the recipient is given cultivated land in the communal land of the city of Agade located around the settlement of Tamakku adjacent to the Nar Sarri Canal of the King in Bit Piri Amurru north of the land of Istar Agade and east of Kibati canal 35 Based on an Old Babylonian period itinerary from Mari which places Akkade between the cities of Sippar Sippar and Sippar Amnanum and Khafajah Tutub on a route to Eshnunna Akkad would be on the Tigris just downstream of the current city of Baghdad near the crossing of the Tigris and Diyala River Mari documents also indicate that Akkad is sited at a river crossing 36 An Old Babylonian prisoner record from the time of Rim Anum of Uruk in the 18th century BC implies that Akkad is in the area of Eshnunna in the Diyala Valley north west of Sumer proper 37 It has also been suggested that Akkad was under the control of Eshnunna in that period 38 It is also known that the rulers of Eshnunna continued cult activities in the city of Akkad 39 A text from the reign of Zimri Lim c 1775 1761 BC also suggests a location not far from Eshnunna After Eshnunna was conquered by Atamrum of Andarig a songstress Hussutum was repatriated by Mari and soon reached Agade Gumul Sin brought the woman out of the city gate and departed A report is taken back to my lord I gave this instruction to the guides Until YOU safely guide the woman through a frontier town modify her garment and head gear But being negligent the men did not modify the attire but added three to four other women along with her Having stocked up they left and reached Agade They drank beer and having the woman ride a mule they led her all the way through the square in Agade The woman was recognized and she was seized When news of her capture reached Atamrum in Esnunna a troop of 30 men armed with bronze spears surrounded Gumul Sin saying Your lord has conveyed to you 5 manas of silver yet you keep on selling women from Esnunna 40 41 Tell Muhammad possibly Diniktum in the south eastern suburbs of Baghdad near the confluence of the Diyala River with the Tigris has been proposed as a candidate for the location of Akkad 3 No remains datable to the Akkadian Empire period have been found at the site Excavations found remains dating to the Isin Larsa Old Babylonian and Kassite periods 42 A site locally called El Sanam or Makan el Sanam near Qadisiyyah Kudsia has been suggested based on the base fragment of an Old Akkadian statue now in the British Museum found there 43 The statue is of black stone and was originally three meters high and thought to be of ruler Rimush The upper portion of the statue was reportedly destroyed by a local imam for idolatry The site in question has been partially eroded away by the Tigris and is located between Samarra and the confluence of the Tigiris and ʿAdhaim rivers 44 45 The fragment was first observed and described by Claudius Rich in 1821 46 This location had been suggested much earlier by Lane 47 More recently this site has been identified in a regional survey site N as lying not far south of the site of Samarra on the Tigris river by an old citadel 48 See also edit nbsp History portalCities of the Ancient Near East List of Mesopotamian dynasties History of Mesopotamia List of kings of AkkadReferences edit Unger Eckhard 1928 Akkad in Ebeling Erich Meissner Bruno eds Reallexikon der Assyriologie in German vol 1 Berlin W de Gruyter p 62 OCLC 23582617 a b c Westenholz C F The Old Akkadian Period History and Culture in Mesopotamien Akkade Zeit und Ur III Zeit Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 160 3 Universitatsverlag Freiburg Schweiz Freiburg Schweiz pp 11 110 1999 a b Wall Romana Christophe 1990 An Areal Location of Agade Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49 3 205 245 doi 10 1086 373442 JSTOR 546244 S2CID 161165836 a b Harvey Weiss Kish Akkad and Agade Review of McGuire Gibson The city and area of