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2015–16 Zika virus epidemic

January 01, 1970

An epidemic of Zika fever, caused by Zika virus, began in Brazil and affected other countries in the Americas from April 2015 to November 2016. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the end of the epidemic in November 2016, but noted that the virus still represents "a highly significant and long term problem".[2] It is estimated that 1.5 million people were infected by Zika virus in Brazil,[3] with over 3,500 cases of infant microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016.[4] The epidemic also affected other parts of South and North America, as well as several islands in the Pacific.[5]

2015–16 Zika virus epidemic
Countries and territories with active transmission of the Zika virus
November 21, 2016[1]
DateApril 2015 – November 2016

Zika virus spread to Brazil from Oceania in 2013 or 2014. Brazil notified the WHO of an illness characterized by skin rash in March 2015, and Zika was identified as the cause in May 2015. In February 2016, the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern as evidence grew that Zika can cause birth defects as well as neurological problems.[6][7] The virus can be transmitted from a pregnant woman to her fetus, and can cause microcephaly and other severe brain anomalies in the infant.[8][9][10] Zika infections in adults can result in Guillain–Barré syndrome.[10] In approximately one in five cases, Zika virus infections result in Zika fever, a minor illness that causes symptoms such as fever and a rash.[11][12] Prior to the outbreak, Zika was considered a mild infection, as most infections are asymptomatic, making it difficult to determine precise estimates of the number of cases.[13]

The virus is spread mainly by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is commonly found throughout the tropical and subtropical Americas. It can also be spread by the Aedes albopictus ("Asian tiger") mosquito, which is distributed as far north as the Great Lakes region in North America.[14] People infected with Zika can transmit the virus to their sexual partners.[15]

A number of countries were issued travel warnings, and the outbreak was expected to reduce tourism significantly.[7][16] Several countries took the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more was known about the virus and its impact on fetal development.[17] Furthermore, the outbreak raised concerns regarding the safety of athletes and spectators at the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro.[18][19][20]

Epidemiology edit

As early as August 2014, physicians in Natal, in northeastern Brazil began to investigate an outbreak of illness characterized by a flat pinkish rash, bloodshot eyes, fever, joint pain and headaches. While the symptoms resembled dengue fever, testing ruled out this and several other potential causes. By March 2015, the illness had spread to Salvador, Bahia[76] and had appeared in three different states.[77] Then, in May 2015, researchers from the Federal University of Bahia and the Evandro Chagas Institute determined, using the RT-PCR technique, that the illness was an outbreak of Zika virus.[78][79] Although, the first confirmed Zika virus infection in Brazil were diagnosed in a returning traveller in March 2015.[80]

 
The Uganda Virus Research Institute conducts research near the Zika Forest from which the virus takes its name.

The Zika virus was first isolated in 1947, in a rhesus monkey in a forest near Entebbe, Uganda.[81] Although serologic evidence indicated additional human exposure during subsequent decades in parts of Africa and Asia,[82] before the 2007 Yap Islands Zika virus outbreak, only 14 cases of human Zika virus disease had been documented.[81]

Researchers generally believe the virus was brought to Brazil by an infected traveler who had been exposed to the virus in French Polynesia, who was then bitten by a mosquito that then infected others.[83][84][85] Phylogenetic analysis of the first Brazilian infections have strongly indicated that the circulating virus is the Asian, rather than African, strain of the virus, and was genetically similar to the virus found in the outbreak in French Polynesia.[84][85] It appears Zika's route – from Africa and Asia to Oceania and then the Americas – may mirror that of chikungunya and dengue, both of which are now endemic in a large portion of the Americas.[86]

The specific event that brought the virus to Brazil was uncertain until March 2016. Brazilian researchers had suggested that the Zika virus arrived during the 2014 FIFA World Cup tournament.[83] French researchers speculated the virus arrived shortly afterwards, in August 2014, when canoeing teams from French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Easter Island, and the Cook Islands, which had been or were experiencing Zika outbreaks, attended the Va'a World Sprint Championships in Rio de Janeiro.[77][84] However, the outbreak in French Polynesia is known to have peaked and declined precipitously by February 2014, lending doubt to the suggestion the virus arrived later that year in Brazil with spectators and competitors.[87] In March 2016, a study published in Science, which developed a "molecular clock" based on the count of virus mutations in a relatively small sample, suggested Zika virus arrived in the Americas (most likely in Brazil) from French Polynesia between May and December 2013, well before the World Cup and Va'a Championships.[87] In the Science article, Faria and colleagues managed to trace the origins of the virus strain that is circulating in Brazil and found that this strain has little genetic variability when compared to the strain of French Polynesia; after relating the number of travellers arriving in Brazil from French Polynesia with the cases reported and the events happening in that year, the team was able to deduce that the virus arrived in Brazil in 2013 during the Confederation Cup, when Tahiti's team played against other teams in a few Brazilian cities, which attracted many tourists from both places.[88] Zika virus usually has very mild, or no symptoms, so it took almost a year for Brazil to confirm the first case of the disease. By then the outbreak was already widespread. Factors associated with the rapid spread of Zika virus in Brazil include the non-immune population, high population density, tropical climate and inadequate control of Aedes mosquitoes in the country.[89] The Zika virus epidemic also revealed structural problems of the health system, in particular in public health services and basic sanitation in Brazil.[90]

The above average warm temperatures of 2015–2016 caused by a strong El Nino created an environment conducive to the spread of the Zika Virus in Brazil[2010]. The 2015 -16 El Nino increased ocean and ground surface temperatures to above average [2010]. January 2016 brought about nine consecutive months with temperatures 1.04 °C above the global average.[91] It is important to note, however, that while South America had areas experiencing 2.0 °C above average temperatures (for 1981–2010), areas including Argentina, Southern Brazil and Uruguay experienced temperatures 0.5 °C below average.[91]

Precipitation is another crucial factor to consider as Eastern Brazil and other areas in southern South America experienced high amounts of precipitation in early 2016.[91] The environmental conditions of increased rainfall and higher average temperatures in the South American region, lead to both a longer mosquito season and a higher mosquito density[92] which created an environment in which the Zika carrying Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes can thrive. Looking forward, climate models suggest that regions favorable to the Aedes mosquitoes will grow, widening the range of Zika and other mosquito-carried diseases.[93] The potential for epidemics will spread inland and into other regions of the world, not just in tropical environments.[94]

Confirmed cases have been reported in 40 countries or territories in South America, North America, and the Caribbean,[95] as well as 16 in the western Pacific and one in Africa since the beginning of 2015 (see table).

Many countries with no cases of mosquito transmission have reported travel-related Zika cases: people who moved or came home from a Zika-affected region before they showed symptoms (see table).

Transmission edit

See also: Zika virus § Transmission
 
Adult Aedes aegypti mosquito, a vector or carrier of the Zika virus

Zika is a mosquito-borne disease. The resurgence of Aedes aegypti's worldwide distribution over the past 2–3 decades makes it one of the most widely distributed mosquito species.[96] In 2015, Aedes albopictus was present in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions of the Americas, reaching as far north as the Great Lakes of North America and, internationally, living alongside Aedes aegypti in some tropical and subtropical regions.[14]

The Aedes aegypti mosquito usually bites in the morning and afternoon hours, and can be identified by the white stripes on its legs.[97] The mosquito species (Aedes aegypti, mainly, and Aedes albopictus) that can spread Zika virus can also spread dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever.[98]

Zika can also be sexually transmitted between partners of both genders.[99] Sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in nine countries—Argentina, Canada, Chile, France, Italy, New Zealand, Peru, Portugal, and the United States—during this outbreak.[100]

Zika is transmitted from pregnant women to the fetus ("vertical transmission"), and causes microcephaly and other severe brain anomalies in infants born of women infected with the virus.[8][10][101]

 
A baby with microcephaly (left) compared to a baby with a typical head size

Zika infections in adults can cause Guillain–Barré syndrome.[10]

Diagnosis edit

Main article: Zika fever
 
Symptoms of Zika virus[102]

Symptoms are similar to other flaviviruses such as dengue fever or the alphavirus that causes chikungunya,[103] but are milder in form and usually last two to seven days.[7] It is estimated that 80% of cases are asymptomatic.[104] The main clinical symptoms in symptomatic patients are low-grade fever, conjunctivitis, transient joint pain (mainly in the smaller joints of the hands and feet) and maculopapular rash that often starts on the face and then spreads throughout the body.[103]

