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Incest

April 10, 2023

This article is about the variable social, legal, religious, and cultural attitudes and sanctions concerning human sexual relations with close kin. For a detailed description of its legal aspects worldwide, see Legality of incest. For the biological act of reproducing with close kin, see Inbreeding. For the descriptive term for blood-related kin, see Consanguinity. For other uses, see Incest (disambiguation).

Incest (/ˈɪnsɛst/ IN-sest) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives.[1][2] This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity (marriage or stepfamily), adoption, or lineage. It is strictly forbidden and considered immoral in most societies, and can lead to an increased risk of genetic disorders in children.

The incest taboo is one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos, both in present and in past societies.[3] Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages.[3] In societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime.[4][5] Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as milk-siblings, step-siblings, and adoptive siblings, albeit sometimes with less intensity.[6][7] Third-degree relatives (such as half-aunt, half-nephew, first cousin) on average have 12.5% common genetic heritage, and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable.[8] Children of incestuous relationships have been regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today. In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited.

A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding: a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a close genetic relationship.[9] Such children are at greater risk of congenital disorders, death and developmental and physical disability, and that risk is proportional to their parents' coefficient of relationship—a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically.[9][10] However, cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding.[9][11][12][13]

In some societies, such as those of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, mother–son, cousin–cousin, aunt–nephew, uncle–niece and other combinations of relations within a royal family were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage.[14][15] Some societies have different views about what constitutes illegal or immoral incest. For example, in Samoa, marriage between a brother and an older sister was allowed, while marriage between a brother and a younger sister was declared as unethical.[16] However sexual relations with a first-degree relative (meaning a parent, sibling or child) are almost universally forbidden.[dubious – discuss][17]

Terminology

 
The number next to each box indicates the degree of relationship relative to the given person.

The English word incest is derived from the Latin incestus, which has a general meaning of "impure, unchaste". It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense (preserved throughout the Middle English period[18]) and in the narrow modern sense. The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century.[19] Before the Latin term came in, incest was known in Old English as sib-leger (from sibb 'kinship' + leger 'to lie') or mǣġhǣmed (from mǣġ 'kin, parent' + hǣmed 'sexual intercourse') but in time, both words fell out of use. Terms like incester[20][21][22] and incestual[23][24] have been used to describe those interested or involved in sexual relations with relatives among humans, while inbreeder has been used in relation to similar behavior among non-human animals or organisms.[25]

History

 
Table of prohibited marriages from The Trial of Bastardie by William Clerke. London, 1594

Antiquity

In ancient China, first cousins with the same surnames (i.e. those born to the father's brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames could marry (i.e. maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father's sisters).[26]

Several of the Egyptian Kings married their sisters and had several children with them to continue the royal bloodline. For example Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun and was himself the child of an incestuous union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister-wife. Several scholars, such as Frier et al., state that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period. Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, of the same father and mother.[27][28][29][30] However it has also been argued that available evidence does not support the view that such relations were common.[31][32][33]

The most famous of these relationships were in the Ptolemaic royal family; Cleopatra VII was married to two of her younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whilst her mother and father, Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII, were also brother and sister. Arsinoe II and her younger brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, were the first in the family to participate in a full-sibling marriage, a departure from custom.[34] A union between children of the same parents was very common in both Greek and Macedonian tradition so it evidently caused some degree of astonishment: the Alexandrian poet Sotades was put to death for criticizing the "wicked" nature of the marriage, while his contemporary Theokritos more politically compared it to the relationship of Zeus with his older sister, Hera. Ptolemy and his sister-wife, Arsinoe, put emphasis on their incestuous union through their mutual adoption of the epithet Philadelphos ("Sibling-Lover"). They were the first full-sibling royal couple in the kingdom's known history to produce a child, Ptolemy V, and for the subsequent century and more the Ptolemies participated in full-sibling unions wherever possible.[35]

It may have been observation of their next-door Ptolemaic competitors that guided the Seleukids to their own experimentations with sibling unions. The daughter of Antiochus III and Laodice III, Laodice IV, married her two full-blooded older brothers, Antiochus and Seleucus IV, and also her younger brother, Antiochus IV. Her second and third brother-husbands ruled as king one after the other, making her the queen in both her marriages. She bore children to all three of her brothers from her union with them. One of them was her son, Demetrius I, who also took the throne at one point and married a full-sister of his own, Laodice V. Laodice V bore her brother-husband three children, and their marriage is the last known sibling marriage in the kingdom's history.[35]

 
Egyptian king Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun.

There are records of brother-sister unions in some of the smaller kingdoms of the Hellenistic era, though none of them seems to have pursued it with the zeal and resolve of the Ptolemies. The Pontic and Kommagenian kingdoms had full-sibling unions in a few ages. Mithridates IV of Pontus married his sister Laodice; the couple adopted the double epithet "Philadelphoi", which they publicized on their coinage, where, as Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II, they were depicted in jugate coinage, with the likeness of Hera and Zeus on the back. Mithridates VI Eupator also wed a sister called Laodice. In Commagane the later pro-Roman King Antiochus III Philokaisar wed his sister Iotapa, the couple procreated themselves exactly, producing their son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their daughter, Iotapa, who would unite with him and also adopt the epithet "Philadelphos".[35]

The fable of Oedipus, with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest, since Oedipus blinds himself in disgust and shame after his incestuous actions. In the ‘sequel’ to Oedipus, Antigone, his four children are also punished for their parents' incestuousness. Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of Adonis, when his mother, Myrrha, has sex with her father, Cinyras, during a festival, disguised as a prostitute.

In ancient Greece, Spartan King Leonidas I, hero of the legendary Battle of Thermopylae, was married to his niece Gorgo, daughter of his half-brother Cleomenes I. Greek law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers. For example, some accounts say that Elpinice was for a time married to her half-brother Cimon.[36]

Incest was sometimes acknowledged as a positive sign of tyranny in ancient Greece. Herodotus recounts a dream of Hippias, son of Pisistratus, in which he "slept with his own mother," and this dream gave him assurance that he would regain power over Athens. Suetonius attributes this omen to a dream of Julius Caesar, explaining the symbolism of dreaming of sexual intercourse with one's own mother.[37]

Incest is mentioned and condemned in Virgil's Aeneid Book VI:[38] hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos; "This one invaded a daughter's room and a forbidden sex act".

 
Maya king Shield Jaguar II with his aunt-wife, Lady Xoc AD 709

Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity[39] but had no degrees of affinity with regards to marriage. Roman civil laws prohibited any marriage between parents and children, either in the ascending or descending line ad infinitum.[39] Adoption was considered the same as affinity in that an adoptive father could not marry an unemancipated daughter or granddaughter even if the adoption had been dissolved.[39] Incestuous unions were discouraged and considered nefas (against the laws of gods and man) in ancient Rome. In AD 295 incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of unequal gravity: the incestus iuris gentium, which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the incestus iuris civilis, which concerned only Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not. Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire, Roman Emperor Caligula is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (Julia Livilla, Drusilla, and Agrippina the Younger).[40] Emperor Claudius, after executing his previous wife, married his brother's daughter Agrippina the Younger, and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union.[41] The law prohibiting marrying a sister's daughter remained.[42] The taboo against incest in ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement.

During the first two centuries A.D., in Roman Egypt, full sibling marriage occurred with some frequency among commoners as both Egyptians and Romans announced weddings that have been between full-siblings.[dubious – discuss] This is the only evidence for brother-sister marriage among commoners in any society.[43]

Strabo reported that the Persian magi and the Irish had sex with their own mothers. Ctesias' History of Persia mentions how some Macedonians who saw a performance of Oedipus Tyrannus were perplexed at why Oedipus felt the need to mutilate himself after learning the truth about his birth; they booed the actor, and urged each other "Go for your mother".[44]

In Norse mythology, there are themes of brother-sister marriage, a prominent example being between Njörðr and his unnamed sister (perhaps Nerthus), parents of Freyja and Freyr. Loki in turn also accuses Freyja and Freyr of having a sexual relationship.

Biblical references

The earliest Biblical reference to incest involved Cain. It was cited that he knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch.[45] During this period, there was no other woman except Eve or there was an unnamed sister and so this meant Cain had an incestuous relationship with his mother or his sister.[45] According to the Book of Jubilees, Cain married his sister Awan.[46][47] Later, in Genesis 20[48] of the Hebrew Bible, the Patriarch Abraham married his half-sister Sarah.[49] Other references include the passage in Samuel where Amnon, King David's son, raped his half-sister, Tamar.[50] According to Michael D. Coogan, it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married her, the Bible being inconsistent about prohibiting incest.[51]

In Genesis 19:30-38, living in an isolated area after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot's two daughters conspired to inebriate and rape their father due to the lack of available partners to continue his line of descent. Because of intoxication, Lot "perceived not" when his firstborn, and the following night his younger, daughter lay with him.[52]

Moses was also born to an incestuous marriage. Exodus 6[53] detailed how his father Amram was the nephew of his mother Jochebed.[45] An account noted that the incestuous relations did not suffer the fate of childlessness, which was the punishment for such couples in levitical law.[54] It stated, however, that the incest exposed Moses "to the peril of wild beasts, of the weather, of the water, and more."[54]

From the Middle Ages onward

 
Charles II of Spain was born physically disabled, likely due to centuries of inbreeding in the House of Habsburg.

