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Permian

April 12, 2024

For other uses, see Permian (disambiguation).

The Permian (/ˈpɜːrmi.ən/ PUR-mee-ən)[4] is a geologic period and stratigraphic system which spans 47 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period 298.9 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic Period 251.902 Mya. It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era; the following Triassic Period belongs to the Mesozoic Era. The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison, who named it after the region of Perm in Russia.[5][6][7][8][9]

Permian
298.9 ± 0.15 – 251.902 ± 0.024 Ma
A reconstruction of the Earth's continents during the middle Permian, c. 275 Ma.
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitPeriod
Stratigraphic unitSystem
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Streptognathodus isolatus within the morphotype Streptognathodus wabaunsensis chronocline.
Lower boundary GSSPAidaralash, Ural Mountains, Kazakhstan
50°14′45″N 57°53′29″E / 50.2458°N 57.8914°E / 50.2458; 57.8914
Lower GSSP ratified1996[2]
Upper boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Hindeodus parvus.
Upper boundary GSSPMeishan, Zhejiang, China
31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058
Upper GSSP ratified2001[3]

The Permian witnessed the diversification of the two groups of amniotes, the synapsids and the sauropsids (reptiles). The world at the time was dominated by the supercontinent Pangaea, which had formed due to the collision of Euramerica and Gondwana during the Carboniferous. Pangaea was surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa. The Carboniferous rainforest collapse left behind vast regions of desert within the continental interior.[10] Amniotes, which could better cope with these drier conditions, rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors.

Various authors recognise at least three,[11] and possibly four[12] extinction events in the Permian. The end of the Early Permian (Cisuralian) saw a major faunal turnover, with most lineages of primitive "pelycosaur" synapsids becoming extinct, being replaced by more advanced therapsids. The end of the Capitanian Stage of the Permian was marked by the major Capitanian mass extinction event,[13] associated with the eruption of the Emeishan Traps. The Permian (along with the Paleozoic) ended with the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the largest mass extinction in Earth's history (which is the last of the three or four crises that occurred in the Permian), in which nearly 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species died out, associated with the eruption of the Siberian Traps. It took well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe;[14][15][16] on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover.[17]

Etymology and history edit

Prior to the introduction of the term "Permian", rocks of equivalent age in Germany had been named the Rotliegend and Zechstein, and in Great Britain as the New Red Sandstone.[18]

The term "Permian" was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, president of the Geological Society of London, after extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Édouard de Verneuil in the vicinity of the Ural Mountains in the years 1840 and 1841. Murchison identified "vast series of beds of marl, schist, limestone, sandstone and conglomerate" that succeeded Carboniferous strata in the region.[19][20] Murchison, in collaboration with Russian geologists,[21] named the period after the surrounding Russian region of Perm, which takes its name from the medieval kingdom of Permia that occupied the same area hundreds of years prior, and which is now located in the Perm Krai administrative region.[22] Between 1853 and 1867, Jules Marcou recognised Permian strata in a large area of North America from the Mississippi River to the Colorado River and proposed the name "Dyassic", from "Dyas" and "Trias", though Murchison rejected this in 1871.[23] The Permian system was controversial for over a century after its original naming, with the United States Geological Survey until 1941 considering the Permian a subsystem of the Carboniferous equivalent to the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian.[18]

Geology edit

The Permian Period is divided into three epochs, from oldest to youngest, the Cisuralian, Guadalupian, and Lopingian. Geologists divide the rocks of the Permian into a stratigraphic set of smaller units called stages, each formed during corresponding time intervals called ages. Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) ratify global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) from a single formation (a stratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The ages of the Permian, from youngest to oldest, are:[24]

Epoch Stage Lower boundary
(Ma)
Early Triassic Induan 251.902 ±0.024
Lopingian Changhsingian 254.14 ±0.07
Wuchiapingian 259.51 ±0.21
Guadalupian Capitanian 264.28 ±0.16
Wordian 266.9 ±0.4
Roadian 273.01 ±0.14
Cisuralian Kungurian 283.5 ±0.6
Artinskian 290.1 ±0.26
Sakmarian 293.52 ±0.17
Asselian 298.9 ±0.15

For most of the 20th century, the Permian was divided into the Early and Late Permian, with the Kungurian being the last stage of the Early Permian.[25] Glenister and colleagues in 1992 proposed a tripartite scheme, advocating that the Roadian-Capitanian was distinct from the rest of the Late Permian, and should be regarded as a separate epoch.[26] The tripartite split was adopted after a formal proposal by Glenister et al. (1999).[27]

Historically, most marine biostratigraphy of the Permian was based on ammonoids; however, ammonoid localities are rare in Permian stratigraphic sections, and species characterise relatively long periods of time. All GSSPs for the Permian are based around the first appearance datum of specific species of conodont, an enigmatic group of jawless chordates with hard tooth-like oral elements. Conodonts are used as index fossils for most of the Palaeozoic and the Triassic.[28]

Cisuralian edit

The Cisuralian Series is named after the strata exposed on the western slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan. The name was proposed by J. B. Waterhouse in 1982 to comprise the Asselian, Sakmarian, and Artinskian stages. The Kungurian was later added to conform to the Russian "Lower Permian". Albert Auguste Cochon de Lapparent in 1900 had proposed the "Uralian Series", but the subsequent inconsistent usage of this term meant that it was later abandoned.[29]

The Asselian was named by the Russian stratigrapher V.E. Ruzhenchev in 1954, after the Assel River in the southern Ural Mountains. The GSSP for the base of the Asselian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near Aqtöbe, Kazakhstan, which was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Streptognathodus postfusus.[30]

The Sakmarian is named in reference to the Sakmara River in the southern Urals, and was coined by Alexander Karpinsky in 1874. The GSSP for the base of the Sakmarian is located at the Usolka section in the southern Urals, which was ratified in 2018. The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of Sweetognathus binodosus.[31]

The Artinskian was named after the city of Arti in Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia. It was named by Karpinsky in 1874. The Artinskian currently lacks a defined GSSP.[24] The proposed definition for the base of the Artinskian is the first appearance of Sweetognathus aff. S. whitei.[28]

The Kungurian takes its name after Kungur, a city in Perm Krai. The stage was introduced by Alexandr Antonovich Stukenberg in 1890. The Kungurian currently lacks a defined GSSP.[24] Recent proposals have suggested the appearance of Neostreptognathodus pnevi as the lower boundary.[28]

Guadalupian edit

The Guadalupian Series is named after the Guadalupe Mountains in Texas and New Mexico, where extensive marine sequences of this age are exposed. It was named by George Herbert Girty in 1902.[32]

The Roadian was named in 1968 in reference to the Road Canyon Member of the Word Formation in Texas.[32] The GSSP for the base of the Roadian is located 42.7m above the base of the Cutoff Formation in Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, and was ratified in 2001. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Jinogondolella nankingensis.[28]

The Wordian was named in reference to the Word Formation by Johan August Udden in 1916, Glenister and Furnish in 1961 was the first publication to use it as a chronostratigraphic term as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage.[32] The GSSP for the base of the Wordian is located in Guadalupe Pass, Texas, within the sediments of the Getaway Limestone Member of the Cherry Canyon Formation, which was ratified in 2001. The base of the Wordian is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Jinogondolella aserrata.[28]

