Marl

For other uses, see Marl (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Maerl.

Marl is an earthy material rich in carbonate minerals, clays, and silt. When hardened into rock, this becomes marlstone. It is formed in marine or freshwater environments, often through the activities of algae.

Marl

Scala dei Turchi coastal marl formation, southern Sicily

Marl makes up the lower part of the cliffs of Dover, and the Channel Tunnel follows these marl layers between France and the United Kingdom. Marl is also a common sediment in post-glacial lakes, such as the marl ponds of the northeastern United States.

Marl has been used as a soil conditioner and neutralizing agent for acid soil and in the manufacture of cement.

Description

 

Scheme of the transitional lithotypes from mud (or mudstone) to lime (or limestone), illustrating the definition of marl (marlstone) as a mix of calcium carbonate and clay

Marl or marlstone is a carbonate-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt. The term was originally loosely applied to a variety of materials, most of which occur as loose, earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate,^[1] formed under freshwater conditions. These typically contain 35–65% clay and 65–35% carbonate.^[2][3] The term is today often used to describe indurated marine deposits and lacustrine (lake) sediments which more accurately should be named 'marlstone'.^[4]

Marlstone is an indurated (resists crumbling or powdering) rock of about the same composition as marl. This is more correctly described as an earthy or impure argillaceous limestone. It has a blocky subconchoidal fracture, and is less fissile than shale.^[4] The dominant carbonate mineral in most marls is calcite, but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite or dolomite may be present.^[5]

Glauconitic marl is marl containing pellets of glauconite, a clay mineral that gives the marl a green color.^[6] Glauconite is characteristic of sediments deposited in marine conditions.^[7]

Occurrences

 

Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed. For most of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer)

The lower stratigraphic units of the chalk cliffs of Dover consist of a sequence of glauconitic marls followed by rhythmically banded limestone and marl layers.^[8] Such alternating cycles of chalk and marl are common in Cretaceous beds of northwestern Europe.^[9] The Channel Tunnel follows these marl layers between France and the United Kingdom.^[10] Upper Cretaceous cyclic sequences in Germany and marl–opal-rich Tortonian-Messinian strata in the Sorbas basin related to multiple sea drawdown have been correlated with Milankovitch orbital forcing.^[11]

Marl as lacustrine sediment is common in post-glacial lake-bed sediments.^[12][13][14] Chara, a macroalga also known as stonewort, thrives in shallow lakes with high pH and alkalinity, where its stems and fruiting bodies become calcified. After the alga dies, the calcified stems and fruiting bodies break down into fine carbonate particles that mingle with silt and clay to produce marl.^[15] Marl ponds of the northeastern United States are often kettle ponds in areas of limestone bedrock that become poor in nutrients (oligotrophic) due to precipitation of essential phosphate. Normal pond life is unable to survive, and skeletons of freshwater molluscs such as Sphaerium and Planorbis accumulate as part of the bottom marl.^[13]

In Hungary, Buda Marl is found that was formed in the Upper Eocene era. It lies between layers of rock and soil and may be defined it as both "weak rock and strong soil."^[16]

Economic geology

Marl has been used as a soil conditioner and neutralizing agent for acid soil^[13][17] and in the manufacture of Portland cement.^[18] Because some marls have a very low permeability, they have been exploited for construction of the Channel Tunnel between England and France and are being investigated for the storage of nuclear waste.