Many European monarchs were related due to political marriages, sometimes resulting in distant cousins – and even first cousins – being married. This was especially true in the Habsburg, Hohenzollern, Savoy, and Bourbon royal houses. However, relations between siblings, which may have been tolerated in other cultures, were considered abhorrent. For example, the false accusation that Anne Boleyn and her brother George Boleyn had committed incest was one of the reasons given for both being executed in May 1536. Historians agree that the false accusation against Anne Boleyn and George Boleyn was trumped up in order to ensure the king could go on to marry Jane Seymour.[55] Sects deemed heretical such as the Waldensians were accused of incest.[56]

Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient Japan and Korea,[57] Inca Peru, Ancient Hawaii, and, at times, Central Africa, Mexico, and Thailand.[58] Like the kings of ancient Egypt, the Inca rulers married their sisters. Huayna Capac, for instance, was the son of Topa Inca Yupanqui and the Inca's sister and wife.[59]

The ruling Inca king was expected to marry his full sister. If he had no children by his eldest sister, he married the second and third until they had children. Preservation of the purity of the Sun's blood was one of the reasons for the brother-sister marriage of the Inca king. The Inca kings claimed divine descent from celestial bodies, and emulated the behavior of their celestial ancestor, the Sun, who married his sister, the Moon. Another reason the princes and kings married their sisters was so the heir might inherit the kingdom as much as through his mother as through his father. Therefore, the prince could invoke both principles of inheritance.[60]

Half-sibling marriages were found in ancient Japan such as the marriage of Emperor Bidatsu and his half-sister Empress Suiko.[61] Japanese Prince Kinashi no Karu had sexual relationships with his full sister Princess Karu no Ōiratsume, although the action was regarded as foolish.[62] In order to prevent the influence of the other families, a half-sister of Korean Goryeo dynasty monarch Gwangjong became his wife in the 10th century. Her name was Daemok.[63] Marriage with a family member not related by blood was also regarded as contravening morality and was therefore incest. One example of this is the 14th century Chunghye of Goryeo, who raped one of his deceased father's concubines, who was thus regarded to be his mother.[64]

In India, the largest proportion of women aged 13 to 49 who marry their close relative are in Tamil Nadu, then Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. While it is rare for uncle-niece marriages, it is more common in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.[65][66]

Others

In some Southeast Asian cultures, stories of incest being common among certain ethnicities are sometimes told as expressions of contempt for those ethnicities.[67]

Marriages between younger brothers and their older sisters were common among the early Udege people.[68]

In the Hawaiian Islands, high ali'i chiefs were obligated to marry their older sisters in order to increase their mana. These copulations were thought to maintain the purity of the royal blood. Another reason for these familial unions was to maintain a limited size of the ruling ali'i group. As per the priestly regulations of Kanalu, put in place after multiple disasters, "chiefs must increase their numbers and this can be done if a brother marries his older sister."[69]

Prevalence and statistics

Incest between an adult and a person under the age of consent is considered a form of child sexual abuse[70][71] that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse; it often results in serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.[72] Its prevalence is difficult to generalize, but research has estimated 10–15% of the general population as having at least one such sexual contact, with less than 2% involving intercourse or attempted intercourse.[73] Among women, research has yielded estimates as high as 20%.[72]

Father–daughter incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest.[74][75] More recently, studies have suggested that sibling incest, particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings, is the most common form of incest,[76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84] with some studies finding sibling incest occurring more frequently than other forms of incest.[85] Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims, abuse victims over a lengthier period, use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators, and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest, with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest.[86][87][88] South Africa,[89] Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan and Nigeria are some of the countries with the most incest through consanguineous marriage.[90]

Types

Between adults and children

Main article: Child sexual abuse

Sex between an adult family member and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse,[91] also known as child incestuous abuse,[92] and for many years has been the most reported form of incest. Father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter sex is the most commonly reported form of adult–child incest, with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother.[93] Many studies found that stepfathers tend to be far more likely than biological fathers to engage in this form of incest. One study of adult women in San Francisco estimated that 17% of women were abused by stepfathers and 2% were abused by biological fathers.[94] Father–son incest is reported less often, but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under-reported.[95][96][97][98] Prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to estimate due to secrecy and privacy.

In a 1999 news story, BBC reported, "Close-knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests. Delhi organisation RAHI said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children—40% of those by a family member."[99]

According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member:

Research indicates that 46% of children who are raped are victims of family members (Langan and Harlow, 1994). The majority of American rape victims (61%) are raped before the age of 18; furthermore, 29% of all rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old. 11% of rape victims are raped by their fathers or stepfathers, and another 16% are raped by other relatives.[100]

A study of victims of father–daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were "common features" within families before the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, and reassignment of some of the mother's traditional major family responsibility to the daughter. Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest. It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to feelings of low self-esteem, very unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women, and other emotional problems.[101]

Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low self-esteem, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and sexual dysfunction, and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, phobic avoidance reactions, somatoform disorder, substance abuse, borderline personality disorder, and complex post-traumatic stress disorder.[72][102][103]

The Goler clan in Nova Scotia is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult/child and sibling/sibling incest took place over at least three generations.[104] A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other. During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children. Sixteen adults (both men and women) were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five.[104] In July 2012, twelve children were removed from the 'Colt' family (a pseudonym) in New South Wales, Australia, after the discovery of four generations of incest.[105][106] Child protection workers and psychologists said interviews with the children indicated "a virtual sexual free-for-all".[107]

In Japan, there is a popular misconception that mother–son incestuous contact is common, due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media. According to Hideo Tokuoka, "When Americans think of incest, they think of fathers and daughters; in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons" due to the extensive media coverage of mother–son incest there.[108] Some western researchers assumed that mother–son incest is common in Japan, but research into victimization statistics from police and health-care systems discredits this; it shows that the vast majority of sexual abuse, including incest, in Japan is perpetrated by men against young girls.[109]

While incest between adults and children generally involves the adult as the perpetrator of abuse, there are rare instances of sons sexually assaulting their mothers. These sons are typically mid-adolescent to young adult, and, unlike parent-initiated incest, the incidents involve some kind of physical force. Although the mothers may be accused of being seductive with their sons and inviting the sexual contact, this is contrary to evidence.[110][111] Such accusations can parallel other forms of rape, where, due to victim blaming, a woman is accused of being at fault for the rape. In some cases, mother–son incest is best classified as acquaintance rape of the mother by the adolescent son.[110][111]

Between children

Childhood sibling–sibling incest is considered to be widespread but rarely reported.[93] Sibling–sibling incest becomes child-on-child sexual abuse when it occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of coercion. In this form, it is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse.[112] The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse of a younger sibling by an older sibling.[93] A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have "distorted" or "disturbed" beliefs (such as that the act was "normal") both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general.[113]

Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling.[114] Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother.[115] The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders.[115][116]

Between adults

Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults on one hand and rape, child molestation, and abusive incest on the other.[117] However, even consensual relationships such as these are still legally classified as incest,[118] and criminalized in many jurisdictions (although there are certain exceptions). James Roffee, a senior lecturer in criminology at Monash University and former worker on legal responses to familial sexual activity in England and Wales, and Scotland,[119] discussed how the European Convention on Human Rights deems all familial sexual acts to be criminal, even if all parties give their full consent and are knowledgeable to all possible consequences.[120] He also argues that the use of particular language tools in the legislation manipulates the reader to deem all familial sexual activities as immoral and criminal, even if all parties are consenting adults.[121]

In Slate, William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults.[122] As he described in his article, in 2003, U.S. Senator Rick Santorum commented on a pending U.S. Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws (primarily as a matter of constitutional rights to privacy and equal protection under the law):

"If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home, then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery."[122]

Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy.[122] UCLA law professor Eugene Volokh has made similar arguments.[123] In a more recent article, Saletan said that incest is wrong because it introduces the possibility of irreparably damaging family units by introducing "a notoriously incendiary dynamic—sexual tension—into the mix".[124]

Aunts, uncles, nieces or nephews

See also: Avunculate marriage

In the Netherlands, marrying one's nephew or niece is legal, but only with the explicit permission of the Dutch Government, due to the possible risk of genetic defects among the offspring. Nephew-niece marriages predominantly occur among foreign immigrants. In November 2008, the Christian Democratic (CDA) party's Scientific Institute announced that it wanted a ban on marriages to nephews and nieces.[125]

Consensual sex between adults (persons of 18 years and older) is always lawful in the Netherlands and Belgium, even among closely related family members. Sexual acts between an adult family member and a minor are illegal, though they are not classified as incest, but as abuse of the authority such an adult has over a minor, comparable to that of a teacher, coach or priest.[126]

In Florida, consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone known to be your aunt, uncle, niece or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree.[127] Other states also commonly prohibit marriages between such kin.[128] The legality of sex with a half-aunt or half-uncle varies state by state.[129]

In the United Kingdom, incest includes only sexual intercourse with a parent, grandparent, child or sibling,[130] but the more recently introduced offence of "sex with an adult relative" extends also as far as half-siblings, uncles, aunts, nephews and nieces.[131] However, the term 'incest' remains widely used in popular culture to describe any form of sexual activity with a relative. In Canada, marriage between uncles and nieces and between aunts and nephews is legal.[132]

Between adult siblings

Main article: Sibling incest

The most public case of adult sibling incest in recent years is the case of a brother-sister couple from Germany, Patrick Stübing and Susan Karolewski. Because of violent behavior on the part of his father, Patrick was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents, who adopted him later. At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents, contacted his mother, and met her and his then 16-year-old sister Susan for the first time. The now-adult Patrick moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter. After their mother died suddenly six months later, the siblings became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001. By 2004, they had four children together: Eric, Sarah, Nancy, and Sofia. The public nature of their relationship, and the repeated prosecutions and even jail time they have served as a result, has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all. An article about them in Der Spiegel states that the couple are happy together. According to court records, the first three children have mental and physical disabilities, and have been placed in foster care.[4] In April 2012, at the European Court of Human Rights, Patrick Stübing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life.[133][134] On 24 September 2014, the German Ethics Council recommended that the government abolish laws criminalizing incest between siblings, arguing that such bans impinge upon citizens.[135][136]

Some societies differentiate between full sibling and half sibling relations.[137][138]

Cousin relationships

See also: Cousin marriage and List of coupled cousins

Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some cultures, but tolerated in much of the world. Currently, 24 US states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances.[139] The United Kingdom permits both marriage and sexual relations between first cousins.[140]

In some non-Western societies, marriages between close biological relatives account for 20% to 60% of all marriages.[141][142][143]

First- and second-cousin marriages are rare, accounting for less than 1% of marriages in Western Europe, North America and Oceania, while reaching 9% in South America, East Asia and South Europe and about 50% in regions of the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia.[144] Communities such as the Dhond and the Bhittani of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins as belief they ensure purity of the descent line, provide intimate knowledge of the spouses, and ensure that patrimony will not pass into the hands of "outsiders".[145] Cross-cousin marriages are preferred among the Yanomami of Brazilian Amazonia, among many other tribal societies identified by anthropologists.

