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Johannes Kepler

January 12, 2023

"Kepler" redirects here. For the European cargo spacecraft, see Johannes Kepler ATV. For the space observatory, see Kepler space telescope. For other uses, see Kepler (disambiguation).

Johannes Kepler (/ˈkɛplər/;[2] German: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -] (listen);[3][4] 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music.[5] He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonice Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton's theory of universal gravitation.[6]

Johannes Kepler
Portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist in 1620.
Born(1571-12-27)27 December 1571
Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt, Holy Roman Empire
Died15 November 1630(1630-11-15) (aged 58)
Free Imperial City of Regensburg, Holy Roman Empire
EducationTübinger Stift, University of Tübingen (M.A., 1591)[1]
Known forKepler's laws of planetary motion
Kepler conjecture
Rudolphine Tables
Scientific career
FieldsAstronomy, astrology, mathematics, natural philosophy
Doctoral advisorMichael Maestlin
InfluencesNicolaus Copernicus
Tycho Brahe
Pythagoras
InfluencedSir Isaac Newton
Benoit Mandelbrot
Thomas Browne
Signature

Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He also taught mathematics in Linz, and was an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting (or Keplerian) telescope, and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome.[7]

Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[8] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[9] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[10] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[11] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[12]

Early life

Childhood (1571–1590)

 
Kepler's birthplace, in Weil der Stadt

Kepler was born on 27 December 1571, in the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother, Katharina Guldenmann, an innkeeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty.[13]

 
As a child, Kepler witnessed the Great Comet of 1577, which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe.

He was introduced to astronomy at an early age and developed a strong passion for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it."[14] In 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the Moon "appeared quite red".[14] However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.[15]

In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary at Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tübinger Stift at the University of Tübingen. There, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller[16] and theology under Jacob Heerbrand (a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590.[17] He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tübingen's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631,[17] he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe.[18] Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 22.[19]

Graz (1594–1600)

 
Portraits of Kepler and his wife
 
House of Kepler and Barbara Müller in Gössendorf, near Graz (1597–1599)

Before concluding his studies at Tübingen, Kepler accepted an offer to teach mathematics as a replacement to Georg Stadius at the Protestant school in Graz (now in Styria, Austria).[20] During this period (1594–1600), he issued many official calendars and prognostications that enhanced his reputation as an astrologer. Although Kepler had mixed feelings about astrology and disparaged many customary practices of astrologers, he believed deeply in a connection between the cosmos and the individual. He eventually published some of the ideas he had entertained while a student in the Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596), published a little over a year after his arrival at Graz.[21]

In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, Regina Lorenz, and he began courting her. Müller, an heiress to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage. Even though Kepler had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, Protestant officials—who had helped set up the match—pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on 27 April 1597.[22]

In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).[23]

Other research

Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology.[24]

He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers Bär)—the imperial mathematician to Rudolf II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues.[25]

Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the Sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data—just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on 1 January 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones.[26]

Scientific career

Prague (1600–1612)

On 4 February 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months, he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory[27] from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on 6 April. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family.[28]

Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essay—dedicated to Ferdinand—in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move").[29] Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the 10 July eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica.[30]

On 2 August 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz. Several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (by then deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on 24 October 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.[31]

Imperial Advisor

Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting well-received detailed horoscopes for friends, family, and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble. Rudolf was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well.[32]

Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost Bürgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly.[33]

Supernova of 1604

See also: Kepler's Supernova
 
Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604

In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself.[34] Kepler began systematically observing the supernova. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the about 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (c. 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (c. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor.[35]

It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. Kepler also attached an appendix where he discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem—analogous to the present new star—would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.[36]

Over the following years, Kepler attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini, and dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus. Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium [The Dream]. Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the Moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story—several times longer than the actual text—which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.[37]

Later life

Troubles

 
Karlova street in Old Town, Prague – house where Kepler lived. Now a museum

In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolf—whose health was failing—was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.[38]

Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua. At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua—on the recommendation of the departing Galileo—sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.[39]

Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.[40]

Linz (1612–1630)

 
A statue of Kepler in Linz

In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague—though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg. That blow, happening only a few years after Kepler's excommunication, is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full-fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler.[41]

His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth. He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands. On 30 October 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years (a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem).[42] He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren."[43] The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.[44]