The Capitanian is named after the Capitan Reef in the Guadalupe Mountains of Texas, named by George Burr Richardson in 1904, and first used in a chronostratigraphic sense by Glenister and Furnish in 1961 as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage.[32] The Capitanian was ratified as an international stage by the ICS in 2001. The GSSP for the base of the Capitanian is located at Nipple Hill in the southeast Guadalupe Mountains of Texas, and was ratified in 2001, the beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Jinogondolella postserrata.[28]

Lopingian edit

The Lopingian was first introduced by Amadeus William Grabau in 1923 as the "Loping Series" after Leping, Jiangxi, China. Originally used as a lithostraphic unit, T.K. Huang in 1932 raised the Lopingian to a series, including all Permian deposits in South China that overlie the Maokou Limestone. In 1995, a vote by the Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy of the ICS adopted the Lopingian as an international standard chronostratigraphic unit.[33]

The Wuchiapinginan and Changhsingian were first introduced in 1962, by J. Z. Sheng as the "Wuchiaping Formation" and "Changhsing Formation" within the Lopingian series. The GSSP for the base of the Wuchiapingian is located at Penglaitan, Guangxi, China and was ratified in 2004. The boundary is defined by the first appearance of Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri[33] The Changhsingian was originally derived from the Changxing Limestone, a geological unit first named by the Grabau in 1923, ultimately deriving from Changxing County, Zhejiang .The GSSP for the base of the Changhsingian is located 88 cm above the base of the Changxing Limestone in the Meishan D section, Zhejiang, China and was ratified in 2005, the boundary is defined by the first appearance of Clarkina wangi.[34]

The GSSP for the base of the Triassic is located at the base of Bed 27c at the Meishan D section, and was ratified in 2001. The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Hindeodus parvus.[35]

Regional stages edit

The Russian Tatarian Stage includes the Lopingian, Capitanian and part of the Wordian, while the underlying Kazanian includes the rest of the Wordian as well as the Roadian.[25] In North America, the Permian is divided into the Wolfcampian (which includes the Nealian and the Lenoxian stages); the Leonardian (Hessian and Cathedralian stages); the Guadalupian; and the Ochoan, corresponding to the Lopingian.[36][37]

Paleogeography edit

 
Geography of the Permian world

During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea, with the microcontinental terranes of Cathaysia to the east. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that existed between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Neotethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era.[38] A magmatic arc, containing Hainan on its southwesternmost end, began to form as Panthalassa subducted under the southeastern South China.[39] The Central Pangean Mountains, which began forming due to the collision of Laurasia and Gondwana during the Carboniferous, reached their maximum height during the early Permian around 295 million years ago, comparable to the present Himalayas, but became heavily eroded as the Permian progressed.[40] The Kazakhstania block collided with Baltica during the Cisuralian, while the North China Craton, the South China Block and Indochina fused to each other and Pangea by the end of the Permian.[41] The Zechstein Sea, a hypersaline epicontinental sea, existed in what is now northwestern Europe.[42]

Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.[43] Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

Three general areas are especially noted for their extensive Permian deposits—the Ural Mountains (where Perm itself is located), China, and the southwest of North America, including the Texas red beds. The Permian Basin in the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico is so named because it has one of the thickest deposits of Permian rocks in the world.[44]

Paleoceanography edit

Sea levels dropped slightly during the earliest Permian (Asselian). The sea level was stable at several tens of metres above present during the Early Permian, but there was a sharp drop beginning during the Roadian, culminating in the lowest sea level of the entire Palaeozoic at around present sea level during the Wuchiapingian, followed by a slight rise during the Changhsingian.[45]

Climate edit

 
Selwyn Rock, South Australia, an exhumed glacial pavement of Permian age

The Permian was cool in comparison to most other geologic time periods, with modest pole to Equator temperature gradients. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still in the Late Paleozoic icehouse (LPIA), which began in the latest Devonian and spanned the entire Carboniferous period, with its most intense phase occurring during the latter part of the Pennsylvanian epoch.[46][47] A significant trend of increasing aridification can be observed over the course of the Cisuralian.[48] Early Permian aridification was most notable in Pangaean localities at near-equatorial latitudes.[49] Sea levels also rose notably in the Early Permian as the LPIA slowly waned.[50][51] At the Carboniferous-Permian boundary, a warming event occurred.[52] In addition to becoming warmer, the climate became notably more arid at the end of the Carboniferous and beginning of the Permian.[53][54] Nonetheless, temperatures continued to cool during most of the Asselian and Sakmarian, during which the LPIA peaked.[47][46] By 287 million years ago, temperatures warmed and the South Pole ice cap retreated in what was known as the Artinskian Warming Event (AWE),[55] though glaciers remained present in the uplands of eastern Australia,[46][56] and perhaps also the mountainous regions of far northern Siberia.[57] Southern Africa also retained glaciers during the late Cisuralian in upland environments.[58] The AWE also witnessed aridification of a particularly great magnitude.[55]

In the late Kungurian, cooling resumed,[59] resulting in a cool glacial interval that lasted into the early Capitanian,[60] though average temperatures were still much higher than during the beginning of the Cisuralian.[56] Another cool period began around the middle Capitanian.[60] This cool period, lasting for 3-4 Myr, was known as the Kamura Event.[61] It was interrupted by the Emeishan Thermal Excursion in the late part of the Capitanian, around 260 million years ago, corresponding to the eruption of the Emeishan Traps.[62] This interval of rapid climate change was responsible for the Capitanian mass extinction event.[13]

During the early Wuchiapingian, following the emplacement of the Emeishan Traps, global temperatures declined as carbon dioxide was weathered out of the atmosphere by the large igneous province's emplaced basalts.[63] The late Wuchiapingian saw the finale of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age, when the last Australian glaciers melted.[46] The end of the Permian is marked by a temperature excursion, much larger than the Emeishan Thermal Excursion, at the Permian-Triassic boundary, corresponding to the eruption of the Siberian Traps, which released more than 5 teratonnes of CO2, more than doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.[47] A -2% δ18O excursion signifies the extreme magnitude of this climatic shift.[64] This extremely rapid interval of greenhouse gas release caused the Permian-Triassic mass extinction,[65] as well as ushering in an extreme hothouse that persisted for several million years into the next geologic epoch, the Triassic.[66]

The Permian climate was also extremely seasonal and characterised by megamonsoons,[67] which produced high aridity and extreme seasonality in Pangaea's interiors.[68] Precipitation along the western margins of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean was very high.[69] Evidence for the megamonsoon includes the presence of megamonsoonal rainforests in the Qiangtang Basin of Tibet,[70] enormous seasonal variation in sedimentation, bioturbation, and ichnofossil deposition recorded in sedimentary facies in the Sydney Basin,[71] and palaeoclimatic models of the Earth's climate based on the behaviour of modern weather patterns showing that such a megamonsoon would occur given the continental arrangement of the Permian.[72] The aforementioned increasing equatorial aridity was likely driven by the development and intensification of this Pangaean megamonsoon.[73]

Life edit

 
Hercosestria cribrosa, a reef-forming productid brachiopod (Middle Permian, Glass Mountains, Texas)

Marine biota edit

Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks,[74] brachiopods,[75][76][77] and echinoderms.[78][79] Brachiopods were highly diverse during the Permian. The extinct order Productida was the predominant group of Permian brachiopods, accounting for up to about half of all Permian brachiopod genera.[80] Brachiopods also served as important ecosystem engineers in Permian reef complexes.[81] Amongst ammonoids, Goniatitida were a major group during the Early-Mid Permian, but declined during the Late Permian. Members of the order Prolecanitida were less diverse. The Ceratitida originated from the family Daraelitidae within Prolecanitida during the mid-Permian, and extensively diversified during the Late Permian.[82] Only three families of trilobite are known from the Permian, Proetidae, Brachymetopidae and Phillipsiidae. Diversity, origination and extinction rates during the Early Permian were low. Trilobites underwent a diversification during the Kungurian-Wordian, the last in their evolutionary history, before declining during the Late Permian. By the Changhsingian, only a handful (4-6) genera remained.[83] Corals exhibited a decline in diversity over the course of the Middle and Late Permian.[84]

Terrestrial biota edit

Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, and various types of tetrapods. The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared.[85] The rocks formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements.