It is difficult to diagnose Zika virus infection based on clinical signs and symptoms alone due to overlaps with other arboviruses that are endemic to similar areas.[105] The methods currently available to test for Zika antibodies cross-react with dengue antibodies. An IgM-positive result in a dengue or Zika ELISA test can only be considered indicative of a recent flavivirus infection. Plaque-reduction neutralization tests (PRINT) can be performed and may be specific.[106] The Zika virus can be identified by RT-PCR in acutely ill patients.[7]

RT-PCR testing of serum and tissue samples can be used to detect the presence of the Zika virus. However, the RT-PCR test with serum is only helpful while the virus is still in the blood which is generally within the first week of the illness. After this period other methods should be used to determine if the virus is still present in the body. A test for IgM antibodies has seen to be effective over longer periods of time, as these antibodies can be present starting 4 days after the beginning of the illness and up to 12 weeks after that. However, it is suggested that a PRINT test be performed following a test for IgM antibodies to help eliminate false positives resulting from other flaviviruses. The PRINT test looks for viral-specific neutralizing antibodies. However, this test can still produce false positive results, for Zika, in individuals who have received immunization for or had previously been exposed to other flaviviruses.[107]

Containment and control edit

 
Symptoms of microcephaly, linked to mothers infected by Zika virus[102]
 
A mother and her microcephalic child in Brazil.

The Americas edit

Several countries, including Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Jamaica, advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more was known about the risks.[17][108] Plans were announced by the authorities in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to try to prevent the spread of the Zika virus during the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio.[109] The health ministry of Peru installed more than 20,000 ovitraps during the 2015 dengue outbreak. The same ovitraps will be used to monitor a potential Zika outbreak in tropical regions of Peru.[110]

On January 15, 2016, because of the "growing evidence of a link between Zika and microcephaly" the Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (CDC) issued a travel warning advising pregnant women to consider postponing travel to Brazil as well as the following countries and territories where Zika fever had been reported: Colombia, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.[111] On January 20, the Ministry of Health of Chile published a health notice.[112] On January 22, eight more countries and territories were added to the list of those affected: Barbados, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Guyana, Cape Verde, and Samoa.[113]

On February 1, Costa Rica and Nicaragua were added to the list, bringing the number of countries and territories affected to 28.[114] The agency issued additional guidelines and suggested that women thinking about becoming pregnant consult with their physicians before traveling.[115] Canada issued a similar travel advisory.[109][116] Questions have been raised about the readability and effectiveness of the press releases issued by the WHO/PAHO, CDC, and the ministries of health of affected countries with the average readability of a press release by the WHO measured at 17.1 on the Flesch Kincaid grade level readability test.[117]

On February 5, after the laboratory confirmation of a Zika virus infection in the U.S. in a non-traveler, which was linked to sexual contact with an infected partner, the CDC issued interim guidelines for prevention of sexual transmission of Zika virus for the United States.[104] These guidelines recommend that men who reside in or have traveled to an area of active Zika virus transmission who have a pregnant partner should abstain from sexual activity or consistently and correctly use condoms during sex for the duration of the pregnancy.[104] The guidelines recommend that pregnant women discuss any possible Zika exposure with their male partners.[104] The guidelines recommend that non-pregnant women and their partners consider taking similar measures.[104]

On February 8, CDC elevated its response efforts to a Level 1 activation, the highest response level at the agency. The CDC then issued a statement on February 23 further encouraging adherence to this guidance after 14 reports of possible sexual transmission of the virus were under investigation.[118][119] A bill, Zika Authorization Plan Act of 2016 (H.R. 4562), was introduced in the second session of the United States 114th Congress by Representative Curt Clawson (R-FL) on February 12, 2016,[120][121] aimed at reducing the spread of the virus.[122]

Paraguay reported its first case of Zika in a pregnant woman on March 11.[123] On March 18, CDC cautioned men who have been infected with Zika from attempting to conceive children due to probability of virus transfer from man to woman during sexual activity which in turn can affect the fetus, under this caution, men are advised not to try conception until six months after the infection.[124]

Colombia reported its first cases of microcephaly associated to the Zika virus on April 14, 2016.[125] The CDC authorized emergency use of a Zika Virus RNA Qualitative test on April 28 to detect Zika virus in the blood of patients who have symptoms of Zika virus infection and live in or have traveled to an area with ongoing Zika virus transmission. This is the first commercial test to detect Zika virus authorized by the United States Food and Drug Administration for emergency use.[126]

On May 6, Major League Baseball announced that a series of games between the Miami Marlins and Pittsburgh Pirates scheduled to be played at the end of the month in San Juan, Puerto Rico would be relocated to Marlins Park in Miami, Florida after a number of players on each team voiced concerns regarding the threat of Zika exposure.[127] By mid-August at least 37 people had contracted the virus in neighborhoods near the city of Miami, Florida, though officials estimated that the actual number of infections was much higher due to under-reporting of mild illness.[128] It was determined in June that travelers to Dominican Republic lead New York City in positive Zika tests.[129]

The first-affected area in the continental United States, the Wynwood neighborhood of Miami, was declared Zika-free in September, 2016.[130] After the virus stopped circulating in South Beach, all of Florida was declared Zika-free in December, 2016.[131] One case of local transmission was reported in Texas up until September, 2017.[132] As of 2018, Zika remains endemic in Puerto Rico,[133] but the number of cases was reduced from about 8,000 reported per month at the peak in August 2016 to about 10 reported per month in April 2017.[134]

Asia edit

Following the spread of Zika infection into Southeast Asia in June 2016, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam become the most heavily affected.[46][135] Singapore has planned to release an army of mosquitoes that contain the Wolbachia bacteria to fight the Aedes aegypti mosquito population.[136] The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members have increased information sharing and joint research on the virus.[137][138] On September 30, Thailand confirmed that two babies have been born with microcephaly.[139] Prior to the case, Thailand has allowed abortion for pregnant women that have been affected by birth defects.[140] Malaysia is still undecided on the issue,[141] with doctors there letting the mother make the decision whether or not to abort.[142] Rentokil, a Malaysian pest company, has designed an Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) program to curb the spread of Aedes mosquito.[citation needed] On October 17, Zika was declared as endemic in Vietnam by the country Health Ministry due to the number of local cases.[143] Vietnam confirmed that one baby has been born with microcephaly on October 31.[144] Following the rise of local Zika infection cases in the Philippines, the virus have also been declared as endemic by the country Health Department.[145] The government of the republic hosting the "One Philippines against Zika" national summit on October 28 with church in the country has joint fight to curb the spread of the virus by issuing a pastoral guidance to help raise awareness about the mosquito-borne disease among local communities.[146][147][148] Taiwan has also seen an increase of infection, most of the cases are believed to be imported from other countries.[149] On October 27, Myanmar reported its first imported case on a pregnant foreign woman.[37]

International edit

 
Agent for endemic diseases of the city of Votuporanga, São Paulo, Brazil

Governments or health agencies such as those of Australia,[150] Canada,[151] China,[152] Hong Kong,[153] Indonesia,[154] Ireland,[108] Japan,[155] Malaysia,[156] New Zealand,[157] Philippines,[158] Singapore,[159] South Korea,[160] Taiwan,[161] the United Kingdom,[162] United States[163] as well the European Union[109] issued travel warnings. The warnings are predicted to have an effect on the tourism industry in affected countries.[164][165][166]

To prevent the transmission of the Zika virus, WHO recommends using insect repellent, wearing long-sleeved clothes to cover the body, and using screens and mosquito nets to exclude flying insects from dwellings or sleeping areas. It is also vital to eliminate any standing water near homes to minimize breeding areas for mosquitoes. Authorities can treat larger water containers with recommended larvicides.[97][167] Furthermore, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that containers holding water near homes either be sealed or scrubbed once per week, because mosquito eggs can stick to them.[98]

On February 1, 2016, WHO declared the cluster of microcephaly cases and other neurological disorders a Public Health Emergency of International Concern,[6] which may reduce the number of visitors to the Rio Olympics in 2016.[168] The designation has been applied in the past to the Ebola outbreak in 2014, the outbreak of polio in Syria in 2013, and the 2009 flu pandemic.[169] South Korea held an emergency meeting in response to the WHO declaration on February 2, 2016.[160] A second meeting of the WHO-convened emergency committee, held on March 8, 2016, reaffirmed the situation's status as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. The committee reported that evidence was increasing for a causal relationship between Zika virus and microcephaly and other neurological conditions, and called for continued research, aggressive mosquito control, and improved surveillance and communication of risks to the public. The report stated that pregnant women should be advised not to travel to affected areas, and should use safe sex practices if their partners lived in or travelled to affected areas throughout their pregnancy.[170] On March 9, 2016, WHO announced that research should prioritise prevention and diagnosis, not treatment, and in particular non-live vaccines suitable for pregnant women and those of childbearing age, novel mosquito control measures, and diagnostic tests that can detect dengue and chikungunya as well as Zika.[171]

Responses edit

See also: Mosquito control
 
The Brazilian Army has sent more than 200,000 troops to go "house to house" in the campaign against Zika-carrying mosquitoes.
 
