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Io (moon)

April 14, 2024

"Jupiter I" redirects here. For other uses, see Jupiter 1.

Io (/ˈaɪ.oʊ/), or Jupiter I, is the innermost and second-smallest of the four Galilean moons of the planet Jupiter. Slightly larger than Earth's moon, Io is the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System, has the highest density of any moon, the strongest surface gravity of any moon, and the lowest amount of water by atomic ratio of any known astronomical object in the Solar System. It was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and was named after the mythological character Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of Zeus's lovers.

Io
Enhanced color image of Io from the Galileo spacecraft, taken in 1999.
Discovery
Discovered byGalileo Galilei
Discovery date8 January 1610[1]
Designations
Pronunciation/ˈaɪ.oʊ/[2] or as Greco-Latin Īō (approximated as /ˈiː.oʊ/)[citation needed]
Named after
Ἰώ Īō
Jupiter I
AdjectivesIonian /aɪˈoʊniən/[3][4]
Orbital characteristics
Periapsis420000 km (0.002808 AU)
Apoapsis423400 km (0.002830 AU)
Mean orbit radius
421700 km (0.002819 AU)
Eccentricity0.0040313019
1.769137786 d (152853.5047 s, 42.45930686 h)
17.334 km/s
Inclination0.05° (to Jupiter's equator)
2.213° (to the ecliptic)
Satellite ofJupiter
GroupGalilean moon
Physical characteristics
Dimensions3,660.0 × 3,637.4 × 3,630.6 km[5]
Mean radius
1821.6±0.5 km (0.28592 Earths)[6]
41698064.7357 km2 (0.082 Earths)
Volume2.5319064907×1010 km3 (0.023 Earths)
Mass(8.931938±0.000018)×1022 kg (0.015 Earths)[6]
Mean density
3.528±0.006 g/cm3 (0.639 Earths)[6]
1.796502844 m/s2 (0.1831923077 g)
0.37824±0.00022[7]
2,558.3174910781 m/s
synchronous
Equatorial rotation velocity
271 km/h
Albedo0.63±0.02[6]
Surface temp. min mean max
Surface 90 K 110 K 130 K[8]
5.02 (opposition)[9]
1.2 arcseconds[10]
Atmosphere
Surface pressure
0.5 to 4 mPa (4.93×10−9 to 3.95×10−8 atm)
Composition by volume90% sulfur dioxide

With over 400 active volcanoes, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System.[11][12][13] This extreme geologic activity is the result of tidal heating from friction generated within Io's interior as it is pulled between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons—Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Several volcanoes produce plumes of sulfur and sulfur dioxide that climb as high as 500 km (300 mi) above the surface. Io's surface is also dotted with more than 100 mountains that have been uplifted by extensive compression at the base of Io's silicate crust. Some of these peaks are taller than Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth's surface.[14] Unlike most moons in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of water ice, Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core. Most of Io's surface is composed of extensive plains with a frosty coating of sulfur and sulfur dioxide.

Io's volcanism is responsible for many of its unique features. Its volcanic plumes and lava flows produce large surface changes and paint the surface in various subtle shades of yellow, red, white, black, and green, largely due to allotropes and compounds of sulfur. Numerous extensive lava flows, several more than 500 km (300 mi) in length, also mark the surface. The materials produced by this volcanism make up Io's thin, patchy atmosphere, and they also greatly affect the nature and radiation levels of Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere. Io's volcanic ejecta also produce a large, intense plasma torus around Jupiter, creating a hostile radiation environment on and around the moon; Io receives about 3,600 rem (36 Sv) of ionizing radiation per day.[15]

Io played a significant role in the development of astronomy in the 17th and 18th centuries; discovered in January 1610 by Galileo Galilei, along with the other Galilean satellites, this discovery furthered the adoption of the Copernican model of the Solar System, the development of Kepler's laws of motion, and the first measurement of the speed of light. In 1979, the two Voyager spacecraft revealed Io to be a geologically active world, with numerous volcanic features, large mountains, and a young surface with no obvious impact craters. The Galileo spacecraft performed several close flybys in the 1990s and early 2000s, obtaining data about Io's interior structure and surface composition. These spacecraft also revealed the relationship between Io and Jupiter's magnetosphere and the existence of a belt of high-energy radiation centered on Io's orbit. Further observations have been made by Cassini–Huygens in 2000, New Horizons in 2007, and Juno since 2017, as well as from Earth-based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope.

Nomenclature edit

Main article: Galilean moons § Names
See also: List of regions on Io, List of volcanic features on Io, and List of mountains on Io
 
Size comparison between Io (lower left), the Moon (upper left) and Earth

Although Simon Marius is not credited with the sole discovery of the Galilean satellites, his names for the moons were adopted.[16] In his 1614 publication Mundus Iovialis anno M.DC.IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici, he proposed several alternative names for the innermost of the large moons of Jupiter, including "The Mercury of Jupiter" and "The First of the Jovian Planets".[16][17] Based on a suggestion from Johannes Kepler in October 1613, he also devised a naming scheme whereby each moon was named for a lover of the Greek god Zeus or his Roman equivalent, Jupiter. He named the innermost large moon of Jupiter after the Greek Io:[18][16]

Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves. Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success. Io, daughter of the River Inachus, Callisto of Lycaon, Europa of Agenor. Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell... I think, therefore, that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io, the Second Europa, the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede, the Fourth Callisto...[16]

Marius's names were not widely adopted until centuries later (mid-20th century).[19] In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Io was generally referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system introduced by Galileo) as "Jupiter I",[20] or as "the first satellite of Jupiter".[21][22]

The customary English pronunciation of the name is /ˈaɪoʊ/,[23] though sometimes people attempt a more 'authentic' pronunciation, /ˈiːoʊ/.[24] The name has two competing stems in Latin: Īō and (rarely) Īōn.[25] The latter is the basis of the English adjectival form, Ionian.[26][27][28]

Features on Io are named after characters and places from the Io myth, as well as deities of fire, volcanoes, the Sun, and thunder from various myths, and characters and places from Dante's Inferno: names appropriate to the volcanic nature of the surface.[29] Since the surface was first seen up close by Voyager 1, the International Astronomical Union has approved 249 names for Io's volcanoes, mountains, plateaus, and large albedo features. The approved feature categories used for Io for different types of volcanic features include patera ('saucer'; volcanic depression), fluctus ('flow'; lava flow), vallis ('valley'; lava channel), and active eruptive center (location where plume activity was the first sign of volcanic activity at a particular volcano). Named mountains, plateaus, layered terrain, and shield volcanoes include the terms mons, mensa ('table'), planum, and tholus ('rotunda'), respectively.[29] Named, bright albedo regions use the term regio. Examples of named features are Prometheus, Pan Mensa, Tvashtar Paterae, and Tsũi Goab Fluctus.[30]

Observational history edit

Main article: Exploration of Io
 
Galileo Galilei, the discoverer of Io

The first reported observation of Io was made by Galileo Galilei on 7 January 1610 using a 20x-power, refracting telescope at the University of Padua. However, in that observation, Galileo could not separate Io and Europa due to the low power of his telescope, so the two were recorded as a single point of light. Io and Europa were seen for the first time as separate bodies during Galileo's observations of the Jovian system the following day, 8 January 1610 (used as the discovery date for Io by the IAU).[1] The discovery of Io and the other Galilean satellites of Jupiter was published in Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610.[31] In his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614, Simon Marius claimed to have discovered Io and the other moons of Jupiter in 1609, one week before Galileo's discovery. Galileo doubted this claim and dismissed the work of Marius as plagiarism. Regardless, Marius's first recorded observation came from 29 December 1609 in the Julian calendar, which equates to 8 January 1610 in the Gregorian calendar, which Galileo used.[32] Given that Galileo published his work before Marius, Galileo is credited with the discovery.[33]

For the next two and a half centuries, Io remained an unresolved, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. During the 17th century, Io and the other Galilean satellites served a variety of purposes, including early methods to determine longitude,[34] validating Kepler's third law of planetary motion, and determining the time required for light to travel between Jupiter and Earth.[31] Based on ephemerides produced by astronomer Giovanni Cassini and others, Pierre-Simon Laplace created a mathematical theory to explain the resonant orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede.[31] This resonance was later found to have a profound effect on the geologies of the three moons.[35]

Improved telescope technology in the late 19th and 20th centuries allowed astronomers to resolve (that is, see as distinct objects) large-scale surface features on Io. In the 1890s, Edward E. Barnard was the first to observe variations in Io's brightness between its equatorial and polar regions, correctly determining that this was due to differences in color and albedo between the two regions and not due to Io being egg-shaped, as proposed at the time by fellow astronomer William Pickering, or two separate objects, as initially proposed by Barnard.[21][22][36] Later telescopic observations confirmed Io's distinct reddish-brown polar regions and yellow-white equatorial band.[37]

Telescopic observations in the mid-20th century began to hint at Io's unusual nature. Spectroscopic observations suggested that Io's surface was devoid of water ice (a substance found to be plentiful on the other Galilean satellites).[38] The same observations suggested a surface dominated by evaporates composed of sodium salts and sulfur.[39] Radiotelescopic observations revealed Io's influence on the Jovian magnetosphere, as demonstrated by decametric wavelength bursts tied to the orbital period of Io.[40]

Pioneer edit

The first spacecraft to pass by Io were the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes on 3 December 1973 and 2 December 1974, respectively.[41] Radio tracking provided an improved estimate of Io's mass, which, along with the best available information of its size, suggested it had the highest density of the Galilean satellites, and was composed primarily of silicate rock rather than water ice.[42] The Pioneers also revealed the presence of a thin atmosphere and intense radiation belts near the orbit of Io. The camera on board Pioneer 11 took the only good image of the moon obtained by either spacecraft, showing its north polar region and its yellow tint.[43] Close-up images were planned during Pioneer 10's encounter, but those were lost because of the high-radiation environment.[41]

Voyager edit

 
Voyager 1 mosaic covering Io's south polar region. This includes two of Io's ten highest peaks, the Euboea Montes at upper extreme left and Haemus Mons at bottom.