The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing. About the middle of the Permian a major transition in vegetation began. The swamp-loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous, such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, were progressively replaced in the continental interior by the more advanced seed ferns and early conifers as a result of the Carboniferous rainforest collapse. At the close of the Permian, lycopod and equisete swamps reminiscent of Carboniferous flora survived only on a series of equatorial islands in the Paleo-Tethys Ocean that later would become South China.[86]

The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups, including the ancestors of many present-day families. Rich forests were present in many areas, with a diverse mix of plant groups. The southern continent saw extensive seed fern forests of the Glossopteris flora. Oxygen levels were probably high there. The ginkgos and cycads also appeared during this period.

Insects edit

 
Fossil and life restoration of Permocupes sojanensis a permocupedid beetle from the Middle Permian of Russia

Insects, which had first appeared and become abundant during the preceding Carboniferous, experienced a dramatic increase in diversification during the Early Permian. Towards the end of the Permian, there was a substantial drop in both origination and extinction rates.[87] The dominant insects during the Permian Period were early representatives of Paleoptera, Polyneoptera, and Paraneoptera. Palaeodictyopteroidea, which had represented the dominant group of insects during the Carboniferous, declined during the Permian. This is likely due to competition by Hemiptera, due to their similar mouthparts and therefore ecology. Primitive relatives of damselflies and dragonflies (Meganisoptera), which include the largest flying insects of all time, also declined during the Permian.[88] Holometabola, the largest group of modern insects, also diversified during this time.[87] The earliest known beetles appear at the beginning of the Permian. Early beetles such as members of Permocupedidae likely xylophagous feeding on decaying wood. Several lineages, such as Schizophoridae expanded into aquatic habitats by the Late Permian.[89] Members of the modern orders Archostemata and Adephaga are known from the Late Permian.[90][91] Complex wood boring traces found in the Late Permian of China suggest that members of Polyphaga, the most diverse group of modern beetles, were also present in the Permian.[92] Based on molecular evidence, Phasmatodea likely originated sometime in the Permian, in conjunction with the spread of insectivory among tetrapods.[93]

Tetrapods edit

 
Restoration of Weigeltisaurus jaekeli, a weigeltisaurid from the Late Permian of Europe. Weigeltisaurids represent the oldest known gliding vertebrates.

The terrestrial fossil record of the Permian is patchy and temporally discontinuous. Early Permian records are dominated by equatorial Europe and North America, while those of the Middle and Late Permian are dominated by temperate Karoo Supergroup sediments of South Africa and the Ural region of European Russia.[94] Early Permian terrestrial faunas of North America and Europe were dominated by primitive pelycosaur synapsids including the herbivorous edaphosaurids, and carnivorous sphenacodontids, diadectids and amphibians.[95][96] Early Permian reptiles, such as acleistorhinids, were mostly small insectivores.[97]

Amniotes edit

Synapsids (the group that would later include mammals) thrived and diversified greatly during the Cisuralian. Permian synapsids included some large members such as Dimetrodon. The special adaptations of synapsids enabled them to flourish in the drier climate of the Permian and they grew to dominate the vertebrates.[95] A faunal turnover occurred at the transition between the Cisuralian and Guadalupian, with the decline of amphibians and the replacement of pelycosaurs with more advanced therapsids.[11] If terrestrial deposition ended around the end of the Cisuralian in North America and began in Russia during the early Guadalupian, a continuous record of the transition is not preserved. Uncertain dating has led to suggestions that there is a global hiatus in the terrestrial fossil record during the late Kungurian and early Roadian, referred to as "Olson's Gap" that obscures the nature of the transition. Other proposals have suggested that the North American and Russian records overlap,[98][99] with the latest terrestrial North American deposition occurring during the Roadian, suggesting that there was an extinction event, dubbed "Olson's Extinction".[100] The Middle Permian faunas of South Africa and Russia are dominated by therapsids, most abundantly by the diverse Dinocephalia. Dinocephalians become extinct at the end of the Middle Permian, during the Capitanian mass extinction event. Late Permian faunas are dominated by advanced therapsids such as the predatory sabertoothed gorgonopsians and herbivorous beaked dicynodonts, alongside large herbivorous pareiasaur parareptiles.[101] The Archosauromorpha, the group of reptiles that would give rise to the pseudosuchians, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs in the following Triassic, first appeared and diversified during the Late Permian, including the first appearance of the Archosauriformes during the latest Permian.[102] Cynodonts, the group of therapsids ancestral to modern mammals, first appeared and gained a worldwide distribution during the Late Permian.[103] Another group of therapsids, the therocephalians (such as Lycosuchus), arose in the Middle Permian.[104][105] There were no flying vertebrates, though the extinct lizard-like reptile family Weigeltisauridae from the Late Permian had extendable wings like modern gliding lizards, and are the oldest known gliding vertebrates.[106][107]

Amphibians edit

Permian stem-amniotes consisted of temnospondyli, lepospondyli and batrachosaurs. Temnospondyls reached a peak of diversity in the Cisuralian, with a substantial decline during the Guadalupian-Lopingian following Olson's extinction, with the family diversity dropping below Carboniferous levels.[108]

Embolomeres, a group of aquatic crocodile-like reptilliomorphs that previously had its last records in the Cisuralian, are now known to have persisted into the Lopingian in China.[109]

Modern amphibians (lissamphibians) are suggested to have originated during Permian, descending from a lineage of dissorophoid temnospondyls.[110]

Fish edit

The diversity of fish during the Permian is relatively low compared to the following Triassic. The dominant group of bony fishes during the Permian were the "Paleopterygii" a paraphyletic grouping of Actinopterygii that lie outside of Neopterygii.[111] The earliest unequivocal members of Neopterygii appear during the Early Triassic, but a Permian origin is suspected.[112] The diversity of coelacanths is relatively low throughout the Permian in comparison to other marine fishes, though there is an increase in diversity during the terminal Permian (Changhsingian), corresponding with the highest diversity in their evolutionary history during the Early Triassic.[111] Diversity of freshwater fish faunas was generally low and dominated by lungfish and "Paleopterygians".[111] The last common ancestor of all living lungfish is thought to have existed during the Early Permian. Though the fossil record is fragmentary, lungfish appear to have undergone an evolutionary diversification and size increase in freshwater habitats during the Early Permian, but subsequently declined during the middle and late Permian.[113] Conodonts experienced their lowest diversity of their entire evolutionary history during the Permian.[114] Permian chondrichthyan faunas are poorly known.[115] Members of the chondrichthyan clade Holocephali, which contains living chimaeras, reached their apex of diversity during the Carboniferous-Permian, the most famous Permian representative being the "buzz-saw shark" Helicoprion, known for its unusual spiral shaped spiral tooth whorl in the lower jaw.[116] Hybodonts, a group of shark-like chondrichthyans, were widespread and abundant members of marine and freshwater faunas throughout the Permian.[115][117]Xenacanthiformes, another extinct group of shark-like chondrichthyans, were common in freshwater habitats, and represented the apex predators of freshwater ecosystems.[118]