On 8 October 1630, Kepler set out for Regensburg, hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously. A few days after reaching Regensburg, Kepler became sick, and progressively became worse. On 15 November 1630, just over a month after his arrival, he died. He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the Thirty Years' War.[45]

Christianity

Kepler's belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world, most profoundly in astronomy.[46][47] The phrase "I am merely thinking God's thoughts after Him" has been attributed to him, although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand:

Those laws [of nature] are within the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts.[48]

Kepler advocated for tolerance among Christian denominations, for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together. He wrote, "Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran, nor Calvinist, nor Papist."[49]

Astronomy

Mysterium Cosmographicum

 
Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar System, from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596)

Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery, 1596), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on 19 July 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.[50]

Kepler thought the Mysterium had revealed God's geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between them to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism.[51] With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable, description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler's new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system.[52]

In 1621, Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.[53] In terms of impact, the Mysterium can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book, he resorted to Ptolemaic devices (viz., epicycles and eccentric circles) in order to explain the change in planets' orbital speed, and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth's orbit rather than that of the Sun "as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy." Modern astronomy owes much to Mysterium Cosmographicum, despite flaws in its main thesis, "since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it."[54]

Astronomia Nova

 
Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of apparent retrograde motion in Astronomia Nova (1609)

The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia Nova (A New Astronomy)—including the first two laws of planetary motion—began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of the orbit of Mars. In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit, a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes, distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb (a spherical shell to which planet is attached). As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.[55] Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars's orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.[56]

In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the Solar System. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species)[57] radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it.[58][note 1] Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times—his second law of planetary motion.[60]

He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse,[61] which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked.[62] Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the Vicarious Hypothesis), Kepler immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.[63]

Epitome of Copernican Astronomy

Further information: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae

Since completing the Astronomia Nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of heliocentric astronomy.[64] Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy). Despite its title, which merely hints at heliocentrism, the Epitome is less about Copernicus's work and more about Kepler's own astronomical system. The Epitome contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.[65] Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter,[note 2] it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.[68]

Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated, Kepler sought to model his Epitome after that of his master Michael Maestlin, who published a well-regarded book explaining the basics of geocentric astronomy to non-experts.[69] Kepler completed the first of three volumes, consisting of Books I–III, by 1615 in the same question-answer format of Maestlin's and have it printed in 1617.[70] However, the banning of Copernican books by the Catholic Church, as well as the start of the Thirty Years' War, meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed. In the interim, and to avoid being subject to the ban, Kepler switched the audience of the Epitome from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians, as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and required advanced mathematics to be understood.[69] The second volume, consisting of Book IV, was published in 1620, followed by the third volume, consisting of Books V–VII, in 1621.

Rudolphine Tables

 
Two pages from Kepler's Rudolphine Tables showing eclipses of the Sun and Moon

In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table, though neither would be completed for many years.[71]

Kepler, at last, completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1623, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627.[72]

Astrology

 
Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein

Like Ptolemy, Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy, and as being of equal interest and value. However, in the following years, the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers.[73]

Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day, as he was "continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology, but it was the only thing for which people would pay him, and on it after a fashion he lived."[74] Nonetheless, Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing, composing numerous astrological calendars, more than 800 nativities, and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper.[75]

De Fundamentis

In his bid to become imperial astronomer, Kepler wrote De Fundamentis (1601), whose full title can be translated as “On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations”, as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs.[76]

In this work, Kepler describes the effects of the Sun, Moon, and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors, finalizing with Kepler's view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry. Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it, the world-soul is sentient but not conscious. As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony, so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner. Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light, experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time.[73]

Kepler surmises that the Earth has "cycles of humors" as living animals do, and gives for an example that "the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year". (This may refer to the 18.6-year lunar node precession cycle.) Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years, "and so far this observation has not been made".[77]

Tertius Interveniens

Kepler and Helisaeus Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604; around the same time, physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular).[78]

In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology, on the one hand, and overzealous rejection of it, on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (1610). Nominally this work—presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius—was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars (the titled meaning "Third-party interventions"), but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was an "occasional grain-seed, indeed, even a pearl or a gold nugget" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.[79]

Music

Harmonice Mundi

Main article: Harmonice Mundi
 
Geometrical harmonies from Harmonice Mundi (1619)

Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world".[80] In Harmonice Mundi (1619), he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world—particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects—in terms of music.[note 3] The central set of "harmonies" was the musica universalis or "music of the spheres", which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonice Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.[81]

Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies—and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler—with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories—treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.[82]

Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." Although he gives the date of this epiphany (8 March 1618), he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion.[83] However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.[84] This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.[85]

Optics

Astronomiae Pars Optica

 
A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes of various species.

