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Anarchist schools of thought

January 30, 2023

Anarchism is the political philosophy which holds ruling classes[1] and the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful,[2][3] and opposes authority and hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations.[10]

Proponents of anarchism, known as anarchists, advocate stateless societies based on non-hierarchical[4][11][12] voluntary associations.[13][14] However, anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism[3] to more syncretic tendencies (such as insurrectionary anarchism). Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social anarchism and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications, also including green anarchism and post-left anarchism.[15][16]

Anarchism is usually considered a radical left-wing or far-left ideology[17][18][19] and much of anarchist economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian interpretations of radical left-wing and socialist politics.[20] At some point, "the collectivist, communist, and liberal and individualist strands of thought from which anarchists drew their inspiration began to assume an increasingly distinctive quality, supporting the rise of a number of anarchist schools".[21]

Anthropologist David Graeber has noted that while the major Marxist schools of thought always have founders (e.g. Leninism, Trotskyism and Maoism), schools of anarchism "almost invariably emerge from some kind of organizational principle or form of practice", citing anarcho-syndicalism, individualist anarchism and platformism as examples.[22]

Classical anarchism

The decades of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries constitute the belle époque of anarchist history.[23] In this classical era, roughly defined as the 1840s[24] or the 1860s[25][26] to 1939,[27] anarchism played a prominent role in working-class struggles alongside Marxism in Europe as well as North and Latin America, Asia and Australia.[23][28] Modernism, mass migration, railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.[29]

Mutualism

Main article: Mutualism (economic theory)

Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States.[30] This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Greene. Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833[31] after participating in a failed Owenite experiment.[32] In the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana[33] and William Batchelder Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the United States. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin Tucker.[34]

Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent and interest according to the labor theory of value. Firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages.[35][36]

Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism.[37] In What Is Property?, Proudhon develops a concept of "liberty", equivalent to "anarchy", which is the dialectical "synthesis of communism and property".[38] Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies—communism, capitalism and socialism.[39] Later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism, but retained little emphasis on synthesis while social anarchists such as the authors of An Anarchist FAQ claim mutualism as a subset of their philosophical tradition.[40]

Social anarchism

Main article: Social anarchism

Social anarchism is a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism.[40] Where individualist forms of anarchism emphasize personal autonomy and the rational nature of human beings, social anarchism sees "individual freedom as conceptually connected with social equality and emphasize community and mutual aid".[41] Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory and practice. Social anarchism includes (but is not limited to) collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism and social ecology.[40]

Collectivist anarchism

Main article: Collectivist anarchism

Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary[42] form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, Johann Most and the anti-authoritarian section of the First International.[43] Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed", which would inspire the workers to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[42] Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.[44] Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism, but it opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite Marxism striving for a collectivist stateless society.[45]

Some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency. Some support workers being paid based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase commodities in a communal market.[46] This contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need". Many modern-day collectivist anarchists hold their form of anarchism as a permanent society rather than a carryover to anarcho-communism or a gift economy. Some collectivist anarchists such as proponents of participatory economics believe in remuneration and a form of credit but do not believe in money or markets.

Although collectivist anarchism shares many similarities with anarchist communism, there are several key differences between them. For example, collectivist anarchists believe that the economy and most or all property should be collectively owned by society while anarchist communists by contrast believe that the concept of ownership should be rejected by society and replaced with the concept of usage.[47] In addition, collectivist anarchists often favor using a form of currency to compensate workers according to the amount of time spent contributing to society and production while anarcho-communists believe that currency and wages should be abolished all together and goods should be distributed "to each according to his or her need".

Anarcho-communism

Main article: Anarcho-communism

Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production,[48][49] direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".[50][51]

Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.[52][53][54][55] Most anarcho-communists view it as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.[56][57][58]

Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution,[59][60] but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.[61] The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.[62]

To date, the best-known examples of an anarchist communist society, i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon) are the anarchist territories after the Russian Revolution, the Korean People's Association in Manchuria and the Spanish Revolution.[63]

During the Russian Civil War, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked through the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine to create and defend anarcho-communism in Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. In 1929, anarcho-communism was achieved in Manchuria by the Korean People's Association in Manchuria (KPAM), with help from anarchist general and independence activist Kim Chwa-chin, lasting until 1931, when Imperial Japan assassinated Kim and invaded from the south while the Chinese Nationalists invaded from the north, resulting in the creation of Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon; parts of Andalusia and the Levante; and in the stronghold of Revolutionary Catalonia, before being crushed by the combined forces of fascist Francoism, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy as well as Spanish Communist Party repression backed by the Soviet Union and economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.[64]

Individualist anarchism

Main article: Individualist anarchism

Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems.[65][66]

Philosophical anarchism

Main article: Philosophical anarchism
 
William Godwin (1756–1836), liberal, utilitarian and individualist philosopher thought of as the founder of philosophical anarchism, in a portrait by Henry William Pickersgill

In founding philosophical anarchism, William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought.[67] According to Peter Kropotkin, Godwin was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".[68] Philosophical anarchism contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy; that there is no individual obligation or duty to obey the state and conversely that the state has no right to command individuals, but it does not advocate revolution to eliminate the state. According to The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought, philosophical anarchism "is a component especially of individualist anarchism".[69]

Philosophical anarchists may accept the existence of a minimal state as an unfortunate and usually temporary "necessary evil", but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy.[70] As conceived by Godwin, it requires individuals to act in accordance with their own judgments and to allow every other individual the same liberty—conceived egoistically as by Max Stirner, it implies that "the unique one" who truly "owns himself" recognizes no duties to others; and within the limit of his might, he does what is right for him.[69] Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil"[71] that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.[67] Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated.[72] Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable.

Rather than throwing bombs or taking up arms to bring down the state, philosophical anarchists "have worked for a gradual change to free the individual from what they thought were the oppressive laws and social constraints of the modern state and allow all individuals to become self-determining and value-creating".[73] They may oppose the immediate elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful and oppressive state. This is especially true among those anarchists who consider violence and the state as synonymous, or who consider it counterproductive where public reaction to violence results in increased "law enforcement" efforts.

Egoist anarchism

Main article: Egoist anarchism
 
19th century philosopher Max Stirner, a prominent early individualist anarchist

Egoist anarchism originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner, a 19th-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism".[74] Stirner's philosophy is usually called "egoism" as he says that the egoist rejects devotion to "a great idea, a cause, a doctrine, a system, a lofty calling", saying that the egoist has no political calling but rather "lives themselves out" without regard to "how well or ill humanity may fare thereby".[75] Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires.[76] He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions – including the notion of state, property as a right, natural rights in general and the very notion of society – were mere spooks in the mind. Stirner wanted to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members".[77]

Stirner's idea of the Union of egoists was first expounded in The Ego and Its Own. The Union is understood as a non-systematic association, which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the state.[78] The Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will.[79] The Union requires that all parties participate out of a conscious egoism. If one party silently finds themselves to be suffering, but puts up with it and keeps up appearances, the Union has degenerated into something else.[79] This Union is not seen as an authority above a person's own will. This idea has received interpretations for politics, economic and sex/love.

Forms of libertarian communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are influenced by Stirner.[80][81] Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own.[82]

The Scottish-born German writer John Henry Mackay found out about Stirner while reading a copy of Friedrich Albert Lange's History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance. Later, Mackay looked for a copy of The Ego and Its Own and after being fascinated with it he wrote a biography of Stirner (Max Stirner – sein Leben und sein Werk), published in German in 1898.[83] Mackay's propaganda of stirnerist egoism and of male homosexual and bisexual rights affected Adolf Brand, who in 1896 published the world's first ongoing homosexual publication, Der Eigene.[84] Another later German anarchist publication influenced deeply by Stirner was Der Einzige. It appeared in 1919, as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest (pseud. for Ernst Samuel) and Mynona (pseudonym for Salomo Friedlaender).

Stirnerian egoism became a main influence on European individualist anarchism including its main proponents in the early 20th century such as Émile Armand and Han Ryner in France, Renzo Novatore in Italy, Miguel Giménez Igualada in Spain and in Russia Lev Chernyi. Illegalism was an anarchist practice that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s that found justification in Stirner's philosophy.[85] The illegalists openly embraced criminality as a lifestyle. Some American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's egoist anarchism. John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "[m]odern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual".[86] Anarchist communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin as well as the Russian strain of individualist anarchism and blended these philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as Anarchism And Other Essays.[87][88] Enrico Arrigoni (pseudonym: Frank Brand) was an Italian American individualist anarchist Lathe operator, house painter, bricklayer, dramatist and political activist influenced by the work of Stirner.[89][90] Stirner's philosophy also found followers in Colombia in Biófilo Panclasta and in Japan in Jun Tsuji and Sakae Osugi.

In the 1980s, it emerged in the United States the tendency of post-left anarchy which was influenced profoundly by Stirnerist egoism in aspects such as the critique of ideology.

Individualist anarchism in the United States

Main article: Individualist anarchism in the United States
See also: Anarchism and issues related to love and sex and Freethought
 
Benjamin Tucker, American individualist anarchist

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist[91] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published.[92] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews...William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".[93] Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, as well as his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty.

An important concern for American individualist anarchism was free love. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women—for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.[94] The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the Lightbearer (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker,[95] but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's The Word (1872–1890, 1892–1893).[94] Free Society (1895–1897 as The Firebrand; 1897–1904 as Free Society) was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.[96] The publication staunchly advocated free love and women's rights and critiqued "Comstockery" – censorship of sexual information. Also M. E. Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.[94]

Freethought also motivated activism in this movement. "Freethought was a basically anti-christian, anti-clerical movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to Liberty (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of Freethought and, for a time, The Truth Seeker. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal Lucifer, the Light-Bearer".[97] "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as Lucifer, the Light-Bearer, Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in Liberty...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".[97]

Individualist anarchism in Europe

Main article: Individualist anarchism in Europe
 
Émile Armand, influential French individualist anarchist and free love propagandist

European Individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin,[98] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner. Proudhon was an early pioneer of anarchism as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of mutualism.[99][100] Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work The Ego and Its Own which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism".[74] Another early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue.[101] Individualist anarchism expanded and diversified through Europe, incorporating influences from North American individualist anarchism.