Brazilian Army soldier analyzes the water from a cistern.

In January 2016, it was announced that, in response to the Zika virus outbreak, Brazil's National Biosafety Committee approved the releases of more genetically modified Aedes aegypti mosquitoes throughout their country.[172] Previously, in July 2015, Oxitec had published results of a test in the Juazeiro region of Brazil, of so-called "self-limiting" mosquitoes, to fight dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses. They concluded that mosquito populations were reduced by over 90% in the test region.[172][173][174] Male genetically modified mosquitoes mate with females in the wild and transmit a self-limiting gene that causes the resulting offspring to die before reaching adulthood and thus diminishes the local mosquito population.[172][174] In January 2016 the technique was being used to try to combat the Zika virus in the town of Piracicaba, São Paulo.[175]

On February 1, 2016, the WHO declared the current Zika virus outbreak an international public health emergency,[6][176] and the Brazilian President released a decree that increased local and federal pest control agents' access to private property required by mobilization actions for the prevention and elimination of Aedes mosquito outbreaks in the country.[177]

Some experts have proposed combatting the spread of the Zika virus by breeding and releasing mosquitoes that have either been genetically modified to prevent them from transmitting pathogens or that have been infected with the Wolbachia bacterium, thought to inhibit the spread of viruses.[178][179] Another proposed technique consists of using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate, they produce no progeny.[180] Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease.[181]

In February, the Brazilian federal government mobilized 60% of the country's Armed Forces, or about 220,000 soldiers, to warn and educate the populations of 350 municipalities on how to reduce mosquito breeding grounds.[182]

A joint statement on the sharing of data and results on the Zika outbreak in the Americas and future public health emergencies was issued on February 10, 2016, by a group of more than 30 global health bodies.[183] The statement reinforces a similar consensus statement issued by WHO in September 2015.[184] The statement calls for free access to all data as rapidly and widely as possible.[185]

In February 2016, Google announced that they were donating $1 million via UNICEF to fight the spread of the Zika virus and offering professional personnel to help to determine where it will hit next.[186]

Prevention and treatment edit

While there are no known cures for Zika, there have been recent developments in Zika vaccination. Three vaccine designs are showing high confidence levels of protection against the Zika virus. Scientists have conducted tests on the rhesus monkey, and human trials began in late 2016.[187]

This preventative treatment is promising, but it will take years before it is available for widespread usage.[188]

British experts are clear that any of the vaccines would take considerable time to develop. Dr Ed Wright, a senior lecturer and virologist at the University of Westminster, said: "All of the vaccines currently under development are many years away from being licensed and available for widespread public use." Jonathan Ball, professor of molecular virology at the University of Nottingham, said: "We knew that these vaccines worked in mice and now the researchers have shown that they also protect non-human primates from Zika virus infection." "The next step will be to see if these vaccines are safe and the scientists hope to start early trials in humans to address this."[189]

Kineta, a Seattle-based biotech company, is actively working on treatments and has received an undisclosed amount of funding from National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, one of the National Institutes of Health, to carry on the research. Kineta CEO Dr Shawn Iadonato said in a statement. "We are eager to expand testing of our broad spectrum antivirals in Zika virus as they have shown compelling efficacy across other flaviviruses such as Dengue and West Nile and have the potential for long-term development."[190]

As of July 26, 2016, Inovio Pharmaceuticals, Inc. dosed the first subject in its multi-center phase I trial to evaluate Inovio's Zika DNA vaccine (GLS-5700). In addition to the previously announced US FDA approval for the conduct of the study, Health Canada's Health Products and Food Branch has also approved this study, which will be conducted at clinical sites in Miami, Philadelphia, and Quebec City. The phase I, open-label, dose-ranging study of 40 healthy adult volunteers is evaluating the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity of GLS-5700 administered with the CELLECTRA-3P device, Inovio's proprietary intradermal DNA delivery device. In preclinical testing, this synthetic vaccine induced robust antibody and T cell responses – the immune responses necessary to fight viral infections – in small and large animal models.[191]

Direct Relief, an emergency response organization, established a Zika Fund and fulfilled requests for supplies in 14 affected countries.[192]

Challenges to US response edit

In May 2017, the Government Accountability Office published a report, "Emerging Infectious Diseases: Actions Needed to Address the Challenges of Responding to Zika Virus Disease Outbreak", to correspond with an associated House subcommittee hearing. The GAO said that even though scientific breakthroughs have increased in recent years, the United States remains unprepared to handle a Zika virus outbreak.[193]

Timothy Persons, head scientist at the GAO, listed areas of limited research that damage the United States' ability to effectively respond to a Zika outbreak, including an accurate record of the number of cases in the United States, components associated with transmission from mothers to children (especially regarding pregnancy), risk of transmission through bodily fluid as related to the potential for sexual transmission of the virus, impact of prior exposure to Zika and other arboviruses, and both short-term and long-term outcomes. Recent outbreaks have been connected to an alarming a spike in microcephaly, a birth defect that inhibits the proper development of a baby's brain, and Guillain-Barré syndrome, which causes paralysis.[193]

Other challenges include the lack of a safe and effective vaccine, a complicated diagnostic process, and faltering support for research funding in the federal government. Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), said "There aren't any federally licensed vaccines or specific therapeutics currently available to prevent or treat Zika." Zika is often difficult to distinguish from other illnesses that are spread by mosquitoes, like dengue, West Nile, and chikungunya, among others. President Trump's budget proposal for 2018 proposed stripping $800 billion from Medicaid over ten years. Democratic Representative Frank Pallone of New Jersey said that this decision "endangers our ability to manage public health emergencies like Zika."[193]

Controversies edit

Some efforts to contain the spread of Zika virus have been controversial. Oxitec, the company behind the "self-limiting" mosquitoes, which pass on a fatal gene to their offspring, released in Brazil, has faced criticism from environmental groups, who fear that releasing a new mosquito strain into the wild will damage the ecosystem. In the short term, the concern is that a drop in the mosquito population could affect the populations of other species. Supporters claim that the environmental impact of the "self-limiting" mosquitoes will be minimal, since only one species of mosquito is being targeted and the genetically modified mosquitoes are still safe for predators to eat. Oxitec Product Development Manager Derric Nimmo likened the process to "going in with a scalpel and taking away Aedes aegypti, leaving everything untouched."[194] Since Aedes aegypti is an imported invasive species in Brazil, some experts expect that its eradication will have little impact on the environment. However, other environmentalists emphasize that the long-term consequences of eliminating an entire species cannot be predicted.[195]

Government recommendations that women delay pregnancy have also proven to be controversial. Human and reproductive rights groups have deemed the recommendations irresponsible and difficult to follow, since women alone are tasked with avoiding pregnancy despite having little control to do so.[196] A 2012 study suggests that 56% of pregnancies in Latin America and the Caribbean are unplanned (compared to an average unplanned pregnancy rate of 40% worldwide).[197] Access to contraceptives might be limited in regions where the Roman Catholic Church is predominant, such as in El Salvador.[198] Anti-abortion laws in much of the region leave women with no recourse once they become pregnant. Aside from three countries where abortion is widely available (French Guiana, Guyana, and Uruguay) and three countries where abortion is allowed in cases of fetal malformation (Colombia, Mexico, and Panama), most of the region only permits abortion in the cases of rape, incest, or danger to the mother's health. In El Salvador, abortion is illegal under all circumstances.[196]