As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations—now available to him in their entirety—and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."[86]

Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).[87] With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work. He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci, the geometric form would morph or degenerate, one into another. In this way, an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity, and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another, a circle is formed. As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines. He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.[88]

Dioptrice

In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei—using his powerful new telescope—discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with the Starry Messenger]. He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.[89]

Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne.[90] The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses—and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope—as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope—now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope—in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.[91]

Mathematics and physics

 
A diagram illustrating the Kepler conjecture from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (1611)

As a New Year's gift that year (1611), he also composed for his friend and some-time patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.[92][93]

Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum in 1613, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels, which was published in 1615.[94] Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis, including iterative approximations, infinitesimals, and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations.[95][96] Kepler's work on calculating volumes of shapes, and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel, were significant steps toward the development of calculus.[97] Simpson's rule, an approximation method used in integral calculus, is known in German as Keplersche Fassregel (Kepler's barrel rule).[98]

Legacy

Reception of his astronomy

Kepler's laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismaël Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.[99][100][101]

Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.[102] This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.[103] Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.[104][105][106]

Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630–1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.[65] However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work—notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke—began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia.[107] This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a force-based theory of universal gravitation,[108] a mathematical challenge later known as "solving the Kepler problem".[109]

History of science

 
Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic

Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean-Étienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt—the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the Great—identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.[110]

Alexandre Koyré's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyré, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyré placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.[111]

Philosophers of science—such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper—have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation.[112]

Editions and translations

 
The GDR stamp featuring Kepler

Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century).

An edition in eight volumes, Kepleri Opera omnia, was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807–1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday. Frisch's edition only included Kepler's Latin, with a Latin commentary.

A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Dyck compiled copies of Kepler's unedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler's unpublished manuscripts.

Max Caspar (1880–1956) published his German translation of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842–1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, succeeding him as project leader in 1934, establishing the Kepler-Kommission in the following year. Assisted by Martha List (1908–1992) and Franz Hammer (1898–1969), Caspar continued editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948.[113] The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas (during 1976–2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984–1999) and Roland Bulirsch (1998–2014).[114][115]

Cultural influence and eponymy

Main article: List of things named after Johannes Kepler
 
The Kepler crater as photographed by Apollo 12 in 1969

Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer".[116] The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.[117]

A well-received historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.[118] A 2004 nonfiction book, Heavenly Intrigue, suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.[119]

In Austria, a silver collector's 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin was minted in 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum.[120]

The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt (1957), and during the prolonged process of its creation, he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it.[121] Hindemith's opera inspired John Rodgers and Willie Ruff of Yale University to create a synthesizer composition based on Kepler's scheme for representing planetary motion with music.[122] Philip Glass wrote an opera called Kepler (2009) based on Kepler's life, with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel.[123]

Directly named for Kepler's contribution to science are Kepler's laws of planetary motion; Kepler's Supernova SN 1604, which he observed and described; the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra a set of geometrical constructions, two of which were described by him; and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing. Places and entities named in his honor include multiple city streets and squares, several educational institutions, an asteroid, and both a lunar and a Martian crater.

Works

 
Epitome astronomiae copernicanae, 1618
  • Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596)
  • De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology) (1601)
  • Astronomiae pars optica (in Latin). Frankfurt am Main: Claude de Marne. 1604.
  • De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1606)
  • Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609)
  • Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610)
  • Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610)
  • Dioptrice (1611)
  • De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611)
  • De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1614)[124]
  • Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo)
  • Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615)
  • Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium (1617–30)
  • Epitome astronomiae copernicanae (in Latin). Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.
  • Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 1-3, De doctrina sphaerica (in Latin). Vol. 44199. Linz: Johann Planck. 1618.
    • Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 4, Doctrina theorica. 1, Physica coelestis (in Latin). Vol. 4. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1622.
    • Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae. 5-7, Doctrina theorica (in Latin). Vol. 44323. Linz: Gottfried Tambach. 1621.
  • De cometis (in Latin). Augsburg: Sebastian Müller. 1619.
  • Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619)
  • Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos), 2nd edition (1621)
  • Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627)
  • Somnium (The Dream) (1634) (English translation on Google Books preview)
  • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 1. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1858.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1859.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 3. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1860.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 4. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1863.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 5. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1864.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 6. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1866.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 7. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1868.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 8. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1870.
    • [Opere] (in Latin). Vol. 9. Frankfurt am Main: Heyder & Zimmer. 1871.