European individualist anarchists include Max Stirner, Albert Libertad, Anselme Bellegarrigue, Émile Armand, Enrico Arrigoni, Lev Chernyi, John Henry Mackay, Han Ryner, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Giménez Igualada and currently Michel Onfray. Two influential authors in European individualist anarchists are Friedrich Nietzsche (see Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche) and Georges Palante.

From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of French individualist anarchism. An early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue. He participated in the French Revolution of 1848, was author and editor of Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait ! Au fait ! Interprétation de l'idée démocratique and wrote the important early Anarchist Manifesto in 1850. Autonomie Individuelle was an individualist anarchist publication that ran from 1887 to 1888. It was edited by Jean-Baptiste Louiche, Charles Schæffer and Georges Deherme.[102] This tradition later continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad, André Lorulot, Émile Armand, Victor Serge, Zo d'Axa and Rirette Maîtrejean, who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, L'Anarchie. Outside this journal, Han Ryner wrote Petit Manuel individualiste (1903) and later appeared the journal L'En-Dehors created by Zo d'Axa in 1891.

French individualist circles had a strong sense of personal libertarianism and experimentation. Naturism and free love contents started to have a strong influence in individualist anarchist circles and from there it expanded to the rest of anarchism also appearing in Spanish individualist anarchist groups.[103]

Anarcho-naturism was promoted by Henri Zisly, Émile Gravelle[104] and Georges Butaud. Butaud was an individualist "partisan of the milieux libres, publisher of "Flambeau" ("an enemy of authority") in 1901 in Vienna. Most of his energies were devoted to creating anarchist colonies (communautés expérimentales) in which he participated in several.[105] "In this sense, the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of french individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles. The call of nudist naturism, the strong defence of birth control methods, the idea of "unions of egoists" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without difficulties, will establish a way of thought and action, and will result in sympathy within some, and a strong rejection within others".[103]

Illegalism[106] is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism.[107] Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of "might" rather than "right" and for the most part illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal,[108] although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed.[106] The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed.[109]

Spain received the influence of American individualist anarchism but most importantly it was related to the French currents. At the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain takes force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales and J. Elizalde, who will translate French and American individualists.[103] Important in this respect were also magazines such as La Idea Libre, La Revista Blanca, Etica, Iniciales, Al margen and Nosotros. In Germany, the Scottish-German John Henry Mackay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. Adolf Brand (1874–1945) was a German writer, stirnerist anarchist and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality. In 1896, Brand published a German homosexual periodical, Der Eigene. The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore[110] and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker.[111]

Post-classical anarchism

Following the end of the Spanish Revolution and World War II, the anarchist movement was a "ghost" of its former self as proclaimed by anarchist historian George Woodcock.[112] In his work Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements, published 1962, Woodcock wrote that after 1936 it was "a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen".[113]

Capitalism continued to grow throughout the post-war period despite predictions from Marxist scholars that it would soon collapse under its own contradictions, yet anarchism gained a surprising surge in popular interest during the 1960s. Reasons for this were believed to be the gradual demystification of the Soviet Union and tensions at the climax of the Cold War.[114][115] The New Left which arose in the 1950s was a libertarian socialist movement that was closer to anarchism. Prominent thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse and C. Wright Mills were critical of the United States and Soviet Marxism.[116]

Green anarchism

Main article: Green anarchism

Green anarchism[117] is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues.[118] An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden[119] as well as Leo Tolstoy[120] and Élisée Reclus.[121] In the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain and Portugal.[120][122]

Important contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Notable contemporary writers espousing green anarchism include Murray Bookchin, Daniel Chodorkoff, anthropologist Brian Morris and people around Institute for Social Ecology; and those critical of technology such as Layla AbdelRahim, Derrick Jensen, George Draffan and John Zerzan; and others such as Alan Carter.[123]

 
John Zerzan, important theorist of anarcho-primitivism

Anarcho-primitivism

Main article: Anarcho-primitivism

Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion and alienation.[124]

Anarcho-naturism

Main article: Anarcho-naturism

Anarcho-naturism appeared in the late 19th century as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies.[120][125][126] Mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles[127][128][129] in Spain,[120][125][130] France,[130][131] Portugal[132] and Cuba.[133]

Anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism, hiking and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them.[120][129] Anarcho-naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity.[134] Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and tried to eliminate social determinations.[134]

Social ecology

Main article: Social ecology (theory)

Social ecology is a social anarchist philosophy developed by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s which holds that present ecological problems are rooted in deep-seated social problems, particularly in coercive, hierarchical political and social systems. These have resulted in an uncritical acceptance of an overly competitive grow-or-die philosophy. It suggests that this cannot be resisted by individual action such as ethical consumerism, but must be addressed by more nuanced ethical thinking and collective activity grounded in radical democratic ideals. The complexity of relationships between people and with nature is emphasized, along with the importance of establishing social structures that take account of this.[135]

Veganarchism

Main article: Veganarchism

Veganarchism is the political philosophy of veganism (more specifically animal liberation) and green anarchism.[136] This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to both human and animals whilst practicing a vegan diet.[136]

Anarcha-feminism

Main article: Anarcha-feminism
 
Emma Goldman, important anarcha-feminist writer and activist

Anarcha-feminism is a form of anarchism that synthesizes radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary hierarchy which anarchists often oppose. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Anarcha-feminists are especially critical of marriage. For instance, the feminist anarchist Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life".[137]

Anarcha-feminists also often criticize the views of some of the traditional anarchists such as Mikhail Bakunin who believed that patriarchy is only a minor problem and is dependent only on the existence of the state and capitalism and will disappear soon after such institutions are abolished. Anarcha-feminists by contrast view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. As Susan Brown puts it, "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".[138]

Anarcho-pacifism

Main article: Anarcho-pacifism
 
Henry David Thoreau, early influence on anarcho-pacifism

Anarcho-pacifism is a form of anarchism which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent was Henry David Thoreau who through his work Civil Disobedience influenced both Leo Tolstoy and Mohandas Gandhi's advocacy of nonviolent resistance.[139] As a global movement, anarchist pacifism emerged shortly before World War II in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for nuclear disarmament.

Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists during the 19th century embraced propaganda of the deed, Leo Tolstoy and other anarcho-pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change. Tolstoy argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent, since it is by definition opposition to coercion and force and that since the state is inherently violent, meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic. His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Gandhi, an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist. Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement.[140] In France in December 1902, Georges Yvetot was one of the founders of the Ligue antimilitariste, along with fellow anarchists Henri Beylie, Paraf-Javal, Albert Libertad and Émile Janvion. The Ligue antimilitariste was to become the French section of the Association internationale antimilitariste (AIA) founded in Amsterdam in 1904.[141]

Religious anarchism

Main article: Religious anarchism
See also: Anarchism and religion

Religious anarchism is a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of (organized) religions, but many anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of and opposed to organized religion.[142] Many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity, as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Non-Christian forms of religious anarchism include Buddhist anarchism, Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism. Neopaganism focuses on the sanctity of the environment and equality and is often of a decentralized nature. This led to a number of Neopagan-inspired anarchists, one of the most prominent of which is Starhawk, who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism.

Christian anarchism

Main article: Christian anarchism

Christian anarchism is a form of religious anarchism that seeks to combine anarchism with Christianity, claiming that anarchism is justified by the teachings of Jesus Christ. Early Christian communities have been described by Christian anarchists and some historians as possessing anarcho-communist characteristics. Christian anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy believe that the teachings of Paul of Tarsus caused a shift from the earlier more egalitarian and anarchistic teachings of Jesus.[143][144] However, others believe that Paul with his strong emphasis on God's Providence is to be understood as a holding to anarchist principles.

Anarchism without adjectives

Main article: Anarchism without adjectives

In the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, anarchism without adjectives "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, [...] [i]t was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools".[145] Anarchism without adjectives emphasizes harmony between various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. The expression was coined by Cuban-born Fernando Tarrida del Mármol, who used it in Barcelona in November 1889 as a call for tolerance, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" between the different movements.[146] Rudolf Rocker said that the different types of anarchism presented "only different methods of economy, the practical possibilities of which have yet to be tested, and that the first objective is to secure the personal and social freedom of men no matter upon which economics basis this is to be accomplished".[147]

Voltairine de Cleyre was an anarchist without adjectives who initially identified herself as an individualist anarchist but later espoused a collectivist form of anarchism, while refusing to identify herself with any of the contemporary schools ("The best thing ordinary workingmen or women could do was to organise their industry to get rid of money altogether . . . Let them produce together, co-operatively rather than as employer and employed; let them fraternise group by group, let each use what he needs of his own product, and deposit the rest in the storage-houses, and let those others who need goods have them as occasion arises").[148] She commented that "Socialism and Communism both demand a degree of joint effort and administration which would beget more regulation than is wholly consistent with ideal Anarchism; Individualism and Mutualism, resting upon property, involve a development of the private policeman not at all compatible with my notion of freedom" although she stopped short of denouncing these tendencies as un-anarchistic ("There is nothing un-Anarchistic about any of [these systems] until the element of compulsion enters and obliges unwilling persons to remain in a community whose economic arrangements they do not agree to").[148]

Errico Malatesta was another proponent of anarchism without adjectives, stating that "[i]t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses".[149]

Contemporary anarchism

Main article: Contemporary anarchism

Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century,[150] a number of new movements and schools have appeared. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber has posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits of the last century" contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas" and who by the start of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.[22]

The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within post-classical and contemporary currents.[151] Anarchists are committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism". Anarchist schools of thought disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.[152]

For the English anarchist scholar Simon Critchley, "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary neo-liberalism. One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally".[153] This might also have been motivated by "the collapse of 'really existing socialism' and the capitulation to neo-liberalism of Western social democracy".[154]

Anarcho-transhumanism

Main article: Anarcho-transhumanism

Anarcho-transhumanism is the synthesis of anarchism with transhumanism that is concerned with both social and physical freedom, respectively. Anarcho-transhumanists define freedom as the expansion of one's own ability to experience the world around them.[155]

The philosophy draws heavily from the individualist anarchism of William Godwin and Voltairine de Cleyre[156] as well as the cyberfeminism presented by Donna Haraway in A Cyborg Manifesto.[157] It looks at issues surrounding bodily autonomy,[158] disability,[159] gender,[158] neurodiversity,[160] queer theory[161] science[162] and sexuality.[163]

Anarcho-transhumanism presents a critique through an anarchist and transhumanist lens of ableism,[160] cisheteropatriarchy[158] and primitivism.[164] Anarcho-transhumanists also criticise non-anarchist forms of transhumanism such as democratic transhumanism and libertarian transhumanism as incoherent and unsurvivable due to their preservation of capitalism and the state. They view such instruments of power as inherently unethical and incompatible with the acceleration of social and material freedom for all individuals.[165]

Post-anarchism

Main article: Post-anarchism

Post-anarchism is articulated by Saul Newman as a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Although it first received popular attention in his book From Bakunin to Lacan, it has taken on a life of its own subsequent to Newman's use of the term and a wide range of ideas including post-modernism, autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, post-colonialism and Zapatismo. By its very nature, post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or should not be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless, key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, Lewis Call, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari and Michel Onfray.