Flora edit

 
Map of the world at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary, showing the four floristic provinces

Four floristic provinces in the Permian are recognised, the Angaran, Euramerican, Gondwanan, and Cathaysian realms.[119] The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse would result in the replacement of lycopsid-dominated forests with tree-fern dominated ones during the late Carboniferous in Euramerica, and result in the differentiation of the Cathaysian floras from those of Euramerica.[119] The Gondwanan floristic region was dominated by Glossopteridales, a group of woody gymnosperm plants, for most of the Permian, extending to high southern latitudes. The ecology of the most prominent glossopterid, Glossopteris, has been compared to that of bald cypress, living in mires with waterlogged soils.[120] The tree-like calamites, distant relatives of modern horsetails, lived in coal swamps and grew in bamboo-like vertical thickets. A mostly complete specimen of Arthropitys from the Early Permian Chemnitz petrified forest of Germany demonstrates that they had complex branching patterns similar to modern angiosperm trees.[121]

 
Life reconstruction of Permian wetland environment, showing an Eryops

The oldest likely record of Ginkgoales (the group containing Ginkgo and its close relatives) is Trichopitys heteromorpha from the earliest Permian of France.[122] The oldest known fossils definitively assignable to modern cycads are known from the Late Permian.[123] In Cathaysia, where a wet tropical frost-free climate prevailed, the Noeggerathiales, an extinct group of tree fern-like progymnosperms were a common component of the flora[124][125] The earliest Permian (~ 298 million years ago) Cathyasian Wuda Tuff flora, representing a coal swamp community, has an upper canopy consisting of lycopsid tree Sigillaria, with a lower canopy consisting of Marattialean tree ferns, and Noeggerathiales.[119] Early conifers appeared in the Late Carboniferous, represented by primitive walchian conifers, but were replaced with more derived voltzialeans during the Permian. Permian conifers were very similar morphologically to their modern counterparts, and were adapted to stressed dry or seasonally dry climatic conditions.[121] The increasing aridity, especially at low latitudes, facilitated the spread of conifers and their increasing prevalence throughout terrestrial ecosystems.[126] Bennettitales, which would go on to become in widespread the Mesozoic, first appeared during the Cisuralian in China.[127] Lyginopterids, which had declined in the late Pennsylvanian and subsequently have a patchy fossil record, survived into the Late Permian in Cathaysia and equatorial east Gondwana.[128]

Permian–Triassic extinction event edit

Main article: Permian–Triassic extinction event
 
The Permian–Triassic extinction event, labeled "End P" here, is the most significant extinction event in this plot for marine genera which produce large numbers of fossils

The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology: the Permian–Triassic extinction event. 90 to 95% of marine species became extinct, as well as 70% of all land organisms. It is also the only known mass extinction of insects.[16][129] Recovery from the Permian–Triassic extinction event was protracted; on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover.[17] Trilobites, which had thrived since Cambrian times, finally became extinct before the end of the Permian. Nautiloids, a subclass of cephalopods, surprisingly survived this occurrence.

There is evidence that magma, in the form of flood basalt, poured onto the Earth's surface in what is now called the Siberian Traps, for thousands of years, contributing to the environmental stress that led to mass extinction. The reduced coastal habitat and highly increased aridity probably also contributed. Based on the amount of lava estimated to have been produced during this period, the worst-case scenario is the release of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius.[130]

Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of hydrogen sulfide gas. Portions of the deep ocean will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an anoxic zone, the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available. Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years. Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere allowing ultraviolet radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas.[131] There are species that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide.

Another hypothesis builds on the flood basalt eruption theory. An increase in temperature of five degrees Celsius would not be enough to explain the death of 95% of life. But such warming could slowly raise ocean temperatures until frozen methane reservoirs below the ocean floor near coastlines melted, expelling enough methane (among the most potent greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere to raise world temperatures an additional five degrees Celsius. The frozen methane hypothesis helps explain the increase in carbon-12 levels found midway in the Permian–Triassic boundary layer. It also helps explain why the first phase of the layer's extinctions was land-based, the second was marine-based (and starting right after the increase in C-12 levels), and the third land-based again.[132]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Ogg, Jim (June 2004). . stratigraphy.org. Archived from the original on 2004-02-19. Retrieved April 30, 2006.

External links edit

 
Wikisource has original works on the topic: Paleozoic#Permian
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Permian.
  • University of California offers a more modern Permian stratigraphy
  • Classic Permian strata in the Glass Mountains of the Permian Basin
  • "International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)". Geologic Time Scale 2004. Retrieved September 19, 2005.
  • Examples of Permian Fossils
  • Permian (chronostratigraphy scale)
  • Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke (2012), "Extinguishing a Permian World", Geology, 40 (3): 287–288, Bibcode:2012Geo....40..287S, doi:10.1130/focus032012.1