When the twin probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 passed by Io in 1979, their more advanced imaging systems allowed for far more detailed images. Voyager 1 flew past Io on 5 March 1979 from a distance of 20,600 km (12,800 mi).[44] The images returned during the approach revealed a strange, multi-colored landscape devoid of impact craters.[45][46] The highest-resolution images showed a relatively young surface punctuated by oddly shaped pits, mountains taller than Mount Everest, and features resembling volcanic lava flows.[45][47]

Shortly after the encounter, Voyager navigation engineer Linda A. Morabito noticed a plume emanating from the surface in one of the images.[48] Analysis of other Voyager 1 images showed nine such plumes scattered across the surface, proving that Io was volcanically active.[49] This conclusion was predicted in a paper published shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter by Stan Peale, Patrick Cassen, and R. T. Reynolds. The authors calculated that Io's interior must experience significant tidal heating caused by its orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede (see the "Tidal heating" section for a more detailed explanation of the process).[50] Data from this flyby showed that the surface of Io is dominated by sulfur and sulfur dioxide frosts. These compounds also dominate its thin atmosphere and the torus of plasma centered on Io's orbit (also discovered by Voyager).[51][52][53]

Voyager 2 passed Io on 9 July 1979 at a distance of 1,130,000 km (700,000 mi). Though it did not approach nearly as close as Voyager 1, comparisons between images taken by the two spacecraft showed several surface changes that had occurred in the four months between the encounters. In addition, observations of Io as a crescent as Voyager 2 departed the Jovian system revealed that seven of the nine plumes observed in March were still active in July 1979, with only the volcano Pele shutting down between flybys.[54]

Galileo edit

 
Enhanced-color Galileo image showing a dark spot (just lower-left of center, interrupting the red ring of short-chain sulfur allotropes deposited by Pele) produced by a major eruption at Pillan Patera in 1997

The Galileo spacecraft arrived at Jupiter in 1995 after a six-year journey from Earth to follow up on the discoveries of the two Voyager probes and the ground-based observations made in the intervening years. Io's location within one of Jupiter's most intense radiation belts precluded a prolonged close flyby, but Galileo did pass close by shortly before entering orbit for its two-year, primary mission studying the Jovian system. Although no images were taken during the close flyby on 7 December 1995, the encounter did yield significant results, such as the discovery of a large iron core, similar to that found on the rocky planets of the inner Solar System.[55]

Despite the lack of close-up imaging and mechanical problems that greatly restricted the amount of data returned, several significant discoveries were made during Galileo's primary mission. Galileo observed the effects of a major eruption at Pillan Patera and confirmed that volcanic eruptions are composed of silicate magmas with magnesium-rich mafic and ultramafic compositions.[56] Distant imaging of Io was acquired for almost every orbit during the primary mission, revealing large numbers of active volcanoes (both thermal emission from cooling magma on the surface and volcanic plumes), numerous mountains with widely varying morphologies, and several surface changes that had taken place both between the Voyager and Galileo eras and between Galileo orbits.[57]

The Galileo mission was twice extended, in 1997 and 2000. During these extended missions, the probe flew by Io three times in late 1999 and early 2000, and three times in late 2001 and early 2002. Observations during these encounters revealed the geologic processes occurring at Io's volcanoes and mountains, excluded the presence of a magnetic field, and demonstrated the extent of volcanic activity.[57]

Cassini edit

 
The Cassini-Huygens mission's view of Io and Jupiter on January 1, 2001

In December 2000, the Cassini spacecraft had a distant and brief encounter with the Jovian system en route to Saturn, allowing for joint observations with Galileo. These observations revealed a new plume at Tvashtar Paterae and provided insights into Io's aurorae.[58]

New Horizons edit

The New Horizons spacecraft, en route to Pluto and the Kuiper belt, flew by the Jovian system and Io on 28 February 2007. During the encounter, numerous distant observations of Io were obtained. These included images of a large plume at Tvashtar, providing the first detailed observations of the largest class of Ionian volcanic plume since observations of Pele's plume in 1979.[59] New Horizons also captured images of a volcano near Girru Patera in the early stages of an eruption, and several volcanic eruptions that have occurred since Galileo.[59]

Juno edit

 
Global image of Jupiter's moon Io acquired by Juno's JunoCam camera on December 30, 2023

The Juno spacecraft was launched in 2011 and entered orbit around Jupiter on July 5, 2016. Juno's mission is primarily focused on improving our understanding of Jupiter's interior, magnetic field, aurorae, and polar atmosphere.[60] Juno's 54-day orbit is highly inclined and highly eccentric in order to better characterize Jupiter's polar regions and to limit its exposure to the planet's harsh inner radiation belts, limiting close encounters with Jupiter's moons. The closest approach to Io during the initial, prime mission occurred in February 2020 at a distance of 195,000 kilomters.[61] Juno's extended mission, begun in June 2021, allowed for closer encounters with Jupiter's Galilean satellites due to Juno's orbital precession.[62] After a series of increasingly closer encounters with Io in 2022 and 2023, Juno performed a pair of close flybys on December 30, 2023,[63] and February 3, 2024,[64] both with altitudes of 1,500 kilometers. The primary goal of these encounters were to improve our understanding of Io's gravity field using doppler tracking and to image Io's surface to look for surface changes since Io was last seen up-close in 2007.[65]

During several orbits, Juno has observed Io from a distance using JunoCAM, a wide-angle, visible-light camera, to look for volcanic plumes and JIRAM, a near-infrared spectrometer and imager, to monitor thermal emission from Io's volcanoes.[66][61] JIRAM near-infrared spectroscopy has so far allowed for the coarse mapping of sulfur dioxide frost across Io's surface as well as mapping minor surface components weakly absorbing sunlight at 2.1 and 2.65 µm.[67]

Future missions edit

There are two forthcoming missions planned for the Jovian system. The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) is a planned European Space Agency mission to the Jovian system that is intended to end up in Ganymede orbit.[68] JUICE launched in April 2023, with arrival at Jupiter planned for July 2031.[69][70] JUICE will not fly by Io, but it will use its instruments, such as a narrow-angle camera, to monitor Io's volcanic activity and measure its surface composition during the two-year Jupiter-tour phase of the mission prior to Ganymede orbit insertion. Europa Clipper is a planned NASA mission to the Jovian system focused on Jupiter's moon Europa. Like JUICE, Europa Clipper will not perform any flybys of Io, but distant volcano monitoring is likely. Europa Clipper has a planned launch in 2024 with an arrival at Jupiter in 2030.[71]

The Io Volcano Observer (IVO) was a proposal to NASA for a low-cost, Discovery-class mission selected for a Phase A study along with three other missions in 2020. IVO would launch in January 2029 and perform ten flybys of Io while in orbit around Jupiter beginning in the early 2030s.[72][73] However, the Venus missions DAVINCI+ and VERITAS were selected in favor of those.[74]

Orbit and rotation edit

 
Animation of the Laplace resonance of Io, Europa and Ganymede (conjunctions are highlighted by color changes)
See also: Tidal heating

Io orbits Jupiter at a distance of 421,700 km (262,000 mi) from Jupiter's center and 350,000 km (217,000 mi) from its cloudtops. It is the innermost of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter, its orbit lying between those of Thebe and Europa. Including Jupiter's inner satellites, Io is the fifth moon out from Jupiter. It takes Io about 42.5 hours (1.77 days) to complete one orbit around Jupiter (fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation). Io is in a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Europa and a 4:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Ganymede, completing two orbits of Jupiter for every one orbit completed by Europa, and four orbits for every one completed by Ganymede. This resonance helps maintain Io's orbital eccentricity (0.0041), which in turn provides the primary heating source for its geologic activity.[50] Without this forced eccentricity, Io's orbit would circularize through tidal dissipation, leading to a less geologically active world.[50]

Like the other Galilean satellites and the Moon, Io rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face nearly pointed toward Jupiter. This synchrony provides the definition for Io's longitude system. Io's prime meridian intersects the equator at the sub-Jovian point. The side of Io that always faces Jupiter is known as the subjovian hemisphere, whereas the side that always faces away is known as the antijovian hemisphere. The side of Io that always faces in the direction that Io travels in its orbit is known as the leading hemisphere, whereas the side that always faces in the opposite direction is known as the trailing hemisphere.[75]

From the surface of Io, Jupiter would subtend an arc of 19.5°, making Jupiter appear 39 times the apparent diameter of Earth's Moon.[citation needed]

Interaction with Jupiter's magnetosphere edit

 
Schematic of Jupiter's magnetosphere and the components influenced by Io (near the center of the image): the plasma torus (in red), the neutral cloud (in yellow), the flux tube (in green), and magnetic field lines (in blue).[76]

Io plays a significant role in shaping Jupiter's magnetic field, acting as an electric generator that can develop 400,000 volts across itself and create an electric current of 3 million amperes, releasing ions that give Jupiter a magnetic field inflated to more than twice the size it would otherwise have.[77] The magnetosphere of Jupiter sweeps up gases and dust from Io's thin atmosphere at a rate of 1 tonne per second.[78] This material is mostly composed of ionized and atomic sulfur, oxygen and chlorine; atomic sodium and potassium; molecular sulfur dioxide and sulfur; and sodium chloride dust.[78][79] These materials originate from Io's volcanic activity, with the material that escapes to Jupiter's magnetic field and into interplanetary space coming directly from Io's atmosphere. These materials, depending on their ionized state and composition, end up in various neutral (non-ionized) clouds and radiation belts in Jupiter's magnetosphere and, in some cases, are eventually ejected from the Jovian system.[80]

 
The Jupiter - Io System and Interaction
(artwork; 15 July 2021)

Surrounding Io (at a distance of up to six Io radii from its surface) is a cloud of neutral sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and potassium atoms. These particles originate in Io's upper atmosphere and are excited by collisions with ions in the plasma torus (discussed below) and by other processes into filling Io's Hill sphere, which is the region where Io's gravity is dominant over Jupiter's. Some of this material escapes Io's gravitational pull and goes into orbit around Jupiter. Over a 20-hour period, these particles spread out from Io to form a banana-shaped, neutral cloud that can reach as far as six Jovian radii from Io, either inside Io's orbit and ahead of it or outside Io's orbit and behind it.[78] The collision process that excites these particles also occasionally provides sodium ions in the plasma torus with an electron, removing those new "fast" neutrals from the torus. These particles retain their velocity (70 km/s, compared to the 17 km/s orbital velocity at Io), and are thus ejected in jets leading away from Io.[81]

Io orbits within a belt of intense radiation known as the Io plasma torus. The plasma in this doughnut-shaped ring of ionized sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine originates when neutral atoms in the "cloud" surrounding Io are ionized and carried along by the Jovian magnetosphere.[78] Unlike the particles in the neutral cloud, these particles co-rotate with Jupiter's magnetosphere, revolving around Jupiter at 74 km/s. Like the rest of Jupiter's magnetic field, the plasma torus is tilted with respect to Jupiter's equator (and Io's orbital plane), so that Io is at times below and at other times above the core of the plasma torus. As noted above, these ions' higher velocity and energy levels are partly responsible for the removal of neutral atoms and molecules from Io's atmosphere and more extended neutral clouds. The torus is composed of three sections: an outer, "warm" torus that resides just outside Io's orbit; a vertically extended region known as the "ribbon", composed of the neutral source region and cooling plasma, located at around Io's distance from Jupiter; and an inner, "cold" torus, composed of particles that are slowly spiraling in toward Jupiter.[78] After residing an average of 40 days in the torus, particles in the "warm" torus escape and are partially responsible for Jupiter's unusually large magnetosphere, their outward pressure inflating it from within.[82] Particles from Io, detected as variations in magnetospheric plasma, have been detected far into the long magnetotail by New Horizons. To study similar variations within the plasma torus, researchers measured the ultraviolet light it emits. Although such variations have not been definitively linked to variations in Io's volcanic activity (the ultimate source for material in the plasma torus), this link has been established in the neutral sodium cloud.[83]