There are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage, in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people. This is notably true in the culture of Korea. In South Korea, before 1997, anyone with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marriage. In light of this law being held unconstitutional, South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins (see Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code). Hmong culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name – to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community, and they are usually stripped of their last name.[146]

In a review of 48 studies on the children parented by cousins, the rate of birth defects was twice that of non-related couples: 4% for cousin couples as opposed to 2% for the general population.[147]

Defined through marriage

Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife's sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, involving, among others, Matthew Boulton[148][149] and Charles La Trobe. The marriages were entered into in Scotland and Switzerland respectively, where they were legal. In medieval Europe, standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity.[citation needed] But in other societies, a deceased spouse's sibling was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother's widow so as to "raise up seed to him".[150] Some societies have long practiced sororal polygyny, a form of polygamy in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other (though not closely related to him).

In Islamic law, marriage among close blood relations like parents, stepparent, parents in-law, siblings, stepsiblings, the children of siblings, aunts and uncles is forbidden, while first or second cousins may marry. Marrying the widow of a brother, or the sister of deceased or divorced wife is also allowed.

Inbreeding

Main article: Inbreeding

Offspring of biologically related parents are subject to the possible impact of inbreeding. Such offspring have a higher possibility of congenital birth defects (see Coefficient of relationship), because it increases the proportion of zygotes that are homozygous for deleterious recessive alleles that produce such disorders[151] (see Inbreeding depression). Because most such alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be heterozygous carriers. However, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such rare deleterious allele present in the common ancestor will be inherited from both related parents is increased dramatically with respect to non-inbred couples. Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes. This has two contrary effects.[152]

  • In the short term, because incestuous reproduction increases zygosity, deleterious recessive alleles will express themselves more frequently, leading to increases in spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects.
  • In the long run, however, because of this increased exposure of deleterious recessive alleles to natural selection, their frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred population, leading to a "healthier" population (with fewer deleterious recessive alleles).

The closer two persons are related, the higher the zygosity, and thus the more severe the biological costs of inbreeding. This fact likely explains why inbreeding between close relatives, such as siblings, is less common than inbreeding between cousins.[153]

There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection).[154]

A 1994 study found a mean excess mortality with inbreeding among first cousins of 4.4%.[155] A 2008 study also found decreased lifespan among offspring of first cousins, but no difference between lifespans after the second cousin level.[156] Children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions. Studies suggest that 20–36% of these children will die or have major disability due to the inbreeding.[9] A study of 29 offspring resulting from brother-sister or father-daughter incest found that 20 had congenital abnormalities, including four directly attributable to autosomal recessive alleles.[157]

Laws

Main article: Legality of incest

Laws regarding sexual activity between close relatives vary considerably between jurisdictions, and depend on the type of sexual activity and the nature of the family relationship of the parties involved, as well as the age and sex of the parties. Prohibition of incest laws may extend to restrictions on marriage rights, which also vary between jurisdictions. Most jurisdictions prohibit parent-child and sibling marriages, while others also prohibit first-cousin and uncle-niece and aunt-nephew marriages. In most places, incest is illegal, regardless of the ages of the two partners. In other countries, incestuous relationships between consenting adults (with the age varying by location) are permitted, including in the Netherlands, France, Slovenia and Spain. Sweden is the only country that allows marriage between half-siblings and they must seek government counseling before marriage.[158]

While the legality of consensual incest varies by country, sexual assault committed against a relative is seen as a very serious crime. In some legal systems, the fact of a perpetrator being a close relative to the victim constitutes an aggravating circumstance in the case of sexual crimes such as rape and sexual conduct with a minor – this is the case in Romania.[159]

Religious and philosophical views

Jewish

Main article: Jewish views on incest

According to the Torah, per Leviticus 18,[160] "the children of Israel"—Israelite men and women alike—are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are "near of kin" (verse 6), who are defined as:

  • Children and their mothers (verse 7)
  • Siblings and half-siblings (verses 9 and 11). Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and they are of the only two kinds of incestuous relationships that are among the particularly singled out relationships—with the other particularly singled out relationships being ones of non-incestuous family betrayal (cf. verse 20) and bestiality (cf. verse 21)
  • Grandparents and grandchildren (verse 10)
  • Aunts and nephews, uncles and nieces, etc. (verses 12–14).[161] Relationships between these are the second kind of relationships that are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and the explicit examples of children-in-law and mothers-in-law (verse 23) serve to remind the Israelites that the parents-in-law are also (or at least should be also) the children-in-laws' aunts and uncles:[162]

And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying: 'The tribe of the sons of Joseph speaketh right. This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying: Let them be married to whom they think best; only into the family of the tribe of their father shall they be married. So shall no inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe; for the children of Israel shall cleave every one to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers. And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may possess every man the inheritance of his fathers. So shall no inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; for the tribes of the children of Israel shall cleave each one to its own inheritance.' Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad. For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons.[163]

Incestuous relationships are considered so severe among chillulim HaShem, acts which bring shame to the name of God, as to be, along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18, punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20.

In the 4th century BC, the Soferim (scribes) declared that there were relationships within which marriage constituted incest, in addition to those mentioned by the Torah. These additional relationships were termed seconds (Hebrew: sheniyyot), and included the wives of a man's grandfather and grandson.[164] The classical rabbis prohibited marriage between a man and any of these seconds of his, on the basis that doing so would act as a safeguard against infringing the biblical incest rules,[165] although there was inconclusive debate about exactly what the limits should be for the definition of seconds.[166]

Marriages that are forbidden in the Torah (with the exception of uncle-niece marriages) were regarded by the rabbis of the Middle Ages as invalid – as if they had never occurred;[167] any children born to such a couple were regarded as bastards under Jewish law,[167] and the relatives of the spouse were not regarded as forbidden relations for a further marriage.[168] On the other hand, those relationships which were prohibited due to qualifying as seconds, and so forth, were regarded as wicked, but still valid;[167] while they might have pressured such a couple to divorce, any children of the union were still seen as legitimate.[167]

Christian

See also: Incest in the Bible

The New Testament condemns relations between a man, "and his father's wife", 1 Corinthians 5:1-5. It is inevitable for Bible literalists to accept that the first children of Adam and Eve would have been in incestuous relations as we regard it today. However, according to the Bible, God's law which forbids incest had not at that time been given to men, and was delivered to Moses after Adam and Eve were created. Protestant Christians who adopt the Old Testament as part of their rule of faith and practice make a distinction between the ceremonial law, and the moral law given to Moses: with the demands of the ceremonial law being fulfilled by Christ's atoning death. Protestants view Leviticus 18:6-20 as part of the moral law and still being applicable which condemns sexual/marriage relations between a man and his mother, sister, step-sister, step mother (if a man has more than one wife it is forbidden for a son to have relations with or marry any of his father's wives), aunt, granddaughter, or a man's brother's wife. Leviticus 18 goes on to condemn relations between a man and the daughter of a woman he is having relations with, and the sister of a woman he has had sexual relations with while the first sister is still alive.

The Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Communion allows marriages up to and including first cousins.[169]

The Catholic Church regards incest as a sin against the Sacrament of Matrimony.[170] For the Catholic Church, at the heart of the immorality of incest is the corruption and disordering of proper family relations. These disordered relationships take on a particularly grave and immoral character when it becomes child sexual abuse.