A critical edition of Kepler's collected works (Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke, KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by the Kepler-Kommission (founded 1935) on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Vol. 1: Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, 2nd ed. 1993. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01639-1.
Vol. 2: Astronomiae pars optica. Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01641-3.
Vol. 3: Astronomia Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01643-X. Semi-parchment ISBN 3-406-01642-1.
Vol. 4: Kleinere Schriften 1602–1611. Dioptrice. Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. ISBN 3-406-01644-8.
Vol. 5: Chronologische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Out-of-print.
Vol. 6: Harmonice Mundi. Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, 2nd ed. 1981, ISBN 3-406-01648-0.
Vol. 7: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae. Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, 2nd ed. 1991. ISBN 3-406-01650-2, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01651-0.
Vol. 8: Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes. Commentary F. Hammer. 1955. Paperback ISBN 3-406-01653-7.
Vol 9: Mathematische Schriften. Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, 2nd ed. 1999. Out-of-print.
Vol. 10: Tabulae Rudolphinae. Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. ISBN 3-406-01656-1.
Vol. 11,1: Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium. Commentary V. Bialas. 1983. ISBN 3-406-01658-8, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01659-6.
Vol. 11,2: Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium. Commentary V. Bialas, H. Grössing. 1993. ISBN 3-406-37510-3, Paperback ISBN 3-406-37511-1.
Vol. 12: Theologica. Hexenprozeß. Tacitus-Übersetzung. Gedichte. Commentary J. Hübner, H. Grössing, F. Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. ISBN 3-406-01660-X, Paperback ISBN 3-406-01661-8.
  • Vols. 13–18: Letters:
Vol. 13: Briefe 1590–1599. Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. ISBN 3-406-01663-4.
Vol. 14: Briefe 1599–1603. Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Out-of-print. 2nd ed. in preparation.
Vol 15: Briefe 1604–1607. Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. ISBN 3-406-01667-7.
Vol. 16: Briefe 1607–1611. Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. ISBN 3-406-01668-5.
Vol. 17: Briefe 1612–1620. Ed. M. Caspar. 1955. ISBN 3-406-01671-5.
Vol. 18: Briefe 1620–1630. Ed. M. Caspar. 1959. ISBN 3-406-01672-3.
Vol. 19: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk. Commentary M. List. 1975. ISBN 978-3-406-01674-5.
Vols. 20–21: manuscripts
Vol. 20,1: Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc. Commentary V. Bialas. 1988. ISBN 3-406-31501-1. Paperback ISBN 3-406-31502-X.
Vol. 20,2: Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis. Commentary V. Bialas. 1998. Paperback ISBN 3-406-40593-2.
Vol. 21,1: Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano. In preparation.
Vol. 21,2: Manuscripta varia. In preparation.
Vol. 22: General index, in preparation.

The Kepler-Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana (2nd ed. List, 1968), a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler's works, with a supplementary volume to the second edition (ed. Hamel 1998).

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Kepler's decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance-velocity law, rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres, marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science ... [Kepler] had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it, rather than simply constructing new models. In other words, even before discovering the area law, Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle."[59]
  2. ^ By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law. Kepler contended that rotating massive bodies communicate their rotation to their satellites, so that the satellites are swept around the central body; thus the rotation of the Sun drives the revolutions of the planets and the rotation of the Earth drives the revolution of the Moon. In Kepler's era, no one had any evidence of Jupiter's rotation. However, Kepler argued that the force by which a central body causes its satellites to revolve around it, weakens with distance; consequently, satellites that are farther from the central body revolve slower. Kepler noted that Jupiter's moons obeyed this pattern and he inferred that a similar force was responsible. He also noted that the orbital periods and semi-major axes of Jupiter's satellites were roughly related by a 3/2 power law, as are the orbits of the six (then known) planets. However, this relation was approximate: the periods of Jupiter's moons were known within a few percent of their modern values, but the moons' semi-major axes were determined less accurately. Kepler discussed Jupiter's moons in his Summary of Copernican Astronomy:[66][67]