During an encounter with Jupiter in 1992, the Ulysses spacecraft detected a stream of dust-sized particles being ejected from the Jovian system.[84] The dust in these discrete streams travels away from Jupiter at speeds upwards of several hundred kilometers per second, has an average particle size of 10 μm, and consists primarily of sodium chloride.[79][85] Dust measurements by Galileo showed that these dust streams originated on Io, but exactly how these form, whether from Io's volcanic activity or material removed from the surface, is unknown.[86]

Jupiter's magnetic field, which Io crosses, couples Io's atmosphere and neutral cloud to Jupiter's polar upper atmosphere by generating an electric current known as the Io flux tube.[78] This current produces an auroral glow in Jupiter's polar regions known as the Io footprint, as well as aurorae in Io's atmosphere. Particles from this auroral interaction darken the Jovian polar regions at visible wavelengths. The location of Io and its auroral footprint with respect to Earth and Jupiter has a strong influence on Jovian radio emissions from our vantage point: when Io is visible, radio signals from Jupiter increase considerably.[40][78] The Juno mission, currently in orbit around Jupiter, should help shed light on these processes. The Jovian magnetic field lines that do get past Io's ionosphere also induce an electric current, which in turn creates an induced magnetic field within Io's interior. Io's induced magnetic field is thought to be generated within a partially molten, silicate magma ocean 50 kilometers beneath Io's surface.[87] Similar induced fields were found at the other Galilean satellites by Galileo, possibly generated within liquid water oceans in the interiors of those moons.[88]

Geology edit

Io is slightly larger than Earth's Moon. It has a mean radius of 1,821.3 km (1,131.7 mi) (about 5% greater than the Moon's) and a mass of 8.9319×1022 kg (about 21% greater than the Moon's). It is a slight ellipsoid in shape, with its longest axis directed toward Jupiter. Among the Galilean satellites, in both mass and volume, Io ranks behind Ganymede and Callisto but ahead of Europa.[89]

Interior edit

 
Model of the possible interior composition of Io with various features labelled.

Composed primarily of silicate rock and iron, Io and Europa are closer in bulk composition to terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates. Io has a density of 3.5275 g/cm3, the highest of any regular moon in the Solar System; significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites (Ganymede and Callisto in particular, whose densities are around 1.9 g/cm3) and slightly higher (~5.5%) than the Moon's 3.344 g/cm3 and Europa's 2.989 g/cm3.[7] Models based on the Voyager and Galileo measurements of Io's mass, radius, and quadrupole gravitational coefficients (numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object) suggest that its interior is differentiated between a silicate-rich crust and mantle and an iron- or iron-sulfide-rich core.[55] Io's metallic core makes up approximately 20% of its mass.[90] Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core, the core has a radius between 350 and 650 km (220–400 mi) if it is composed almost entirely of iron, or between 550 and 900 km (340–560 mi) for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur. Galileo's magnetometer failed to detect an internal, intrinsic magnetic field at Io, suggesting that the core is not convecting.[91]

Modeling of Io's interior composition suggests that the mantle is composed of at least 75% of the magnesium-rich mineral forsterite, and has a bulk composition similar to that of L-chondrite and LL-chondrite meteorites, with higher iron content (compared to silicon) than the Moon or Earth, but lower than Mars.[92][93] To support the heat flow observed on Io, 10–20% of Io's mantle may be molten, though regions where high-temperature volcanism has been observed may have higher melt fractions.[94] However, re-analysis of Galileo magnetometer data in 2009 revealed the presence of an induced magnetic field at Io, requiring a magma ocean 50 km (31 mi) below the surface.[87] Further analysis published in 2011 provided direct evidence of such an ocean.[95] This layer is estimated to be 50 km thick and to make up about 10% of Io's mantle. It is estimated that the temperature in the magma ocean reaches 1,200 °C. It is not known if the 10–20% partial melting percentage for Io's mantle is consistent with the requirement for a significant amount of molten silicates in this possible magma ocean.[96] The lithosphere of Io, composed of basalt and sulfur deposited by Io's extensive volcanism, is at least 12 km (7.5 mi) thick, and likely less than 40 km (25 mi) thick.[90][97]

Tidal heating edit

Main article: Tidal heating of Io

Unlike Earth and the Moon, Io's main source of internal heat comes from tidal dissipation rather than radioactive isotope decay, the result of Io's orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede.[50] Such heating is dependent on Io's distance from Jupiter, its orbital eccentricity, the composition of its interior, and its physical state.[94] Its Laplace resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit. The resonant orbit also helps to maintain Io's distance from Jupiter; otherwise tides raised on Jupiter would cause Io to slowly spiral outward from its parent planet.[98] The tidal forces experienced by Io are about 20,000 times stronger than the tidal forces Earth experiences due to the Moon, and the vertical differences in its tidal bulge, between the times Io is at periapsis and apoapsis in its orbit, could be as much as 100 m (330 ft).[99] The friction or tidal dissipation produced in Io's interior due to this varying tidal pull, which, without the resonant orbit, would have gone into circularizing Io's orbit instead, creates significant tidal heating within Io's interior, melting a significant amount of Io's mantle and core. The amount of energy produced is up to 200 times greater than that produced solely from radioactive decay.[11] This heat is released in the form of volcanic activity, generating its observed high heat flow (global total: 0.6 to 1.6×1014 W).[94] Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time; however, the current amount of tidal dissipation is consistent with the observed heat flow.[94][100] Models of tidal heating and convection have not found consistent planetary viscosity profiles that simultaneously match tidal energy dissipation and mantle convection of heat to the surface.[100][101]

Although there is general agreement that the origin of the heat as manifested in Io's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa, the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating. They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the east.[102] A study published by Tyler et al. (2015) suggests that this eastern shift may be caused by an ocean of molten rock under the surface. The movement of this magma would generate extra heat through friction due to its viscosity. The study's authors believe that this subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock.[103]

Other moons in the Solar System are also tidally heated, and they too may generate additional heat through the friction of subsurface magma or water oceans. This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus.[104][105]

Surface edit

 
Io's surface map

Based on their experience with the ancient surfaces of the Moon, Mars, and Mercury, scientists expected to see numerous impact craters in Voyager 1's first images of Io. The density of impact craters across Io's surface would have given clues to Io's age. However, they were surprised to discover that the surface was almost completely lacking in impact craters, but was instead covered in smooth plains dotted with tall mountains, pits of various shapes and sizes, and volcanic lava flows.[45] Compared to most worlds observed to that point, Io's surface was covered in a variety of colorful materials (leading Io to be compared to a rotten orange or to pizza) from various sulfurous compounds.[106][107] The lack of impact craters indicated that Io's surface is geologically young, like the terrestrial surface; volcanic materials continuously bury craters as they are produced. This result was spectacularly confirmed as at least nine active volcanoes were observed by Voyager 1.[49]

Surface composition edit

Io's colorful appearance is the result of materials deposited by its extensive volcanism, including silicates (such as orthopyroxene), sulfur, and sulfur dioxide.[108] Sulfur dioxide frost is ubiquitous across the surface of Io, forming large regions covered in white or grey materials. Sulfur is also seen in many places across Io, forming yellow to yellow-green regions. Sulfur deposited in the mid-latitude and polar regions is often damaged by radiation, breaking up the normally stable cyclic 8-chain sulfur. This radiation damage produces Io's red-brown polar regions.[21]

 
Geological map of Io

Explosive volcanism, often taking the form of umbrella-shaped plumes, paints the surface with sulfurous and silicate materials. Plume deposits on Io are often colored red or white depending on the amount of sulfur and sulfur dioxide in the plume. Generally, plumes formed at volcanic vents from degassing lava contain a greater amount of S2, producing a red "fan" deposit, or in extreme cases, large (often reaching beyond 450 km or 280 mi from the central vent) red rings.[109] A prominent example of a red-ring plume deposit is located at Pele. These red deposits consist primarily of sulfur (generally 3- and 4-chain molecular sulfur), sulfur dioxide, and perhaps sulfuryl chloride.[108] Plumes formed at the margins of silicate lava flows (through the interaction of lava and pre-existing deposits of sulfur and sulfur dioxide) produce white or gray deposits.[110]

Compositional mapping and Io's high density suggest that Io contains little to no water, though small pockets of water ice or hydrated minerals have been tentatively identified, most notably on the northwest flank of the mountain Gish Bar Mons.[111] Io has the least amount of water of any known body in the Solar System.[112] This lack of water is likely due to Jupiter being hot enough early in the evolution of the Solar System to drive off volatile materials like water in the vicinity of Io, but not hot enough to do so farther out.[113]

Volcanism edit

Main article: Volcanism on Io
See also: List of volcanic features on Io
 
Active lava flows in volcanic region Tvashtar Paterae (blank region represents saturated areas in the original data). Images taken by Galileo in November 1999 and February 2000.

The tidal heating produced by Io's forced orbital eccentricity has made it the most volcanically active world in the Solar System, with hundreds of volcanic centers and extensive lava flows.[13] During a major eruption, lava flows tens or even hundreds of kilometers long can be produced, consisting mostly of basalt silicate lavas with either mafic or ultramafic (magnesium-rich) compositions. As a by-product of this activity, sulfur, sulfur dioxide gas and silicate pyroclastic material (like ash) are blown up to 200 km (120 mi) into space, producing large, umbrella-shaped plumes, painting the surrounding terrain in red, black, and white, and providing material for Io's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere.[114][80]

Io's surface is dotted with volcanic depressions known as paterae which generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls.[115] These features resemble terrestrial calderas, but it is unknown if they are produced through collapse over an emptied lava chamber like their terrestrial cousins. One hypothesis suggests that these features are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills, and the overlying material is either blasted out or integrated into the sill.[116] Examples of paterae in various stages of exhumation have been mapped using Galileo images of the Chaac-Camaxtli region.[117] Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars, these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are normally larger, with an average diameter of 41 km (25 mi), the largest being Loki Patera at 202 km (126 mi).[115] Loki is also consistently the strongest volcano on Io, contributing on average 25% of Io's global heat output.[118] Whatever the formation mechanism, the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that these features are structurally controlled, with at least half bounded by faults or mountains.[115] These features are often the site of volcanic eruptions, either from lava flows spreading across the floors of the paterae, as at an eruption at Gish Bar Patera in 2001, or in the form of a lava lake.[12][119] Lava lakes on Io either have a continuously overturning lava crust, such as at Pele, or an episodically overturning crust, such as at Loki.[120][121]

 
Jupiter moon Io volcanic activity
(12/14/2022/left and 03/01/2023)