Post-left anarchy

Main article: Post-left anarchy
 
Bob Black, writer associated to post-left anarchism

Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional leftism. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations and morality.[166] Influenced by the work of Max Stirner[166] and by the Situationist International,[166] post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation.[167]

The magazines Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed, Green Anarchy and Fifth Estate have been involved in developing post-left anarchy. Individual writers associated with the tendency are Hakim Bey, Bob Black, John Zerzan, Jason McQuinn, Fredy Perlman, Lawrence Jarach and Wolfi Landstreicher. The contemporary network of collectives CrimethInc. is an exponent of post-left anarchist views.

Queer anarchism

Main article: Queer anarchism
 
Queer anarchist banner at Christopher Street Day parade, Berlin, 2020

Queer anarchism suggests anarchism as a means of queer liberation and solution to the issues faced by the LGBT community such as homophobia, lesbophobia, transmisogyny, biphobia, transphobia, heteronormativity, patriarchy and the gender binary.

People who campaigned for LGBT rights both outside and inside the anarchist and LGBT movements include John Henry Mackay,[168] Adolf Brand and Daniel Guérin.[169] Individualist anarchist Adolf Brand published Der Eigene from 1896 to 1932 in Berlin, the first sustained journal dedicated to gay issues.[170][171]

Types of organization

Anarchists create different forms of organization to meet each other, share information, organize struggles and trace ways to spread the anarchist ideas through the world. Those organizations tend to be structured around the principles of anarchism, i.e. without hierarchy, coercion, and with voluntary association, since they understand that the only way to achieve a free and egualitarian society in the end is through equally free and egualitarian means.[172]

Synthesis anarchism

Main article: Synthesis anarchism

Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives.[173] It intends to bringing together anarchists of the anarchists main tendencies, namely individualist anarchism, anarchist communism and mutualism.[174] In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sébastien Faure.[173][175] It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations.[173]

Platformism

Main article: Platformism

Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement which shares an affinity with organising in the tradition of Dielo Truda's Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft).[176] The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution which led eventually to the victory of Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other like-minded groups. The Platform attempted to explain and address the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution. As a controversial pamphlet, the document drew both praise and criticism from anarchists worldwide. Today, platformism is an important current in international anarchism. Around thirty platformists and specifists are linked together in the Anarkismo project, including groups from Africa, Europe, Latin America and North America.[177]

Anarcho-syndicalism

Main article: Anarcho-syndicalism
See also: Syndicalism
 
May Day 2010 demonstration of the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT in Bilbao, Basque Country

In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. More heavily focused on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles of syndicalism include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations) and workers' self-management.

Anarcho-syndicalism and other branches of anarchism are not mutually exclusive. Anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchism. Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non-hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. According to the writers of An Anarchist FAQ, anarcho-syndicalist economic systems often take the form of either an anarcho-communist or collectivist anarchist economic system.[40]

Rudolf Rocker is considered a leading anarcho-syndicalist theorist.[40] He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism.[178] Noam Chomsky sees anarcho-syndicalist and libertarian socialist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment,[179] arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being".[179] He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select representatives to meet together at general assemblies.

Although more frequently associated with labor struggles of the early 20th century (particularly in France and Spain), many syndicalist organizations are active today, including the SAC in Sweden, the USI in Italy and the CNT in Spain. A number of these organizations are united across national borders by membership in the International Workers' Association.

Insurrectionary anarchism

Main article: Insurrectionary anarchism

Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasizes the theme of insurrection within anarchist practice.[180][181] It opposes formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses.[180] Instead, insurrectionary anarchists support informal organization and small affinity group based organization.[180][181] Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent class conflict and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.[180][181]

Contemporary insurrectionary anarchism inherits the views and tactics of anti-organizational anarcho-communism[62] and illegalism.[181]