As the Catechism of the Catholic Church says:

2388 Incest designates intimate relations between relatives or in-laws within a degree that prohibits marriage between them. St. Paul stigmatizes this especially grave offense: 'It is actually reported that there is immorality among you...for a man is living with his father's wife....In the name of the Lord Jesus...you are to deliver this man to Satan for the destruction of the flesh....' Incest corrupts family relationships and marks a regression toward animality. 2389 Connected to incest is any sexual abuse perpetrated by adults on children or adolescents entrusted to their care. The offense is compounded by the scandalous harm done to the physical and moral integrity of the young, who will remain scarred by it all their lives; and the violation of responsibility for their upbringing.[171]

Islamic

Main article: Mahram

The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest, which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with:

  • his father's wife[172] (his mother,[173] or stepmother,[173] his mother-in-law, a woman from whom he has nursed, even the children of this woman),[173]
  • either parent's sister (aunt),[173]
  • his sister, his half sister, a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he, his sister-in-law (wife's sister) while still married. Half relations are as sacred as are the full relations.[173]
  • his niece (child of sibling),[173]
  • his daughter, his stepdaughter (if the marriage to her mother had been consummated), his daughter-in-law.[173]

Cousin marriage finds support in Islamic scriptures and is widespread in the Middle East.[174]

Although Islam allows cousin marriage, there are hadiths attributed to Muhammad calling for distance from the marriage of relatives. However, Muslim scholars generally consider these hadiths unreliable.[175][176]

Zoroastrian

Main article: Xwedodah

In Ancient Persia, incest between cousins is a blessed virtue although in some sources incest is believed to be related to that of parent-child or brothers-sisters.[177] Under Zoroastrianism royalty, clergy, and commoners practiced incest, though the extent in the latter class was unknown.[178][177] This tradition was called Xwedodah[179][180][181] (Avestan: Xᵛaētuuadaθa, romanized: Xvaetvadatha).[178][182] The tradition was considered so sacred, that the bodily fluids produced by an incestuous couple were thought to have curative powers.[177] For instance, the Vendidad advised corpse-bearers to purify themselves with a mixture of urine of a married incestuous couple.[177] Friedrich Nietzsche, in his book The Birth of Tragedy, cited that among Zoroastrians a wise priest is born only by Xvaetvadatha.[183]

To what extent Xvaetvadatha was practiced in Sasanian Iran and before, especially outside the royal and noble families ("dynastic incest") and, perhaps, the clergy, and whether practices ascribed to them can be assumed to be characteristic of the general population is not clear. There is a lack of genealogies and census material on the frequency of Xvaetvadatha.[184][185] Evidence from Dura-Europos, however, combined with that of the Jewish and Christian sources citing actual cases under the Sasanians, strengthen the evidence of the Zoroastrian texts. In the post-Sasanian Zoroastrian literature, Xvaetvadatha is said to refer to marriages between cousins instead, which have always been relatively common.[186] It has been observed that such incestuous acts received a great deal of glorification as a religious practice and, in addition to being condemned by foreigners (though the reliability of these accusations is questionable since accusations of incest were a common way of denigrating other groups),[187] were considered a great challenge by its own proponents, with accounts suggesting that four copulations was deemed a rare achievement worthy of eternal salvation. It has been suggested that because taking up incestuous relations was a great personal challenge, seemingly repugnant even to Zoroastrians of the time, it served as an honest signal of commitment and devotion to religious ideals.[188][185]

Hindu

Rigveda regards incest to be "evil".[189] Hinduism speaks of incest in abhorrent terms. Hindus believe there are both karmic and practical bad effects of incest and thus practice strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy, in relation to the family tree (gotra) or bloodline (Pravara). Marriage within the gotra (swagotra marriage) is banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system.[190] People within the gotra are regarded as kin and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest. Marriage with paternal cousins (a form of parallel-cousin relationship) is strictly prohibited.

Although generally marriages between persons having the same gotra are frowned upon,[191] how this is defined may vary regionally. Depending on culture and caste of the population in the region, marriage may be restricted up to seven generations of gotra of father, mother, and grandmother. In a few rural areas, marriage is banned within same local community.[192]

Stoicism

The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, stated that incest was permissible in Republic, as did the later prominent Stoic philosopher, Chrysippus. However, Zeno only advocated for incest under unique circumstances, for example procreating with one's ailing mother in order to beget 'glorious' children, thus comforting her. Otherwise, incest is condemned as being contrary to Nature. Zeno further condemns incest from a moral and psychological perspective, considering it to be a sign of Plato's tyrannical soul, defined as a soul that is governed by illimitable desire. He uses Oedipus as a tragic example.[193] Nonetheless, later Stoic disciples by the 1st century BC downplayed the pro-incest advocacy, accusing Zeno of being "young and thoughtless" when he wrote Republic.[194]

Animals

See also: Animal sexual behavior
 
Common fruit fly females prefer to mate with their own brothers over unrelated males.[195]

Inbreeding avoidance is rare in animals.[196] North Carolina State University found that bed bugs, in contrast to most other insects, tolerate incest and are able to genetically withstand the effects of inbreeding quite well.[197]

Many species of mammals, including humanity's closest primate relatives, tend to avoid mating with close relatives, especially if there are alternative partners available.[198] However, some chimpanzees have been recorded attempting to mate with their mothers.[199] Male rats have been recorded engaging in mating with their sisters, but they tend to prefer non-related females over their sisters.[200]

Livestock breeders often practice controlled breeding to eliminate undesirable characteristics within a population, which is also coupled with culling of what is considered unfit offspring, especially when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock.