April 12, 2024
permian, other, uses, disambiguation, ɜːr, geologic, period, stratigraphic, system, which, spans, million, years, from, carboniferous, period, million, years, beginning, triassic, period, last, period, paleozoic, following, triassic, period, belongs, mesozoic,. For other uses see Permian disambiguation The Permian ˈ p ɜːr m i e n PUR mee en 4 is a geologic period and stratigraphic system which spans 47 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period 298 9 million years ago Mya to the beginning of the Triassic Period 251 902 Mya It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era the following Triassic Period belongs to the Mesozoic Era The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison who named it after the region of Perm in Russia 5 6 7 8 9 Permian298 9 0 15 251 902 0 024 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NA reconstruction of the Earth s continents during the middle Permian c 275 Ma Chronology 300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 PaleozoicMzCarboniferousPermianTriassicCisuralianGuadalupLopinAsselianSakmarianArtinskianKungurianRoadianWordianCapitanianWuchiapingianChanghsingian Permian Triassic mass extinction event end Capitanian extinction event Olson s ExtinctionSubdivision of the Permian according to the ICS as of 2022 1 Vertical axis scale millions of years ago EtymologyName formalityFormalUsage informationRegional usageGlobal ICS Time scale s usedICS Time ScaleDefinitionChronological unitPeriodStratigraphic unitSystemTime span formalityFormalLower boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Streptognathodus isolatus within the morphotype Streptognathodus wabaunsensis chronocline Lower boundary GSSPAidaralash Ural Mountains Kazakhstan50 14 45 N 57 53 29 E 50 2458 N 57 8914 E 50 2458 57 8914Lower GSSP ratified1996 2 Upper boundary definitionFAD of the Conodont Hindeodus parvus Upper boundary GSSPMeishan Zhejiang China31 04 47 N 119 42 21 E 31 0798 N 119 7058 E 31 0798 119 7058Upper GSSP ratified2001 3 The Permian witnessed the diversification of the two groups of amniotes the synapsids and the sauropsids reptiles The world at the time was dominated by the supercontinent Pangaea which had formed due to the collision of Euramerica and Gondwana during the Carboniferous Pangaea was surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa The Carboniferous rainforest collapse left behind vast regions of desert within the continental interior 10 Amniotes which could better cope with these drier conditions rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors Various authors recognise at least three 11 and possibly four 12 extinction events in the Permian The end of the Early Permian Cisuralian saw a major faunal turnover with most lineages of primitive pelycosaur synapsids becoming extinct being replaced by more advanced therapsids The end of the Capitanian Stage of the Permian was marked by the major Capitanian mass extinction event 13 associated with the eruption of the Emeishan Traps The Permian along with the Paleozoic ended with the Permian Triassic extinction event the largest mass extinction in Earth s history which is the last of the three or four crises that occurred in the Permian in which nearly 81 of marine species and 70 of terrestrial species died out associated with the eruption of the Siberian Traps It took well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe 14 15 16 on land ecosystems took 30 million years to recover 17 Contents 1 Etymology and history 2 Geology 2 1 Cisuralian 2 2 Guadalupian 2 3 Lopingian 2 4 Regional stages 3 Paleogeography 3 1 Paleoceanography 4 Climate 5 Life 5 1 Marine biota 5 2 Terrestrial biota 5 2 1 Insects 5 2 2 Tetrapods 5 2 3 Amniotes 5 2 4 Amphibians 5 3 Fish 5 4 Flora 6 Permian Triassic extinction event 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksEtymology and history editPrior to the introduction of the term Permian rocks of equivalent age in Germany had been named the Rotliegend and Zechstein and in Great Britain as the New Red Sandstone 18 The term Permian was introduced into geology in 1841 by Sir Roderick Impey Murchison president of the Geological Society of London after extensive Russian explorations undertaken with Edouard de Verneuil in the vicinity of the Ural Mountains in the years 1840 and 1841 Murchison identified vast series of beds of marl schist limestone sandstone and conglomerate that succeeded Carboniferous strata in the region 19 20 Murchison in collaboration with Russian geologists 21 named the period after the surrounding Russian region of Perm which takes its name from the medieval kingdom of Permia that occupied the same area hundreds of years prior and which is now located in the Perm Krai administrative region 22 Between 1853 and 1867 Jules Marcou recognised Permian strata in a large area of North America from the Mississippi River to the Colorado River and proposed the name Dyassic from Dyas and Trias though Murchison rejected this in 1871 23 The Permian system was controversial for over a century after its original naming with the United States Geological Survey until 1941 considering the Permian a subsystem of the Carboniferous equivalent to the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian 18 Geology editThe Permian Period is divided into three epochs from oldest to youngest the Cisuralian Guadalupian and Lopingian Geologists divide the rocks of the Permian into a stratigraphic set of smaller units called stages each formed during corresponding time intervals called ages Stages can be defined globally or regionally For global stratigraphic correlation the International Commission on Stratigraphy ICS ratify global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point GSSP from a single formation a stratotype identifying the lower boundary of the stage The ages of the Permian from youngest to oldest are 24 Epoch Stage Lower boundary Ma Early Triassic Induan 251 902 0 024Lopingian Changhsingian 254 14 0 07Wuchiapingian 259 51 0 21Guadalupian Capitanian 264 28 0 16Wordian 266 9 0 4Roadian 273 01 0 14Cisuralian Kungurian 283 5 0 6Artinskian 290 1 0 26Sakmarian 293 52 0 17Asselian 298 9 0 15For most of the 20th century the Permian was divided into the Early and Late Permian with the Kungurian being the last stage of the Early Permian 25 Glenister and colleagues in 1992 proposed a tripartite scheme advocating that the Roadian Capitanian was distinct from the rest of the Late Permian and should be regarded as a separate epoch 26 The tripartite split was adopted after a formal proposal by Glenister et al 1999 27 Historically most marine biostratigraphy of the Permian was based on ammonoids however ammonoid localities are rare in Permian stratigraphic sections and species characterise relatively long periods of time All GSSPs for the Permian are based around the first appearance datum of specific species of conodont an enigmatic group of jawless chordates with hard tooth like oral elements Conodonts are used as index fossils for most of the Palaeozoic and the Triassic 28 Cisuralian edit The Cisuralian Series is named after the strata exposed on the western slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia and Kazakhstan The name was proposed by J B Waterhouse in 1982 to comprise the Asselian Sakmarian and Artinskian stages The Kungurian was later added to conform to the Russian Lower Permian Albert Auguste Cochon de Lapparent in 1900 had proposed the Uralian Series but the subsequent inconsistent usage of this term meant that it was later abandoned 29 The Asselian was named by the Russian stratigrapher V E Ruzhenchev in 1954 after the Assel River in the southern Ural Mountains The GSSP for the base of the Asselian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near Aqtobe Kazakhstan which was ratified in 1996 The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Streptognathodus postfusus 30 The Sakmarian is named in reference to the Sakmara River in the southern Urals and was coined by Alexander Karpinsky in 1874 The GSSP for the base of the Sakmarian is located at the Usolka section in the southern Urals which was ratified in 2018 The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of Sweetognathus binodosus 31 The Artinskian was named after the city of Arti in Sverdlovsk Oblast Russia It was named by Karpinsky in 1874 The Artinskian currently lacks a defined GSSP 24 The proposed definition for the base of the Artinskian is the first appearance of Sweetognathus aff S whitei 28 The Kungurian takes its name after Kungur a city in Perm Krai The stage was introduced by Alexandr Antonovich Stukenberg in 1890 The Kungurian currently lacks a defined GSSP 24 Recent proposals have suggested the appearance of Neostreptognathodus pnevi as the lower boundary 28 Guadalupian edit The Guadalupian Series is named after the Guadalupe Mountains in Texas and New Mexico where extensive marine sequences of this age are exposed It was named by George Herbert Girty in 1902 32 The Roadian was named in 1968 in reference to the Road Canyon Member of the Word Formation in Texas 32 The GSSP for the base of the Roadian is located 42 7m above the base of the Cutoff Formation in Stratotype Canyon Guadalupe Mountains Texas and was ratified in 2001 The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Jinogondolella nankingensis 28 The Wordian was named in reference to the Word Formation by Johan August Udden in 1916 Glenister and Furnish in 1961 was the first publication to use it as