See also

External links

  •   Media related to Anarchist schools of thought at Wikimedia Commons

References

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    They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship – their dictatorship, of course – can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.
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  126. ^ "In many of the alternative communities established in Britain in the early 1900s, nudism, anarchism, vegetarianism and free love were accepted as part of a politically radical way of life. In the 1920s the inhabitants of the anarchist community at Whiteway, near Stroud in Gloucestershire, shocked the conservative residents of the area with their shameless nudity.""Nudism the radical tradition" by Terry Phillips Archived 11 September 2012 at archive.today
  127. ^ "Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A...Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del "pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica). Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento""El movimiento libertario en Italia" by Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977 12 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  128. ^ "Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida.""La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
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January 30, 2023
anarchist, schools, thought, anarchism, political, philosophy, which, holds, ruling, classes, state, undesirable, unnecessary, harmful, opposes, authority, hierarchical, organization, conduct, human, relations, proponents, anarchism, known, anarchists, advocat. Anarchism is the political philosophy which holds ruling classes 1 and the state to be undesirable unnecessary and harmful 2 3 and opposes authority and hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations 10 Proponents of anarchism known as anarchists advocate stateless societies based on non hierarchical 4 11 12 voluntary associations 13 14 However anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism 3 to more syncretic tendencies such as insurrectionary anarchism Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social anarchism and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications also including green anarchism and post left anarchism 15 16 Anarchism is usually considered a radical left wing or far left ideology 17 18 19 and much of anarchist economics and legal philosophy reflect anti authoritarian anti statist and libertarian interpretations of radical left wing and socialist politics 20 At some point the collectivist communist and liberal and individualist strands of thought from which anarchists drew their inspiration began to assume an increasingly distinctive quality supporting the rise of a number of anarchist schools 21 Anthropologist David Graeber has noted that while the major Marxist schools of thought always have founders e g Leninism Trotskyism and Maoism schools of anarchism almost invariably emerge from some kind of organizational principle or form of practice citing anarcho syndicalism individualist anarchism and platformism as examples 22 Contents 1 Classical anarchism 1 1 Mutualism 1 2 Social anarchism 1 2 1 Collectivist anarchism 1 2 2 Anarcho communism 1 3 Individualist anarchism 1 3 1 Philosophical anarchism 1 3 2 Egoist anarchism 1 3 3 Individualist anarchism in the United States 1 3 4 Individualist anarchism in Europe 2 Post classical anarchism 2 1 Green anarchism 2 1 1 Anarcho primitivism 2 1 2 Anarcho naturism 2 1 3 Social ecology 2 1 4 Veganarchism 2 2 Anarcha feminism 2 3 Anarcho pacifism 2 4 Religious anarchism 2 4 1 Christian anarchism 2 5 Anarchism without adjectives 3 Contemporary anarchism 3 1 Anarcho transhumanism 3 2 Post anarchism 3 3 Post left anarchy 3 4 Queer anarchism 4 Types of organization 4 1 Synthesis anarchism 4 2 Platformism 4 3 Anarcho syndicalism 4 4 Insurrectionary anarchism 5 See also 6 External links 7 ReferencesClassical anarchism EditThe decades of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries constitute the belle epoque of anarchist history 23 In this classical era roughly defined as the 1840s 24 or the 1860s 25 26 to 1939 27 anarchism played a prominent role in working class struggles alongside Marxism in Europe as well as North and Latin America Asia and Australia 23 28 Modernism mass migration railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes 29 Mutualism Edit Main article Mutualism economic theory Pierre Joseph Proudhon Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labor movements then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States 30 This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B Greene Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833 31 after participating in a failed Owenite experiment 32 In the 1840s and 1850s Charles A Dana 33 and William Batchelder Greene introduced Proudhon s works to the United States Greene adapted Proudhon s mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin Tucker 34 Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity free association voluntary contract federation and credit and currency reform Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor costs eliminating profit rent and interest according to the labor theory of value Firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms raising wages 35 36 Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism 37 In What Is Property Proudhon develops a concept of liberty equivalent to anarchy which is the dialectical synthesis of communism and property 38 Greene influenced by Pierre Leroux sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies communism capitalism and socialism 39 Later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism but retained little emphasis on synthesis while social anarchists such as the authors of An Anarchist FAQ claim mutualism as a subset of their philosophical tradition 40 Social anarchism Edit Main article Social anarchism Social anarchism is a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism 40 Where individualist forms of anarchism emphasize personal autonomy and the rational nature of human beings social anarchism sees individual freedom as conceptually connected with social equality and emphasize community and mutual aid 41 Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory and practice Social anarchism includes but is not limited to collectivist anarchism anarcho communism libertarian socialism anarcho syndicalism and social ecology 40 Collectivist anarchism Edit Main article Collectivist anarchism Mikhail Bakunin Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary 42 form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin Johann Most and the anti authoritarian section of the First International 43 Unlike mutualists collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production instead advocating that ownership be collectivized This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence or propaganda by the deed which would inspire the workers to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production 42 Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production rather than goods being distributed according to need as in anarcho communism Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor some held out the possibility of a post revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need 44 Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but it opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite Marxism striving for a collectivist stateless society 45 Some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency Some support workers being paid based on the amount of time they contributed to production These salaries would be used to purchase commodities in a communal market 46 This contrasts with anarcho communism where wages would be abolished and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods to each according to his need Many modern day collectivist anarchists hold their form of anarchism as a permanent society rather than a carryover to anarcho communism or a gift economy Some collectivist anarchists such as proponents of participatory economics believe in remuneration and a form of credit but do not believe in money or markets Although collectivist anarchism shares many similarities with anarchist communism there are several key differences between them For example collectivist anarchists believe that the economy and most or all property should be collectively owned by society while anarchist communists by contrast believe that the concept of ownership should be rejected by society and replaced with the concept of usage 47 In addition collectivist anarchists often favor using a form of currency to compensate workers according to the amount of time spent contributing to society and production while anarcho communists believe that currency and wages should be abolished all together and goods should be distributed to each according to his or her need Anarcho communism Edit Main article Anarcho communism Peter Kropotkin Anarcho communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state markets money private property while retaining respect for personal property and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production 48 49 direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle From each according to his ability to each according to his need 50 51 Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism believing anarcho communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom 52 53 54 55 Most anarcho communists view it as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society 56 57 58 Anarcho communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution 59 60 but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International 61 The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro organizationalist and insurrectionary anti organizationalist sections 62 To date the best known examples of an anarchist communist society i e established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon are the anarchist territories after the Russian Revolution the Korean People s Association in Manchuria and the Spanish Revolution 63 During the Russian Civil War anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked through the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine to create and defend anarcho communism in Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921 In 1929 anarcho communism was achieved in Manchuria by the Korean People s Association in Manchuria KPAM with help from anarchist general and independence activist Kim Chwa chin lasting until 1931 when Imperial Japan assassinated Kim and invaded from the south while the Chinese Nationalists invaded from the north resulting in the creation of Manchukuo a puppet state of the Empire of Japan Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War starting in 1936 anarcho communism existed in most of Aragon parts of Andalusia and the Levante and in the stronghold of Revolutionary Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of fascist Francoism Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy as well as Spanish Communist Party repression backed by the Soviet Union and economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself 64 Individualist anarchism Edit Main article Individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups society traditions and ideological systems 65 66 Philosophical anarchism Edit Main article Philosophical anarchism William Godwin 1756 1836 liberal utilitarian and individualist philosopher thought of as the founder of philosophical anarchism in a portrait by Henry William Pickersgill In founding philosophical anarchism William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought 67 According to Peter Kropotkin Godwin was the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work 68 Philosophical anarchism contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy that there is no individual obligation or duty to obey the state and conversely that the state has no right to command individuals but it does not advocate revolution to eliminate the state According to The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism 69 Philosophical anarchists may accept the existence of a minimal state as an unfortunate and usually temporary necessary evil but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy 70 As conceived by Godwin it requires individuals to act in accordance with their own judgments and to allow every other individual the same liberty conceived egoistically as by Max Stirner it implies that the unique one who truly owns himself recognizes no duties to others and within the limit of his might he does what is right for him 69 Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present necessary evil 71 that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge 67 Godwin advocated extreme individualism proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated 72 Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable Rather than throwing bombs or taking up arms to bring down the state philosophical anarchists have worked for a gradual change to free the individual from what they thought were the oppressive laws and social constraints of the modern state and allow all individuals to become self determining and value creating 73 They may oppose the immediate elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful and oppressive state This is especially true among those anarchists who consider violence and the state as synonymous or who consider it counterproductive where public reaction to violence results in increased law enforcement efforts Egoist anarchism Edit Main article Egoist anarchism 19th century philosopher Max Stirner a prominent early individualist anarchist Egoist anarchism originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner a 19th century Hegelian philosopher whose name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best known exponents of individualist anarchism 74 Stirner s philosophy is usually called egoism as he says that the egoist rejects devotion to a great idea a cause a doctrine a system a lofty calling saying that the egoist has no political calling but rather lives themselves out without regard to how well or ill humanity may fare thereby 75 Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires 76 He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions including the notion of state property as a right natural rights in general and the very notion of society were mere spooks in the mind Stirner wanted to abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members 77 Stirner s idea of the Union of egoists was first expounded in The Ego and Its Own The Union is understood as a non systematic association which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the state 78 The Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is continually renewed by all parties support through an act of will 79 The Union requires that all parties participate out of a conscious egoism If one party silently finds themselves to be suffering but puts up with it and keeps up appearances the Union has degenerated into something else 79 This Union is not seen as an authority above a person s own will This idea has received interpretations for politics economic and sex love Forms of libertarian communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are influenced by Stirner 80 81 Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own 82 The Scottish born German writer John Henry Mackay found out about Stirner while reading a copy of Friedrich Albert Lange s History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance Later Mackay looked for a copy of The Ego and Its Own and after being fascinated with it he wrote a biography of Stirner Max Stirner sein Leben und sein Werk published in German in 1898 83 Mackay s propaganda of stirnerist egoism and of male homosexual and bisexual rights affected Adolf Brand who in 1896 published the world s first ongoing homosexual publication Der Eigene 84 Another later German anarchist publication influenced deeply by Stirner was Der Einzige It appeared in 1919 as a weekly then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest pseud for Ernst Samuel and Mynona pseudonym for Salomo Friedlaender Stirnerian egoism became a main influence on European individualist anarchism including its main proponents in the early 20th century