Kish Journal of the American Oriental Society vol 95 no 3 pp 434 53 1975 Meador Betty De Shong 2001 Inanna Lady of the Largest Heart Poems by the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna Austin University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 75242 9 Sharlach T M Belet suhnir and Belet terraban and Religious Activities of the Queen and the Concubine s in An Ox of One s Own Royal Wives and Religion at the Court of the Third Dynasty of Ur Berlin Boston De Gruyter pp 261 286 2017 Speiser Ephraim Avigdor Elam And Sumer In The Epigraphical Sources in Mesopotamian Origins The Basic Population of the Near East Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press pp 26 58 1930 Pomponio Francesco Further Considerations On KisKI In The Ebla Texts Revue d Assyriologie et d archeologie Orientale vol 107 pp 71 83 2013 A Westenholz Old Sumerian and Old Akkadian Texts in Philadelphia Chiefly from Nippur I Literary and Lexical Texts and the Earliest Administrative Documents from Nippur Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 1 Malibu Undena Publications 1975 a b Eppihimer Melissa Assembling King and State The Statues of Manishtushu and the Consolidation of Akkadian Kingship American Journal of Archaeology vol 114 no 3 pp 365 80 2010 a b c d Douglas R Frayne The Sargonic and Gutian Periods 2334 2113 University of Toronto Press pp 5 218 1993 ISBN 0 8020 0593 4 A H al Fouadi Bassetki Statue with an Old Akkadian Royal Inscription of Naram Sin of Agade 2291 2255 BC Sumer vol 32 no 1 2 pp 63 76 1976 Nele Ziegler Akkad a l epoque paleo babylonienne in Entre les fleuves II D Assur a Mari et au dela ed N Ziegler and E Cancik Kirschbaum Gladbeck PeWe 2014 Lewy Hildegard The Synchronism Assyria Esnunna Babylon Die Welt Des Orients vol 2 no 5 6 pp 438 53 1959 Dossin G Archives royales de Mari1 Paris Impr Nationale 1950 in french Steinert Ulrike Akkadian Terms for Streets and the Topography of Mesopotamian Cities Altorientalische Forschungen vol 38 no 2 pp 309 347 2011 Composite of Laws of Hammurabi at CDLI RIME 4 03 06 add21 P464358 Cuneiform Inscription Of Defeat Of Oman amp Indus Valley MS 2814 Schoyen Collection Harris Rivkah Notes on the Slave Names of Old Babylonian Sippar Journal of Cuneiform Studies vol 29 no 1 pp 46 51 1977 Clayden T Kurigalzu I and the restoration of Babylonia Iraq 58 pp 109 121 1996 Frame G Nabonidus and the history of the Eulmas temple at Akkad Mesopotamia 28 pp 21 50 1993 George A R House Most High The temples of ancient Mesopotamia Winona Lake 1993 ISBN 978 0931464805 S Langdon New Inscriptions of Nabuna id American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 32 1915 16 Winter Irene J How Tall Was Naram Sin s Victory Stele Speculation on the Broken Bottom in Leaving No Stones Unturned Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P Hansen edited by Erica Ehrenberg University Park USA Penn State University Press pp 301 312 2021 Rawlinson Henry Creswicke A selection from the miscellaneous inscriptions of Assyria and Babylonia in The Cuneiform inscriptions of Western Asia vol 5 London 1884 Steinkeller Piotr The Divine Rulers of Akkade and Ur Toward a Definition of the Deification of Kings in Babylonia History Texts and Art in Early Babylonia Three Essays Berlin Boston De Gruyter pp 107 157 2017 1 Khalid al Admi A New Kudurru of Maroduk Nadin Ahhe IM 90585 Sumer vol 38 no 1 2 pp 121 133 1982 2 McGuire Gibson The city and area of Kish Field Research Projects 1972 Excavations in Iraq 1979 80 Iraq vol 43 no 2 pp 167 98 1981 Mahmoud N Ahmed The Ur III tablets from Ishan Mizyad Acta Sumerologica vol 11 pp 330 352 1989 Excavations in Iraq 1981 82 Iraq vol 45 no 2 pp 199 224 1983 al Mutawali Nawala A Clay Tablets from Tell Mizyad Sumer 41 pp 135 136 1985 arabic Buccellati Marilyn K Orientalists Meet at Berkeley Archaeology vol 21 no 4 pp 303 304 1968 Al Mutawally N A M Economical Texts from