a chronostratigraphic term as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage 32 The GSSP for the base of the Wordian is located in Guadalupe Pass Texas within the sediments of the Getaway Limestone Member of the Cherry Canyon Formation which was ratified in 2001 The base of the Wordian is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Jinogondolella aserrata 28 The Capitanian is named after the Capitan Reef in the Guadalupe Mountains of Texas named by George Burr Richardson in 1904 and first used in a chronostratigraphic sense by Glenister and Furnish in 1961 as a substage of the Guadalupian Stage 32 The Capitanian was ratified as an international stage by the ICS in 2001 The GSSP for the base of the Capitanian is located at Nipple Hill in the southeast Guadalupe Mountains of Texas and was ratified in 2001 the beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of Jinogondolella postserrata 28 Lopingian edit The Lopingian was first introduced by Amadeus William Grabau in 1923 as the Loping Series after Leping Jiangxi China Originally used as a lithostraphic unit T K Huang in 1932 raised the Lopingian to a series including all Permian deposits in South China that overlie the Maokou Limestone In 1995 a vote by the Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy of the ICS adopted the Lopingian as an international standard chronostratigraphic unit 33 The Wuchiapinginan and Changhsingian were first introduced in 1962 by J Z Sheng as the Wuchiaping Formation and Changhsing Formation within the Lopingian series The GSSP for the base of the Wuchiapingian is located at Penglaitan Guangxi China and was ratified in 2004 The boundary is defined by the first appearance of Clarkina postbitteri postbitteri 33 The Changhsingian was originally derived from the Changxing Limestone a geological unit first named by the Grabau in 1923 ultimately deriving from Changxing County Zhejiang The GSSP for the base of the Changhsingian is located 88 cm above the base of the Changxing Limestone in the Meishan D section Zhejiang China and was ratified in 2005 the boundary is defined by the first appearance of Clarkina wangi 34 The GSSP for the base of the Triassic is located at the base of Bed 27c at the Meishan D section and was ratified in 2001 The GSSP is defined by the first appearance of the conodont Hindeodus parvus 35 Regional stages edit The Russian Tatarian Stage includes the Lopingian Capitanian and part of the Wordian while the underlying Kazanian includes the rest of the Wordian as well as the Roadian 25 In North America the Permian is divided into the Wolfcampian which includes the Nealian and the Lenoxian stages the Leonardian Hessian and Cathedralian stages the Guadalupian and the Ochoan corresponding to the Lopingian 36 37 Paleogeography edit nbsp Geography of the Permian worldDuring the Permian all the Earth s major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea with the microcontinental terranes of Cathaysia to the east Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean Panthalassa the universal sea and the Paleo Tethys Ocean a large ocean that existed between Asia and Gondwana The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia causing the Paleo Tethys Ocean to shrink A new ocean was growing on its southern end the Neotethys Ocean an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era 38 A magmatic arc containing Hainan on its southwesternmost end began to form as Panthalassa subducted under the southeastern South China 39 The Central Pangean Mountains which began forming due to the collision of Laurasia and Gondwana during the Carboniferous reached their maximum height during the early Permian around 295 million years ago comparable to the present Himalayas but became heavily eroded as the Permian progressed 40 The Kazakhstania block collided with Baltica during the Cisuralian while the North China Craton the South China Block and Indochina fused to each other and Pangea by the end of the Permian 41 The Zechstein Sea a hypersaline epicontinental sea existed in what is now northwestern Europe 42 Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold continental climate and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea 43 Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment The first modern trees conifers ginkgos and cycads appeared in the Permian Three general areas are especially noted for their extensive Permian deposits the Ural Mountains where Perm itself is located China and the southwest of North America including the Texas red beds The Permian Basin in the U S states of Texas and New Mexico is so named because it has one of the thickest deposits of Permian rocks in the world 44 Paleoceanography edit Sea levels dropped slightly during the earliest Permian Asselian The sea level was stable at several tens of metres above present during the Early Permian but there was a sharp drop beginning during the Roadian culminating in the lowest sea level of the entire Palaeozoic at around present sea level during the Wuchiapingian followed by a slight rise during the Changhsingian 45 Climate edit nbsp Selwyn Rock South Australia an exhumed glacial pavement of Permian ageThe Permian was cool in comparison to most other geologic time periods with modest pole to Equator temperature gradients At the start of the Permian the Earth was still in the Late Paleozoic icehouse LPIA which began in the latest Devonian and spanned the entire Carboniferous period with its most intense phase occurring during the latter part of the Pennsylvanian epoch 46 47 A significant trend of increasing aridification can be observed over the course of the Cisuralian 48 Early Permian aridification was most notable in Pangaean localities at near equatorial latitudes 49 Sea levels also rose notably in the Early Permian as the LPIA slowly waned 50 51 At the Carboniferous Permian boundary a warming event occurred 52 In addition to becoming warmer the climate became notably more arid at the end of the Carboniferous and beginning of the Permian 53 54 Nonetheless temperatures continued to cool during most of the Asselian and Sakmarian during which the LPIA peaked 47 46 By 287 million years ago temperatures warmed and the South Pole ice cap retreated in what was known as the Artinskian Warming Event AWE 55 though glaciers remained present in the uplands of eastern Australia 46 56 and perhaps also the mountainous regions of far northern Siberia 57 Southern Africa also retained glaciers during the late Cisuralian in upland environments 58 The AWE also witnessed aridification of a particularly great magnitude 55 In the late Kungurian cooling resumed 59 resulting in a cool glacial interval that lasted into the early Capitanian 60 though average temperatures were still much higher than during the beginning of the Cisuralian 56 Another cool period began around the middle Capitanian 60 This cool period lasting for 3 4 Myr was known as the Kamura Event 61 It was interrupted by the Emeishan Thermal Excursion in the late part of the Capitanian around 260 million years ago corresponding to the eruption of the Emeishan Traps 62 This interval of rapid climate change was responsible for the Capitanian mass extinction event 13 During the early Wuchiapingian following the emplacement of the Emeishan Traps global temperatures declined as carbon dioxide was weathered out of the atmosphere by the large igneous province s emplaced basalts 63 The late Wuchiapingian saw the finale of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age when the last Australian glaciers melted 46 The end of the Permian is marked by a temperature excursion much larger than the Emeishan Thermal Excursion at the Permian Triassic boundary corresponding to the eruption of the Siberian Traps which released more than 5 teratonnes of CO2 more than doubling the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration 47 A 2 d18O excursion signifies the extreme magnitude of this climatic shift 64 This extremely rapid interval of greenhouse gas release caused the Permian Triassic mass extinction 65 as well as ushering in an extreme hothouse that persisted for several million years into the next geologic epoch the Triassic 66 The Permian climate was also extremely seasonal and characterised by megamonsoons 67 which produced high aridity and extreme seasonality in Pangaea s interiors 68 Precipitation along the western margins of the Palaeo Tethys Ocean was very high 69 Evidence for the megamonsoon includes the presence of megamonsoonal rainforests in the Qiangtang Basin of Tibet 70 enormous seasonal variation in sedimentation bioturbation and ichnofossil deposition recorded in sedimentary facies in the Sydney Basin 71 and palaeoclimatic models of the Earth s climate based on the behaviour of modern weather patterns showing that such a megamonsoon would occur given the continental arrangement of the Permian 72 The aforementioned increasing equatorial aridity was likely driven by the development and intensification of this Pangaean megamonsoon 73 Life edit nbsp Hercosestria cribrosa a reef forming productid brachiopod Middle Permian Glass Mountains Texas Marine biota edit Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks 74 brachiopods 75 76 77 and echinoderms 78 79 Brachiopods were highly diverse during the Permian The extinct order Productida was the predominant group of Permian brachiopods accounting for up to about half of all Permian brachiopod genera 80 Brachiopods also served as important ecosystem