such as Emile Armand and Han Ryner in France Renzo Novatore in Italy Miguel Gimenez Igualada in Spain and in Russia Lev Chernyi Illegalism was an anarchist practice that developed primarily in France Italy Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s that found justification in Stirner s philosophy 85 The illegalists openly embraced criminality as a lifestyle Some American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner s egoist anarchism John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called Egoism in which he states that m odern egoism as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche and expounded by Ibsen Shaw and others is all these but it is more It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual that as far as they are concerned they are the only individual 86 Anarchist communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin as well as the Russian strain of individualist anarchism and blended these philosophies together in her own as shown in books of hers such as Anarchism And Other Essays 87 88 Enrico Arrigoni pseudonym Frank Brand was an Italian American individualist anarchist Lathe operator house painter bricklayer dramatist and political activist influenced by the work of Stirner 89 90 Stirner s philosophy also found followers in Colombia in Biofilo Panclasta and in Japan in Jun Tsuji and Sakae Osugi In the 1980s it emerged in the United States the tendency of post left anarchy which was influenced profoundly by Stirnerist egoism in aspects such as the critique of ideology Individualist anarchism in the United States Edit Main article Individualist anarchism in the United States See also Anarchism and issues related to love and sex and Freethought Benjamin Tucker American individualist anarchist Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist 91 and the four page weekly paper he edited during 1833 The Peaceful Revolutionist was the first anarchist periodical published 92 For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster i t is apparent that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews William B Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form 93 Henry David Thoreau 1817 1862 was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe Thoreau was an American author poet naturalist tax resister development critic surveyor historian philosopher and leading transcendentalist He is best known for his books Walden a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings as well as his essay Civil Disobedience an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner s egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty An important concern for American individualist anarchism was free love Free love particularly stressed women s rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women for example marriage laws and anti birth control measures 94 The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the Lightbearer 1883 1907 edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker 95 but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood s The Word 1872 1890 1892 1893 94 Free Society 1895 1897 as The Firebrand 1897 1904 as Free Society was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries 96 The publication staunchly advocated free love and women s rights and critiqued Comstockery censorship of sexual information Also M E Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love 94 Freethought also motivated activism in this movement Freethought was a basically anti christian anti clerical movement whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters A number of contributors to Liberty anarchist publication were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co editor of Freethought and for a time The Truth Seeker E C Walker was co editor of the excellent free thought free love journal Lucifer the Light Bearer 97 Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers reprints from freethought papers such as Lucifer the Light Bearer Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in Liberty The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself 97 Individualist anarchism in Europe Edit Main article Individualist anarchism in Europe Emile Armand influential French individualist anarchist and free love propagandist European Individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin 98 Pierre Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner Proudhon was an early pioneer of anarchism as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of mutualism 99 100 Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work The Ego and Its Own which is considered to be a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism 74 Another early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue 101 Individualist anarchism expanded and diversified through Europe incorporating influences from North American individualist anarchism European individualist anarchists include Max Stirner Albert Libertad Anselme Bellegarrigue Emile Armand Enrico Arrigoni Lev Chernyi John Henry Mackay Han Ryner Renzo Novatore Miguel Gimenez Igualada and currently Michel Onfray Two influential authors in European individualist anarchists are Friedrich Nietzsche see Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche and Georges Palante From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of French individualist anarchism An early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue He participated in the French Revolution of 1848 was author and editor of Anarchie Journal de l Ordre and Au fait Au fait Interpretation de l idee democratique and wrote the important early Anarchist Manifesto in 1850 Autonomie Individuelle was an individualist anarchist publication that ran from 1887 to 1888 It was edited by Jean Baptiste Louiche Charles Schaeffer and Georges Deherme 102 This tradition later continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad Andre Lorulot Emile Armand Victor Serge Zo d Axa and Rirette Maitrejean who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France L Anarchie Outside this journal Han Ryner wrote Petit Manuel individualiste 1903 and later appeared the journal L En Dehors created by Zo d Axa in 1891 French individualist circles had a strong sense of personal libertarianism and experimentation Naturism and free love contents started to have a strong influence in individualist anarchist circles and from there it expanded to the rest of anarchism also appearing in Spanish individualist anarchist groups 103 Anarcho naturism was promoted by Henri Zisly Emile Gravelle 104 and Georges Butaud Butaud was an individualist partisan of the milieux libres publisher of Flambeau an enemy of authority in 1901 in Vienna Most of his energies were devoted to creating anarchist colonies communautes experimentales in which he participated in several 105 In this sense the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of french individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous even within libertarian circles The call of nudist naturism the strong defence of birth control methods the idea of unions of egoists with the sole justification of sexual practices that will try to put in practice not without difficulties will establish a way of thought and action and will result in sympathy within some and a strong rejection within others 103 Illegalism 106 is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France Italy Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner s individualist anarchism 107 Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions recognizing only the reality of might rather than right and for the most part illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires not for some greater ideal 108 although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed 106 The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed 109 Spain received the influence of American individualist anarchism but most importantly it was related to the French currents At the start of the 20th century individualism in Spain takes force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero Ricardo Mella Federico Urales and J Elizalde who will translate French and American individualists 103 Important in this respect were also magazines such as La Idea Libre La Revista Blanca Etica Iniciales Al margen and Nosotros In Germany the Scottish German John Henry Mackay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas Adolf Brand 1874 1945 was a German writer stirnerist anarchist and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality In 1896 Brand published a German homosexual periodical Der Eigene The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore 110 and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker 111 Post classical anarchism EditFollowing the end of the Spanish Revolution and World War II the anarchist movement was a ghost of its former self as proclaimed by anarchist historian George Woodcock 112 In his work Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements published 1962 Woodcock wrote that after 1936 it was a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen 113 Capitalism continued to grow throughout the post war period despite predictions from Marxist scholars that it would soon collapse under its own contradictions yet anarchism gained a surprising surge in popular interest during the 1960s Reasons for this were believed to be the gradual demystification of the Soviet Union and tensions at the climax of the Cold War 114 115 The New Left which arose in the 1950s was a libertarian socialist movement that was closer to anarchism Prominent thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse and C Wright Mills were critical of the United States and Soviet Marxism 116 Green anarchism Edit Main article Green anarchism Green anarchism 117 is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues 118 An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden 119 as well as Leo Tolstoy 120 and Elisee Reclus 121 In the late 19th century there emerged anarcho naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France Spain and Portugal 120 122 Important contemporary currents are anarcho primitivism and social ecology Notable contemporary writers espousing green anarchism include Murray Bookchin Daniel Chodorkoff anthropologist Brian Morris and people around Institute for Social Ecology and those critical of technology such as Layla AbdelRahim Derrick Jensen George Draffan and John Zerzan and others such as Alan Carter 123 John Zerzan important theorist of anarcho primitivism Anarcho primitivism Edit Main article Anarcho primitivism Anarcho primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization According to anarcho primitivism the shift from hunter gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification coercion and alienation 124 Anarcho naturism Edit Main article Anarcho naturism Anarcho naturism appeared in the late 19th century as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies 120 125 126 Mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles 127 128 129 in Spain 120 125 130 France 130 131 Portugal 132 and Cuba 133 Anarcho naturism advocated vegetarianism free love nudism hiking and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them 120 129 Anarcho naturism promoted an ecological worldview small ecovillages and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity 134 Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological physical and psychological aspects and tried to eliminate social determinations 134 Social ecology Edit Main article Social ecology theory Social ecology is a social anarchist philosophy developed by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s which holds that present ecological problems are rooted in deep seated social problems particularly in coercive hierarchical political and social systems These have resulted in an uncritical acceptance of an overly competitive grow or die philosophy It suggests that this cannot be resisted by individual action such as ethical consumerism but must be addressed by more nuanced ethical thinking and collective activity grounded in radical democratic ideals The complexity of relationships between people and with nature is emphasized along with the importance of establishing social structures that take account of this 135 Veganarchism Edit Main article Veganarchism Veganarchism is the political philosophy of veganism more specifically animal liberation and green anarchism 136 This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to both human and animals whilst practicing a vegan diet 136 Anarcha feminism Edit Main article Anarcha feminism Emma Goldman important anarcha feminist writer and activist Anarcha feminism is a form of anarchism that synthesizes radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy male domination over women as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary hierarchy which anarchists often oppose Anarcha feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre Anarcha feminists like other radical feminists criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family education and gender roles Anarcha feminists are especially critical of marriage For instance the feminist anarchist Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that woman pays for it with her name her privacy her self respect her very life 137 Anarcha feminists also often criticize the views of some of the traditional anarchists such as Mikhail Bakunin who believed that patriarchy is only a minor problem and is dependent only on the existence of the state and capitalism and will disappear soon after such institutions are abolished Anarcha feminists by contrast view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism As Susan Brown puts it as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power it is inherently feminist 138 Anarcho pacifism Edit Main article Anarcho pacifism Henry David Thoreau early influence on anarcho pacifism Anarcho pacifism is a form of anarchism which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose The main precedent was Henry David Thoreau who through his work Civil Disobedience influenced both Leo Tolstoy and Mohandas Gandhi s advocacy of nonviolent resistance 139 As a global movement anarchist pacifism emerged shortly before World War II in the Netherlands Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for nuclear disarmament Violence has always been controversial in anarchism While many anarchists during the 19th century embraced propaganda of the deed Leo Tolstoy and other anarcho pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change Tolstoy argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent since it is by definition opposition to coercion and force and that since the state is inherently violent meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Gandhi an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self identified as an anarchist Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement 140 In France in December 1902 Georges Yvetot was one of the founders of the Ligue antimilitariste along with fellow anarchists Henri Beylie Paraf Javal Albert Libertad and Emile Janvion The Ligue antimilitariste was to become the French section of the Association internationale antimilitariste AIA founded in Amsterdam in 1904 141 Religious anarchism Edit Main article Religious anarchism See also Anarchism and religion Leo Tolstoy theorist of Christian anarchism Religious anarchism is a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of organized religions but many anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of and opposed to organized religion 142 Many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism most notably Christianity as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy Non Christian forms of religious anarchism include Buddhist anarchism Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism Neopaganism focuses on the sanctity of the environment and equality and is often of a decentralized nature This led to a number of Neopagan inspired anarchists one of the most prominent of which is Starhawk who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism Christian anarchism Edit Main article Christian anarchism Christian anarchism is a form of religious anarchism that seeks to combine anarchism with Christianity claiming that anarchism is justified by the teachings of Jesus Christ Early Christian communities have been described by Christian anarchists and some historians