Lava flows represent another major volcanic terrain on Io. Magma erupts onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae or on the plains from fissures, producing inflated, compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kilauea in Hawaii. Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io's major lava flows, like those at Prometheus and Amirani, are produced by the build-up of small breakouts of lava flows on top of older flows.[122] Larger outbreaks of lava have also been observed on Io. For example, the leading edge of the Prometheus flow moved 75 to 95 km (47 to 59 mi) between Voyager in 1979 and the first Galileo observations in 1996. A major eruption in 1997 produced more than 3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi) of fresh lava and flooded the floor of the adjacent Pillan Patera.[56]

Analysis of the Voyager images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based infrared studies and measurements from the Galileo spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions.[123] This hypothesis is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1,300 K and some as high as 1,600 K.[124] Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2,000 K[56] have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures.[124][123]

 
Five-image sequence of New Horizons images showing Io's volcano Tvashtar spewing material 330 km above its surface

The discovery of plumes at the volcanoes Pele and Loki were the first sign that Io is geologically active.[48] Generally, these plumes are formed when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 km/s (0.62 mi/s), creating umbrella-shaped clouds of gas and dust. Additional material that might be found in these volcanic plumes include sodium, potassium, and chlorine.[125][126] These plumes appear to be formed in one of two ways.[127] Io's largest plumes, such as those emitted by Pele, are created when dissolved sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas are released from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes, often dragging silicate pyroclastic material with them.[128] These plumes form red (from the short-chain sulfur) and black (from the silicate pyroclastics) deposits on the surface. Plumes formed in this manner are among the largest observed at Io, forming red rings more than 1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter. Examples of this plume type include Pele, Tvashtar, and Dazhbog. Another type of plume is produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost, sending the sulfur skyward. This type of plume often forms bright circular deposits consisting of sulfur dioxide. These plumes are often less than 100 km (62 mi) tall, and are among the most long-lived plumes on Io. Examples include Prometheus, Amirani, and Masubi. The erupted sulfurous compounds are concentrated in the upper crust from a decrease in sulfur solubility at greater depths in Io's lithosphere and can be a determinant for the eruption style of a hot spot.[128][129][130]

Mountains edit

Main article: Mountains of Io
See also: List of mountains on Io
 
Galileo greyscale image of Tohil Mons, a 5.4-km-tall mountain

Io has 100 to 150 mountains. These structures average 6 km (3.7 mi) in height and reach a maximum of 17.5 ± 1.5 km (10.9 ± 0.9 mi) at South Boösaule Montes.[14] Mountains often appear as large (the average mountain is 157 km or 98 mi long), isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic patterns outlined, in contrast to the case on Earth.[14] To support the tremendous topography observed at these mountains requires compositions consisting mostly of silicate rock, as opposed to sulfur.[131]

Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all of its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's crust through thrust faulting.[132] The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials.[132] The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa.[133] This suggests large-scale regions in Io's lithosphere where compression (supportive of mountain formation) and extension (supportive of patera formation) dominate.[134] Locally, however, mountains and paterae often abut one another, suggesting that magma often exploits faults formed during mountain formation to reach the surface.[115]

Mountains on Io (generally, structures rising above the surrounding plains) have a variety of morphologies. Plateaus are most common.[14] These structures resemble large, flat-topped mesas with rugged surfaces. Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks, with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub-surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses. Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins. Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin. These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes, with steep slopes (6–7°) near a small, central caldera and shallow slopes along their margins.[135] These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io, averaging only 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) in height and 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi) wide. Other shield volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io's volcanoes, where thin flows radiate out from a central patera, such as at Ra Patera.[135]

Nearly all mountains appear to be in some stage of degradation. Large landslide deposits are common at the base of Ionian mountains, suggesting that mass wasting is the primary form of degradation. Scalloped margins are common among Io's mesas and plateaus, the result of sulfur dioxide sapping from Io's crust, producing zones of weakness along mountain margins.[136]

Atmosphere edit

Main article: Atmosphere of Io
 
Auroral glows in Io's upper atmosphere. Different colors represent emission from different components of the atmosphere (green comes from emitting sodium, red from emitting oxygen, and blue from emitting volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide). Image taken while Io was in eclipse.

Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide (SO
2), with minor constituents including sulfur monoxide (SO), sodium chloride (NaCl), and atomic sulfur and oxygen.[137] The atmosphere has significant variations in density and temperature with time of day, latitude, volcanic activity, and surface frost abundance. The maximum atmospheric pressure on Io ranges from 3.3 × 10−5 to 3 × 10−4 pascals (Pa) or 0.3 to 3 nbar, spatially seen on Io's anti-Jupiter hemisphere and along the equator, and temporally in the early afternoon when the temperature of surface frost peaks.[137][138][139] Localized peaks at volcanic plumes have also been seen, with pressures of 5 × 10−4 to 40  × 10−4 Pa (5 to 40 nbar).[52] Io's atmospheric pressure is lowest on Io's night side, where the pressure dips to 0.1 × 10−7 to 1 × 10−7 Pa (0.0001 to 0.001 nbar).[137][138] Io's atmospheric temperature ranges from the temperature of the surface at low altitudes, where sulfur dioxide is in vapor pressure equilibrium with frost on the surface, to 1,800 K at higher altitudes where the lower atmospheric density permits heating from plasma in the Io plasma torus and from Joule heating from the Io flux tube.[137][138] The low pressure limits the atmosphere's effect on the surface, except for temporarily redistributing sulfur dioxide from frost-rich to frost-poor areas, and to expand the size of plume deposit rings when plume material re-enters the thicker dayside atmosphere.[137][138]

Gas in Io's atmosphere is stripped by Jupiter's magnetosphere, escaping to either the neutral cloud that surrounds Io, or the Io plasma torus, a ring of ionized particles that shares Io's orbit but co-rotates with the magnetosphere of Jupiter.[82] Approximately one ton of material is removed from the atmosphere every second through this process so that it must be constantly replenished.[78] The most dramatic source of SO
2 are volcanic plumes, which pump 104 kg of sulfur dioxide per second into Io's atmosphere on average, though most of this condenses back onto the surface.[140] Much of the sulfur dioxide in Io's atmosphere is sustained by sunlight-driven sublimation of SO
2 frozen on the surface.[141] The day-side atmosphere is largely confined to within 40° of the equator, where the surface is warmest and most active volcanic plumes reside.[142] A sublimation-driven atmosphere is also consistent with observations that Io's atmosphere is densest over the anti-Jupiter hemisphere, where SO
2 frost is most abundant, and is densest when Io is closer to the Sun.[137][141][143] However, some contributions from volcanic plumes are required as the highest observed densities have been seen near volcanic vents.[137] Because the density of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is tied directly to surface temperature, Io's atmosphere partially collapses at night, or when Io is in the shadow of Jupiter (with an ~80% drop in column density[144]). The collapse during eclipse is limited somewhat by the formation of a diffusion layer of sulfur monoxide in the lowest portion of the atmosphere, but the atmosphere pressure of Io's nightside atmosphere is two to four orders of magnitude less than at its peak just past noon.[138][145] The minor constituents of Io's atmosphere, such as NaCl, SO, O, and S derive either from: direct volcanic outgassing; photodissociation, or chemical breakdown caused by solar ultraviolet radiation, from SO
2; or the sputtering of surface deposits by charged particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere.[141]

Various researchers have proposed that the atmosphere of Io freezes onto the surface when it passes into the shadow of Jupiter. Evidence for this is a "post-eclipse brightening", where the moon sometimes appears a bit brighter as if covered with frost immediately after eclipse. After about 15 minutes the brightness returns to normal, presumably because the frost has disappeared through sublimation.[146][147][148][149] Besides being seen through ground-based telescopes, post-eclipse brightening was found in near-infrared wavelengths using an instrument aboard the Cassini spacecraft.[150] Further support for this idea came in 2013 when the Gemini Observatory was used to directly measure the collapse of Io's SO2 atmosphere during, and its reformation after, eclipse with Jupiter.[151][152]

High-resolution images of Io acquired when Io is experiencing an eclipse reveal an aurora-like glow.[126] As on Earth, this is due to particle radiation hitting the atmosphere, though in this case the charged particles come from Jupiter's magnetic field rather than the solar wind. Aurorae usually occur near the magnetic poles of planets, but Io's are brightest near its equator. Io lacks an intrinsic magnetic field of its own; therefore, electrons traveling along Jupiter's magnetic field near Io directly impact Io's atmosphere. More electrons collide with its atmosphere, producing the brightest aurora, where the field lines are tangent to Io (i.e. near the equator), because the column of gas they pass through is the longest there. Aurorae associated with these tangent points on Io are observed to rock with the changing orientation of Jupiter's tilted magnetic dipole.[153] Fainter aurora from oxygen atoms along the limb of Io (the red glows in the image at right), and sodium atoms on Io's night-side (the green glows in the same image) have also been observed.[126]

See also edit

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External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Io.

General information edit

  • at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
  • Bill Arnett's Io webpage from The Nine Planets website
  • Io overview from the University of Michigan's Windows to the Universe
  • Calvin Hamilton's Io page from the Views of the Solar System website

Movies edit

  • Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Io and other outer solar system satellites
  • High resolution video simulation of rotating Io by Seán Doran

Images edit

  • Catalog of NASA images of Io
  • Galileo images of Io
  • New Horizons images of Io
    • New Horizons LORRI Raw Images, includes numerous Io images
  • Io through Different New Horizons Imagers

Maps edit

  • Io global basemaps at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center based on Galileo and Voyager images
  • Io nomenclature and map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
  • Interactive map of Io by Google Maps

Additional references edit

  • Io dynamo from educational website The Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere
  • NASA's Stunning Discoveries on Jupiter's Largest Moons | Our Solar System's Moons
  • The Conundrum Posed by Io's Minimum Surface Temperatures
  • Io Mountain Database
  • Cassini Observations of Io's Visible Aurorae at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center
  • The Gish Bar Times, Jason Perry's Io-related blog

[[Ca tegory:Articles containing video clips]]