engineers in Permian reef complexes 81 Amongst ammonoids Goniatitida were a major group during the Early Mid Permian but declined during the Late Permian Members of the order Prolecanitida were less diverse The Ceratitida originated from the family Daraelitidae within Prolecanitida during the mid Permian and extensively diversified during the Late Permian 82 Only three families of trilobite are known from the Permian Proetidae Brachymetopidae and Phillipsiidae Diversity origination and extinction rates during the Early Permian were low Trilobites underwent a diversification during the Kungurian Wordian the last in their evolutionary history before declining during the Late Permian By the Changhsingian only a handful 4 6 genera remained 83 Corals exhibited a decline in diversity over the course of the Middle and Late Permian 84 Terrestrial biota edit Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants fungi arthropods and various types of tetrapods The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere where extensive dry desert appeared 85 The rocks formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing About the middle of the Permian a major transition in vegetation began The swamp loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria were progressively replaced in the continental interior by the more advanced seed ferns and early conifers as a result of the Carboniferous rainforest collapse At the close of the Permian lycopod and equisete swamps reminiscent of Carboniferous flora survived only on a series of equatorial islands in the Paleo Tethys Ocean that later would become South China 86 The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups including the ancestors of many present day families Rich forests were present in many areas with a diverse mix of plant groups The southern continent saw extensive seed fern forests of the Glossopteris flora Oxygen levels were probably high there The ginkgos and cycads also appeared during this period Insects edit nbsp Fossil and life restoration of Permocupes sojanensis a permocupedid beetle from the Middle Permian of RussiaInsects which had first appeared and become abundant during the preceding Carboniferous experienced a dramatic increase in diversification during the Early Permian Towards the end of the Permian there was a substantial drop in both origination and extinction rates 87 The dominant insects during the Permian Period were early representatives of Paleoptera Polyneoptera and Paraneoptera Palaeodictyopteroidea which had represented the dominant group of insects during the Carboniferous declined during the Permian This is likely due to competition by Hemiptera due to their similar mouthparts and therefore ecology Primitive relatives of damselflies and dragonflies Meganisoptera which include the largest flying insects of all time also declined during the Permian 88 Holometabola the largest group of modern insects also diversified during this time 87 The earliest known beetles appear at the beginning of the Permian Early beetles such as members of Permocupedidae likely xylophagous feeding on decaying wood Several lineages such as Schizophoridae expanded into aquatic habitats by the Late Permian 89 Members of the modern orders Archostemata and Adephaga are known from the Late Permian 90 91 Complex wood boring traces found in the Late Permian of China suggest that members of Polyphaga the most diverse group of modern beetles were also present in the Permian 92 Based on molecular evidence Phasmatodea likely originated sometime in the Permian in conjunction with the spread of insectivory among tetrapods 93 Tetrapods edit nbsp Restoration of Weigeltisaurus jaekeli a weigeltisaurid from the Late Permian of Europe Weigeltisaurids represent the oldest known gliding vertebrates The terrestrial fossil record of the Permian is patchy and temporally discontinuous Early Permian records are dominated by equatorial Europe and North America while those of the Middle and Late Permian are dominated by temperate Karoo Supergroup sediments of South Africa and the Ural region of European Russia 94 Early Permian terrestrial faunas of North America and Europe were dominated by primitive pelycosaur synapsids including the herbivorous edaphosaurids and carnivorous sphenacodontids diadectids and amphibians 95 96 Early Permian reptiles such as acleistorhinids were mostly small insectivores 97 Amniotes edit Synapsids the group that would later include mammals thrived and diversified greatly during the Cisuralian Permian synapsids included some large members such as Dimetrodon The special adaptations of synapsids enabled them to flourish in the drier climate of the Permian and they grew to dominate the vertebrates 95 A faunal turnover occurred at the transition between the Cisuralian and Guadalupian with the decline of amphibians and the replacement of pelycosaurs with more advanced therapsids 11 If terrestrial deposition ended around the end of the Cisuralian in North America and began in Russia during the early Guadalupian a continuous record of the transition is not preserved Uncertain dating has led to suggestions that there is a global hiatus in the terrestrial fossil record during the late Kungurian and early Roadian referred to as Olson s Gap that obscures the nature of the transition Other proposals have suggested that the North American and Russian records overlap 98 99 with the latest terrestrial North American deposition occurring during the Roadian suggesting that there was an extinction event dubbed Olson s Extinction 100 The Middle Permian faunas of South Africa and Russia are dominated by therapsids most abundantly by the diverse Dinocephalia Dinocephalians become extinct at the end of the Middle Permian during the Capitanian mass extinction event Late Permian faunas are dominated by advanced therapsids such as the predatory sabertoothed gorgonopsians and herbivorous beaked dicynodonts alongside large herbivorous pareiasaur parareptiles 101 The Archosauromorpha the group of reptiles that would give rise to the pseudosuchians dinosaurs and pterosaurs in the following Triassic first appeared and diversified during the Late Permian including the first appearance of the Archosauriformes during the latest Permian 102 Cynodonts the group of therapsids ancestral to modern mammals first appeared and gained a worldwide distribution during the Late Permian 103 Another group of therapsids the therocephalians such as Lycosuchus arose in the Middle Permian 104 105 There were no flying vertebrates though the extinct lizard like reptile family Weigeltisauridae from the Late Permian had extendable wings like modern gliding lizards and are the oldest known gliding vertebrates 106 107 Amphibians edit Permian stem amniotes consisted of temnospondyli lepospondyli and batrachosaurs Temnospondyls reached a peak of diversity in the Cisuralian with a substantial decline during the Guadalupian Lopingian following Olson s extinction with the family diversity dropping below Carboniferous levels 108 Embolomeres a group of aquatic crocodile like reptilliomorphs that previously had its last records in the Cisuralian are now known to have persisted into the Lopingian in China 109 Modern amphibians lissamphibians are suggested to have originated during Permian descending from a lineage of dissorophoid temnospondyls 110 nbsp Edaphosaurus pogonias and Platyhystrix Early Permian North America and Europe nbsp Dimetrodon grandis and Eryops Early Permian North America nbsp Ocher fauna Estemmenosuchus uralensis and Eotitanosuchus Middle Permian Ural Region nbsp Titanophoneus and Ulemosaurus Ural Region nbsp Inostrancevia alexandri and Scutosaurus Late Permian North European Russia Northern Dvina Fish edit The diversity of fish during the Permian is relatively low compared to the following Triassic The dominant group of bony fishes during the Permian were the Paleopterygii a paraphyletic grouping of Actinopterygii that lie outside of Neopterygii 111 The earliest unequivocal members of Neopterygii appear during the Early Triassic but a Permian origin is suspected 112 The diversity of coelacanths is relatively low throughout the Permian in comparison to other marine fishes though there is an increase in diversity during the terminal Permian Changhsingian corresponding with the highest diversity in their evolutionary history during the Early Triassic 111 Diversity of freshwater fish faunas was generally low and dominated by lungfish and Paleopterygians 111 The last common ancestor of all living lungfish is thought to have existed during the Early Permian Though the fossil record is fragmentary lungfish appear to have undergone an evolutionary diversification and size increase in freshwater habitats during the Early Permian but subsequently declined during the middle and late Permian 113 Conodonts experienced their lowest diversity of their entire evolutionary history during the Permian 114 Permian chondrichthyan faunas are poorly known 115 Members of the chondrichthyan clade Holocephali which contains living chimaeras reached their apex of diversity during the Carboniferous Permian the most famous Permian representative being the buzz saw shark Helicoprion known for its unusual spiral shaped spiral tooth whorl in the lower jaw 116 Hybodonts a group of shark like chondrichthyans were widespread and abundant members of marine and freshwater faunas throughout the Permian 115 117 Xenacanthiformes another extinct group of shark like chondrichthyans