as possessing anarcho communist characteristics Christian anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy believe that the teachings of Paul of Tarsus caused a shift from the earlier more egalitarian and anarchistic teachings of Jesus 143 144 However others believe that Paul with his strong emphasis on God s Providence is to be understood as a holding to anarchist principles Anarchism without adjectives Edit Main article Anarchism without adjectives Voltairine de Cleyre In the words of historian George Richard Esenwein anarchism without adjectives referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism that is a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist collectivist mutualist or individualist For others i t was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools 145 Anarchism without adjectives emphasizes harmony between various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti authoritarian beliefs The expression was coined by Cuban born Fernando Tarrida del Marmol who used it in Barcelona in November 1889 as a call for tolerance after being troubled by the bitter debates between the different movements 146 Rudolf Rocker said that the different types of anarchism presented only different methods of economy the practical possibilities of which have yet to be tested and that the first objective is to secure the personal and social freedom of men no matter upon which economics basis this is to be accomplished 147 Voltairine de Cleyre was an anarchist without adjectives who initially identified herself as an individualist anarchist but later espoused a collectivist form of anarchism while refusing to identify herself with any of the contemporary schools The best thing ordinary workingmen or women could do was to organise their industry to get rid of money altogether Let them produce together co operatively rather than as employer and employed let them fraternise group by group let each use what he needs of his own product and deposit the rest in the storage houses and let those others who need goods have them as occasion arises 148 She commented that Socialism and Communism both demand a degree of joint effort and administration which would beget more regulation than is wholly consistent with ideal Anarchism Individualism and Mutualism resting upon property involve a development of the private policeman not at all compatible with my notion of freedom although she stopped short of denouncing these tendencies as un anarchistic There is nothing un Anarchistic about any of these systems until the element of compulsion enters and obliges unwilling persons to remain in a community whose economic arrangements they do not agree to 148 Errico Malatesta was another proponent of anarchism without adjectives stating that i t is not right for us to say the least to fall into strife over mere hypotheses 149 Contemporary anarchism EditMain article Contemporary anarchism Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century 150 a number of new movements and schools have appeared Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber has posited a rupture between generations of anarchism with those who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits of the last century contrasted with the younger activists who are much more informed among other elements by indigenous feminist ecological and cultural critical ideas and who by the start of the 21st century formed by far the majority of anarchists 22 The anti capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within post classical and contemporary currents 151 Anarchists are committed against coercive authority in all forms namely all centralized and hierarchical forms of government e g monarchy representative democracy state socialism etc economic class systems e g capitalism Bolshevism feudalism slavery etc autocratic religions e g fundamentalist Islam Roman Catholicism etc patriarchy heterosexism white supremacy and imperialism Anarchist schools of thought disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed 152 For the English anarchist scholar Simon Critchley contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo libertarianism of contemporary neo liberalism One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility whether sexual ecological or socio economic it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally 153 This might also have been motivated by the collapse of really existing socialism and the capitulation to neo liberalism of Western social democracy 154 Anarcho transhumanism Edit Main article Anarcho transhumanism Anarcho transhumanism is the synthesis of anarchism with transhumanism that is concerned with both social and physical freedom respectively Anarcho transhumanists define freedom as the expansion of one s own ability to experience the world around them 155 The philosophy draws heavily from the individualist anarchism of William Godwin and Voltairine de Cleyre 156 as well as the cyberfeminism presented by Donna Haraway in A Cyborg Manifesto 157 It looks at issues surrounding bodily autonomy 158 disability 159 gender 158 neurodiversity 160 queer theory 161 science 162 and sexuality 163 Anarcho transhumanism presents a critique through an anarchist and transhumanist lens of ableism 160 cisheteropatriarchy 158 and primitivism 164 Anarcho transhumanists also criticise non anarchist forms of transhumanism such as democratic transhumanism and libertarian transhumanism as incoherent and unsurvivable due to their preservation of capitalism and the state They view such instruments of power as inherently unethical and incompatible with the acceleration of social and material freedom for all individuals 165 Post anarchism Edit Main article Post anarchism Post anarchism is articulated by Saul Newman as a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought Although it first received popular attention in his book From Bakunin to Lacan it has taken on a life of its own subsequent to Newman s use of the term and a wide range of ideas including post modernism autonomism post left anarchy situationism post colonialism and Zapatismo By its very nature post anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs As such it is difficult if not impossible to state with any degree of certainty who should or should not be grouped under the rubric Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post anarchism include Saul Newman Todd May Lewis Call Gilles Deleuze Felix Guattari and Michel Onfray Post left anarchy Edit Main article Post left anarchy Bob Black writer associated to post left anarchism Post left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism s relationship to traditional leftism Some post leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations and morality 166 Influenced by the work of Max Stirner 166 and by the Situationist International 166 post left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation 167 The magazines Anarchy A Journal of Desire Armed Green Anarchy and Fifth Estate have been involved in developing post left anarchy Individual writers associated with the tendency are Hakim Bey Bob Black John Zerzan Jason McQuinn Fredy Perlman Lawrence Jarach and Wolfi Landstreicher The contemporary network of collectives CrimethInc is an exponent of post left anarchist views Queer anarchism Edit Main article Queer anarchism Queer anarchist banner at Christopher Street Day parade Berlin 2020 Queer anarchism suggests anarchism as a means of queer liberation and solution to the issues faced by the LGBT community such as homophobia lesbophobia transmisogyny biphobia transphobia heteronormativity patriarchy and the gender binary People who campaigned for LGBT rights both outside and inside the anarchist and LGBT movements include John Henry Mackay 168 Adolf Brand and Daniel Guerin 169 Individualist anarchist Adolf Brand published Der Eigene from 1896 to 1932 in Berlin the first sustained journal dedicated to gay issues 170 171 Types of organization EditAnarchists create different forms of organization to meet each other share information organize struggles and trace ways to spread the anarchist ideas through the world Those organizations tend to be structured around the principles of anarchism i e without hierarchy coercion and with voluntary association since they understand that the only way to achieve a free and egualitarian society in the end is through equally free and egualitarian means 172 Synthesis anarchism Edit Main article Synthesis anarchism Sebastien Faure Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives 173 It intends to bringing together anarchists of the anarchists main tendencies namely individualist anarchism anarchist communism and mutualism 174 In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sebastien Faure 173 175 It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations 173 Platformism Edit Main article Platformism Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement which shares an affinity with organising in the tradition of Dielo Truda s Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists Draft 176 The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution which led eventually to the victory of Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other like minded groups The Platform attempted to explain and address the anarchist movement s failures during the Russian Revolution As a controversial pamphlet the document drew both praise and criticism from anarchists worldwide Today platformism is an important current in international anarchism Around thirty platformists and specifists are linked together in the Anarkismo project including groups from Africa Europe Latin America and North America 177 Anarcho syndicalism Edit Main article Anarcho syndicalism See also Syndicalism May Day 2010 demonstration of the anarcho syndicalist trade union CNT in Bilbao Basque Country In the early 20th century anarcho syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism More heavily focused on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self managed by the workers Anarcho syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production which they believe lead to class divisions Important principles of syndicalism include workers solidarity direct action such as general strikes and workplace recuperations and workers self management Anarcho syndicalism and other branches of anarchism are not mutually exclusive Anarcho syndicalists often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchism Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution According to the writers of An Anarchist FAQ anarcho syndicalist economic systems often take the form of either an anarcho communist or collectivist anarchist economic system 40 Rudolf Rocker is considered a leading anarcho syndicalist theorist 40 He outlined a view of the origins of the movement what it sought and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism 178 Noam Chomsky sees anarcho syndicalist and libertarian socialist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment 179 arguing that his ideological position revolves around nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being 179 He envisions an anarcho syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers councils who would select representatives to meet together at general assemblies Although more frequently associated with labor struggles of the early 20th century particularly in France and Spain many syndicalist organizations are active today including the SAC in Sweden the USI in Italy and the CNT in Spain A number of these organizations are united across national borders by membership in the International Workers Association Insurrectionary anarchism Edit Main article Insurrectionary anarchism Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasizes the theme of insurrection within anarchist practice 180 181 It opposes formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses 180 Instead insurrectionary anarchists support informal organization and small affinity group based organization 180 181 Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack permanent class conflict and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies 180 181 Contemporary insurrectionary anarchism inherits the views and tactics of anti organizational anarcho communism 62 and illegalism 181 See also Edit Anarchism portalAnarchism and anarcho capitalism Anarchism and the arts Anarchism and capitalism Anarchism and education Anarchism and nationalism Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche Anarchism and violence Definition of anarchism and libertarianism Epistemological anarchism Issues in anarchism Left libertarianism Left wing market anarchism Libertarianism PanarchismExternal links Edit Media related to Anarchist schools of thought at Wikimedia CommonsReferences Edit Walt Lucien Van der Schmidt Michael 2009 Black Flame The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism ISBN 978 1 904859 16 1 Archived from the original on 27 March 2021 Retrieved 15 October 2020 Malatesta Errico Towards Anarchism Man Los Angeles International Group of San Francisco OCLC 3930443 Archived from the original on 7 November 2012 Retrieved 14 February 2018 Agrell Siri 14 May 2007 Working for The Man The Globe and Mail Archived from the original on 16 May 2007 Retrieved 14 April 2008 Anarchism Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Premium Service 2006 Archived from the original on 14 December 2006 Retrieved 29 August 2006 Anarchism The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14 2005 Anarchism is the view that a society without the state or government is both possible and desirable The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy Mclaughlin Paul 2007 Anarchism and Authority Aldershot Ashgate p 59 ISBN 978 0 7546 6196 2 Johnston R 2000 The Dictionary of Human Geography Cambridge Blackwell Publishers p 24 ISBN 0 631 20561 6 a b Slevin Carl Anarchism The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics Ed Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan Oxford University Press 2003 a b The IAF IFA fights for the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical political social religious cultural or sexual Principles of TheInternational of Anarchist Federations Archived 2012 01 05 at the Wayback Machine Goldman Emma What it Really Stands for Anarchy Anarchism and Other Essays Anarchism then really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property liberation from the shackles and restraint of government Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life according to individual desires tastes and inclinations Tucker Benjamin Individual Liberty Archived from the original on 3 May 2012 They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty Marx went one way Warren and Proudhon the other Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism Authority takes many shapes but broadly speaking her enemies divide themselves into three classes first those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress opposing her openly avowedly sincerely consistently universally second those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world third those who distrust her as a means of progress believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon violating and outraging her These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy of the second in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy of the third in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of the socialism off Karl Marg Ward Colin 1966 Anarchism as a Theory of Organization Archived from the original on 25 March 2010 Retrieved 1 March 2010 Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin s anti authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non state forms of authority as follows All anarchists deny authority many of them fight against it p 9 Bakunin did not convert the League s central committee to his full program but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868 demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State Brown L Susan 2002 Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism Implications for Feminism The Politics of Individualism Liberalism Liberal Feminism and Anarchism Black Rose Books Ltd Publishing p 106 4 5 6 7 8 9 Kropotkin Peter Anarchism its philosophy and ideal Archived from the original on 18 March 2012 That is why Anarchy when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them when it refuses all hierarchical organization and preaches