April 14, 2024
moon, jupiter, redirects, here, other, uses, jupiter, jupiter, innermost, second, smallest, four, galilean, moons, planet, jupiter, slightly, larger, than, earth, moon, fourth, largest, moon, solar, system, highest, density, moon, strongest, surface, gravity, . Jupiter I redirects here For other uses see Jupiter 1 Io ˈ aɪ oʊ or Jupiter I is the innermost and second smallest of the four Galilean moons of the planet Jupiter Slightly larger than Earth s moon Io is the fourth largest moon in the Solar System has the highest density of any moon the strongest surface gravity of any moon and the lowest amount of water by atomic ratio of any known astronomical object in the Solar System It was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and was named after the mythological character Io a priestess of Hera who became one of Zeus s lovers IoEnhanced color image of Io from the Galileo spacecraft taken in 1999 DiscoveryDiscovered byGalileo GalileiDiscovery date8 January 1610 1 DesignationsPronunciation ˈ aɪ oʊ 2 or as Greco Latin iō approximated as ˈ iː oʊ citation needed Named afterἸw iōAlternative namesJupiter IAdjectivesIonian aɪ ˈ oʊ n i e n 3 4 Orbital characteristicsPeriapsis420000 km 0 002808 AU Apoapsis423400 km 0 002830 AU Mean orbit radius421700 km 0 002819 AU Eccentricity0 004031 3019Orbital period sidereal 1 769137 786 d 152853 5047 s 42 459306 86 h Average orbital speed17 334 km sInclination0 05 to Jupiter s equator 2 213 to the ecliptic Satellite ofJupiterGroupGalilean moonPhysical characteristicsDimensions3 660 0 3 637 4 3 630 6 km 5 Mean radius1821 6 0 5 km 0 28592 Earths 6 Surface area41698 064 7357 km2 0 082 Earths Volume2 531906 4907 1010 km3 0 023 Earths Mass 8 931938 0 000018 1022 kg 0 015 Earths 6 Mean density3 528 0 006 g cm3 0 639 Earths 6 Surface gravity1 796502 844 m s2 0 1831923077 g Moment of inertia factor0 37824 0 00022 7 Escape velocity2 558 3174910781 m sSynodic rotation periodsynchronousEquatorial rotation velocity271 km hAlbedo0 63 0 02 6 Surface temp min mean maxSurface 90 K 110 K 130 K 8 Apparent magnitude5 02 opposition 9 Angular diameter1 2 arcseconds 10 AtmosphereSurface pressure0 5 to 4 mPa 4 93 10 9 to 3 95 10 8 atm Composition by volume90 sulfur dioxideWith over 400 active volcanoes Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System 11 12 13 This extreme geologic activity is the result of tidal heating from friction generated within Io s interior as it is pulled between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons Europa Ganymede and Callisto Several volcanoes produce plumes of sulfur and sulfur dioxide that climb as high as 500 km 300 mi above the surface Io s surface is also dotted with more than 100 mountains that have been uplifted by extensive compression at the base of Io s silicate crust Some of these peaks are taller than Mount Everest the highest point on Earth s surface 14 Unlike most moons in the outer Solar System which are mostly composed of water ice Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core Most of Io s surface is composed of extensive plains with a frosty coating of sulfur and sulfur dioxide Io s volcanism is responsible for many of its unique features Its volcanic plumes and lava flows produce large surface changes and paint the surface in various subtle shades of yellow red white black and green largely due to allotropes and compounds of sulfur Numerous extensive lava flows several more than 500 km 300 mi in length also mark the surface The materials produced by this volcanism make up Io s thin patchy atmosphere and they also greatly affect the nature and radiation levels of Jupiter s extensive magnetosphere Io s volcanic ejecta also produce a large intense plasma torus around Jupiter creating a hostile radiation environment on and around the moon Io receives about 3 600 rem 36 Sv of ionizing radiation per day 15 Io played a significant role in the development of astronomy in the 17th and 18th centuries discovered in January 1610 by Galileo Galilei along with the other Galilean satellites this discovery furthered the adoption of the Copernican model of the Solar System the development of Kepler s laws of motion and the first measurement of the speed of light In 1979 the two Voyager spacecraft revealed Io to be a geologically active world with numerous volcanic features large mountains and a young surface with no obvious impact craters The Galileo spacecraft performed several close flybys in the 1990s and early 2000s obtaining data about Io s interior structure and surface composition These spacecraft also revealed the relationship between Io and Jupiter s magnetosphere and the existence of a belt of high energy radiation centered on Io s orbit Further observations have been made by Cassini Huygens in 2000 New Horizons in 2007 and Juno since 2017 as well as from Earth based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope Contents 1 Nomenclature 2 Observational history 2 1 Pioneer 2 2 Voyager 2 3 Galileo 2 4 Cassini 2 5 New Horizons 2 6 Juno 2 7 Future missions 3 Orbit and rotation 4 Interaction with Jupiter s magnetosphere 5 Geology 5 1 Interior 5 2 Tidal heating 5 3 Surface 5 3 1 Surface composition 5 3 2 Volcanism 5 3 3 Mountains 6 Atmosphere 7 See also 8 References 9 External links 9 1 General information 9 2 Movies 9 3 Images 9 4 Maps 9 5 Additional referencesNomenclature editMain article Galilean moons Names See also List of regions on Io List of volcanic features on Io and List of mountains on Io nbsp Size comparison between Io lower left the Moon upper left and EarthAlthough Simon Marius is not credited with the sole discovery of the Galilean satellites his names for the moons were adopted 16 In his 1614 publication Mundus Iovialis anno M DC IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici he proposed several alternative names for the innermost of the large moons of Jupiter including The Mercury of Jupiter and The First of the Jovian Planets 16 17 Based on a suggestion from Johannes Kepler in October 1613 he also devised a naming scheme whereby each moon was named for a lover of the Greek god Zeus or his Roman equivalent Jupiter He named the innermost large moon of Jupiter after the Greek Io 18 16 Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success Io daughter of the River Inachus Callisto of Lycaon Europa of Agenor Then there was Ganymede the handsome son of King Tros whom Jupiter having taken the form of an eagle transported to heaven on his back as poets fabulously tell I think therefore that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io the Second Europa the Third on account of its majesty of light Ganymede the Fourth Callisto 16 Marius s names were not widely adopted until centuries later mid 20th century 19 In much of the earlier astronomical literature Io was generally referred to by its Roman numeral designation a system introduced by Galileo as Jupiter I 20 or as the first satellite of Jupiter 21 22 The customary English pronunciation of the name is ˈ aɪ oʊ 23 though sometimes people attempt a more authentic pronunciation ˈ iː oʊ 24 The name has two competing stems in Latin iō and rarely iōn 25 The latter is the basis of the English adjectival form Ionian 26 27 28 Features on Io are named after characters and places from the Io myth as well as deities of fire volcanoes the Sun and thunder from various myths and characters and places from Dante s Inferno names appropriate to the volcanic nature of the surface 29 Since the surface was first seen up close by Voyager 1 the International Astronomical Union has approved 249 names for Io s volcanoes mountains plateaus and large albedo features The approved feature categories used for Io for different types of volcanic features include patera saucer volcanic depression fluctus flow lava flow vallis valley lava channel and active eruptive center location where plume activity was the first sign of volcanic activity at a particular volcano Named mountains plateaus layered terrain and shield volcanoes include the terms mons mensa table planum and tholus rotunda respectively 29 Named bright albedo regions use the term regio Examples of named features are Prometheus Pan Mensa Tvashtar Paterae and Tsũi Goab Fluctus 30 Observational history editMain article Exploration of Io nbsp Galileo Galilei the discoverer of IoThe first reported observation of Io was made by Galileo Galilei on 7 January 1610 using a 20x power refracting telescope at the University of Padua However in that observation Galileo could not separate Io and Europa due to the low power of his telescope so the two were recorded as a single point of light Io and Europa were seen for the first time as separate bodies during Galileo s observations of the Jovian system the following day 8 January 1610 used as the discovery date for Io by the IAU 1 The discovery of Io and the other Galilean satellites of Jupiter was published in Galileo s Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610 31 In his Mundus Jovialis published in 1614 Simon Marius claimed to have discovered Io and the other moons of Jupiter in 1609 one week before Galileo s discovery Galileo doubted this claim and dismissed the work of Marius as plagiarism Regardless Marius s first recorded observation came from 29 December 1609 in the Julian calendar which equates to 8 January 1610 in the Gregorian calendar which Galileo used 32 Given that Galileo published his work before Marius Galileo is credited with the discovery 33 For the next two and a half centuries Io remained an unresolved 5th magnitude point of light in astronomers telescopes During the 17th century Io and the other Galilean satellites served a variety of purposes including early methods to determine longitude 34 validating Kepler s third law of planetary motion and determining the time required for light to travel between Jupiter and Earth 31 Based on ephemerides produced by astronomer Giovanni Cassini and others Pierre Simon Laplace created a mathematical theory to explain the resonant orbits of Io Europa and Ganymede 31 This resonance was later found to have a profound effect on the geologies of the three moons 35 Improved telescope technology in the late 19th and 20th centuries allowed astronomers to resolve that is see as distinct objects large scale surface features on Io In the 1890s Edward E Barnard was the first to observe variations in Io s brightness between its equatorial and polar regions correctly determining that this was due to differences in color and albedo between the two regions and not due to Io being egg shaped as proposed at the time by fellow astronomer William Pickering or two separate objects as initially proposed by Barnard 21 22 36 Later telescopic observations confirmed Io s distinct reddish brown polar regions and yellow white equatorial band 37 Telescopic observations in the mid 20th century began to hint at Io s unusual nature Spectroscopic observations suggested that Io s surface was devoid of water ice a substance found to be plentiful on the other Galilean satellites 38 The same observations suggested a surface dominated by evaporates composed of sodium salts and sulfur 39 Radiotelescopic observations revealed Io s influence on the Jovian magnetosphere as demonstrated by decametric wavelength bursts tied to the orbital period of Io 40 Pioneer edit The first spacecraft to pass by Io were the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes on 3 December 1973 and 2 December 1974 respectively 41 Radio tracking provided an improved estimate of Io s mass which along with the best available information of its size suggested it had the highest density of the Galilean satellites and was composed primarily of silicate rock rather than water ice 42 The Pioneers also revealed the presence of a thin atmosphere and intense radiation belts near the orbit of Io The camera on board Pioneer 11 took the only good image of the moon obtained by either spacecraft showing its north polar region and its yellow tint 43 Close up images were planned during Pioneer 10 s encounter but those were lost because of the high radiation environment 41 Voyager edit nbsp Voyager 1 mosaic covering Io s south polar region This includes two of Io s ten highest peaks the Euboea Montes at upper extreme left and Haemus Mons at bottom When the twin probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 passed by Io in 1979 their more advanced imaging systems allowed for far more detailed images Voyager 1 flew past Io on 5 March 1979 from a distance of 20 600 km 12 800 mi 44 The images returned during the approach revealed a strange multi colored landscape devoid of impact craters 45 46 The highest resolution images showed a relatively young surface punctuated by oddly shaped pits mountains taller than Mount Everest and features resembling volcanic lava flows 45 47 Shortly after the encounter Voyager navigation engineer Linda A Morabito noticed a plume emanating from the surface in one of the images 48 Analysis of other Voyager 1 images showed nine such plumes scattered across the surface proving that Io was volcanically active 49 This conclusion was predicted in a paper published shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter by Stan Peale Patrick Cassen and R T Reynolds The authors calculated that Io s interior must experience significant tidal heating caused by its orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede see the Tidal heating section for a more detailed explanation of the process 50 Data from this flyby showed that the surface of Io is dominated by sulfur and sulfur dioxide frosts These compounds also dominate its thin atmosphere and the torus of plasma centered on Io s orbit also discovered by Voyager 51 52 53 Voyager 2 passed Io on 9 July 1979 at a distance of 1 130 000 km 700 000 mi Though it did not approach nearly as close as Voyager 1 comparisons between images taken by the two spacecraft showed several surface changes that had occurred in the four months between the encounters In addition observations of Io as a crescent as Voyager 2 departed the Jovian system revealed that seven of the nine plumes observed in March were still active in July 1979 with only the volcano Pele shutting down between flybys 54 Galileo edit nbsp Enhanced color Galileo image showing a dark spot just lower left of center interrupting the red ring of short chain sulfur allotropes deposited by Pele produced by a major eruption at Pillan Patera in 1997The Galileo spacecraft arrived at Jupiter in 1995 after a six year journey from Earth to follow up on the discoveries of the two Voyager probes and the ground based observations made in the intervening years Io s location within one of Jupiter s most intense radiation belts precluded a prolonged close flyby but Galileo did pass close by shortly before entering orbit for its two year primary mission studying the Jovian system Although no images were taken during the close flyby on 7 December 1995 the encounter did yield significant results such as the discovery of a large iron core similar to that found on the rocky planets of the inner Solar System 55 Despite the lack of close up imaging and mechanical problems that greatly restricted the amount of data returned several significant discoveries were made during Galileo s primary mission Galileo observed the effects of a major eruption at Pillan Patera and confirmed that volcanic eruptions are composed of silicate magmas with magnesium rich mafic and ultramafic compositions 56 Distant imaging of Io was acquired for almost every orbit during the primary mission revealing large numbers of active volcanoes both thermal emission from cooling magma on the surface and volcanic plumes numerous mountains with widely varying morphologies and several surface changes that had taken place both between the Voyager and Galileo eras and between Galileo orbits 57 The Galileo mission was twice extended in 1997 and 2000 During these extended missions the probe flew by Io three times in late 1999 and early 2000 and three times in late 2001 and early 2002 Observations during these encounters revealed the geologic processes occurring at Io s volcanoes and mountains excluded the presence of a magnetic field and demonstrated the extent of volcanic activity 57 Cassini edit nbsp The Cassini Huygens mission s view of Io and Jupiter on January 1 2001In December 2000 the Cassini spacecraft had a distant and brief encounter with the Jovian system en route to Saturn allowing for joint observations with Galileo These observations revealed a new plume at Tvashtar Paterae and provided insights into Io s aurorae 58 New Horizons edit The New Horizons spacecraft en route to Pluto and the Kuiper belt flew by the Jovian system and Io on 28 February 2007 During the encounter numerous distant observations of Io were obtained These included images of a large plume at Tvashtar providing the first detailed observations of the largest class of Ionian volcanic plume since observations of Pele s plume in 1979 59 New Horizons also captured images of a volcano near Girru Patera in the early stages of an eruption and several volcanic eruptions that have occurred since Galileo 59 Juno edit nbsp Global image of Jupiter s moon Io acquired by Juno s JunoCam camera on December 30 2023The Juno spacecraft was launched in 2011 and entered orbit around Jupiter on July 5 2016 Juno s mission is primarily focused on improving our understanding of Jupiter s interior magnetic field aurorae and polar atmosphere 60 Juno s 54 day orbit is highly inclined and highly eccentric in order to better characterize Jupiter s polar regions and to limit its exposure to the planet s harsh inner radiation belts limiting close encounters with Jupiter s moons The closest approach to Io during the initial prime mission occurred in February 2020 at a distance of 195 000 kilomters 61 Juno s extended mission begun in June 2021 allowed for closer encounters with Jupiter s Galilean satellites due to Juno s orbital precession 62 After a series of increasingly closer encounters with Io in 2022 and 2023 Juno performed a pair of close flybys on December 30 2023 63 and February 3 2024 64 both with altitudes of 1 500 kilometers The primary goal of these encounters were to improve our understanding of Io s gravity field using doppler tracking and to image Io s surface to look for surface changes since Io was last seen up close in 2007 65 During several orbits Juno has observed Io from a distance using JunoCAM a wide angle visible light camera to look for volcanic plumes and JIRAM a near infrared spectrometer and imager to monitor thermal emission from Io s volcanoes 66 61 JIRAM near infrared spectroscopy has so far allowed for the coarse mapping of sulfur dioxide frost across Io s surface as well as mapping minor surface components weakly absorbing sunlight at 2 1 and 2 65 µm 67 Future missions edit There are two forthcoming missions planned for the Jovian system The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer JUICE is a planned European Space Agency mission to the Jovian system that is intended to end up in Ganymede orbit 68 JUICE launched in April 2023 with arrival at Jupiter planned for July 2031 69 70 JUICE will not fly by Io but it will use its instruments such as a narrow angle camera to monitor Io s volcanic activity and measure its surface composition during the two year Jupiter tour phase of the mission prior to Ganymede orbit insertion Europa Clipper is a planned NASA mission to the Jovian system focused on Jupiter s moon Europa Like JUICE Europa Clipper will not perform any flybys of Io but distant volcano monitoring is likely Europa Clipper has a planned launch in 2024 with an arrival at Jupiter in 2030 71 The Io Volcano Observer IVO was a proposal to NASA for a low cost Discovery class mission selected for a Phase A study along with three other missions in 2020 IVO would launch in January 2029 and perform ten flybys of Io while in orbit around Jupiter beginning in the early 2030s 72 73 However the Venus missions DAVINCI and VERITAS were selected in favor of those 74 Orbit and rotation edit nbsp Animation of the Laplace resonance of Io Europa and Ganymede conjunctions are highlighted by color changes See also Tidal heating Io orbits Jupiter at a distance of 421 700 km 262 000 mi from Jupiter s center and 350 000 km 217 000 mi from its cloudtops It is the innermost of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter its orbit lying between those of Thebe and Europa Including Jupiter s inner satellites Io is the fifth moon out from Jupiter It takes Io about 42 5 hours 1 77 days to complete one orbit around Jupiter fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation Io is in a 2 1 mean motion orbital resonance with Europa and a 4 1 mean motion orbital resonance with Ganymede completing two orbits of Jupiter for every one orbit completed by Europa and four orbits for every one completed by Ganymede This resonance helps maintain Io s orbital eccentricity 0 0041 which in turn provides the primary heating source for its geologic activity 50 Without this forced eccentricity Io s orbit would circularize through tidal dissipation leading to a less geologically active world 50 Like the other Galilean satellites and the Moon Io rotates synchronously with its orbital period keeping one face nearly pointed toward Jupiter This synchrony provides the definition for Io s longitude system Io s prime meridian intersects the equator at the sub Jovian point The side of Io that always faces Jupiter is known as the subjovian hemisphere whereas the side that always faces away is known as the antijovian hemisphere The side of Io that always faces in the direction that Io travels in its orbit is known as the leading hemisphere whereas the side that always faces in the opposite direction is known as the trailing hemisphere 75 From the surface of Io Jupiter would subtend an arc of 19 5 making Jupiter appear 39 times the apparent diameter of Earth s Moon citation needed Interaction with Jupiter s magnetosphere edit nbsp Schematic of Jupiter s magnetosphere and the components influenced by Io near the center of the image the plasma torus in red the neutral cloud in yellow the flux tube in green and magnetic field lines in blue 76 Io plays a significant role in shaping Jupiter s magnetic field acting as an electric generator that can develop 400 000 volts across itself and create an electric current of 3 million amperes releasing ions that give Jupiter a magnetic field inflated to more than twice the size it would otherwise have 77 The magnetosphere of Jupiter sweeps up gases and dust from Io s thin atmosphere at a rate of 1 tonne per second 78 This material is mostly composed of ionized and atomic sulfur oxygen and chlorine atomic sodium and potassium molecular sulfur dioxide and sulfur and sodium chloride dust 78 79 These materials originate from Io s volcanic activity with the material that escapes to Jupiter s magnetic field and into interplanetary space coming directly from Io s atmosphere These materials depending on their ionized state and composition end up in various neutral non ionized clouds and radiation belts in Jupiter s magnetosphere and in some cases are eventually ejected from the Jovian system 80 nbsp The Jupiter Io System and Interaction artwork 15 July 2021 Surrounding Io at a distance of up to six Io radii from its surface is a cloud of neutral sulfur oxygen sodium and potassium atoms These particles originate in Io s upper atmosphere and are excited by collisions with ions in the plasma torus discussed below and by other processes into filling Io s Hill sphere which is the region where Io s gravity is dominant over Jupiter s Some of this material escapes Io s gravitational pull and goes into orbit around Jupiter Over a 20 hour period these particles spread out from Io to form a banana shaped neutral cloud that can reach as far as six Jovian radii from Io either inside Io s orbit and ahead of it or outside Io s orbit and behind it 78 The collision process that excites these particles also occasionally provides sodium ions in the plasma torus with an electron removing those new fast neutrals from the torus These particles retain their velocity 70 km s compared to the 17 km s orbital velocity at Io and are thus ejected in jets leading away from Io 81 Io orbits within a belt of intense radiation known as the Io plasma torus The plasma in this doughnut shaped ring of ionized sulfur oxygen sodium and chlorine originates when neutral atoms in the cloud surrounding Io are ionized and carried along by the Jovian magnetosphere 78 Unlike the particles in the neutral cloud these particles co rotate with Jupiter s magnetosphere revolving around Jupiter at 74 km s Like the rest of Jupiter s magnetic field the plasma torus is tilted with respect to Jupiter s equator and Io s orbital plane so that Io is at times below and at other times above the core of the plasma torus As noted above these ions higher velocity and energy levels are partly responsible for the removal of neutral atoms and molecules from Io s atmosphere and more extended neutral clouds The torus is composed of three sections an outer warm torus that resides just outside Io s orbit a vertically extended region known as the ribbon composed of the neutral source region and cooling plasma located at around Io s distance from Jupiter and an inner cold torus composed of particles that are slowly spiraling in toward Jupiter 78 After residing an average of 40 days in the torus particles in the warm torus escape and are partially responsible for Jupiter s unusually large magnetosphere their outward pressure inflating it from within 82 Particles from Io detected as variations in magnetospheric plasma have been detected far into the long magnetotail by New Horizons To study similar variations within the plasma torus researchers measured the ultraviolet light it emits Although such variations have not been definitively linked to variations in Io s volcanic activity the ultimate source for material in the plasma torus this link has been established in the neutral sodium cloud 83 During an encounter with Jupiter in 1992 the Ulysses spacecraft detected a stream of dust sized particles being ejected from the Jovian system 84 The dust in these discrete streams travels away from Jupiter at speeds upwards of several hundred kilometers per second has an average particle size of 10 mm and consists primarily of sodium chloride 79 85 Dust measurements by Galileo showed that these dust streams originated on Io but exactly how these form whether from Io s volcanic activity or material removed from the surface is unknown 86 Jupiter s magnetic field which Io crosses