See also

References

Citations
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April 10, 2023
incest, this, article, about, variable, social, legal, religious, cultural, attitudes, sanctions, concerning, human, sexual, relations, with, close, detailed, description, legal, aspects, worldwide, legality, incest, biological, reproducing, with, close, inbre. This article is about the variable social legal religious and cultural attitudes and sanctions concerning human sexual relations with close kin For a detailed description of its legal aspects worldwide see Legality of incest For the biological act of reproducing with close kin see Inbreeding For the descriptive term for blood related kin see Consanguinity For other uses see Incest disambiguation Incest ˈ ɪ n s ɛ s t IN sest is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives 1 2 This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity blood relations and sometimes those related by affinity marriage or stepfamily adoption or lineage It is strictly forbidden and considered immoral in most societies and can lead to an increased risk of genetic disorders in children The incest taboo is one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos both in present and in past societies 3 Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages 3 In societies where it is illegal consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime 4 5 Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as milk siblings step siblings and adoptive siblings albeit sometimes with less intensity 6 7 Third degree relatives such as half aunt half nephew first cousin on average have 12 5 common genetic heritage and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures from being discouraged to being socially acceptable 8 Children of incestuous relationships have been regarded as illegitimate and are still so regarded in some societies today In most cases the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status as incestuous marriages were and are normally also prohibited A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a close genetic relationship 9 Such children are at greater risk of congenital disorders death and developmental and physical disability and that risk is proportional to their parents coefficient of relationship a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically 9 10 However cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding 9 11 12 13 In some societies such as those of Ancient Egypt brother sister father daughter mother son cousin cousin aunt nephew uncle niece and other combinations of relations within a royal family were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage 14 15 Some societies have different views about what constitutes illegal or immoral incest For example in Samoa marriage between a brother and an older sister was allowed while marriage between a brother and a younger sister was declared as unethical 16 However sexual relations with a first degree relative meaning a parent sibling or child are almost universally forbidden dubious discuss 17 Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 Antiquity 2 2 Biblical references 2 3 From the Middle Ages onward 2 4 Others 3 Prevalence and statistics 4 Types 4 1 Between adults and children 4 2 Between children 4 3 Between adults 4 3 1 Aunts uncles nieces or nephews 4 3 2 Between adult siblings 4 3 3 Cousin relationships 4 3 4 Defined through marriage 5 Inbreeding 6 Laws 7 Religious and philosophical views 7 1 Jewish 7 2 Christian 7 3 Islamic 7 4 Zoroastrian 7 5 Hindu 7 6 Stoicism 8 Animals 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksTerminology Edit The number next to each box indicates the degree of relationship relative to the given person The English word incest is derived from the Latin incestus which has a general meaning of impure unchaste It was introduced into Middle English both in the generic Latin sense preserved throughout the Middle English period 18 and in the narrow modern sense The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century 19 Before the Latin term came in incest was known in Old English as sib leger from sibb kinship leger to lie or mǣġhǣmed from mǣġ kin parent hǣmed sexual intercourse but in time both words fell out of use Terms like incester 20 21 22 and incestual 23 24 have been used to describe those interested or involved in sexual relations with relatives among humans while inbreeder has been used in relation to similar behavior among non human animals or organisms 25 History Edit Table of prohibited marriages from The Trial of Bastardie by William Clerke London 1594 Antiquity Edit In ancient China first cousins with the same surnames i e those born to the father s brothers were not permitted to marry while those with different surnames could marry i e maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father s sisters 26 Several of the Egyptian Kings married their sisters and had several children with them to continue the royal bloodline For example Tutankhamun married his half sister Ankhesenamun and was himself the child of an incestuous union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister wife Several scholars such as Frier et al state that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco Roman period Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister of the same father and mother 27 28 29 30 However it has also been argued that available evidence does not support the view that such relations were common 31 32 33 The most famous of these relationships were in the Ptolemaic royal family Cleopatra VII was married to two of her younger brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV whilst her mother and father Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII were also brother and sister Arsinoe II and her younger brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus were the first in the family to participate in a full sibling marriage a departure from custom 34 A union between children of the same parents was very common in both Greek and Macedonian tradition so it evidently caused some degree of astonishment the Alexandrian poet Sotades was put to death for criticizing the wicked nature of the marriage while his contemporary Theokritos more politically compared it to the relationship of Zeus with his older sister Hera Ptolemy and his sister wife Arsinoe put emphasis on their incestuous union through their mutual adoption of the epithet Philadelphos Sibling Lover They were the first full sibling royal couple in the kingdom s known history to produce a child Ptolemy V and for the subsequent century and more the Ptolemies participated in full sibling unions wherever possible 35 It may have been observation of their next door Ptolemaic competitors that guided the Seleukids to their own experimentations with sibling unions The daughter of Antiochus III and Laodice III Laodice IV married her two full blooded older brothers Antiochus and Seleucus IV and also her younger brother Antiochus IV Her second and third brother husbands ruled as king one after the other making her the queen in both her marriages She bore children to all three of her brothers from her union with them One of them was her son Demetrius I who also took the throne at one point and married a full sister of his own Laodice V Laodice V bore her brother husband three children and their marriage is the last known sibling marriage in the kingdom s history 35 Egyptian king Tutankhamun married his half sister Ankhesenamun There are records of brother sister unions in some of the smaller kingdoms of the Hellenistic era though none of them seems to have pursued it with the zeal and resolve of the Ptolemies The Pontic and Kommagenian kingdoms had full sibling unions in a few ages Mithridates IV of Pontus married his sister Laodice the couple adopted the double epithet Philadelphoi which they publicized on their coinage where as Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II they were depicted in jugate coinage with the likeness of Hera and Zeus on the back Mithridates VI Eupator also wed a sister called Laodice In Commagane the later pro Roman King Antiochus III Philokaisar wed his sister Iotapa the couple procreated themselves exactly producing their son Antiochus IV Epiphanes and their daughter Iotapa who would unite with him and also adopt the epithet Philadelphos 35 The fable of Oedipus with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest since Oedipus blinds himself in disgust and shame after his incestuous actions In the sequel to Oedipus Antigone his four children are also punished for their parents incestuousness Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of Adonis when his mother Myrrha has sex with her father Cinyras during a festival disguised as a prostitute In ancient Greece Spartan King Leonidas I hero of the legendary Battle of Thermopylae was married to his niece Gorgo daughter of his half brother Cleomenes I Greek law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers For example some accounts say that Elpinice was for a time married to her half brother Cimon 36 Incest was sometimes acknowledged as a positive sign of tyranny in ancient Greece Herodotus recounts a dream of Hippias son of Pisistratus in which he slept with his own mother and this dream gave him assurance that he would regain power over Athens Suetonius attributes this omen to a dream of Julius Caesar explaining the symbolism of dreaming of sexual intercourse with one s own mother 37 Incest is mentioned and condemned in Virgil s Aeneid Book VI 38 hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos This one invaded a daughter s room and a forbidden sex act Maya king Shield Jaguar II with his aunt wife Lady Xoc AD 709 Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity 39 but had no degrees of affinity with regards to marriage Roman civil laws prohibited any marriage between parents and children either in the ascending or descending line ad infinitum 39 Adoption was considered the same as affinity in that an adoptive father could not marry an unemancipated daughter or granddaughter even if the adoption had been dissolved 39 Incestuous unions were discouraged and considered nefas against the laws of gods and man in ancient Rome In AD 295 incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict which divided the concept of incestus into two categories of unequal gravity the incestus iuris gentium which was applied to both Romans and non Romans in the Empire and the incestus iuris civilis which concerned only Roman citizens Therefore for example an Egyptian could marry an aunt but a Roman could not Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire Roman Emperor Caligula is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters Julia Livilla Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger 40 Emperor Claudius after executing his previous wife married his brother s daughter Agrippina the Younger and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union 41 The law prohibiting marrying a sister s daughter remained 42 The taboo against incest in ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest often false charges as insults and means of political disenfranchisement During the first two centuries A D in Roman Egypt full sibling marriage occurred with some frequency among commoners as both Egyptians and Romans announced weddings that have been between full siblings dubious discuss This is the only evidence for brother sister marriage among commoners in any society 43 Strabo reported that the Persian magi and the Irish had sex with their own mothers Ctesias History of Persia mentions how some Macedonians who saw a performance of Oedipus Tyrannus were perplexed at why Oedipus felt the need to mutilate himself after learning the truth about his birth they booed the actor and urged each other Go for your mother 44 In Norse mythology there are themes of brother sister marriage a prominent example being between Njordr and his unnamed sister perhaps Nerthus parents of Freyja and Freyr Loki in turn also accuses Freyja and Freyr of having a sexual relationship Biblical references Edit The earliest Biblical reference to incest involved Cain It was cited that he knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch 45 During this period there was no other woman except Eve or there was an unnamed sister and so this meant Cain had an incestuous relationship with his mother or his sister 45 According to the Book of Jubilees Cain married his sister Awan 46 47 Later in Genesis 20 48 of the Hebrew Bible the Patriarch Abraham married his half sister Sarah 49 Other references include the passage in Samuel where Amnon King David s son raped his half sister Tamar 50 According to Michael D Coogan it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married her the Bible being inconsistent about prohibiting incest 51 In Genesis 19 30 38 living in an isolated area after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah Lot s two daughters conspired to inebriate and rape their father due to the lack of available partners to continue his line of descent Because of intoxication Lot perceived not when his firstborn and the following night his younger daughter lay with him 52 Moses was also born to an incestuous marriage Exodus 6 53 detailed how his father Amram was the nephew of his mother Jochebed 45 An account noted that the incestuous relations did not suffer the fate of childlessness which was the punishment for such couples in levitical law 54 It stated however that the incest exposed Moses to the peril of wild beasts of the weather of the water and more 54 From the Middle Ages onward Edit Charles II of Spain was born physically disabled likely due to centuries of inbreeding in the House of Habsburg Many European monarchs were related due to political marriages sometimes resulting in distant cousins and even first cousins being married This was especially true in the Habsburg Hohenzollern Savoy and Bourbon royal houses However relations between siblings which may have been tolerated in other cultures were considered abhorrent For example the false accusation that Anne Boleyn and her brother George Boleyn had committed incest was one of the reasons given for both being executed in May 1536 Historians agree that the false accusation against Anne Boleyn and George Boleyn was trumped up in order to ensure the king could go on to marry Jane Seymour 55 Sects deemed heretical such as the Waldensians were accused of incest 56 Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient Japan and Korea 57 Inca Peru Ancient Hawaii and at times Central Africa Mexico and Thailand 58 Like the kings of ancient Egypt the Inca rulers married their sisters Huayna Capac for instance was the son of Topa Inca Yupanqui and the Inca s sister and wife 59 The ruling Inca king was expected to marry his full sister If he had no children by his eldest sister he married the second and third until they had children Preservation of the purity of the Sun s blood was one of the reasons for the brother sister marriage of the Inca king The Inca kings claimed divine descent from celestial bodies and emulated the behavior of their celestial ancestor the Sun who married his sister the Moon Another reason the princes and kings married their sisters was so the heir might inherit the kingdom as much as through his mother as through his father Therefore the prince could invoke both principles of inheritance 60 Half sibling marriages were found in ancient Japan such as the marriage of Emperor Bidatsu and his half sister Empress Suiko 61 Japanese Prince Kinashi no Karu had sexual relationships with his full sister Princess Karu no Ōiratsume although the action was regarded as foolish 62 In order to prevent the influence of the other families a half sister of Korean Goryeo dynasty monarch Gwangjong became his wife in the 10th century Her name was Daemok 63 Marriage with a family member not related by blood was also regarded as contravening morality and was therefore incest One example of this is the 14th century Chunghye of Goryeo who raped one of his deceased father s concubines who was thus regarded to be his mother 64 In India the largest proportion of women aged 13 to 49 who marry their close relative are in Tamil Nadu then Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and Maharashtra While it is rare for uncle niece marriages it is more common in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu 65 66 Others Edit In some Southeast Asian cultures stories of incest being common among certain ethnicities are sometimes told as expressions of contempt for those ethnicities 67 Marriages between younger brothers and their older sisters were common among the early Udege people 68 In the Hawaiian Islands high ali i chiefs were obligated to marry their older sisters in order to increase their mana These copulations were thought to maintain the purity of the royal blood Another reason for these familial unions was to maintain a limited size of the ruling ali i group As per the priestly regulations of Kanalu put in place after multiple disasters chiefs must increase their numbers and this can be done if a brother marries his older sister 69 Prevalence and statistics EditIncest between an adult and a person under the age of consent is considered a form of child sexual abuse 70 71 that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse it often results in serious and long term psychological trauma especially in the case of parental incest 72 Its prevalence is difficult to generalize but research has estimated 10 15 of the general population as having at least one such sexual contact with less than 2 involving intercourse or attempted intercourse 73 Among women research has yielded estimates as high as 20 72 Father daughter incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest 74 75 More recently studies have suggested that sibling incest particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings is the most common form of incest 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 with some studies finding sibling incest occurring more frequently than other forms of incest 85 Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims abuse victims over a lengthier period use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest 86 87 88 South Africa 89 Saudi Arabia Sudan Pakistan and Nigeria are some of the countries with the most incest through consanguineous marriage 90 Types EditBetween adults and children Edit Main article Child sexual abuse Sex between an adult family member and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse 91 also known as child incestuous abuse 92 and for many years has been the most reported form of incest Father daughter and stepfather stepdaughter sex is the most commonly reported form of adult child incest with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother 93 Many studies found that stepfathers tend to be far more likely than biological fathers to engage in this form of incest One study of adult women in San Francisco estimated that 17 of women were abused by stepfathers and 2 were abused by biological fathers 94 Father son incest is reported less often but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under reported 95 96 97 98 Prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to estimate due to secrecy and privacy In a 1999 news story BBC reported Close knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members a new report suggests Delhi organisation RAHI said 76 of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children 40 of those by a family member 99 According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member Research indicates that 46 of children who are raped are victims of family members Langan and Harlow 1994 The majority of American rape victims 61 are raped before the age of 18 furthermore 29 of all rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old 11 of rape victims are raped by their fathers or stepfathers and another 16 are raped by other relatives 100 A study of victims of father daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were common features within families before the occurrence of incest estrangement between the mother and the daughter extreme paternal dominance and reassignment of some of the mother s traditional major family responsibility to the daughter Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life frequently leading to feelings of low self esteem very unhealthy sexual activity contempt for other women and other emotional problems 101 Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low self esteem difficulties in interpersonal relationships and sexual dysfunction and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders including depression anxiety disorders phobic avoidance reactions somatoform disorder substance abuse borderline personality disorder and complex post traumatic stress disorder 72 102 103 The Goler clan in Nova Scotia is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult child and sibling sibling incest took place over at least three generations 104 A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers mothers uncles aunts sisters brothers cousins and each other During interrogation by police several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity up to and including full intercourse multiple times with the children Sixteen adults both men and women were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five 104 In July 2012 twelve children were removed from the Colt family a pseudonym in New South Wales Australia after the discovery of four generations of incest 105 106 Child protection workers and psychologists said interviews with the children indicated a virtual sexual free for all 107 In Japan there is a popular misconception that mother son incestuous contact is common due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media According to Hideo Tokuoka When Americans think of incest they think of fathers and daughters in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons due to the extensive media coverage of mother son incest there 108 Some western researchers assumed that mother son incest is common in Japan but research into victimization statistics from police and health care systems discredits this it shows that the vast majority of sexual abuse including incest in Japan is perpetrated by men against young girls 109 While incest between adults and children generally involves the adult as the perpetrator of abuse there are rare instances of sons sexually assaulting their mothers These sons are typically mid adolescent to young adult and unlike parent initiated incest the incidents involve some kind of physical force Although the mothers may be accused of being seductive with their sons and inviting the sexual contact this is contrary to evidence 110 111 Such accusations can parallel other forms of rape where due to victim blaming a woman is accused of being at fault for the rape In some cases mother son incest is best classified as acquaintance rape of the mother by the adolescent son 110 111 Between children Edit Childhood sibling sibling incest is considered to be widespread but rarely reported 93 Sibling sibling incest becomes child on child sexual abuse when it occurs without consent without equality or as a result of coercion In this form it is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse 112 The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse of a younger sibling by an older sibling 93 A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have distorted or disturbed beliefs such as that the act was normal both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general 113 Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling 114 Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother 115 The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father daughter including substance abuse depression suicidality and eating disorders 115 116 Between adults Edit Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults on one hand and rape child molestation and abusive incest on the other 117 However even consensual relationships such as these are still legally classified as incest 118 and criminalized in many jurisdictions although there are certain exceptions James Roffee a senior lecturer in criminology at Monash University and former worker on legal responses to familial sexual activity in England and Wales and Scotland 119 discussed how the European Convention on Human Rights deems all familial sexual acts to be criminal even if all parties give their full consent and are knowledgeable to all possible consequences 120 He also argues that the use of particular language tools in the legislation manipulates the reader to deem all familial sexual activities as immoral and criminal even if all parties are consenting adults 121 In Slate William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults 122 As he described in his article in 2003 U S Senator Rick Santorum commented on a pending U S Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws primarily as a matter of constitutional rights to privacy and equal protection under the law If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home then you have the right to bigamy you have the right to polygamy you have the right to incest you have the right to adultery 122 Saletan argued that legally and morally there is essentially no difference between the two and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy 122 UCLA law professor Eugene Volokh has made similar arguments 123 In a more recent article Saletan said that incest is wrong because it introduces the possibility of irreparably damaging family units by introducing a notoriously incendiary dynamic sexual tension into the mix 124 Aunts uncles nieces or nephews Edit See also Avunculate marriage In the Netherlands marrying one s nephew or niece is legal but only with the explicit permission of the Dutch Government due to the possible risk of genetic defects among the offspring Nephew niece marriages predominantly occur among foreign immigrants In November 2008 the Christian Democratic CDA party s Scientific Institute announced that it wanted a ban on marriages to nephews and nieces 125 Consensual sex between adults persons of 18 years and older is always lawful in the Netherlands and Belgium even among closely related family members Sexual acts between an adult family member and a minor are illegal though they are not classified as incest but as abuse of the authority such an adult has over a minor comparable to that of a teacher coach or priest 126 In Florida consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone known to be your aunt uncle niece or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree 127 Other states also commonly prohibit marriages between such kin 128 The legality of sex with a half aunt or half uncle varies state by state 129 In the United Kingdom incest includes only sexual intercourse with a parent grandparent child or sibling 130 but the more recently introduced offence of sex with an adult relative extends also as far as half siblings uncles aunts nephews and nieces 131 However the term incest remains widely used in popular culture to describe any form of sexual activity with a relative In Canada marriage between uncles and nieces and between aunts and nephews is legal 132 Between adult siblings Edit Main article Sibling incest The most public case of adult sibling incest in recent years is the case of a brother sister couple from Germany Patrick Stubing and Susan Karolewski Because of violent behavior on the part of his father Patrick was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents who adopted him later At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents contacted his mother and met her and his then 16 year old sister Susan for the first time The now adult Patrick moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter After their mother died suddenly six months later the siblings became intimately close and had their first child together in 2001 By 2004 they had four children together Eric Sarah Nancy and Sofia The public nature of their relationship and the repeated prosecutions and even jail time they have served as a result has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all An article about them in Der Spiegel states that the couple are happy together According to court records the first three children have mental and physical disabilities and have been placed in foster care 4 In April 2012 at the European Court of Human Rights Patrick Stubing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life 133 134 On 24 September 2014 the German Ethics Council recommended that the government abolish laws criminalizing incest between siblings arguing that such bans impinge upon citizens 135 136 Some societies differentiate between full sibling and half sibling relations 137 138 Cousin relationships Edit See also Cousin marriage and List of coupled cousins Maximilian II Holy Roman