were common in freshwater habitats and represented the apex predators of freshwater ecosystems 118 Flora edit nbsp Map of the world at the Carboniferous Permian boundary showing the four floristic provincesFour floristic provinces in the Permian are recognised the Angaran Euramerican Gondwanan and Cathaysian realms 119 The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse would result in the replacement of lycopsid dominated forests with tree fern dominated ones during the late Carboniferous in Euramerica and result in the differentiation of the Cathaysian floras from those of Euramerica 119 The Gondwanan floristic region was dominated by Glossopteridales a group of woody gymnosperm plants for most of the Permian extending to high southern latitudes The ecology of the most prominent glossopterid Glossopteris has been compared to that of bald cypress living in mires with waterlogged soils 120 The tree like calamites distant relatives of modern horsetails lived in coal swamps and grew in bamboo like vertical thickets A mostly complete specimen of Arthropitys from the Early Permian Chemnitz petrified forest of Germany demonstrates that they had complex branching patterns similar to modern angiosperm trees 121 nbsp Life reconstruction of Permian wetland environment showing an EryopsThe oldest likely record of Ginkgoales the group containing Ginkgo and its close relatives is Trichopitys heteromorpha from the earliest Permian of France 122 The oldest known fossils definitively assignable to modern cycads are known from the Late Permian 123 In Cathaysia where a wet tropical frost free climate prevailed the Noeggerathiales an extinct group of tree fern like progymnosperms were a common component of the flora 124 125 The earliest Permian 298 million years ago Cathyasian Wuda Tuff flora representing a coal swamp community has an upper canopy consisting of lycopsid tree Sigillaria with a lower canopy consisting of Marattialean tree ferns and Noeggerathiales 119 Early conifers appeared in the Late Carboniferous represented by primitive walchian conifers but were replaced with more derived voltzialeans during the Permian Permian conifers were very similar morphologically to their modern counterparts and were adapted to stressed dry or seasonally dry climatic conditions 121 The increasing aridity especially at low latitudes facilitated the spread of conifers and their increasing prevalence throughout terrestrial ecosystems 126 Bennettitales which would go on to become in widespread the Mesozoic first appeared during the Cisuralian in China 127 Lyginopterids which had declined in the late Pennsylvanian and subsequently have a patchy fossil record survived into the Late Permian in Cathaysia and equatorial east Gondwana 128 Permian Triassic extinction event editMain article Permian Triassic extinction event nbsp The Permian Triassic extinction event labeled End P here is the most significant extinction event in this plot for marine genera which produce large numbers of fossilsThe Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology the Permian Triassic extinction event 90 to 95 of marine species became extinct as well as 70 of all land organisms It is also the only known mass extinction of insects 16 129 Recovery from the Permian Triassic extinction event was protracted on land ecosystems took 30 million years to recover 17 Trilobites which had thrived since Cambrian times finally became extinct before the end of the Permian Nautiloids a subclass of cephalopods surprisingly survived this occurrence There is evidence that magma in the form of flood basalt poured onto the Earth s surface in what is now called the Siberian Traps for thousands of years contributing to the environmental stress that led to mass extinction The reduced coastal habitat and highly increased aridity probably also contributed Based on the amount of lava estimated to have been produced during this period the worst case scenario is the release of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius 130 Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of hydrogen sulfide gas Portions of the deep ocean will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an anoxic zone the gas can rise into the atmosphere Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere allowing ultraviolet radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas 131 There are species that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide Another hypothesis builds on the flood basalt eruption theory An increase in temperature of five degrees Celsius would not be enough to explain the death of 95 of life But such warming could slowly raise ocean temperatures until frozen methane reservoirs below the ocean floor near coastlines melted expelling enough methane among the most potent greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to raise world temperatures an additional five degrees Celsius The frozen methane hypothesis helps explain the increase in carbon 12 levels found midway in the Permian Triassic boundary layer It also helps explain why the first phase of the layer s extinctions was land based the second was marine based and starting right after the increase in C 12 levels and the third land based again 132 See also editList of fossil sites with link directory Olson s Extinction List of Permian tetrapodsReferences edit Chart Time Scale www stratigraphy org International Commission on Stratigraphy Davydov Vladimir Glenister Brian Spinosa Claude Ritter Scott Chernykh V Wardlaw B Snyder W March 1998 Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point GSSP for base of the Permian System PDF Episodes 21 11 18 doi 10 18814 epiiugs 1998 v21i1 003 Archived PDF from the original on 4 July 2021 Retrieved 7 December 2020 Hongfu Yin Kexin Zhang Jinnan Tong Zunyi Yang Shunbao Wu June 2001 The Global Stratotype Section and Point GSSP of the Permian Triassic Boundary PDF Episodes 24 2 102 114 doi 10 18814 epiiugs 2001 v24i2 004 Archived PDF from the original on 28 August 2021 Retrieved 8 December 2020 Permian Dictionary com Unabridged Online n d Olroyd D R 2005 Famous Geologists Murchison In Selley R C Cocks L R M Plimer I R eds Encyclopedia of Geology volume 2 Amsterdam Elsevier p 213 ISBN 0 12 636380 3 Ogg J G Ogg G Gradstein F M 2016 A Concise Geologic Time Scale 2016 Amsterdam Elsevier p 115 ISBN 978 0 444 63771 0 Murchison R I de Verneuil E von Keyserling A 1842 On the Geological Structure of the Central and Southern Regions of Russia in Europe and of the Ural Mountains London Richard and John E Taylor p 14 Permian System Zechstein of Germany Magnesian limestone of England Some introductory remarks explain why the authors have ventured to use a new name in reference to a group of rocks which as a whole they consider to be on the parallel of the Zechstein of Germany and the magnesian limestone of England They do so not merely because a portion of deposits has long been known by the name grits of Perm but because being enormously developed in the governments of Perm and Orenburg they there assume a great variety of lithological features Murchison R I de Verneuil E von Keyserling A 1845 Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains Vol 1 Geology London John Murray pp 138 139 Convincing ourselves in the field that these strata were so distinguished as to constitute a system connected with the carboniferous rocks on the one hand and independent of the Trias on the other we ventured to designate them by a geographical term derived from the ancient kingdom of Permia within and around whose precincts the necessary evidences had been obtained For these reasons then we were led to abandon both the German and British nomenclature and to prefer a geographical name taken from the region in which 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ISSN 0017 3134 S2CID 224931916 Archived from the original on 2021 08 14 Retrieved 2021 04 16 Andrew Alden The Great Permian Triassic Extinction About com Education Archived from the original on 2012 11 18 Retrieved 2009 11 05 Palaeos Life Through Deep Time gt The Permian Period Archived 2013 06 29 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 1 April 2013 Kump L R Pavlov A Arthur M A 2005 Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia Geology 33 May 397 400 Bibcode 2005Geo 33 397K doi 10 1130 G21295 1 S2CID 34821866 Benton Michael J Twitchett Richard J 7 July 2003 How to kill almost all life the end Permian extinction event Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18 7 358 365 doi 10 1016 S0169 5347 03 00093 4 Further reading editOgg Jim June 2004 Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points GSSP s stratigraphy org Archived from the original on 2004 02 19 Retrieved April 30 2006 External links edit nbsp Wikisource has original works on the topic Paleozoic Permian nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Permian University of California offers a more modern Permian stratigraphy Classic Permian strata in the Glass Mountains of the Permian Basin International Commission on Stratigraphy ICS Geologic Time Scale 2004 Retrieved September 19 2005 Examples of Permian Fossils Permian chronostratigraphy scale Schneebeli Hermann Elke 2012 Extinguishing a Permian World Geology 40 3 287 288 Bibcode 2012Geo 40 287S doi 10 1130 focus032012 1 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Permian amp oldid 1211038886, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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