On February 5, 2016, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights urged Latin American governments to consider repealing their policies regarding contraception and abortion, emphasizing that "upholding human rights is essential to an effective public health response".[199] On February 16, 2016, the Vatican condemned the UN for its call to action, deeming it "an illegitimate response" to the Zika crisis and emphasizing that "a diagnosis of microcephaly in a child should not warrant a death sentence".[200]

On February 18, 2016, after a trip to Latin America, Pope Francis stated that "avoiding pregnancy is not an absolute evil" in cases such as the Zika virus outbreak. His comments sparked speculation that the use of contraception may be morally permissible in the prevention of the Zika virus.[201]

Scientific communication and concerns edit

The 2015–2016 Zika virus outbreak became an important topic on many social media sites, especially on Twitter. An analysis of Twitter posts on February 2, 2016, showed that 50 tweets per minute were posted about Zika, many of which contained the hashtags #salud, which means health in Spanish as well as #who, which served as a reference to the World Health Organization.[202]

The epidemic also caused a rise in tweets from college students upset that their spring break trips and study abroad plans had been changed or cancelled due to the virus' spread.[202]

Many studies have been conducted on the connections and impact of social media mentions of Zika. One analysis found that the primary topics discussed on Twitter before the peak of the outbreak regarding Zika included Zika's impact, reactions to Zika, pregnancy and microcephaly, transmission routes of Zika, and case reports.[203] During the summer of 2016 when Zika was spreading at a much faster rate, this social media analysis determined that the major topics on Twitter regarding Zika had become concerns about the spread of Zika, criticism of Congress, news about Zika, and scientific information about Zika.[203] The same study also found that tweets from reputable institutions and people holding scientific credentials demonstrated the ability of Twitter as a source to spread information quickly on the internet.[203] Another study found that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as well as the general public showed similar concerns about Zika. The CDC's posts on Twitter during the outbreak focused on symptoms and education for Zika.[204] However, the public had more of a tendency to focus concern on the consequences of Zika on women and infants, such as microcephaly.[204]

While there was concern for children on social media, this concern was lacking in countries largely impacted by Zika virus, such as Brazil. In Brazil, struggling mothers of infants with microcephaly caused by Zika have used support systems on social media on the cellphone chat app called WhatsApp or on Facebook pages that can help connect mothers in need of supplies and money to donors.[205]

The heavy traditional news and social media coverage of the virus spreading did cause concern over lack of reliability. Research has found that between May and June 2016, four out of five social media posts about Zika provided accurate information, but inaccurate posts were much more popular. This led many researchers to worry about the quality of information being spread and shared on social media.[206] Google Trends showed that Zika did not become a trending topic for the media until January 2016.[207] A study done found that 81 percent of the most popular posts on Facebook about Zika did contain truthful information, but posts spreading false information were far more popular.[206] Initial media reports on Zika in the United States focused on reassuring viewers and readers that Zika was not a threat in the United States.[207] Studies have found that real-time social media updates are desirable methods for communication during the emergence of infectious diseases. However, misinformation is common and data control in the cyber world has become a growing necessity.[204]

Many people criticized the lack of governmental response from the U.S. Government in the wake of the crisis.[208] The United States was criticized for a lack of preparedness in terms of an ability to contain a virus outbreak in the United States. The Obama Administration requested an emergency supplemental appropriation of $1.86 billion for both domestic and international response to the crisis.[209] In response to this request, Congress redirected $589 million from funds previously dedicated to Ebola instead of allocating new funds.[209] Another criticism regarding Zika funding had to do with the fact that Congress members still took vacation in July 2016 before allocating any of the funds requested in February 2016.[210]

In August 2016, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that they had spent $194 million of the initial $222 million allocation to fight Zika virus.[211] Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases said that the NIAID was running out of funds, which would substantially slow down the development of vaccines.[212] Although the government faced criticism for not responding strongly enough to the Zika outbreak, the government eventually provided funding of $1.1 billion for Zika in October 2016. It took congress nearly seven months to agree to this allocation, which left many prevention and education projects without funding for a substantial amount of time.[213] Senate Democrats urged Republicans to approve the full amount of funding more quickly rather than waiting for major transmission of Zika virus to begin in the United States.[214]

In 2017, public health experts are still concerned about the failure of the Zika response in the United States.[215] Many officials failed to provide information about Zika's sexual transmission. New York City subway systems had posters about mosquitos while all local cases reported had been picked up elsewhere or transmitted sexually.[215] Many experts believe that the United States lacked severely in providing the public with information to prevent sexual transmission of the virus.[215]

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ . Newsline. November 21, 2016. Archived from the original on February 11, 2018. Retrieved November 21, 2016.
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Feather references edit

  • Messina, Jane P; Kraemer, Moritz UG; Brady, Oliver J; Pigott, David M; Shearer, Freya M; Weiss, Daniel J; Golding, Nick; Ruktanonchai, Corrine W; Gething, Peter W; Cohn, Emily; Brownstein, John S; Khan, Kamran; Tatem, Andrew J; Jaenisch, Thomas; Murray, Christopher JL; Marinho, Fatima; Scott, Thomas W; Hay, Simon I (2016). "Mapping global environmental suitability for Zika virus". eLife. 5. doi:10.7554/eLife.15272. PMC 4889326. PMID 27090089.
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  • Paz, Shlomit; Semenza, Jan C (2016). "El Niño and climate change—contributing factors in the dispersal of Zika virus in the Americas?". The Lancet. 387 (10020): 745. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00256-7. PMID 26850984. S2CID 205980586.
  • Yang, Y. Tony; Sarfaty, Mona (2016). "Zika virus: A call to action for physicians in the era of climate change". Preventive Medicine Reports. 4: 444–446. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.07.011. PMC 5007542. PMID 27617189.
  • "Correction for Caminade et al., Global risk model for vector-borne transmission of Zika virus reveals the role of el Niño 2015". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (7): E1301–E1302. 2017. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E1301.. doi:10.1073/pnas.1700746114. PMC 5321037. PMID 28137863.
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  • McSweeny, R. (2016, December 20). Zika outbreak fuelled by El Nino and climate change. Retrieved March 29, 2018, from https://www.carbonbrief.org/zika-virus-outbreak-fuelled-by-el-nino-and-climate-change