Emperor married his first cousin Maria of Spain Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some cultures but tolerated in much of the world Currently 24 US states prohibit marriages between first cousins and another seven permit them only under special circumstances 139 The United Kingdom permits both marriage and sexual relations between first cousins 140 In some non Western societies marriages between close biological relatives account for 20 to 60 of all marriages 141 142 143 First and second cousin marriages are rare accounting for less than 1 of marriages in Western Europe North America and Oceania while reaching 9 in South America East Asia and South Europe and about 50 in regions of the Middle East North Africa and South Asia 144 Communities such as the Dhond and the Bhittani of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins as belief they ensure purity of the descent line provide intimate knowledge of the spouses and ensure that patrimony will not pass into the hands of outsiders 145 Cross cousin marriages are preferred among the Yanomami of Brazilian Amazonia among many other tribal societies identified by anthropologists There are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people This is notably true in the culture of Korea In South Korea before 1997 anyone with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marriage In light of this law being held unconstitutional South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins see Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code Hmong culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community and they are usually stripped of their last name 146 In a review of 48 studies on the children parented by cousins the rate of birth defects was twice that of non related couples 4 for cousin couples as opposed to 2 for the general population 147 Defined through marriage Edit Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity For example the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife s sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century involving among others Matthew Boulton 148 149 and Charles La Trobe The marriages were entered into in Scotland and Switzerland respectively where they were legal In medieval Europe standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity citation needed But in other societies a deceased spouse s sibling was considered the ideal person to marry The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother s widow with the exception that if his brother died childless the man is instead required to marry his brother s widow so as to raise up seed to him 150 Some societies have long practiced sororal polygyny a form of polygamy in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other though not closely related to him In Islamic law marriage among close blood relations like parents stepparent parents in law siblings stepsiblings the children of siblings aunts and uncles is forbidden while first or second cousins may marry Marrying the widow of a brother or the sister of deceased or divorced wife is also allowed Inbreeding EditMain article Inbreeding Offspring of biologically related parents are subject to the possible impact of inbreeding Such offspring have a higher possibility of congenital birth defects see Coefficient of relationship because it increases the proportion of zygotes that are homozygous for deleterious recessive alleles that produce such disorders 151 see Inbreeding depression Because most such alleles are rare in populations it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be heterozygous carriers However because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles the probability that any such rare deleterious allele present in the common ancestor will be inherited from both related parents is increased dramatically with respect to non inbred couples Contrary to common belief inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes This has two contrary effects 152 In the short term because incestuous reproduction increases zygosity deleterious recessive alleles will express themselves more frequently leading to increases in spontaneous abortions of zygotes perinatal deaths and postnatal offspring with birth defects In the long run however because of this increased exposure of deleterious recessive alleles to natural selection their frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred population leading to a healthier population with fewer deleterious recessive alleles The closer two persons are related the higher the zygosity and thus the more severe the biological costs of inbreeding This fact likely explains why inbreeding between close relatives such as siblings is less common than inbreeding between cousins 153 There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases Thus similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection 154 A 1994 study found a mean excess mortality with inbreeding among first cousins of 4 4 155 A 2008 study also found decreased lifespan among offspring of first cousins but no difference between lifespans after the second cousin level 156 Children of parent child or sibling sibling unions are at increased risk compared to cousin cousin unions Studies suggest that 20 36 of these children will die or have major disability due to the inbreeding 9 A study of 29 offspring resulting from brother sister or father daughter incest found that 20 had congenital abnormalities including four directly attributable to autosomal recessive alleles 157 Laws EditMain article Legality of incest Laws regarding sexual activity between close relatives vary considerably between jurisdictions and depend on the type of sexual activity and the nature of the family relationship of the parties involved as well as the age and sex of the parties Prohibition of incest laws may extend to restrictions on marriage rights which also vary between jurisdictions Most jurisdictions prohibit parent child and sibling marriages while others also prohibit first cousin and uncle niece and aunt nephew marriages In most places incest is illegal regardless of the ages of the two partners In other countries incestuous relationships between consenting adults with the age varying by location are permitted including in the Netherlands France Slovenia and Spain Sweden is the only country that allows marriage between half siblings and they must seek government counseling before marriage 158 While the legality of consensual incest varies by country sexual assault committed against a relative is seen as a very serious crime In some legal systems the fact of a perpetrator being a close relative to the victim constitutes an aggravating circumstance in the case of sexual crimes such as rape and sexual conduct with a minor this is the case in Romania 159 Religious and philosophical views EditJewish Edit Main article Jewish views on incest According to the Torah per Leviticus 18 160 the children of Israel Israelite men and women alike are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are near of kin verse 6 who are defined as Children and their mothers verse 7 Siblings and half siblings verses 9 and 11 Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27 and they are of the only two kinds of incestuous relationships that are among the particularly singled out relationships with the other particularly singled out relationships being ones of non incestuous family betrayal cf verse 20 and bestiality cf verse 21 Grandparents and grandchildren verse 10 Aunts and nephews uncles and nieces etc verses 12 14 161 Relationships between these are the second kind of relationships that are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27 and the explicit examples of children in law and mothers in law verse 23 serve to remind the Israelites that the parents in law are also or at least should be also the children in laws aunts and uncles 162 And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD saying The tribe of the sons of Joseph speaketh right This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded concerning the daughters of Zelophehad saying Let them be married to whom they think best only into the family of the tribe of their father shall they be married So shall no inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe for the children of Israel shall cleave every one to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers And every daughter that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father that the children of Israel may possess every man the inheritance of his fathers So shall no inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe for the tribes of the children of Israel shall cleave each one to its own inheritance Even as the LORD commanded Moses so did the daughters of Zelophehad For Mahlah Tirzah and Hoglah and Milcah and Noah the daughters of Zelophehad were married unto their father s brothers sons 163 Incestuous relationships are considered so severe among chillulim HaShem acts which bring shame to the name of God as to be along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18 punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20 In the 4th century BC the Soferim scribes declared that there were relationships within which marriage constituted incest in addition to those mentioned by the Torah These additional relationships were termed seconds Hebrew sheniyyot and included the wives of a man s grandfather and grandson 164 The classical rabbis prohibited marriage between a man and any of these seconds of his on the basis that doing so would act as a safeguard against infringing the biblical incest rules 165 although there was inconclusive debate about exactly what the limits should be for the definition of seconds 166 Marriages that are forbidden in the Torah with the exception of uncle niece marriages were regarded by the rabbis of the Middle Ages as invalid as if they had never occurred 167 any children born to such a couple were regarded as bastards under Jewish law 167 and the relatives of the spouse were not regarded as forbidden relations for a further marriage 168 On the other hand those relationships which were prohibited due to qualifying as seconds and so forth were regarded as wicked but still valid 167 while they might have pressured such a couple to divorce any children of the union were still seen as legitimate 167 Christian Edit See also Incest in the Bible The New Testament condemns relations between a man and his father s wife 1 Corinthians 5 1 5 It is inevitable for Bible literalists to accept that the first children of Adam and Eve would have been in incestuous relations as we regard it today However according to the Bible God s law which forbids incest had not at that time been given to men and was delivered to Moses after Adam and Eve were created Protestant Christians who adopt the Old Testament as part of their rule of faith and practice make a distinction between the ceremonial law and the moral law given to Moses with the demands of the ceremonial law being fulfilled by Christ s atoning death Protestants view Leviticus 18 6 20 as part of the moral law and still being applicable which condemns sexual marriage relations between a man and his mother sister step sister step mother if a man has more than one wife it is forbidden for a son to have relations with or marry any of his father s wives aunt granddaughter or a man s brother s wife Leviticus 18 goes on to condemn relations between a man and the daughter of a woman he is having relations with and the sister of a woman he has had sexual relations with while the first sister is still alive The Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Communion allows marriages up to and including first cousins 169 The Catholic Church regards incest as a sin against the Sacrament of Matrimony 170 For the Catholic Church at the heart of the immorality of incest is the corruption and disordering of proper family relations These disordered relationships take on a particularly grave and immoral character when it becomes child sexual abuse As the Catechism of the Catholic Church says 2388 Incest designates intimate relations between relatives or in laws within a degree that prohibits marriage between them St Paul stigmatizes this especially grave offense It is actually reported that there is immorality among you for a man is living with his father s wife In the name of the Lord Jesus you are to deliver this man to Satan for the destruction of the flesh Incest corrupts family relationships and marks a regression toward animality 2389 Connected to incest is any sexual abuse perpetrated by adults on children or adolescents entrusted to their care The offense is compounded by the scandalous harm done to the physical and moral integrity of the young who will remain scarred by it all their lives and the violation of responsibility for their upbringing 171 Islamic Edit Main article Mahram The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with his father s wife 172 his mother 173 or stepmother 173 his mother in law a woman from whom he has nursed even the children of this woman 173 either parent s sister aunt 173 his sister his half sister a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he his sister in law wife s sister while still married Half relations are as sacred as are the full relations 173 his niece child of sibling 173 his daughter his stepdaughter if the marriage to her mother had been consummated his daughter in law 173 Cousin marriage finds support in Islamic scriptures and is widespread in the Middle East 174 Although Islam allows cousin marriage there are hadiths attributed to Muhammad calling for distance from the marriage of relatives However Muslim scholars generally consider these hadiths unreliable 175 176 Zoroastrian Edit Main article Xwedodah In Ancient Persia incest between cousins is a blessed virtue although in some sources incest is believed to be related to that of parent child or brothers sisters 177 Under Zoroastrianism royalty clergy and commoners practiced incest though the extent in the latter class was unknown 178 177 This tradition was called Xwedodah 179 180 181 Avestan Xᵛaetuuada8a romanized Xvaetvadatha 178 182 The tradition was considered so sacred that the bodily fluids produced by an incestuous couple were thought to have curative powers 177 For instance the Vendidad advised corpse bearers to purify themselves with a mixture of urine of a married incestuous couple 177 Friedrich Nietzsche in his book The Birth of Tragedy cited that among Zoroastrians a wise