Historical use in agriculture

Marl is one of the oldest soil amendments used in agriculture. In addition to increasing available calcium, marl is valuable for improving soil structure and decreasing soil acidity^[19] and thereby making other nutrients more available.^[20] It was used sporadically in Britain beginning in prehistoric times^[21] and its used was mentioned by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century.^[22] Its more widespread use from the 16th century on contributed to the early modern agricultural revolution.^[21] However, the lack of a high-energy economy hindered its large-scale use until the Industrial Revolution.^[20]

Marl was used extensively in Britain, particularly in Lancashire, during the 18th century. The marl was normally extracted close to its point of use, so that almost every field had a marl pit, but some marl was transported greater distances by railroad. However, marl was gradually replaced by lime and imported mineral fertilizers early in the 19th century.^[23] A similar historical pattern was seen in Scotland.^[21]

Marl was one a few soil amendments available in limited quantities the southern United States, where soils were generally poor in nutrients, prior to about 1840.^[24] By the late 19th century, marl was being mined on an industrial scale in New Jersey^[25] and was increasingly being used on a more scientific basis, with marl being classified by grade^[26][27] and the state geological survey publishing detailed chemical analyses.^[28]

Modern agricultural and aquacultural uses

Marl continues to be used for agriculture into the 21st century, though less frequently.^[29] The rate of application must be adjusted for the reduced content of calcium carbonate versus straight lime, expressed as the calcium carbonate equivalent. Because the carbonate in marl is predominantly calcium carbonate, magnesium deficiency may be seen in crops treated with marl if they are not also supplemented with magnesium.^[17]

Marl has been used in Pamlico Sound to provide a suitable artificial substrate for oysters in a reef-like environment.^[29]

Portland cement

Marl has been used in the manufacture of Portland cement.^[18] It is abundant and yields better physical and mechanical properties than metakaolin as a supplementary cementitious material^[30] and can be calcined at a considerably lower temperature.^[31][32]

Civil engineering

The Channel Tunnel was constructed in the West Melbury Marly Chalk, a geological formation containing marl beds. This formation was chosen because of its very low permeability, absence of chert, and lack of fissures found in overlying formations. The underlying Glauconitic Marl is easily recognizable in core samples and helped establish the right level for excavating the tunnel.^[33]

Marl soil has poor engineering properties, particularly when alternately wetted and dried.^[34] The soils can be stabilized by adding pozzolan (volcanic ash) to the soil.^[35]

Nuclear waste storage

Some marl beds have a very low permeability and are under consideration for use in the storage of nuclear waste. One such proposed storage site is the Wellenberg in central Switzerland.^[36]

Marl lakes

 

Deposition from a Marl lake inside a sheltered paint can, taken from Siseebakwet Lake

Main article: Marl lake

A marl lake is a lake whose bottom sediments include large deposits of marl.^[18] They are most often found in areas of recent glaciation^[37] and are characterized by alkaline water, rich in dissolved calcium carbonate, from which carbonate minerals are deposited.^[38]

Marl lakes have frequently been dredged or mined for marl, often used for manufacturing Portland cement.^[18] However, they are regarded as ecologically important,^[39] and are vulnerable to damage by silting, nutrient pollution, drainage, and invasive species. In Britain, only the marl lakes of the more remote parts of northern Scotland are likely to remain pristine into the near future.^[38]

See also

• Agricultural lime – soil additive containing calcium carbonate and other ingredientsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• Keuper marl

References

Citations

1. Boggs 2006, p. 172.
2. Pettijohn (1957), pp. 368–369.
3. Blatt & Tracy 1996, p. 217.
4. Pettijohn (1957), pp. 410–411.
5. Perri, Dominici & Critelli (2015).
6. Nourmohamadi et al. 2020, pp. 29–38.
7. Nesse 2000, p. 249.
8. Bristow, Mortimore & Wood 1997.
9. Lauridsen & Surlyk 2008.
10. Harris 1996, p. 57.
11. Krijgsman (2001).
12. Murphy & Wilkinson (1980).
13. Parker 2005.
14. Wiik et al. (2015b).
15. Leeder 2011, p. 663.
16. Görög 2007.
17. Warncke 2015.
18. Jackson 1997, "marl lake".
19. Mathew 1993.
20. Winiwarter & Blum 2008.
21. Dodgshon 1978.
22. Frossard et al. 2009.
23. Shannon 2020.
24. Sheridan 1979.
25. Geological Survey of New Jersey (1880), p. 184.
26. Woll (1896), p. 295.
27. New Jersey State Centennial Board (1877), p. 203.
28. Geological Survey of New Jersey (1887).
29. Morse & Smith 2011.
30. Rakhimov et al. 2017.
31. Soltani, Tarighat & Varmazyari 2018.
32. Rakhimova et al. 2018.
33. Rankin & Williams 2012.
34. Miščević 2020.
35. Bahadori, Hasheminezhad & Taghizadeh 2019.
36. Pearson & Scholtis 2021.
37. Duston, Owen & Wilkinson 1986.
38. Pentecost 2009.
39. EPA Catchments Unit 2020.