    (4) However, the credibility of this [argument] is proved by the comparison of the four [moons] of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun. Because, regarding the body of Jupiter, whether it turns around its axis, we don't have proofs for what suffices for us [regarding the rotation of ] the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun, certainly [as reason proves to us]: but reason attests that, just as it is clearly [true] among the six planets around the Sun, so also it is among the four [moons] of Jupiter, because around the body of Jupiter any [satellite] that can go farther from it orbits slower, and even that [orbit's period] is not in the same proportion, but greater [than the distance from Jupiter]; that is, 3/2 (sescupla ) of the proportion of each of the distances from Jupiter, which is clearly the very [proportion] as [is used for] the six planets above. In his [book] The World of Jupiter [Mundus Jovialis, 1614], [Simon] Mayr [1573–1624] presents these distances, from Jupiter, of the four [moons] of Jupiter: 3, 5, 8, 13 (or 14 [according to] Galileo) ... Mayr presents their time periods: 1 day 18 1/2 hours, 3 days 13 1/3 hours, 7 days 3 hours, 16 days 18 hours: for all [of these data] the proportion is greater than double, thus greater than [the proportion] of the distances 3, 5, 8, 13 or 14, although less than [the proportion] of the squares, which double the proportions of the distances, namely 9, 25, 64, 169 or 196, just as [a power of] 3/2 is also greater than 1 but less than 2.
  3. ^ The opening of the movie Mars et Avril by Martin Villeneuve is based on German astronomer Johannes Kepler's cosmological model from the 17th century, Harmonice Mundi, in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies. Benoît Charest also composed the score according to this theory.