priest is born only by Xvaetvadatha 183 To what extent Xvaetvadatha was practiced in Sasanian Iran and before especially outside the royal and noble families dynastic incest and perhaps the clergy and whether practices ascribed to them can be assumed to be characteristic of the general population is not clear There is a lack of genealogies and census material on the frequency of Xvaetvadatha 184 185 Evidence from Dura Europos however combined with that of the Jewish and Christian sources citing actual cases under the Sasanians strengthen the evidence of the Zoroastrian texts In the post Sasanian Zoroastrian literature Xvaetvadatha is said to refer to marriages between cousins instead which have always been relatively common 186 It has been observed that such incestuous acts received a great deal of glorification as a religious practice and in addition to being condemned by foreigners though the reliability of these accusations is questionable since accusations of incest were a common way of denigrating other groups 187 were considered a great challenge by its own proponents with accounts suggesting that four copulations was deemed a rare achievement worthy of eternal salvation It has been suggested that because taking up incestuous relations was a great personal challenge seemingly repugnant even to Zoroastrians of the time it served as an honest signal of commitment and devotion to religious ideals 188 185 Hindu Edit Rigveda regards incest to be evil 189 Hinduism speaks of incest in abhorrent terms Hindus believe there are both karmic and practical bad effects of incest and thus practice strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy in relation to the family tree gotra or bloodline Pravara Marriage within the gotra swagotra marriage is banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system 190 People within the gotra are regarded as kin and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest Marriage with paternal cousins a form of parallel cousin relationship is strictly prohibited Although generally marriages between persons having the same gotra are frowned upon 191 how this is defined may vary regionally Depending on culture and caste of the population in the region marriage may be restricted up to seven generations of gotra of father mother and grandmother In a few rural areas marriage is banned within same local community 192 Stoicism Edit The founder of Stoicism Zeno of Citium stated that incest was permissible in Republic as did the later prominent Stoic philosopher Chrysippus However Zeno only advocated for incest under unique circumstances for example procreating with one s ailing mother in order to beget glorious children thus comforting her Otherwise incest is condemned as being contrary to Nature Zeno further condemns incest from a moral and psychological perspective considering it to be a sign of Plato s tyrannical soul defined as a soul that is governed by illimitable desire He uses Oedipus as a tragic example 193 Nonetheless later Stoic disciples by the 1st century BC downplayed the pro incest advocacy accusing Zeno of being young and thoughtless when he wrote Republic 194 Animals EditSee also Animal sexual behavior Common fruit fly females prefer to mate with their own brothers over unrelated males 195 Inbreeding avoidance is rare in animals 196 North Carolina State University found that bed bugs in contrast to most other insects tolerate incest and are able to genetically withstand the effects of inbreeding quite well 197 Many species of mammals including humanity s closest primate relatives tend to avoid mating with close relatives especially if there are alternative partners available 198 However some chimpanzees have been recorded attempting to mate with their mothers 199 Male rats have been recorded engaging in mating with their sisters but they tend to prefer non related females over their sisters 200 Livestock breeders often practice controlled breeding to eliminate undesirable characteristics within a population which is also coupled with culling of what is considered unfit offspring especially when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock See also Edit Human sexuality portalAccidental incest Endogamy Exogamy Genetic distance Genetic diversity Genetic sexual attraction Inbreeding Inbreeding avoidance Inbreeding depression Incest in folklore and mythology Incest in popular culture Incest taboo Prohibited degree of kinship Proximity of blood Watta satta Westermarck effectReferences EditCitations Incest Oxford University Press 2013 Archived from the original on 26 June 2013 Retrieved 27 August 2013 Incest Rape Abuse amp Incest National Network RAINN 2009 Retrieved 27 August 2013 a b Bittles Alan Holland 2012 Consanguinity in Context Cambridge University Press pp 178 187 ISBN 978 0521781862 Retrieved 27 August 2013 a b Hipp Dietmar 11 March 2008 German High Court Takes a Look at Incest Der Spiegel Retrieved 12 April 2008 Wolf Arthur P Durham William H 2004 Inbreeding Incest and the Incest Taboo The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century 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Christine A 1988 Healing the Incest Wound Adult Survivors in Therapy W W Norton amp Company p 208 ISBN 978 0 393 31356 7 Nemeroff Charles B Craighead W Edward 2001 The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science New York Wiley ISBN 978 0 471 24096 9 Aeneid by Virgil Book VI hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos this man being punished in Hades invaded a daughter s private room and a forbidden marital relationship Herman Judith 1981 Father Daughter Incest Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press p 282 ISBN 978 0 674 29506 3 Goldman R Goldman J 1988 The prevalence and nature of child sexual abuse in Australia Australian Journal of Sex Marriage and Family 9 2 94 106 doi 10 1080 01591487 1988 11004405 Wiehe Vernon 1997 Sibling Abuse Hidden Physical Emotional and Sexual Trauma Sage Publications ISBN 0 7619 1009 3 Rayment McHugh Sue Ian Nesbit 2003 Sibling Incest Offenders As A Subset of Adolescent Sex Offenders Paper presented at the Child Sexual Abuse 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Cosmides L 2003 Does morality have a biological basis An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 270 1517 819 826 doi 10 1098 rspb 2002 2290 PMC 1691313 PMID 12737660 Bittles A H 2001 A Background Summary of Consaguineous marriage PDF consang net Archived from the original PDF on 27 September 2018 Retrieved 19 January 2010 citing Bittles A H Neel J V 1994 The costs of human inbreeding and their implications for variation at the DNA level Nature Genetics 8 2 117 121 doi 10 1038 ng1094 117 PMID 7842008 S2CID 36077657 Helgason Agnar Palsson Snaebjorn Gudbjartsson Daniel F Kristjansson thordur Stefansson Kari 8 February 2008 An Association Between the Kinship and Fertility of Human Couples Science 319 5864 813 816 Bibcode 2008Sci 319 813H doi 10 1126 science 1150232 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 18258915 S2CID 17831162 Baird P A McGillivray B 1982 Children of incest The Journal of Pediatrics 101 5 854 7 doi 10 1016 S0022 3476 82 80347 8 PMID 7131177 Incest an age old taboo BBC 12 March 2007 retrieved 22 January 2011 See Articles 218 221 of the Romanian Penal Code 2 Hebrew English Bible Leviticus 18 Also see the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsum 142 Numbers 36 Hebrew Bible in English Mechon Mamre www mechon mamre org Hebrew English Bible Leviticus 18 12 14 Yebamot Tosefta 2 3 Yebamot 21a This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Singer Isidore et al eds 1901 1906 incest The Jewish Encyclopedia New York Funk amp Wagnalls a b c d Shulchan Aruk Eben ha Ezer 16 1 Yebamot 94b A Table of Kindred and Affinity Book of Common Prayer Canada 1962 Archived from the original on 29 November 2014 Retrieved 26 December 2014 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2388 Catechism of the Catholic Church 2388 2389 Surah An Nisa 4 22 a b c d e f g Surah An Nisa 4 23 Inhorn Marcia C Chavkin Wendy Navarro Jose Alberto 2014 Globalized Fatherhood New York City Berghahn Books p 245 ISBN 9781782384380 Shaykh Faraz A Khan 7 October 2011 Did the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him Discourage Marrying Cousins SeekersHub Answers SeekersHub Answers Retrieved 12 August 2017 Saleem Ahmed Ph D Cousin Marriage Among Muslims Muslim Council of America Foundation Retrieved 12 August 2017 a b c d Berkowitz Eric 2012 Sex and Punishment Four Thousand Years of Judging Desire Counterpoint Press pp 21 22 ISBN 9781582437965 a b Skjaervo Prods Oktor 2013 Marriage II Next Of Kin Marriage In Zoroastrianism www iranicaonline org Encyclopaedia Iranica online edition Retrieved 20 August 2018 Bigwood Joan M December 2009 Incestuous Marriage in Achaemenid Iran Myths and Realities Klio 91 2 311 341 doi 10 1524 klio 2009 0015 ISSN 0075 6334 S2CID 191672920 Scheidel Walter 1 September 1996 Brother sister and parent child marriage outside royal families in ancient egypt and iran A challenge to the sociobiological view of incest avoidance Ethology and Sociobiology 17 5 319 340 doi 10 1016 S0162 3095 96 00074 X Garcia Maria Olalla 2001 Xwedodah el matrimonio consanguineo en la Persia Sasanida Una comparacion entre fuentes pahlavies y greco latinas Iberia Revista de la Antiguedad in Spanish 4 181 197 ISSN 1699 6909 Jong Albert De 1997 Traditions of the Magi Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature BRILL pp 430 433 ISBN 978 9004108448 The Birth of Tragedy Friedrich Nietzsche Anaconda Verlag 2012 Michael Mitterauer The Customs of the Magians The Problem of Incest in Historical Societies in Roy Porter and Mikulas Teich eds Sexual Knowledge Sexual Science The History of Attitudes to Sexuality Cambridge UK and New York 1994 pp 231 50 a b Fischer Michael MJ Ptolemaic Jouissance and the Anthropology of Kinship A Commentary on Ager The Power of Excess Royal Incest and the Ptolemaic Dynasty Anthropologica 49 no 2 2007 295 299 Jakob Eduard Polak Persien das Land und seine Bewohner ethnographische Schilderungen 2 vols in one Leipzig 1865 tr Kaykavus Jahandari as Safar nama ye Polak Iran wa Iranian Tehran 1982 James Darmesteter Ormazd et Ahriman leurs origines et leur histoire Bibliotheque de l Ecole des hautes etudes Sciences philologiques et historiques 29 Paris 1877 Givens Benjamin P Hirschman Charles 1994 Modernization and Consanguineous Marriage in Iran PDF Journal of Marriage and the Family 56 4 820 34 doi 10 2307 353595 JSTOR 353595 S2CID 143341230 Clarisse Herrenschmidt Le xwetodas ou mariage incestueux en Iran ancien in Pierre Bonte ed Epouser au plus proche inceste prohibitions et strategies matrimoniales autour de la Mediterranee Paris 1994 pp 113 25 Alan H Bittles et al Human Inbreading A Familiar Story Full of Surprises in Helen Macbeth and Prakash Shetty eds Health and Ethnicity Society for the Study of Human Biology Series 41 London 2001 pp 68 78 Porter Roy and Mikulas Teich eds Sexual Knowledge Sexual Science CUP Archive 1994 p 237 Scheidel Walter Evolutionary psychology and the historian The American Historical Review 119 no 5 2014 1563 1575 O Flaherty Wendy Doniger The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology University of California Press p 7 There can be no matrimony between the sects of Gehlawat and Kadiyan as they have a brotherhood akin to consanguinity Haryana panchayat takes on govt over same gotra marriage Indian Express 20 July 2009 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism N Z James G Lochtefeld Rosen Publishing Group 2002 p 526 In India these rules are reproduced in the form of that one must not marry within the Gotra but not without the caste Limitations of Marriage Archived 3 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine sanathanadharma com Hook Brian S January 2005 Oedipus and Thyestes among the Philosophers Incest and Cannibalism in Plato Diogenes and Zeno Classical Philology 100 1 17 40 doi 10 1086 431428 S2CID 161961479 A view attributed to some contemporary Stoics by Philodemus On the Stoics c 2 col 9 ed Dorandi Loyau Adeline Cornuau Jeremie H Clobert Jean Danchin Etienne 10 December 2012 Incestuous Sisters Mate Preference for Brothers over Unrelated Males in Drosophila melanogaster PLOS ONE 7 12 e51293 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 751293L doi 10 1371 journal pone 0051293 PMC 3519633 PMID 23251487 de Boer Raissa A Vega Trejo Regina Kotrschal Alexander Fitzpatrick John L July 2021 Meta analytic evidence that animals rarely avoid inbreeding Nature Ecology amp Evolution 5 7 949 964 doi 10 1038 s41559 021 01453 9 ISSN 2397 334X PMID 33941905 S2CID 233718913 Insect Incest Produces Healthy Offspring 8 December 2011 Wolf Arthur P William H Durham 2004 Inbreeding Incest and the Incest Taboo The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century Stanford University Press p 169 ISBN 978 0 8047 5141 4 Incest not so taboo in nature Livescience retrieved 29 January 2012 Sexual Behaviour In Animals A Sarkar retrieved 29 January 2012 BibliographyBixler Ray H 1982 Comment on the Incidence and Purpose of Royal Sibling Incest American Ethnologist 9 3 August pp 580 582 JSTOR 680655 Leavitt G C 1990 Sociobiological explanations of incest avoidance A critical claim of evidential claims American Anthropologist 92 971 993 JSTOR 644006 Potter David Morris 2007 Emperors of Rome Englewood Cliffs N J Quercus ISBN 978 1 84724 166 5 Sacco Lynn 2009 Unspeakable Father Daughter Incest in American History Johns Hopkins University Press 351 ISBN 978 0 8018 9300 1 Indrajit Bandyopadhyay 29 October 2008 A Study In Folk Mahabharata How Balarama Became Abhimanyu s Father in law Epic India A New Arts amp Culture Magazine Đo Quy Toan Iyer Sriya Joshi Shareen 2006 The Economics of Consanguineous Marriages World Bank Development Research Group Poverty Team Ska Jean Louis 2009 The Exegesis of the Pentateuch Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions Mohr Siebeck pp 30 31 260 ISBN 978 3 16 149905 0 link pp 30 31 Ska Jean Louis 2006 Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch Eisenbrauns ISBN 978 1 57506 122 1 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Incest Wikiquote has quotations related to Incest Incest Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 14 11th ed 1911 Incest at Curlie Incest Sexual Abuse of Children by Patricia D McClendon MSSW Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Incest amp oldid 1147709428, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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