couples Io s atmosphere and neutral cloud to Jupiter s polar upper atmosphere by generating an electric current known as the Io flux tube 78 This current produces an auroral glow in Jupiter s polar regions known as the Io footprint as well as aurorae in Io s atmosphere Particles from this auroral interaction darken the Jovian polar regions at visible wavelengths The location of Io and its auroral footprint with respect to Earth and Jupiter has a strong influence on Jovian radio emissions from our vantage point when Io is visible radio signals from Jupiter increase considerably 40 78 The Juno mission currently in orbit around Jupiter should help shed light on these processes The Jovian magnetic field lines that do get past Io s ionosphere also induce an electric current which in turn creates an induced magnetic field within Io s interior Io s induced magnetic field is thought to be generated within a partially molten silicate magma ocean 50 kilometers beneath Io s surface 87 Similar induced fields were found at the other Galilean satellites by Galileo possibly generated within liquid water oceans in the interiors of those moons 88 Geology editIo is slightly larger than Earth s Moon It has a mean radius of 1 821 3 km 1 131 7 mi about 5 greater than the Moon s and a mass of 8 9319 1022 kg about 21 greater than the Moon s It is a slight ellipsoid in shape with its longest axis directed toward Jupiter Among the Galilean satellites in both mass and volume Io ranks behind Ganymede and Callisto but ahead of Europa 89 Interior edit nbsp Model of the possible interior composition of Io with various features labelled Composed primarily of silicate rock and iron Io and Europa are closer in bulk composition to terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer Solar System which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates Io has a density of 3 5275 g cm3 the highest of any regular moon in the Solar System significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites Ganymede and Callisto in particular whose densities are around 1 9 g cm3 and slightly higher 5 5 than the Moon s 3 344 g cm3 and Europa s 2 989 g cm3 7 Models based on the Voyager and Galileo measurements of Io s mass radius and quadrupole gravitational coefficients numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object suggest that its interior is differentiated between a silicate rich crust and mantle and an iron or iron sulfide rich core 55 Io s metallic core makes up approximately 20 of its mass 90 Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core the core has a radius between 350 and 650 km 220 400 mi if it is composed almost entirely of iron or between 550 and 900 km 340 560 mi for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur Galileo s magnetometer failed to detect an internal intrinsic magnetic field at Io suggesting that the core is not convecting 91 Modeling of Io s interior composition suggests that the mantle is composed of at least 75 of the magnesium rich mineral forsterite and has a bulk composition similar to that of L chondrite and LL chondrite meteorites with higher iron content compared to silicon than the Moon or Earth but lower than Mars 92 93 To support the heat flow observed on Io 10 20 of Io s mantle may be molten though regions where high temperature volcanism has been observed may have higher melt fractions 94 However re analysis of Galileo magnetometer data in 2009 revealed the presence of an induced magnetic field at Io requiring a magma ocean 50 km 31 mi below the surface 87 Further analysis published in 2011 provided direct evidence of such an ocean 95 This layer is estimated to be 50 km thick and to make up about 10 of Io s mantle It is estimated that the temperature in the magma ocean reaches 1 200 C It is not known if the 10 20 partial melting percentage for Io s mantle is consistent with the requirement for a significant amount of molten silicates in this possible magma ocean 96 The lithosphere of Io composed of basalt and sulfur deposited by Io s extensive volcanism is at least 12 km 7 5 mi thick and likely less than 40 km 25 mi thick 90 97 Tidal heating edit Main article Tidal heating of Io Unlike Earth and the Moon Io s main source of internal heat comes from tidal dissipation rather than radioactive isotope decay the result of Io s orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede 50 Such heating is dependent on Io s distance from Jupiter its orbital eccentricity the composition of its interior and its physical state 94 Its Laplace resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io s eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit The resonant orbit also helps to maintain Io s distance from Jupiter otherwise tides raised on Jupiter would cause Io to slowly spiral outward from its parent planet 98 The tidal forces experienced by Io are about 20 000 times stronger than the tidal forces Earth experiences due to the Moon and the vertical differences in its tidal bulge between the times Io is at periapsis and apoapsis in its orbit could be as much as 100 m 330 ft 99 The friction or tidal dissipation produced in Io s interior due to this varying tidal pull which without the resonant orbit would have gone into circularizing Io s orbit instead creates significant tidal heating within Io s interior melting a significant amount of Io s mantle and core The amount of energy produced is up to 200 times greater than that produced solely from radioactive decay 11 This heat is released in the form of volcanic activity generating its observed high heat flow global total 0 6 to 1 6 1014 W 94 Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time however the current amount of tidal dissipation is consistent with the observed heat flow 94 100 Models of tidal heating and convection have not found consistent planetary viscosity profiles that simultaneously match tidal energy dissipation and mantle convection of heat to the surface 100 101 Although there is general agreement that the origin of the heat as manifested in Io s many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the east 102 A study published by Tyler et al 2015 suggests that this eastern shift may be caused by an ocean of molten rock under the surface The movement of this magma would generate extra heat through friction due to its viscosity The study s authors believe that this subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock 103 Other moons in the Solar System are also tidally heated and they too may generate additional heat through the friction of subsurface magma or water oceans This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus 104 105 Surface edit nbsp Io s surface mapBased on their experience with the ancient surfaces of the Moon Mars and Mercury scientists expected to see numerous impact craters in Voyager 1 s first images of Io The density of impact craters across Io s surface would have given clues to Io s age However they were surprised to discover that the surface was almost completely lacking in impact craters but was instead covered in smooth plains dotted with tall mountains pits of various shapes and sizes and volcanic lava flows 45 Compared to most worlds observed to that point Io s surface was covered in a variety of colorful materials leading Io to be compared to a rotten orange or to pizza from various sulfurous compounds 106 107 The lack of impact craters indicated that Io s surface is geologically young like the terrestrial surface volcanic materials continuously bury craters as they are produced This result was spectacularly confirmed as at least nine active volcanoes were observed by Voyager 1 49 Surface composition edit Io s colorful appearance is the result of materials deposited by its extensive volcanism including silicates such as orthopyroxene sulfur and sulfur dioxide 108 Sulfur dioxide frost is ubiquitous across the surface of Io forming large regions covered in white or grey materials Sulfur is also seen in many places across Io forming yellow to yellow green regions Sulfur deposited in the mid latitude and polar regions is often damaged by radiation breaking up the normally stable cyclic 8 chain sulfur This radiation damage produces Io s red brown polar regions 21 nbsp Geological map of IoExplosive volcanism often taking the form of umbrella shaped plumes paints the surface with sulfurous and silicate materials Plume deposits on Io are often colored red or white depending on the amount of sulfur and sulfur dioxide in the plume Generally plumes formed at volcanic vents from degassing lava contain a greater amount of S2 producing a red fan deposit or in extreme cases large often reaching beyond 450 km or 280 mi from the central vent red rings 109 A prominent example of a red ring plume deposit is located at Pele These red deposits consist primarily of sulfur generally 3 and 4 chain molecular sulfur sulfur dioxide and perhaps sulfuryl chloride 108 Plumes formed at the margins of silicate lava flows through the interaction of lava and pre existing deposits of sulfur and sulfur dioxide produce white or gray deposits 110 Compositional mapping and Io s high density suggest that Io contains little to no water though small pockets of water ice or hydrated minerals have been tentatively identified most notably on the northwest flank of the mountain Gish Bar Mons 111 Io has the least amount of water of any known body in the Solar System 112 This lack of water is likely due to Jupiter being hot enough early in the evolution of the Solar System to drive off volatile materials like water in the vicinity of Io but not hot enough to do so farther out 113 Volcanism edit Main article Volcanism on Io See also List of volcanic features on Io nbsp Active lava flows in volcanic region Tvashtar Paterae blank region represents saturated areas in the original data Images taken by Galileo in November 1999 and February 2000 The tidal heating produced by Io s forced orbital eccentricity has made it the most volcanically active world in the Solar System with hundreds of volcanic centers and extensive lava flows 13 During a major eruption lava flows tens or even hundreds of kilometers long can be produced consisting mostly of basalt silicate lavas with either mafic or ultramafic magnesium rich compositions As a by product of this activity sulfur sulfur dioxide gas and silicate pyroclastic material like ash are blown up to 200 km 120 mi into space producing large umbrella shaped plumes painting the surrounding terrain in red black and white and providing material for Io s patchy atmosphere and Jupiter s extensive magnetosphere 114 80 Io s surface is dotted with volcanic depressions known as paterae which generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls 115 These features resemble terrestrial calderas but it is unknown if they are produced through collapse over an emptied lava chamber like their terrestrial cousins One hypothesis suggests that these features are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills and the overlying material is either blasted out or integrated into the sill 116 Examples of paterae in various stages of exhumation have been mapped using Galileo images of the Chaac Camaxtli region 117 Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are normally larger with an average diameter of 41 km 25 mi the largest being Loki Patera at 202 km 126 mi 115 Loki is also consistently the strongest volcano on Io contributing on average 25 of Io s global heat output 118 Whatever the formation mechanism the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that these features are structurally controlled with at least half bounded by faults or mountains 115 These features are often the site of volcanic eruptions either from lava flows spreading across the floors of the paterae as at an eruption at Gish Bar Patera in 2001 or in the form of a lava lake 12 119 Lava lakes on Io either have a continuously overturning lava crust such as at Pele or an episodically overturning crust such as at Loki 120 121 nbsp Jupiter moon Io volcanic activity 12 14 2022 left and 03 01 2023 Lava flows represent another major volcanic terrain on Io Magma erupts onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae or on the plains from fissures producing inflated compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kilauea in Hawaii Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io s major lava flows like those at Prometheus and Amirani are produced by the build up of small breakouts of lava flows on top of older flows 122 Larger outbreaks of lava have also been observed on Io For example the leading edge of the Prometheus flow moved 75 to 95 km 47 to 59 mi between Voyager in 1979 and the first Galileo observations in 1996 A major eruption in 1997 produced more than 3 500 km2 1 400 sq mi of fresh lava and flooded the floor of the adjacent Pillan Patera 56 Analysis of the Voyager images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur However subsequent Earth based infrared studies and measurements from the Galileo spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions 123 This hypothesis is based on temperature measurements of Io s hotspots or thermal emission locations which suggest temperatures of at least 1 300 K and some as high as 1 600 K 124 Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2 