Bibliography

• New Jersey State Centennial Board (1877). Report of the New Jersey Commissioners on the Centennial Exhibition. Naar, Day, & Naar, printers. p. 203. Retrieved 2017-01-06.
• Geological Survey of New Jersey (1880). Annual Report of the State Geologist. p. 184. Retrieved 2017-01-06.
• Geological Survey of New Jersey (1887). Annual Report of the State Geologist. pp. 193–.
• Woll, F. W. (1896). "The Marls of Wisconsin". Thirteenth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin. Vol. 13. Madison, WI: Democrat Printing Company. p. 295. Retrieved 2017-01-06.
• Bahadori, Hadi; Hasheminezhad, Araz; Taghizadeh, Farshad (February 2019). "Experimental Study on Marl Soil Stabilization Using Natural Pozzolans". Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 31 (2): 04018363. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002577. S2CID 139402321.
• Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology : igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0716724383.
• Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 172. ISBN 0131547283.
• Bristow, Roger; Mortimore, Rory; Wood, Christopher (January 1997). "Lithostratigraphy for mapping the Chalk of southern England". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 108 (4): 293–315. doi:10.1016/S0016-7878(97)80014-4.
• Dodgshon, Robert A. (1978). "Land Improvement in Scottish Farming: Marl and Lime in Roxburghshire and Berwickshire in the Eighteenth Century". The Agricultural History Review. 26 (1): 1–14. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.682.5686. JSTOR 40273909.
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• Harris, C.S.; et al., eds. (1996). Engineering Geology of the Channel Tunnel. London: Thomas Telford. p. 57. ISBN 0-7277-2045-7.
• EPA Catchments Unit (28 January 2020). "Lough Carra marl lake - protecting one of Ireland's most unique and threatened habitats". Catchments.ie. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
• Frossard, E.; Bünemann, E.; Jansa, J.; Oberson, A.; Feller, C. (2009). "Concepts and practices of nutrient management in agro-ecosystems: Can we draw lessons from history to design future sustainable agricultural production systems" (PDF). Die Bodenkultur. 60 (1): 43–60. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
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• Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
• Krijgsman, W. (2001). "Astrochronology for the Messinian Sorbas basin (SE Spain) and orbital (precessional) forcing for evaporite cyclicity" (PDF). Sedimentary Geology. 140 (1–2): 43–60. Bibcode:2001SedG..140...43K. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00171-8. hdl:1874/1632.
• Lauridsen, B.W.; Surlyk, F. (November 2008). "Benthic faunal response to late Maastrichtian chalk–marl cyclicity at Rørdal, Denmark". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 269 (1–2): 38–53. Bibcode:2008PPP...269...38L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.07.001.
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• Mathew, W. M. (1993). "Marling in British Agriculture: A Case of Partial Identity". The Agricultural History Review. 41 (2): 97–110. JSTOR 40274955.
• Miščević, P. (2020). "Effect of drying and wetting on mechanical characteristics of Eocene flysch marl". Geotechnical hazards. Boca Raton. pp. 737–741. doi:10.1201/9781003078173-99. ISBN 9781003078173. S2CID 229434489. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
• Morse, David; Smith, Michael (2011). "Marl in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina: From Agriculture to Aquaculture". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. 43 (2): 8. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
• Murphy, David H.; Wilkinson, Bruce H. (April 1980). "Carbonate deposition and facies distribution in a central Michigan marl lake". Sedimentology. 27 (2): 123–135. Bibcode:1980Sedim..27..123M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1980.tb01164.x. hdl:2027.42/72142.