Isan Mazyad in De Meyer L and Gasche H eds Mesopotamie et Elam Actes de la XXXVIeme Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Gand 10 14 juillet 1989 Ghent pp 45 46 1991 3 W J Hinke A New Boundary Stone of Nebuchadrezzar I from Nippur BE IV University of Philadelphia 1907 4 Andrew George Babylonian and Assyrian a history of Akkadian In Postgate J N ed Languages of Iraq Ancient and Modern London British School of Archaeology in Iraq 2007 Michael Jursa A Prisoner Text from Birmingham in G Chambon M Guichard amp A I Langlois eds De l argile au numerique Melanges assyriologiques en l honneur de Dominique Charpin Leuven pp 507 512 2019 ISBN 978 9042938724 Ziegler N amp A I Langlois Les toponymes paleo babyloniens de la Haute Mesopotamie Materiaux pour l etude de la toponymie et de la topographie I 1 Paris 2016 Nele Ziegler Akkad a l epoque paleo babylonienne in Entre les fleuves II D Assur a Mari et au dela ed N Ziegler and E Cancik Kirschbaum Gladbeck PeWe 2014 Sasson Jack M Warfare From the Mari Archives An Anthology of Old Babylonian Letters University Park USA Penn State University Press 2015 pp 181 214 2015 5 Chaffey Ilana Come as you are as you were as I want you to be A Study of Foreign Musicians in the Mari Archives Diss Macquarie University 2022 Gentili Paolo Wandering Through Time The Chronology Of Tell Mohammed Studi Classici e Orientali vol 57 pp 39 55 2011 Ross John A Journey from Baghdad to the Ruins of Opis and the Median Wall in 1834 The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London vol 11 pp 121 36 1841 Reade Julian 2002 Early Monuments in Gulf Stone at the British Museum with Observations on Some Gudea Statues and the Location of Agade Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archaologie 92 2 258 295 doi 10 1515 zava 2002 92 2 258 S2CID 161326049 Thomas Ariane The Akkadian Royal Image On a Seated Statue of Manishtushu Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie vol 105 no 1 2 pp 86 117 2015 6 Rich C J Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan amp c edited by his widow London 1836 7 Lane W H Babylonian Problems John Murray London 1923 Northedge Alastair and Robin Falkner The 1986 Survey Season at Samarra Iraq vol 49 pp 143 73 1987Further reading edit 8 Kawakami Naohiko The northwestern territorial extent of Sargon s Empire of Akkad studies on the royal inscriptions and the historical literary texts on the horizons of the historical geography Dissertation University of Liverpool 2004 Naohiko Kawakami Searching for the Location of the Ancient City of Akkade in Relation to the Ancient Course of the Tigris Using Historical Geographical and GIS Analyses AKKADICA vol 143 pp 101 135 2022 Naohiko Kawakami The Location of the Ancient City of Akkade Review of Past Theories and Identification of Issues for Formulating a Specific Methodology for Searching Akkade AL RAFIDAN Journal of Western Asiatic Studies vol 45 pp 45 68 2023 G J P McEwan Agade after the Gutian Destruction The Afterlife of a Mesopotamian City AfO Beiheft 19 pp 8 15 1982 9 Nowicki Stefan Sargon of Akkade and his god Comments on the worship of the god of the father among the ancient Semites Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 69 1 pp 63 82 2016 Pruss Alexander 2004 Remarks on the Chronological Periods in Lebeau Marc Sauvage Martin eds Atlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia Subartu vol 13 pp 7 21 ISBN 2503991203 Sallaberger W I Schrakamp Philological data for a historical chronology of Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium in W Sallaberger I Schrakamp eds History amp philology ARCANE 3 Turnhout pp 1 13 2015 ISBN 978 2503534947 van de Mieroop Marc 2007 A History of the Ancient Near East ca 3000 323 BC Second Edition Blackwell History of the Ancient World Malden Blackwell ISBN 9781405149112 Retrieved from https en 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