free agreement at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist Anarchists are opposed to irrational e g illegitimate authority in other words hierarchy hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society B 1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy Archived 15 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine in An Anarchist FAQ ANARCHISM a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man s natural social tendencies George Woodcock Anarchism at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy In a society developed on these lines the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions Anarchism Archived 6 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine Peter Kropotkin The Encyclopaedia Britannica Ostergaard Geoffrey Anarchism The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought Blackwell Publishing p 14 Kropotkin Peter 2002 Anarchism A Collection of Revolutionary Writings Courier Dover Publications p 5 ISBN 0 486 41955 X Fowler R B 1972 The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought Western Political Quarterly University of Utah 25 4 738 752 doi 10 2307 446800 JSTOR 446800 Brooks Frank H 1994 The Individualist Anarchists An Anthology of Liberty 1881 1908 Transaction Publishers p xi ISBN 1 56000 132 1 Usually considered to be an extreme left wing ideology anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism from the hyperrationalism of Godwin to the egoism of Stirner to the libertarians and anarcho capitalists of today Kahn Joseph 2000 Anarchism the Creed That Won t Stay Dead The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long Dormant Movement The New York Times No 5 August Moynihan Colin 2007 Book Fair Unites Anarchists In Spirit Anyway The New York Times No 16 April The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks these were not entirely well founded for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or vulgar communists whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism or else in the case of Marx and Engels themselves were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out Daniel Guerin Anarchism From Theory to Practice Archived 6 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine New York Monthly Review Press 1970 Mark Bevir ed Encyclopedia of Political Theory SAGE Los Angeles 2010 p 34 a b David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic Anarchism Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty first CenturyArchived 17 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine ZNet Retrieved 13 December 2007 a b Levy Carl 2004 Anarchism Internationalism and Nationalism in Europe 1860 1939 Australian Journal of Politics and History 50 3 337 338 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8497 2004 00337 x Levy Carl Newman Saul eds 2019 The Anarchist Imagination Anarchism Encounters the Humanities and the Social Sciences Interventions Routledge p 12 ISBN 978 1 138 78276 1 Levy Carl Fall 2010 Social Histories of Anarchism Journal for the Study of Radicalism 4 2 1 44 doi 10 1353 jsr 2010 0003 ISSN 1930 1197 S2CID 144317650 Project MUSE 431497 ProQuest 863638100 Cornell Andrew 2016 Unruly Equality U S Anarchism in the Twentieth Century University of California Press p 5 ISBN 978 0 520 96184 5 Levy Carl 2004 Anarchism Internationalism and Nationalism in Europe 1860 1939 Australian Journal of Politics and History 50 3 330 doi 10 1111 j 1467 8497 2004 00337 x Moya Jose C 2015 Transference culture and critique The Circulation of Anarchist Ideas and Practices In De Laforcade Geoffroy Shaffer Kirwin R ed In Defiance of Boundaries Anarchism in Latin American History University Press of Florida p 327 ISBN 978 0 8130 5138 3 Moya Jose C 2015 Transference culture and critique The Circulation of Anarchist Ideas and Practices In De Laforcade Geoffroy Shaffer Kirwin R ed In Defiance of Boundaries Anarchism in Latin American History University Press of Florida p 331 ISBN 978 0 8130 5138 3 A member of a community The Mutualist this 1826 series criticized Robert Owen s proposals and has been attributed to Josiah Warren or another dissident Owenite in the same circles Wilbur Shawn 2006 More from the 1826 Mutualist Warren published the periodical The Peaceful Revolutionist in 1833 seven years before Proudhon s What is Property While more learned men lost faith in utopias and in human nature when the New Harmony experiment failed Warren became more trusting than before in man s intelligence and perfectibility Native American Anarchism pg 94 Eunice Schuster Dana Charles A Proudhon and his Bank of the People Archived 13 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine 1848 Tucker Benjamin R On Picket Duty Liberty Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order 1881 1908 5 January 1889 6 10 APS Online pg 1 Carson Kevin 2007 Preface Studies in Mutualist Political Economy BookSurge Publishing ISBN 978 1 4196 5869 3 Archived from the original on 21 December 2010 Under the mutual system each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost without profit or discount and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member From Communism versus Mutualism Socialistic Communistic Mutualistic and Financial Fragments Boston Lee amp Shepard 1875 by William Batchelder Greene Avrich Paul Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0 691 04494 5 p 6Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0 631 17944 5 p 11 Proudhon Pierre Joseph What is Property Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine 1840 p 281 Greene William B Communism Capitalism Socialism Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Equality 1849 p 59 a b c d e Are there different types of social anarchism Archived 23 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine An Anarchist FAQ Retrieved 13 December 2007 Suissa Judith 2001 Anarchism Utopias and Philosophy of Education Journal of Philosophy of Education 35 4 627 46 doi 10 1111 1467 9752 00249 a b Patsouras Louis 2005 Marx in Context iUniverse p 54 Avrich Paul 2006 Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America AK Press p 5 Bakunin s associate James Guillaume put it this way in his essay Ideas on Social Organization Archived 19 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine 1876 When production comes to outstrip consumption e veryone will draw what he needs from the abundant social reserve of commodities without fear of depletion and the moral sentiment which will be more highly developed among free and equal workers will prevent or greatly reduce abuse and waste Bakunin Mikhail Statism and Anarchism Archived 18 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine They the Marxists maintain that only a dictatorship their dictatorship of course can create the will of the people while our answer to this is No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self perpetuation and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it freedom can be created only by freedom that is by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up Bakunin Mikhail Bakunin on Anarchism Black Rose Books 1980 p 369 Alexander Beckman What is Anarchism p 217 Mayne Alan James 1999 From Politics Past to Politics Future An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 275 96151 0 Archived from the original on 27 March 2021 Retrieved 20 September 2010 Anarchism for Know It Alls Filiquarian Publishing 2008 ISBN 978 1 59986 218 7 Retrieved 20 September 2010 Fabbri Luigi 13 October 2002 1922 Anarchism and Communism Northeastern Anarchist No 4 Archived from the original on 29 September 2018 Makhno Mett Arshinov Valevski Linski Dielo Trouda The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists 1926 Constructive Section available here http www nestormakhno info english platform constructive htm Archived 2 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine Christopher Gray Leaving the Twentieth Century p 88 https web archive org web 20101128162745 http www theanarchistlibrary org HTML Renzo Novatore Toward the Creative Nothing html Archived 28 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Towards the creative Nothing by Renzo Novatore Post left anarcho communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary anarcho communist Luigi Galleani s view on anarcho communism went as far as saying that communism is the final fulfillment of individualism The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both Subjectivity is also objective the individual really is subjective It is nonsense to speak of emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg Anarchy is a method of individualization It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity Bob Black Nightmares of Reason Archived 27 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner To them not merely religion morality family and State are spooks but property also is no more than a spook in whose name the individual is enslaved and how enslaved Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual I am a Communist because I am an Individualist Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand that leads to the dissolution of property to expropriation Individualism and Communism go hand in hand Max Baginski Archived 7 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Stirner The Ego and His Own on Mother Earth Vol 2 No 3 MAY 1907 Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty Anarchy Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association because it can guarantee wellbeing even luxury in return for a few hours of work instead of a day s work Communism and Anarchy by Peter Kropotkin Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine This other society will be libertarian communism in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists by Dielo Truda Workers Cause Archived 28 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism individual revolt and class struggle the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle MY PERSPECTIVES by Willful Disobedience Vol 2 No 12 Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine From Wage slavery Robert Graham Anarchism A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas Volume One From Anarchy to Anarchism 300CE to 1939 Black Rose Books 2005 Chapter 41 The Anarchists in The Great French Revolution 1789 1793 by Peter Kropotkin Archived from the original on 4 March 2012 Retrieved 26 March 2012 Nunzio Pernicone Italian Anarchism 1864 1892 pp 111 13 AK Press 2009 a b This inability to break definitively with collectivism in all its forms also exhibited itself over the question of the workers movement which divided anarchist communism into a number of tendencies Anarchist Communism by Alain Pengam Archived 12 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Bookchin Murray To Remember Spain The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936 Archived from the original on 18 March 2012 This process of education and class organization more than any single factor in Spain produced the collectives And to the degree that the CNT FAI for the two organizations became fatally coupled after July 1936 exercised the major influence in an area the collectives proved to be generally more durable communist and resistant to Stalinist counterrevolution than other republican held areas of Spain Bookchin Murray To Remember Spain The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936 Archived from the original on 18 March 2012 What do I mean by individualism I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which relying on no dogma no tradition no external determination appeals only to the individual conscience Mini Manual of Individualism by Han Ryner Archived 17 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual as a condition of his sovereignty To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself Anarchism and the State in Individual Liberty a b Zalta Edward N ed William Godwin Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Peter Kropotkin Anarchism Archived 25 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica 1910 a b Outhwaite William amp Tourain Alain Eds 2003 Anarchism The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought 2nd Edition p 12 Blackwell Publishing Klosko George Political Obligations Oxford University Press 2005 p 4 Godwin however we may be obliged to admit it as a necessary evil for the present it behoves us as the friends of reason and the human species to admit as little of it as possible and carefully to observe whether in consequence of the gradual illumination of the human mind that little may not hereafter be diminished An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice Archived 11 October 2003 at the Wayback Machine everything understood by the term co operation is in some sense an evil In Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Retrieved 7 December 2006 from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Archived 16 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine Murphy Brenda The Provinceton Platers and the Culture of Modernity Cambridge University Press 2005 pp 31 32 a b Leopold David 4 August 2006 Max Stirner In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Moggach Douglas The New Hegelians Cambridge University Press 2006 p 183 The Encyclopedia Americana A Library of Universal Knowledge Encyclopedia Corporation p 176 Heider Ulrike 1994 Anarchism Left Right and Green San Francisco City Lights Books pp 95 96 Thomas Paul 1985 Karl Marx and the Anarchists London Routledge Kegan Paul p 142 ISBN 0 7102 0685 2 a b Nyberg Svein Olav The union of egoists PDF Non Serviam Oslo Norway Svein Olav Nyberg 1 13 14 OCLC 47758413 archived from the original PDF on 12 October 2012 retrieved 1 September 2012 Alfredo M Bonanno Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine The Theory of the Individual Stirner s Savage Thought Egoism vs Modernity Welsh s Dialectical Stirner Archived from the original on 5 September 2011 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Emma Goldman Anarchism and Other Essays p 50 Huneker James 20 April 1907 Ideas of Max Stirner The New York Times ProQuest 96678165 Archived from the original on 27 March 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2018 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs had begun a journal called Prometheus in 1870 but only one issue was published Kennedy Hubert Karl Heinrich Ulrichs First Theorist of Homosexuality In Science and Homosexualities ed Vernon Rosario pp 26 45 New York Routledge 1997 Parry Richard The Bonnot Gang Rebel Press 1987 Egoism Levy Carl Anarchism Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 Archived 2009 10 31 Goldman Emma Anarchism and Other Essays p 50 The Anarchist Encyclopedia Index An Dictionary of Antiauthoritarians Saints amp Sinners Poets amp Anarchists groups movements etc Archived from the original on 2 May 2015 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Paul Avrich Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America Archived 27 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Palmer Brian 29 December 2010 What do anarchists want from us Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Slate com Bailie William 1906 Josiah Warren The First American Anarchist PDF Boston Small Maynard amp Co p 20 Archived from the original PDF on 4 February 2012 Retrieved 17 June 2013 Native American Anarchism A Study of Left Wing American Individualism by Eunice Minette Schuster Archived 13 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine a b c The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy Archived from the original on 14 June 2011 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Joanne E Passet Power through Print Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism in Women in Print Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries James Philip Danky and Wayne A Wiegand eds Madison WI University of Wisconsin Press 2006 pp 229 50 Free Society was the principal English language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century Emma Goldman Making Speech Free 1902 1909 p 551 a b The Journal of Libertarian Studies PDF Mises Institute Archived PDF from the original on 11 September 2013 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Woodcock George 2004 Anarchism A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements Broadview Press p 20 George Edward Rines ed 1918 Encyclopedia Americana New York Encyclopedia Americana Corp p 624 OCLC 7308909 Hamilton Peter 1995 Emile Durkheim New York Routledge p 79 ISBN 0 415 