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zika virus outbreak in the Americas (2015-2016).
  • Zika virus infection at the Pan American Health Organization
  • Zika Virus at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  • Zika outbreak in the Americas and the Pacific at the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
  • Short Answers to Hard Questions (New York Times)
January 01, 1970
2015, zika, virus, epidemic, epidemic, zika, fever, caused, zika, virus, began, brazil, affected, other, countries, americas, from, april, 2015, november, 2016, world, health, organization, declared, epidemic, november, 2016, noted, that, virus, still, represe. An epidemic of Zika fever caused by Zika virus began in Brazil and affected other countries in the Americas from April 2015 to November 2016 The World Health Organization WHO declared the end of the epidemic in November 2016 but noted that the virus still represents a highly significant and long term problem 2 It is estimated that 1 5 million people were infected by Zika virus in Brazil 3 with over 3 500 cases of infant microcephaly reported between October 2015 and January 2016 4 The epidemic also affected other parts of South and North America as well as several islands in the Pacific 5 2015 16 Zika virus epidemicCountries and territories with active transmission of the Zika virus November 21 2016 1 DateApril 2015 November 2016 Zika virus spread to Brazil from Oceania in 2013 or 2014 Brazil notified the WHO of an illness characterized by skin rash in March 2015 and Zika was identified as the cause in May 2015 In February 2016 the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern as evidence grew that Zika can cause birth defects as well as neurological problems 6 7 The virus can be transmitted from a pregnant woman to her fetus and can cause microcephaly and other severe brain anomalies in the infant 8 9 10 Zika infections in adults can result in Guillain Barre syndrome 10 In approximately one in five cases Zika virus infections result in Zika fever a minor illness that causes symptoms such as fever and a rash 11 12 Prior to the outbreak Zika was considered a mild infection as most infections are asymptomatic making it difficult to determine precise estimates of the number of cases 13 The virus is spread mainly by the Aedes aegypti mosquito which is commonly found throughout the tropical and subtropical Americas It can also be spread by the Aedes albopictus Asian tiger mosquito which is distributed as far north as the Great Lakes region in North America 14 People infected with Zika can transmit the virus to their sexual partners 15 A number of countries were issued travel warnings and the outbreak was expected to reduce tourism significantly 7 16 Several countries took the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more was known about the virus and its impact on fetal development 17 Furthermore the outbreak raised concerns regarding the safety of athletes and spectators at the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro 18 19 20 Contents 1 Epidemiology 2 Transmission 3 Diagnosis 4 Containment and control 4 1 The Americas 4 2 Asia 4 3 International 4 4 Responses 5 Prevention and treatment 6 Challenges to US response 7 Controversies 8 Scientific communication and concerns 9 See also 10 References 11 Feather references 12 External linksEpidemiology editNumber of Zika cases 2015 16 Country Autochthonous cases Imported cases Total cases Deaths a Confirmed Suspected Africa nbsp Angola 21 2 2 nbsp Cape Verde 22 2 7 457 7 459 nbsp Guinea Bissau 23 24 10 10 nbsp Madagascar 25 1 1 nbsp Reunion 26 2 2 nbsp South Africa 27 1 1 Americas 28 Confirmed Suspected Imported Total Deaths nbsp Anguilla 7 44 1 52 nbsp Antigua and Barbuda 14 393 2 409 nbsp Argentina 26 1 821 27 1 874 nbsp Aruba 28 614 7 649 nbsp Bahamas 21 3 24 nbsp Barbados 37 653 690 nbsp Belize 49 537 586 nbsp Bermuda 5 5 nbsp Bolivia 129 718 4 851 nbsp Bonaire 60 60 nbsp Brazil b 109 596 200 465 310 061 6 nbsp Canada 374 374 nbsp Cayman Islands 29 201 10 240 nbsp Chile 29 29 nbsp Colombia 8 826 96 546 105 372 nbsp Costa Rica 1 453 2 618 32 4 103 nbsp Cuba 3 30 33 nbsp Curacao 820 820 nbsp Dominica 79 1 150 1 229 nbsp Dominican Republic 327 4 893 5 220 nbsp Ecuador 812 2 722 15 3 549 nbsp El Salvador 51 11 353 11 404 nbsp French Guiana 483 9 700 10 10 193 nbsp Grenada 108 314 422 nbsp Guadeloupe 379 30 845 31 224 nbsp Guatemala 466 2 785 3 251 nbsp Guyana 6 6 nbsp Haiti 5 2 955 2 960 nbsp Honduras 298 31 863 32 161 nbsp Jamaica 186 7 052 7 238 nbsp Martinique 12 36 680 36 692 nbsp Mexico 6 642 15 6 657 nbsp Nicaragua 2 044 3 2 047 nbsp Panama 517 2 089 42 2 648 nbsp Paraguay 12 583 595 nbsp Peru 145 18 163 nbsp Puerto Rico 29 34 070 121 34 191 5 nbsp Saba 9 9 nbsp Saint Barthelemy 61 900 961 nbsp Saint Kitts and Nevis 26 532 558 nbsp Saint Lucia 50 822 872 nbsp Saint Martin 200 2 825 3 025 nbsp Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 38 156 194 nbsp Sint Eustatius 16 16 nbsp Sint Maarten 62 168 230 nbsp Suriname 723 2 755 3 478 4 nbsp Trinidad and Tobago 643 1 644 nbsp Turks and Caicos Islands 12 115 3 130 nbsp United States 30 29 236 5 590 5 826 nbsp Uruguay 1 1 nbsp Venezuela 2 380 59 147 61 527 nbsp British Virgin Islands 38 51 89 nbsp U S Virgin Islands 29 603 803 2 1 408 Asia Confirmed Suspected Imported Total Deaths nbsp China 31 23 23 nbsp Hong Kong 32 1 1 nbsp Israel 33 9 9 nbsp Japan 34 7 7 nbsp Malaysia 35 8 2 10 nbsp Maldives 36 1 1 nbsp Myanmar 37 1 1 nbsp Philippines 38 39 39 6 45 nbsp Singapore 40 435 1 436 nbsp South Korea 41 14 14 nbsp Taiwan 42 13 13 nbsp Thailand 43 44 45 680 680 3 nbsp Vietnam 46 141 141 Europe 30 Confirmed Suspected Imported Total Deaths nbsp Austria 47 1 1 nbsp Canary Islands 48 3 3 nbsp Czech Republic 49 4 4 nbsp Denmark 47 4 4 nbsp Finland 47 2 2 nbsp France 50 1 071 1 071 nbsp Germany 51 56 56 nbsp Ireland 52 15 15 nbsp Italy 53 63 63 nbsp Madeira 54 2 2 nbsp Malta 47 1 1 nbsp Netherlands 55 95 95 nbsp Norway 56 30 30 nbsp Poland citation needed 2 2 nbsp Portugal 57 17 17 nbsp Romania 58 3 3 nbsp Russia 59 9 9 nbsp Slovakia 47 1 1 nbsp Slovenia 47 1 1 nbsp Spain 60 297 297 nbsp Sweden 47 2 2 nbsp Switzerland 61 28 28 nbsp United Kingdom 62 244 244 Oceania Confirmed Suspected Imported Total Deaths nbsp American Samoa 29 63 54 706 7 767 nbsp Australia 64 76 76 nbsp Fiji 65 66 17 17 nbsp Kosrae FSM 67 12 82 94 nbsp Marshall Islands 68 2 34 36 nbsp Nauru 69 1 1 nbsp New Caledonia 70 73 73 nbsp New Zealand 71 97 97 nbsp Papua New Guinea 72 6 6 nbsp Samoa 73 10 10 nbsp Solomon Islands 65 70 302 302 nbsp Tonga 74 36 2 010 2 046 nbsp Vanuatu 70 75 1 1 Total Confirmed Suspected Imported Total Deaths Worldwide 174 667 528 157 8 557 711 381 18 Numbers shown do not include infant deaths or stillbirths In 2015 Brazil estimated a minimum of 497 593 and a maximum of 1 482 701 cases Protocolo de vigilancia e resposta a ocorrencia de microcefalia Protocol for surveillance and response to the occurrence of microcephaly PDF Emergencia de Saude Publica de Importancia Nacional in Portuguese Ministerio da Saude Secretaria de Vigilancia em Saude January 22 2016 p 17 As early as August 2014 physicians in Natal in northeastern Brazil began to investigate an outbreak of illness characterized by a flat pinkish rash bloodshot eyes fever joint pain and headaches While the symptoms resembled dengue fever testing ruled out this and several other potential causes By March 2015 the illness had spread to Salvador Bahia 76 and had appeared in three different states 77 Then in May 2015 researchers from the Federal University of Bahia and the Evandro Chagas Institute determined using the RT PCR technique that the illness was an outbreak of Zika virus 78 79 Although the first confirmed Zika virus infection in Brazil were diagnosed in a returning traveller in March 2015 80 nbsp The Uganda Virus Research Institute conducts research near the Zika Forest from which the virus takes its name The Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 in a rhesus monkey in a forest near Entebbe Uganda 81 Although serologic evidence indicated additional human exposure during subsequent decades in parts of Africa and Asia 82 before the 2007 Yap Islands Zika virus outbreak only 14 cases of human Zika virus disease had been documented 81 Researchers generally believe the virus was brought to Brazil by an infected traveler who had been exposed to the virus in French Polynesia who was then bitten by a mosquito that then infected others 83 84 85 Phylogenetic analysis of the first Brazilian infections have strongly indicated that the circulating virus is the Asian rather than African strain of the virus and was genetically similar to the virus found in the outbreak in French Polynesia 84 85 It appears Zika s route from Africa and Asia to Oceania and then the Americas may mirror that of chikungunya and dengue both of which are now endemic in a large portion of the Americas 86 The specific event that brought the virus to Brazil was uncertain until March 2016 Brazilian researchers had suggested that the Zika virus arrived during the 2014 FIFA World Cup tournament 83 French researchers speculated the virus arrived shortly afterwards in August 2014 when canoeing teams from French Polynesia New Caledonia Easter Island and the Cook Islands which had been or were experiencing Zika outbreaks attended the Va a World Sprint Championships in Rio de Janeiro 77 84 However the outbreak in French Polynesia is known to have peaked and declined precipitously by February 2014 lending doubt to the suggestion the virus arrived later that year in Brazil with spectators and competitors 87 In March 2016 a study published in Science which developed a molecular clock based on the count of virus mutations in a relatively small sample suggested Zika virus arrived in the Americas most likely in Brazil from French Polynesia between May and December 2013 well before the World Cup and Va a Championships 87 In the Science article Faria and colleagues managed to trace the origins of the virus strain that is circulating in Brazil and found that this strain has little genetic variability when compared to the strain of French Polynesia after relating the number of travellers arriving in Brazil from French Polynesia with the cases reported and the events happening in that year the team was able to deduce that the virus arrived in Brazil in 