• Nesse, William D. (2000). Introduction to mineralogy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195106916.
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• Pearson, F.J.; Scholtis, A. (2021). "Controls on the chemistry of pore water in a marl of very low permeability". Water-rock interaction : proceedings of the 8th International Symposium, WRI-8, Vladivostok, Russia, 15-19 August 1995 (1st ed.). London. doi:10.1201/9780203734049-8. ISBN 9780203734049. S2CID 237834210. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
• Pentecost, Allan (December 2009). "The Marl Lakes of the British Isles". Freshwater Reviews. 2 (2): 167–197. doi:10.1608/FRJ-2.2.4. S2CID 86157620.
• Perri, Francesco; Dominici, Rocco; Critelli, Salvatore (March 2015). "Stratigraphy, composition and provenance of argillaceous marls from the Calcare di Base Formation, Rossano Basin (northeastern Calabria)". Geological Magazine. 152 (2): 193–209. Bibcode:2015GeoM..152..193P. doi:10.1017/S0016756814000089. S2CID 129302757.
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• Rakhimov, Ravil Z.; Rakhimova, Nailia R.; Gaifullin, Albert R.; Morozov, Vladimir P. (May 2017). "Properties of Portland cement pastes enriched with addition of calcined marl". Journal of Building Engineering. 11: 30–36. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2017.03.007.
• Rakhimova, Nailia R.; Rakhimov, Ravil Z.; Morozov, Vladimir P.; Gaifullin, Albert R.; Potapova, Ludmila I.; Gubaidullina, Alfiya M.; Osin, Yury N. (July 2018). "Marl-based geopolymers incorporated with limestone: A feasibility study". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 492: 1–10. Bibcode:2018JNCS..492....1R. doi:10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2018.04.015. S2CID 102945891.
• Rankin, Bill; Williams, Ron (2012). "Channel Tunnel". The Geological Society. The Geological Society of London. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
• Shannon, W.D. (2020). "'An excellent improver of the soil': Marl and the landscape of lowland Lancashire". Agricultural History Review. 68 (2): 141–167. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
• Sheridan, Richard C. (1979). "Chemical Fertilizers in Southern Agriculture". Agricultural History. 53 (1): 308–18. JSTOR 3742878.
• Soltani, Abolfazl; Tarighat, Amir; Varmazyari, Masoud (November 2018). "Calcined Marl and Condensed Silica Fume as Partial Replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement". International Journal of Civil Engineering. 16 (11): 1549–1559. doi:10.1007/s40999-018-0289-9. S2CID 117404684.
• Warncke, Darryl (10 November 2015). "Lime for Michigan Soils". MSU Extension Agriculture. Michigan State University. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
• Wiik, Emma; Bennion, Helen; Sayer, Carl D.; Davidson, Thomas A.; Clarke, Stewart J.; McGowan, Suzanne; Prentice, Stephen; Simpson, Gavin L.; Stone, Laura (12 August 2015a). "The coming and going of a marl lake: multi-indicator palaeolimnology reveals abrupt ecological change and alternative views of reference conditions". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 3. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00082.
• Wiik, Emma; Bennion, Helen; Sayer, Carl D.; Davidson, Thomas A.; McGowan, Suzanne; Patmore, Ian R.; Clarke, Stewart J. (November 2015b). "Ecological sensitivity of marl lakes to nutrient enrichment: evidence from Hawes Water, UK". Freshwater Biology. 60 (11): 2226–2247. doi:10.1111/fwb.12650.
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Further reading

• Schurrenberger, D., Russell, J. and Kerry Kelts. 2003. Classification of lacustrine sediments based on sedimentary components. Journal of Paleolimnology 29: 141–154.

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marl.

 

Look up marl in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Chalk of Kent by C. S. Harris