11047 5 Max Nettlau Anselme Bellegarrigue Archived from the original on 26 June 2015 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Collectif Sarka SPIP Autonomie Individuelle 1887 1888 Archived from the original on 18 May 2015 Retrieved 20 May 2015 a b c La insumision voluntaria El anarquismo individualista espanol durante la dictadura y la segund arepublica 1923 1938 Dialnet Archived from the original on 20 December 2019 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Robert Brentano Fernando Fernan Gomez Guy Debord Leo Tolstoy Alexander Berkman Emile Gravelle Louise Michel Santiago Salvador Franch Mollie Steimer Ricardo Flores Magon Dorothy Day Joffre Stewart on this day in recovered history November 21 Archived from the original on 1 July 2016 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Jeanne Morand Jean Grave Georges Butaud Kronstadt Umanita Nova Emma Goldman Marie Ferre What Happened on this day in recovered history February 26 Archived from the original on 9 September 2010 Retrieved 20 May 2015 a b The Illegalists Archived 8 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Doug Imrie published by Anarchy A Journal of Desire Armed Parallel to the social collectivist anarchist current there was an individualist one whose partisans emphasized their individual freedom and advised other individuals to do the same Individualist anarchist activity spanned the full spectrum of alternatives to authoritarian society subverting it by undermining its way of life facet by facet Thus theft counterfeiting swindling and robbery became a way of life for hundreds of individualists as it was already for countless thousands of proletarians The wave of anarchist bombings and assassinations of the 1890s Auguste Vaillant Ravachol Emile Henry Sante Caserio and the practice of illegalism from the mid 1880s to the start of the First World War Clement Duval Pini Marius Jacob the Bonnot gang were twin aspects of the same proletarian offensive but were expressed in an individualist practice one that complemented the great collective struggles against capital Parry Richard The Bonnot Gang Rebel Press 1987 p 15 The Illegalists By Doug Imrie Archived from the original on 8 September 2015 Retrieved 20 May 2015 We must kill the christian philosophy in the most radical sense of the word How much mostly goes sneaking inside the democratic civilization this most cynically ferocious form of christian depravity and it goes more towards the categorical negation of human Individuality Democracy By now we have comprised it that it means all that says Oscar Wilde Democracy is the people who govern the people with blows of the club for love of the people Towards the Hurricane by Renzo Novatore When Oscar Wilde s plea for penal reform The Ballad of Reading Gaol was widely criticized Tucker enthusiastically endorsed the poem urging all of his subscribers to read it Tucker in fact published an American edition From its early championing of Walt Whitman s Leaves of Grass to a series of short stories by Francis du Bosque in its last issues Liberty was a vehicle of controversial avant garde literature Benjamin Tucker Individualism amp Liberty Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order by Wendy McElroy Archived 30 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine Evren Sureyyya Kinna Ruth 2015 George Woodcock The Ghost Writer of Anarchism Anarchist Studies 23 1 47 Woodcock George 1962 Anarchism A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Epilogue Melbourne Penguin p 468 Thomas Paul 1985 Karl Marx and the Anarchists London Routledge Kegan Paul p 4 ISBN 978 0 7102 0685 5 Marshall Peter 1993 Demanding the Impossible A History of Anarchism Fontana p 539 ISBN 978 0 00 686245 1 Marshall Peter 1993 Demanding the Impossible A History of Anarchism Fontana pp 540 542 ISBN 978 0 00 686245 1 David Pepper 1996 Modern Environmentalism p 44 Routledge Ian Adams 2001 Political Ideology Today Archived 22 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine p 130 Manchester University Press Su obra mas representativa es Walden aparecida en 1854 aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847 cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabana en el bosque y vivir en intimo contacto con la naturaleza en una vida de soledad y sobriedad De esta experiencia su filosofia trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonia de los individuos con el entorno natural Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por John Zerzan Para George Woodcock esta actitud puede estar tambien motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX LA INSUMISIoN VOLUNTARIA EL ANARQUISMO INDIVIDUALISTA ESPANOL DURANTE LA DICTADURA Y LA SEGUNDA REPUBLICA 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez Archived 26 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine a b c d e EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENINSULA IBERICA 1890 1939 by Jose Maria Rosello Archived 2 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine The pioneers Archived 25 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine LA INSUMISIoN VOLUNTARIA EL ANARQUISMO INDIVIDUALISTA ESPANOL DURANTE LA DICTADURA Y LA SEGUNDA REPUBLICA 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez Archived 26 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine Ward Colin 2004 Anarchism A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press USA ISBN 0 19 280477 4 Becker Michael 2010 Anarcho Primitivism The Green Scare in Green Political Theory Western Political Science Association 2010 Annual Meeting Paper California State University The Anarchist Library Archived from the original on 16 November 2020 Retrieved 14 November 2020 a b Anarchism and the different Naturist views have always been related Anarchism Nudism Naturism by Carlos Ortega at Asociacion para el Desarrollo Naturista de la Comunidad de Madrid Published on Revista ADN Winter 2003 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine In many of the alternative communities established in Britain in the early 1900s nudism anarchism vegetarianism and free love were accepted as part of a politically radical way of life In the 1920s the inhabitants of the anarchist community at Whiteway near Stroud in Gloucestershire shocked the conservative residents of the area with their shameless nudity Nudism the radical tradition by Terry Phillips Archived 11 September 2012 at archive today Los anarco individualistas G I A Una escision de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso Carrara 1965 se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretacion que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo clasico y crean los GIA Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica Esta pequena federacion de grupos hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco individualistas de orientacion pacifista naturista etcetera defiende la autonomia personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervencion en los procesos del sistema como seria por ejemplo el sindicalismo Su portavoz es L Internazionale con sede en Ancona La escision de los GIA prefiguraba en sentido contrario el gran debate que pronto habia de comenzar en el seno del movimiento El movimiento libertario en Italia by Bicicleta REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1 No Noviembre 1 1977 Archived 12 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Proliferaran asi diversos grupos que practicaran el excursionismo el naturismo el nudismo la emancipacion sexual o el esperantismo alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislacion especial de la Dictadura potenciaran indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluira el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de practicas y tendencias Uno de los grupos mas destacados que sera el impulsor de la revista individualista Etica sera el Ateneo Naturista Eclectico con sede en Barcelona con sus diferentes secciones la mas destacada de las cuales sera el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida La insumision voluntaria El anarquismo individualista espanol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Republica 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b Les anarchistes individualistes du debut du siecle l avaient bien compris et integraient le naturisme dans leurs preoccupations Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu a peu efface d antan plus que nous assistons en ce moment a un retour en force du puritanisme conservateur par essence Anarchisme et naturisme aujourd hui by Cathy Ytak Archived 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine a b La insumision voluntaria El anarquismo individualista espanol durante la Dictadura y la Segunda Republica 1923 1938 by Xavier Diez Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Recension des articles de l En Dehors consacres au naturisme et au nudisme Archived 14 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal dans les annees 1920 in Les anarchistes du Portugal by Joao Freire Introduction to Anarchism and countercultural politics in early twentieth century Cuba by Kirwin R Shaffer Archived from the original on 12 October 2013 Retrieved 6 May 2011 a b EL NATURISMO LIBERTARIO EN LA PENINSULA IBERICA 1890 1939 by Josep Maria Rosell el individuo es visto en su dimension biologica fisica y psiquica dejandose la social Bookchin Murray The Ecology of Freedom The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy Oakland AK Press 2005 p 85 87 a b Dominick Brian Animal Liberation and Social Revolution A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism third edition Firestarter Press 1997 pp 1 5 and 6 Goldman Marriage and Love Red Emma Speaks p 205 Brown Susan 1990 Beyond Feminism Anarchism and Human Freedom Anarchist Papers 3 Black Rose Books p 208 Resisting the nation state Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Woodcock George 2004 Anarchism a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements Peterborough Broadview Press ISBN 1 55111 629 4 Miller Paul B 14 March 2002 From Revolutionaries to Citizens Antimilitarism in France 1870 1914 Duke University Press p 38 ISBN 0 8223 8058 7 Archived from the original on 2 July 2016 Retrieved 3 December 2014 via Google Books Walter Nicolas Anarchism and Religion Archived 31 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine South Place Ethical Society 14 July 1991 Hosted at the Spunk Library Tolstoy Leo 1882 Church and State This deviation begins from the times of the Apostles and especially from that hankerer after mastership Paul Hennacy Ammon 1970 The Book of Ammon Hennacy p 475 Paul and the Churches Esenwein George Richard January 1989 Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain 1868 1898 University of California Press p 135 ISBN 978 0520063983 Avrich Paul 1996 Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America Princeton University Press p 6 Quoted in Avrich Paul Anarchist Voices An Oral History of Anarchism in America Princeton University Press 1996 p 7 a b Voltairine De Cleyre Why I Am an Anarchist quoted by Max Nettlau A Short History of Anarchism p 198 99 Williams Leonard September 2007 Anarchism Revived New Political Science 29 3 297 312 doi 10 1080 07393140701510160 S2CID 220354272 Williams Dana M 2018 Contemporary anarchist and anarchistic movements Sociology Compass Wiley 12 6 4 doi 10 1111 soc4 12582 ISSN 1751 9020 Jun Nathan September 2009 Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle A Brief History and Commentary WorkingUSA 12 3 507 508 doi 10 1111 j 1743 4580 2009 00251 x ISSN 1089 7011 Critchley Simon 2007 Infinitely Demanding Verso p 125 El Ojeili Chamsy 2015 Beyond Post Socialism Dialogues with the Far Left Palgrave Macmillan p 7 Gillis William 6 January 2012 What Is Anarcho Transhumanism Archived from the original on 27 August 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2020 An Anarcho Transhumanist FAQ What s all this about anarchism and transhumanism Archived from the original on 27 March 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Munkittrick Kyle On the Importance of Being a Cyborg Feminist Archived from the original on 28 January 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 a b c Gillis William 21 September 2011 The Floating Metal Sphere Trump Card Archived from the original on 6 January 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Brix Terra 4 April 2018 This Machine Kills Ability Archived from the original on 8 August 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2020 a b Linnell Lexi November 2016 This Machine Kills Ableism Archived from the original on 8 August 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Carrico Dale 5 March 2006 Technology Is Making Queers Of Us All Archived from the original on 28 January 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Gillis William 18 August 2015 Science As Radicalism Archived from the original on 23 February 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Saitta Eleanor 2009 Designing the Future of Sex PDF Archived PDF from the original on 28 January 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Gillis William 13 June 2006 15 Post Primitivist Theses Archived from the original on 28 January 2020 Retrieved 22 January 2020 Gillis William 29 October 2015 The Incoherence And Unsurvivability Of Non Anarchist Transhumanism Speech Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies Archived from the original on 27 November 2019 Retrieved 22 January 2020 a b c insurgentdesire org uk Archived from the original on 18 June 2010 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Macphee Josh 2007 Realizing the Impossible Stirling AK Press ISBN 978 1 904859 32 1 The story of one person s struggle against intolerance and repression during the early 20th century homosexual emancipation movement in Germany Mackay is a very interesting figure in both anarchist and homosexual circles Hubert Kennedy Anarchist Of Love The Secret Life Of John Henry Mackay Archived 22 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Although by 1968 he could be seen as the grandfather of the French homosexual movement Daniel Guerin has always been better known outside gay circles for his role in the revolutionary movement On the revolutionary left of the Socialist Party in the 1930s he was later heavily influenced by Trotsky before becoming attracted to the libertarian communist wing of the anarchist movement David Berry For a dialectic of homosexuality and revolution Archived 18 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Karl Heinrich Ulrichs had begun a journal called Uranus in 1870 but only one issue Prometheus was published Kennedy Hubert Karl Heinrich Ulrichs First Theorist of Homosexuality In Science and Homosexualities ed Vernon Rosario pp 26 45 New York Routledge 1997 Hubert Kennedy Anarchist Of Love The Secret Life Of John Henry Mackay pg 7 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 20 December 2019 J 3 What kinds of organisation do anarchists build Anarchist Writers anarchism pageabode com Archived from the original on 29 June 2019 Retrieved 30 January 2019 a b c J 3 2 What are synthesis federations An Anarchist FAQ Archived 7 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine J 3 What kinds of organisation do anarchists build Anarchist FAQ Archived from the original on 29 June 2019 Retrieved 30 January 2019 via Anarchist Writers Sebastien Faure Libertarian Communism Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine The remedy has been found libertarian communism Retrieved 24 September 2020 via the Anarchist Library Dielo Trouda group 2006 1926 Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists Draft Italy FdCA Archived from the original on 11 March 2007 Retrieved 24 October 2006 Anarkismo 2012 About Us Archived 24 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Anarkismo Retrieved 24 September 2020 Anarchosyndicalism by Rudolph Rocker Archived 4 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 7 September 2006 a b Sperlich Wolfgang B 2006 Noam Chomsky Reaktion Books ISBN 978 1 86189 269 0 via Internet Archive a b c d insurgentdesire org uk Archived from the original on 24 August 2009 Retrieved 20 May 2015 a b c d A Infos en Ireland Red amp Black Revolution 11 Anarchism insurrections and insurrectionalism by Joe Black WSM Archived from the original on 6 December 2010 Retrieved 20 May 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Anarchist schools of thought amp oldid 1133701319, wikipedia, wiki, book, 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