2013 during the Confederation Cup when Tahiti s team played against other teams in a few Brazilian cities which attracted many tourists from both places 88 Zika virus usually has very mild or no symptoms so it took almost a year for Brazil to confirm the first case of the disease By then the outbreak was already widespread Factors associated with the rapid spread of Zika virus in Brazil include the non immune population high population density tropical climate and inadequate control of Aedes mosquitoes in the country 89 The Zika virus epidemic also revealed structural problems of the health system in particular in public health services and basic sanitation in Brazil 90 The above average warm temperatures of 2015 2016 caused by a strong El Nino created an environment conducive to the spread of the Zika Virus in Brazil 2010 The 2015 16 El Nino increased ocean and ground surface temperatures to above average 2010 January 2016 brought about nine consecutive months with temperatures 1 04 C above the global average 91 It is important to note however that while South America had areas experiencing 2 0 C above average temperatures for 1981 2010 areas including Argentina Southern Brazil and Uruguay experienced temperatures 0 5 C below average 91 Precipitation is another crucial factor to consider as Eastern Brazil and other areas in southern South America experienced high amounts of precipitation in early 2016 91 The environmental conditions of increased rainfall and higher average temperatures in the South American region lead to both a longer mosquito season and a higher mosquito density 92 which created an environment in which the Zika carrying Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes can thrive Looking forward climate models suggest that regions favorable to the Aedes mosquitoes will grow widening the range of Zika and other mosquito carried diseases 93 The potential for epidemics will spread inland and into other regions of the world not just in tropical environments 94 Confirmed cases have been reported in 40 countries or territories in South America North America and the Caribbean 95 as well as 16 in the western Pacific and one in Africa since the beginning of 2015 see table Many countries with no cases of mosquito transmission have reported travel related Zika cases people who moved or came home from a Zika affected region before they showed symptoms see table Transmission editSee also Zika virus Transmission nbsp Adult Aedes aegypti mosquito a vector or carrier of the Zika virus Zika is a mosquito borne disease The resurgence of Aedes aegypti s worldwide distribution over the past 2 3 decades makes it one of the most widely distributed mosquito species 96 In 2015 Aedes albopictus was present in tropical subtropical and temperate regions of the Americas reaching as far north as the Great Lakes of North America and internationally living alongside Aedes aegypti in some tropical and subtropical regions 14 The Aedes aegypti mosquito usually bites in the morning and afternoon hours and can be identified by the white stripes on its legs 97 The mosquito species Aedes aegypti mainly and Aedes albopictus that can spread Zika virus can also spread dengue chikungunya and yellow fever 98 Zika can also be sexually transmitted between partners of both genders 99 Sexual transmission of Zika has been documented in nine countries Argentina Canada Chile France Italy New Zealand Peru Portugal and the United States during this outbreak 100 Zika is transmitted from pregnant women to the fetus vertical transmission and causes microcephaly and other severe brain anomalies in infants born of women infected with the virus 8 10 101 nbsp A baby with microcephaly left compared to a baby with a typical head size Zika infections in adults can cause Guillain Barre syndrome 10 Diagnosis editMain article Zika fever nbsp Symptoms of Zika virus 102 Symptoms are similar to other flaviviruses such as dengue fever or the alphavirus that causes chikungunya 103 but are milder in form and usually last two to seven days 7 It is estimated that 80 of cases are asymptomatic 104 The main clinical symptoms in symptomatic patients are low grade fever conjunctivitis transient joint pain mainly in the smaller joints of the hands and feet and maculopapular rash that often starts on the face and then spreads throughout the body 103 It is difficult to diagnose Zika virus infection based on clinical signs and symptoms alone due to overlaps with other arboviruses that are endemic to similar areas 105 The methods currently available to test for Zika antibodies cross react with dengue antibodies An IgM positive result in a dengue or Zika ELISA test can only be considered indicative of a recent flavivirus infection Plaque reduction neutralization tests PRINT can be performed and may be specific 106 The Zika virus can be identified by RT PCR in acutely ill patients 7 RT PCR testing of serum and tissue samples can be used to detect the presence of the Zika virus However the RT PCR test with serum is only helpful while the virus is still in the blood which is generally within the first week of the illness After this period other methods should be used to determine if the virus is still present in the body A test for IgM antibodies has seen to be effective over longer periods of time as these antibodies can be present starting 4 days after the beginning of the illness and up to 12 weeks after that However it is suggested that a PRINT test be performed following a test for IgM antibodies to help eliminate false positives resulting from other flaviviruses The PRINT test looks for viral specific neutralizing antibodies However this test can still produce false positive results for Zika in individuals who have received immunization for or had previously been exposed to other flaviviruses 107 Containment and control edit nbsp Symptoms of microcephaly linked to mothers infected by Zika virus 102 nbsp A mother and her microcephalic child in Brazil The Americas edit Several countries including Colombia Ecuador El Salvador and Jamaica advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more was known about the risks 17 108 Plans were announced by the authorities in Rio de Janeiro Brazil to try to prevent the spread of the Zika virus during the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio 109 The health ministry of Peru installed more than 20 000 ovitraps during the 2015 dengue outbreak The same ovitraps will be used to monitor a potential Zika outbreak in tropical regions of Peru 110 On January 15 2016 because of the growing evidence of a link between Zika and microcephaly the Centers for Disease Prevention and Control CDC issued a travel warning advising pregnant women to consider postponing travel to Brazil as well as the following countries and territories where Zika fever had been reported Colombia El Salvador French Guiana Guatemala Haiti Honduras Martinique Mexico Panama Paraguay Suriname Venezuela and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico 111 On January 20 the Ministry of Health of Chile published a health notice 112 On January 22 eight more countries and territories were added to the list of those affected Barbados Bolivia Ecuador Guadeloupe Saint Martin Guyana Cape Verde and Samoa 113 On February 1 Costa Rica and Nicaragua were added to the list bringing the number of countries and territories affected to 28 114 The agency issued additional guidelines and suggested that women thinking about becoming pregnant consult with their physicians before traveling 115 Canada issued a similar travel advisory 109 116 Questions have been raised about the readability and effectiveness of the press releases issued by the WHO PAHO CDC and the ministries of health of affected countries with the average readability of a press release by the WHO measured at 17 1 on the Flesch Kincaid grade level readability test 117 On February 5 after the laboratory confirmation of a Zika virus infection in the U S in a non traveler which was linked to sexual contact with an infected partner the CDC issued interim guidelines for prevention of sexual transmission of Zika virus for the United States 104 These guidelines recommend that men who reside in or have traveled to an area of active Zika virus transmission who have a pregnant partner should abstain from sexual activity or consistently and correctly use condoms during sex for the duration of the pregnancy 104 The guidelines recommend that pregnant women discuss any possible Zika exposure with their male partners 104 The guidelines recommend that non pregnant women and their partners consider taking similar measures 104 On February 8 CDC elevated its response efforts to a Level 1 activation the highest response level at the agency The CDC then issued a statement on February 23 further encouraging adherence to this guidance after 14 reports of possible sexual transmission of the virus were under investigation 118 119 A bill Zika Authorization Plan Act of 2016 H R 4562 was introduced in the second session of the United States 114th Congress by Representative Curt Clawson R FL on February 12 2016 120 121 aimed at reducing the spread of the virus 122 Paraguay reported its first case of Zika in a pregnant woman on March 11 123 On March 18 CDC cautioned men who have been infected with Zika from attempting to conceive children due to probability of virus transfer from man to woman during sexual activity which in turn can affect the fetus under this caution men are advised not to try conception until six months after the infection 124 Colombia reported its first cases of microcephaly associated to the Zika virus on April 14 2016 125 The CDC authorized emergency use of a Zika Virus RNA Qualitative test on April 28 to detect Zika virus in the blood of patients who have symptoms of Zika virus infection and live in or have traveled to an area with ongoing Zika virus transmission This is the first commercial test to detect Zika virus authorized by the United States Food and Drug Administration for emergency use 126 On May 6 Major League Baseball announced that a series of games between the Miami Marlins and Pittsburgh Pirates scheduled to be played at the end of the month in San Juan Puerto Rico would be relocated to Marlins Park in Miami Florida after a number of players on each team voiced concerns regarding the threat of Zika exposure 127 By mid