000 K 56 have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures 124 123 nbsp Five image sequence of New Horizons images showing Io s volcano Tvashtar spewing material 330 km above its surfaceThe discovery of plumes at the volcanoes Pele and Loki were the first sign that Io is geologically active 48 Generally these plumes are formed when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io s volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 km s 0 62 mi s creating umbrella shaped clouds of gas and dust Additional material that might be found in these volcanic plumes include sodium potassium and chlorine 125 126 These plumes appear to be formed in one of two ways 127 Io s largest plumes such as those emitted by Pele are created when dissolved sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas are released from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes often dragging silicate pyroclastic material with them 128 These plumes form red from the short chain sulfur and black from the silicate pyroclastics deposits on the surface Plumes formed in this manner are among the largest observed at Io forming red rings more than 1 000 km 620 mi in diameter Examples of this plume type include Pele Tvashtar and Dazhbog Another type of plume is produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost sending the sulfur skyward This type of plume often forms bright circular deposits consisting of sulfur dioxide These plumes are often less than 100 km 62 mi tall and are among the most long lived plumes on Io Examples include Prometheus Amirani and Masubi The erupted sulfurous compounds are concentrated in the upper crust from a decrease in sulfur solubility at greater depths in Io s lithosphere and can be a determinant for the eruption style of a hot spot 128 129 130 Mountains edit Main article Mountains of Io See also List of mountains on Io nbsp Galileo greyscale image of Tohil Mons a 5 4 km tall mountainIo has 100 to 150 mountains These structures average 6 km 3 7 mi in height and reach a maximum of 17 5 1 5 km 10 9 0 9 mi at South Boosaule Montes 14 Mountains often appear as large the average mountain is 157 km or 98 mi long isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic patterns outlined in contrast to the case on Earth 14 To support the tremendous topography observed at these mountains requires compositions consisting mostly of silicate rock as opposed to sulfur 131 Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance nearly all of its mountains are tectonic structures and are not produced by volcanoes Instead most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io s crust through thrust faulting 132 The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials 132 The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa 133 This suggests large scale regions in Io s lithosphere where compression supportive of mountain formation and extension supportive of patera formation dominate 134 Locally however mountains and paterae often abut one another suggesting that magma often exploits faults formed during mountain formation to reach the surface 115 Mountains on Io generally structures rising above the surrounding plains have a variety of morphologies Plateaus are most common 14 These structures resemble large flat topped mesas with rugged surfaces Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes with steep slopes 6 7 near a small central caldera and shallow slopes along their margins 135 These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io averaging only 1 to 2 km 0 6 to 1 2 mi in height and 40 to 60 km 25 to 37 mi wide Other shield volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io s volcanoes where thin flows radiate out from a central patera such as at Ra Patera 135 Nearly all mountains appear to be in some stage of degradation Large landslide deposits are common at the base of Ionian mountains suggesting that mass wasting is the primary form of degradation Scalloped margins are common among Io s mesas and plateaus the result of sulfur dioxide sapping from Io s crust producing zones of weakness along mountain margins 136 Atmosphere editMain article Atmosphere of Io nbsp Auroral glows in Io s upper atmosphere Different colors represent emission from different components of the atmosphere green comes from emitting sodium red from emitting oxygen and blue from emitting volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide Image taken while Io was in eclipse Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide SO2 with minor constituents including sulfur monoxide SO sodium chloride NaCl and atomic sulfur and oxygen 137 The atmosphere has significant variations in density and temperature with time of day latitude volcanic activity and surface frost abundance The maximum atmospheric pressure on Io ranges from 3 3 10 5 to 3 10 4 pascals Pa or 0 3 to 3 nbar spatially seen on Io s anti Jupiter hemisphere and along the equator and temporally in the early afternoon when the temperature of surface frost peaks 137 138 139 Localized peaks at volcanic plumes have also been seen with pressures of 5 10 4 to 40 10 4 Pa 5 to 40 nbar 52 Io s atmospheric pressure is lowest on Io s night side where the pressure dips to 0 1 10 7 to 1 10 7 Pa 0 0001 to 0 001 nbar 137 138 Io s atmospheric temperature ranges from the temperature of the surface at low altitudes where sulfur dioxide is in vapor pressure equilibrium with frost on the surface to 1 800 K at higher altitudes where the lower atmospheric density permits heating from plasma in the Io plasma torus and from Joule heating from the Io flux tube 137 138 The low pressure limits the atmosphere s effect on the surface except for temporarily redistributing sulfur dioxide from frost rich to frost poor areas and to expand the size of plume deposit rings when plume material re enters the thicker dayside atmosphere 137 138 Gas in Io s atmosphere is stripped by Jupiter s magnetosphere escaping to either the neutral cloud that surrounds Io or the Io plasma torus a ring of ionized particles that shares Io s orbit but co rotates with the magnetosphere of Jupiter 82 Approximately one ton of material is removed from the atmosphere every second through this process so that it must be constantly replenished 78 The most dramatic source of SO2 are volcanic plumes which pump 104 kg of sulfur dioxide per second into Io s atmosphere on average though most of this condenses back onto the surface 140 Much of the sulfur dioxide in Io s atmosphere is sustained by sunlight driven sublimation of SO2 frozen on the surface 141 The day side atmosphere is largely confined to within 40 of the equator where the surface is warmest and most active volcanic plumes reside 142 A sublimation driven atmosphere is also consistent with observations that Io s atmosphere is densest over the anti Jupiter hemisphere where SO2 frost is most abundant and is densest when Io is closer to the Sun 137 141 143 However some contributions from volcanic plumes are required as the highest observed densities have been seen near volcanic vents 137 Because the density of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is tied directly to surface temperature Io s atmosphere partially collapses at night or when Io is in the shadow of Jupiter with an 80 drop in column density 144 The collapse during eclipse is limited somewhat by the formation of a diffusion layer of sulfur monoxide in the lowest portion of the atmosphere but the atmosphere pressure of Io s nightside atmosphere is two to four orders of magnitude less than at its peak just past noon 138 145 The minor constituents of Io s atmosphere such as NaCl SO O and S derive either from direct volcanic outgassing photodissociation or chemical breakdown caused by solar ultraviolet radiation from SO2 or the sputtering of surface deposits by charged particles from Jupiter s magnetosphere 141 Various researchers have proposed that the atmosphere of Io freezes onto the surface when it passes into the shadow of Jupiter Evidence for this is a post eclipse brightening where the moon sometimes appears a bit brighter as if covered with frost immediately after eclipse After about 15 minutes the brightness returns to normal presumably because the frost has disappeared through sublimation 146 147 148 149 Besides being seen through ground based telescopes post eclipse brightening was found in near infrared wavelengths using an instrument aboard the Cassini spacecraft 150 Further support for this idea came in 2013 when the Gemini Observatory was used to directly measure the collapse of Io s SO2 atmosphere during and its reformation after eclipse with Jupiter 151 152 High resolution images of Io acquired when Io is experiencing an eclipse reveal an aurora like glow 126 As on Earth this is due to particle radiation hitting the atmosphere though in this case the charged particles come from Jupiter s magnetic field rather than the solar wind Aurorae usually occur near the magnetic poles of planets but Io s are brightest near its equator Io lacks an intrinsic magnetic field of its own therefore electrons traveling along Jupiter s magnetic field near Io directly impact Io s atmosphere More electrons collide with its atmosphere producing the brightest aurora where the field lines are tangent to Io i e near the equator because the column of gas they pass through is the longest there Aurorae associated with these tangent points on Io are observed to rock with the changing orientation of Jupiter s tilted magnetic dipole 153 Fainter aurora from oxygen atoms along the limb of Io the red glows in the image at right and sodium atoms on Io s night side the green glows in the same image have also been observed 126 See also edit nbsp Solar System portal nbsp Outer space portal nbsp Astronomy portalAtmosphere of Io Exploration of Io Jupiter Moons of Jupiter Galilean moons the four biggest moons of Jupiter Jupiter s moons in fiction List of natural satellites Planetary geologyReferences edit a b Blue Jennifer 9 November 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during and after eclipse Icarus 201 2 585 597 Bibcode 2009Icar 201 585M doi 10 1016 j icarus 2009 01 006 Fanale F P et al June 1981 Io Could SO2 condensation sublimation cause the sometimes reported post eclipse brightening Geophysical Research Letters 8 6 625 628 Bibcode 1981GeoRL 8 625F doi 10 1029 GL008i006p00625 Nelson Robert M et al February 1993 The Brightness of Jupiter s Satellite Io Following Emergence from Eclipse Selected Observations 1981 1989 Icarus 101 2 223 233 Bibcode 1993Icar 101 223N doi 10 1006 icar 1993 1020 Veverka J et al July 1981 Voyager search for posteclipse brightening on Io Icarus 47 1 60 74 Bibcode 1981Icar 47 60V doi 10 1016 0019 1035 81 90091 9 Secosky James J Potter Michael September 1994 A Hubble Space Telescope study of posteclipse brightening and albedo changes on Io Icarus 111 1 73 78 Bibcode 1994Icar 111 73S doi 10 1006 icar 1994 1134 Bellucci Giancarlo et al November 2004 Cassini VIMS observation of an Io post eclipse brightening event Icarus 172 1 141 148 Bibcode 2004Icar 172 141B doi 10 1016 j icarus 2004 05 012 Crowe Robert 2 August 2016 SwRI Space Scientists Observe Io s Atmospheric Collapse During Eclipse Southwest Research Institute Retrieved 4 October 2018 Tsang Constantine C C et al August 2016 The collapse of Io s primary atmosphere in Jupiter eclipse PDF Journal of Geophysical Research Planets 121 8 1400 1410 Bibcode 2016JGRE 121 1400T doi 10 1002 2016JE005025 hdl 10261 143708 S2CID 19544014 Retherford K D et al 2000 Io s Equatorial Spots Morphology of Neutral UV Emissions J Geophys Res 105 A12 27 157 27 165 Bibcode 2000JGR 10527157R doi 10 1029 2000JA002500 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Io General information edit Io profile at NASA s Solar System Exploration site Bill Arnett s Io webpage from The Nine Planets website Io overview from the University of Michigan s Windows to the Universe Calvin Hamilton s Io page from the Views of the Solar System websiteMovies edit Paul Schenk s 3D images and flyover videos of Io and other outer solar system satellites High resolution video simulation of rotating Io by Sean DoranImages edit Catalog of NASA images of Io Galileo images of Io New Horizons images of Io New Horizons LORRI Raw Images includes numerous Io images Io through Different New Horizons ImagersMaps edit Io global basemaps at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center based on Galileo and Voyager images Io nomenclature and map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page Interactive map of Io by Google MapsAdditional references edit Io dynamo from educational website The Exploration of the Earth s MagnetosphereNASA s Stunning Discoveries on Jupiter s Largest Moons Our Solar System s MoonsThe Conundrum Posed by Io s Minimum Surface Temperatures Io Mountain Database Cassini Observations of Io s Visible Aurorae at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center The Gish Bar Times Jason Perry s Io related blog Portals nbsp Astronomy nbsp Stars nbsp Spaceflight nbsp Outer space nbsp Solar system Ca tegory Articles containing video clips Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Io moon amp oldid 1218518513, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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