August at least 37 people had contracted the virus in neighborhoods near the city of Miami Florida though officials estimated that the actual number of infections was much higher due to under reporting of mild illness 128 It was determined in June that travelers to Dominican Republic lead New York City in positive Zika tests 129 The first affected area in the continental United States the Wynwood neighborhood of Miami was declared Zika free in September 2016 130 After the virus stopped circulating in South Beach all of Florida was declared Zika free in December 2016 131 One case of local transmission was reported in Texas up until September 2017 132 As of 2018 Zika remains endemic in Puerto Rico 133 but the number of cases was reduced from about 8 000 reported per month at the peak in August 2016 to about 10 reported per month in April 2017 134 Asia edit Following the spread of Zika infection into Southeast Asia in June 2016 Singapore Thailand and Vietnam become the most heavily affected 46 135 Singapore has planned to release an army of mosquitoes that contain the Wolbachia bacteria to fight the Aedes aegypti mosquito population 136 The Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN members have increased information sharing and joint research on the virus 137 138 On September 30 Thailand confirmed that two babies have been born with microcephaly 139 Prior to the case Thailand has allowed abortion for pregnant women that have been affected by birth defects 140 Malaysia is still undecided on the issue 141 with doctors there letting the mother make the decision whether or not to abort 142 Rentokil a Malaysian pest company has designed an Integrated Mosquito Management IMM program to curb the spread of Aedes mosquito citation needed On October 17 Zika was declared as endemic in Vietnam by the country Health Ministry due to the number of local cases 143 Vietnam confirmed that one baby has been born with microcephaly on October 31 144 Following the rise of local Zika infection cases in the Philippines the virus have also been declared as endemic by the country Health Department 145 The government of the republic hosting the One Philippines against Zika national summit on October 28 with church in the country has joint fight to curb the spread of the virus by issuing a pastoral guidance to help raise awareness about the mosquito borne disease among local communities 146 147 148 Taiwan has also seen an increase of infection most of the cases are believed to be imported from other countries 149 On October 27 Myanmar reported its first imported case on a pregnant foreign woman 37 International edit nbsp Agent for endemic diseases of the city of Votuporanga Sao Paulo Brazil Governments or health agencies such as those of Australia 150 Canada 151 China 152 Hong Kong 153 Indonesia 154 Ireland 108 Japan 155 Malaysia 156 New Zealand 157 Philippines 158 Singapore 159 South Korea 160 Taiwan 161 the United Kingdom 162 United States 163 as well the European Union 109 issued travel warnings The warnings are predicted to have an effect on the tourism industry in affected countries 164 165 166 To prevent the transmission of the Zika virus WHO recommends using insect repellent wearing long sleeved clothes to cover the body and using screens and mosquito nets to exclude flying insects from dwellings or sleeping areas It is also vital to eliminate any standing water near homes to minimize breeding areas for mosquitoes Authorities can treat larger water containers with recommended larvicides 97 167 Furthermore the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC recommends that containers holding water near homes either be sealed or scrubbed once per week because mosquito eggs can stick to them 98 On February 1 2016 WHO declared the cluster of microcephaly cases and other neurological disorders a Public Health Emergency of International Concern 6 which may reduce the number of visitors to the Rio Olympics in 2016 168 The designation has been applied in the past to the Ebola outbreak in 2014 the outbreak of polio in Syria in 2013 and the 2009 flu pandemic 169 South Korea held an emergency meeting in response to the WHO declaration on February 2 2016 160 A second meeting of the WHO convened emergency committee held on March 8 2016 reaffirmed the situation s status as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern The committee reported that evidence was increasing for a causal relationship between Zika virus and microcephaly and other neurological conditions and called for continued research aggressive mosquito control and improved surveillance and communication of risks to the public The report stated that pregnant women should be advised not to travel to affected areas and should use safe sex practices if their partners lived in or travelled to affected areas throughout their pregnancy 170 On March 9 2016 WHO announced that research should prioritise prevention and diagnosis not treatment and in particular non live vaccines suitable for pregnant women and those of childbearing age novel mosquito control measures and diagnostic tests that can detect dengue and chikungunya as well as Zika 171 Responses edit See also Mosquito control nbsp The Brazilian Army has sent more than 200 000 troops to go house to house in the campaign against Zika carrying mosquitoes nbsp Brazilian Army soldier analyzes the water from a cistern In January 2016 it was announced that in response to the Zika virus outbreak Brazil s National Biosafety Committee approved the releases of more genetically modified Aedes aegypti mosquitoes throughout their country 172 Previously in July 2015 Oxitec had published results of a test in the Juazeiro region of Brazil of so called self limiting mosquitoes to fight dengue chikungunya and Zika viruses They concluded that mosquito populations were reduced by over 90 in the test region 172 173 174 Male genetically modified mosquitoes mate with females in the wild and transmit a self limiting gene that causes the resulting offspring to die before reaching adulthood and thus diminishes the local mosquito population 172 174 In January 2016 the technique was being used to try to combat the Zika virus in the town of Piracicaba Sao Paulo 175 On February 1 2016 the WHO declared the current Zika virus outbreak an international public health emergency 6 176 and the Brazilian President released a decree that increased local and federal pest control agents access to private property required by mobilization actions for the prevention and elimination of Aedes mosquito outbreaks in the country 177 Some experts have proposed combatting the spread of the Zika virus by breeding and releasing mosquitoes that have either been genetically modified to prevent them from transmitting pathogens or that have been infected with the Wolbachia bacterium thought to inhibit the spread of viruses 178 179 Another proposed technique consists of using radiation to sterilize male larvae so that when they mate they produce no progeny 180 Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease 181 In February the Brazilian federal government mobilized 60 of the country s Armed Forces or about 220 000 soldiers to warn and educate the populations of 350 municipalities on how to reduce mosquito breeding grounds 182 A joint statement on the sharing of data and results on the Zika outbreak in the Americas and future public health emergencies was issued on February 10 2016 by a group of more than 30 global health bodies 183 The statement reinforces a similar consensus statement issued by WHO in September 2015 184 The statement calls for free access to all data as rapidly and widely as possible 185 In February 2016 Google announced that they were donating 1 million via UNICEF to fight the spread of the Zika virus and offering professional personnel to help to determine where it will hit next 186 Prevention and treatment editWhile there are no known cures for Zika there have been recent developments in Zika vaccination Three vaccine designs are showing high confidence levels of protection against the Zika virus Scientists have conducted tests on the rhesus monkey and human trials began in late 2016 187 This preventative treatment is promising but it will take years before it is available for widespread usage 188 British experts are clear that any of the vaccines would take considerable time to develop Dr Ed Wright a senior lecturer and virologist at the University of Westminster said All of the vaccines currently under development are many years away from being licensed and available for widespread public use Jonathan Ball professor of molecular virology at the University of Nottingham said We knew that these vaccines worked in mice and now the researchers have shown that they also protect non human primates from Zika virus infection The next step will be to see if these vaccines are safe and the scientists hope to start early trials in humans to address this 189 Kineta a Seattle based biotech company is actively working on treatments and has received an undisclosed amount of funding from National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease one of the National Institutes of Health to carry on the research Kineta CEO Dr Shawn Iadonato said in a statement We are eager to expand testing of our broad spectrum antivirals in Zika virus as they have shown compelling efficacy across other flaviviruses such as Dengue and West Nile and have the potential for long term development 190 As of July 26 2016 Inovio Pharmaceuticals Inc dosed the first subject in its multi center phase I trial to evaluate Inovio s Zika DNA vaccine GLS 5700 In addition to the previously announced US FDA approval for the conduct of the study Health Canada s Health Products and Food Branch has also approved this study which will be conducted at clinical sites in Miami Philadelphia and Quebec City The phase I open label dose ranging study of 40 healthy adult volunteers is evaluating the safety tolerability and immunogenicity of GLS 5700 administered with the CELLECTRA 3P device Inovio s proprietary intradermal DNA delivery device In preclinical testing this synthetic vaccine induced robust antibody and T cell responses the immune responses necessary to fight viral infections in small and large animal models 191 Direct Relief an emergency response organization established a Zika Fund and fulfilled requests for supplies in 14 affected countries 192 Challenges to US response editIn May 2017 the Government Accountability Office published a report Emerging Infectious Diseases Actions Needed to Address the Challenges of Responding to Zika Virus Disease Outbreak to correspond with an associated House subcommittee hearing The GAO said that even though scientific breakthroughs have increased in recent years the United States remains unprepared to handle a Zika virus outbreak 193 Timothy Persons head scientist at the GAO listed areas of limited research that damage the United States ability to effectively respond to a Zika outbreak including an accurate record of the number of cases in the United States components associated with transmission from mothers to children especially regarding pregnancy risk of transmission through bodily fluid as related to the potential for sexual transmission of the virus impact of prior exposure to Zika and other arboviruses and both short term and long term outcomes Recent outbreaks have been connected to an alarming a spike in microcephaly a birth defect that inhibits the proper development of a baby s brain and Guillain Barre syndrome which causes paralysis 193 Other challenges include the lack of a safe and effective vaccine a complicated diagnostic process and faltering support for research funding in the federal government Dr Anthony Fauci director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases NIAID said There aren t any federally licensed vaccines or specific therapeutics currently available to prevent or treat Zika Zika is often difficult to distinguish from other illnesses that are spread by mosquitoes like dengue West Nile and chikungunya among others President Trump s budget proposal for 2018 proposed stripping 800 billion from Medicaid over ten years Democratic Representative Frank Pallone of New Jersey said that this decision endangers our ability to manage public health emergencies like Zika 193 Controversies editSome efforts to contain the spread of Zika virus have been controversial Oxitec the company behind the self limiting mosquitoes which pass on a fatal gene to their offspring released in Brazil has faced criticism from environmental groups who fear that releasing a new mosquito strain into the wild will damage the ecosystem In the short term the concern is that a drop in the mosquito population could affect the populations of other species Supporters claim that the environmental impact of the self limiting mosquitoes will be minimal since only one species of mosquito is being targeted and the genetically modified mosquitoes are still safe for predators to eat Oxitec Product Development Manager Derric Nimmo likened the process to going in with a scalpel and taking away Aedes aegypti leaving everything untouched 194 Since Aedes aegypti is an imported invasive species in Brazil some experts expect that its eradication will have little impact on the environment However other environmentalists emphasize that the long term consequences of eliminating an entire species cannot be predicted 195 Government recommendations that women delay pregnancy have also proven to be controversial Human and reproductive rights groups have deemed the recommendations irresponsible and difficult to follow since women alone are tasked with avoiding pregnancy despite having little control to do so 196 A 2012 study suggests that 56 of pregnancies in Latin America and the Caribbean are unplanned compared to an average unplanned pregnancy rate of 40 worldwide 197 Access to contraceptives might be limited in regions where the Roman Catholic Church is predominant such as in El Salvador 198 Anti abortion laws in much of the region leave women with no recourse once they become pregnant Aside from three countries where abortion is widely available French Guiana Guyana and Uruguay and three countries where abortion is allowed in cases of fetal malformation Colombia Mexico and Panama most of the region only permits abortion in the cases of rape incest or danger to the mother s health In El Salvador abortion is illegal under all circumstances 196 On February 5 2016 the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights urged Latin American governments to consider repealing their policies regarding contraception and abortion emphasizing that upholding human rights is essential to an effective public health response 199 On February 16 2016 the Vatican condemned the UN for its call to action deeming it an illegitimate response to the Zika crisis and emphasizing that a diagnosis of microcephaly in a child should not warrant a death sentence 200 On February 18 2016 after a trip to Latin America Pope Francis stated that avoiding pregnancy is not an absolute evil in cases such as the Zika virus outbreak His comments sparked speculation that the use of contraception may be morally permissible in the prevention of the Zika virus 201 Scientific communication and concerns editThe 2015 2016 Zika virus outbreak became an important topic on many social media sites especially on Twitter An analysis of Twitter posts on February 2 2016 showed that 50 tweets per minute were posted about Zika many of which contained the hashtags salud which means health in Spanish as well as who which served as a reference to the World Health Organization 202 The epidemic also caused a rise in tweets from college students upset that their spring break trips and study abroad plans had been changed or cancelled due to the virus spread 202 Many studies have been conducted on the connections and impact of social media mentions of Zika One analysis found that the primary topics discussed on Twitter before the peak of the outbreak regarding Zika included Zika s impact reactions to Zika pregnancy and microcephaly transmission routes of Zika and case reports 203 During the summer of 2016 when Zika was spreading at a much faster rate this social media analysis determined that the major topics on Twitter regarding Zika had become concerns about the spread of Zika criticism of Congress news about Zika and scientific information about Zika 203 The same study also found that tweets from reputable institutions and people holding scientific credentials demonstrated the ability of Twitter as a source to spread information quickly on the internet 203 Another study found that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as well as the general public showed similar concerns about Zika The CDC s posts on Twitter during the outbreak focused on symptoms and education for Zika 204 However the public had more of a tendency to focus concern on the consequences of Zika on women and infants such as microcephaly 204 While there was concern for children on social media this concern was lacking in countries largely impacted by Zika virus such as Brazil In Brazil struggling mothers of infants with microcephaly caused by Zika have used support systems on social media on the cellphone chat app called WhatsApp or on Facebook pages that can help connect mothers in need of supplies and money to donors 205 The heavy traditional news and social media coverage of the virus spreading did cause concern over lack of reliability Research has found that between May and June 2016 four out of five social media posts about Zika provided accurate information but inaccurate posts were much more popular This led many researchers to worry about the quality of information being spread and shared on social media 206 Google Trends showed that Zika did not become a trending topic for the media until January 2016 207 A study done found that 81 percent of the most popular posts on Facebook about Zika did contain truthful information but posts spreading false information were far more popular 206 Initial media reports on Zika in the United States focused on reassuring viewers and readers that Zika was not a threat in the United States 207 Studies have found that real time social media updates are desirable methods for communication during the emergence of infectious diseases However misinformation is common and data control in the cyber world has become a growing necessity 204 Many people criticized the lack of governmental response from the U S Government in the wake of the crisis 208 The United States was criticized for a lack of preparedness in terms of an ability to contain a virus outbreak in the United States The Obama Administration requested an emergency supplemental appropriation of 1 86 billion for both domestic and international response to the crisis 209 In response to this request Congress redirected 589 million from funds previously dedicated to Ebola instead of allocating new funds 209 Another criticism regarding Zika funding had to do with the fact that Congress members still took vacation in July 2016 before allocating any of the funds requested in February 2016 210 In August 2016 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that they had spent 194 million of the initial 222 million allocation to fight Zika virus 211 Anthony Fauci director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases said that the NIAID was running out of funds which would substantially slow down the development of vaccines 212 Although the government faced criticism for not responding strongly enough to the Zika outbreak the government eventually provided funding of 1 1 billion for Zika in October 2016 It took congress nearly seven months to agree to this allocation which left many prevention and education projects without funding for a substantial amount of time 213 Senate Democrats urged Republicans to approve the full amount of funding more quickly rather than waiting for major transmission of Zika virus to begin in the United States 214 In 2017 public health experts are still concerned about the failure of the Zika response in the United States 215 Many officials failed to provide information about Zika s sexual transmission New York City subway systems had posters about mosquitos while all local cases reported had been picked up elsewhere or transmitted sexually 215 Many experts believe that the United States lacked severely in providing the public with information to prevent sexual transmission of the virus 215 See also editPortal nbsp Viruses Zika virus outbreak timeline Health crisisReferences edit All Countries and Territories with Active 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