References

Citations

  1. ^ Liscia, Daniel A. Di. "Johannes Kepler". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  2. ^ "Kepler". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^ Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 487, 505. ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4.
  4. ^ Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 628, 646. ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6.
  5. ^ Jeans, Susi (2013) [2001]. "Kepler [Keppler], Johannes". Grove Music Online. Revised by H. Floris Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 26 September 2021. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  6. ^ Voelkel, James R. (2001). "Commentary on Ernan McMullin, "The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science"". Philosophy of Science. 68 (3): 319–326. doi:10.1086/392885. ISSN 0031-8248. JSTOR 3080920. S2CID 144781947.
  7. ^ [1][permanent dead link] Retrieved 9 July 2017
  8. ^ Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", pp. 112–13.
  9. ^ Kepler. New Astronomy, title page, tr. Donohue, pp. 26–7
  10. ^ Kepler. New Astronomy, p. 48
  11. ^ Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World, Vol 15, p. 845
  12. ^ Stephenson. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, pp. 1–2; Dear, Revolutionizing the Sciences, pp. 74–78
  13. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp. 29–36; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 23–46.
  14. ^ a b Koestler. The Sleepwalkers, p. 234 (translated from Kepler's family horoscope).
  15. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp. 36–38; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 25–27.
  16. ^ Connor, James A. Kepler's Witch (2004), p. 58.
  17. ^ a b Barker, Peter; Goldstein, Bernard R. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions (2001), p. 96.
  18. ^ Westman, Robert S. "Kepler's Early Physico-Astrological Problematic," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 32 (2001): 227–36.
  19. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp.  38–52; Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp.  49–69.
  20. ^ Caspar, Kepler. pp. 50–51.
  21. ^ Caspar, Kepler. pp. 58–65.
  22. ^ Caspar, Kepler. pp. 71–75.
  23. ^ Connor. Kepler's Witch, pp. 89–100, 114–116; Caspar. Kepler, pp. 75–77
  24. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp. 85–86.
  25. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 86–89
  26. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 89–100
  27. ^ . Archived from the original on 21 July 2011.
  28. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 100–08.
  29. ^ Caspar, Kepler, p. 110.
  30. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 108–11.
  31. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 111–22.
  32. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 149–53
  33. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 146–148, 159–177
  34. ^ Caspar, Kepler, p. 151.
  35. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 151–153.
  36. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 153–157
  37. ^ Lear, Kepler's Dream, pp. 1–78
  38. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 202–204
  39. ^ Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp. 222–226; Caspar, Kepler, pp. 204–07
  40. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 208–11
  41. ^ Mazer, Arthur (2010). Shifting the Earth: The Mathematica Quest to Understand the Motion of the Universe. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-02427-0.
  42. ^ Ferguson, Thomas S. (1989), "Who solved the secretary problem ?", Statistical Science, 4 (3): 282–289, doi:10.1214/ss/1177012493, JSTOR 2245639, When the celebrated German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), lost his first wife to cholera in 1611, he set about finding a new wife using the same methodical thoroughness and careful consideration of the data that he used in finding the orbit of Mars to be an ellipse ... The process consumed much of his attention and energy for nearly 2 years ...
  43. ^ Quotation from Connor, Kepler's Witch, p 252, translated from an 23 October 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman
  44. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 220–223; Connor, Kepler's Witch, pp. 251–54.
  45. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 358–360
  46. ^ "Johannes Kepler | Biography, Discoveries, & Facts".
  47. ^ "Astronomy – the techniques of astronomy".
  48. ^ Letter (9/10 Apr 1599) to the Bavarian chancellor Herwart von Hohenburg. Collected in Carola Baumgardt and Jamie Callan, Johannes Kepler Life and Letters (1953), 50
  49. ^ Rothman, Aviva (1 January 2020). "Johannes Kepler's pursuit of harmony". Physics Today. 73 (1): 36–42. Bibcode:2020PhT....73a..36R. doi:10.1063/PT.3.4388. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 214144110.
  50. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp. 60–65; see also: Barker and Goldstein, "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy."
  51. ^ Barker and Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy," pp. 99–103, 112–113.
  52. ^ Caspar. Kepler, pp. 65–71.
  53. ^ Field. Kepler's Geometrical Cosmology, Chapter IV, p 73ff.
  54. ^ Dreyer, J.L.E. A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, Dover Publications, 1953, pp. 331, 377–379.
  55. ^ Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). "Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept". Perspectives on Science. 13: 74–111. doi:10.1162/1063614053714126. S2CID 57559843.
  56. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 123–128
  57. ^ On motive species, see Lindberg, "The Genesis of Kepler's Theory of Light," pp. 38–40.
  58. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 199–202.
  59. ^ Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Distance and Velocity in Kepler's Astronomy", Annals of Science, 51 (1994): 59–73, at p. 60.
  60. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 129–132
  61. ^ Dreyer, John Louis Emil (1906). History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 402.
  62. ^ Caspar, Kepler, p. 133
  63. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 131–140; Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 277–279
  64. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 239–240, 293–300
  65. ^ a b Gingerich, "Kepler, Johannes" from Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp. 302–04
  66. ^ Linz ("Lentiis ad Danubium"), (Austria): Johann Planck, 1622), book 4, part 2, page 554
  67. ^ Christian Frisch, ed., Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia, vol. 6 (Frankfurt-am-Main, (Germany): Heyder & Zimmer, 1866), page 361.)
  68. ^ Wolf, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, pp. 140–41; Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy, p 252
  69. ^ a b Rothman, A. (2021). "Kepler's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in context". Centaurus. 63: 171–191. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12356. ISSN 0008-8994. S2CID 230613099.
  70. ^ Gingerich, Owen (1990). "Five Centuries of Astronomical Textbooks and Their Role in Teaching". The Teaching of Astronomy, Proceedings of IAU Colloq. 105, Held in Williamstown, MA, 27–30 July 1988: 189. Bibcode:1990teas.conf..189G.
  71. ^ Caspar, Kepler. pp. 178–179.
  72. ^ Robert J. King, “Johannes Kepler and Australia”, The Globe, no.90, 2021, pp.15-24.
  73. ^ a b Field, J. V. (1984). "A Lutheran Astrologer: Johannes Kepler". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 31 (3): 189–272. Bibcode:1984AHES...31..189F. doi:10.1007/BF00327703. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 41133735. S2CID 119811074.
  74. ^ Lodge, O.J., "Johann Kepler" in The World of Mathematics, Vol. 1 (1956) Ed. Newman, J.R., Simon and Schuster, pp. 231.
  75. ^ Boner, P. J. (2005). "Soul-Searching with Kepler: An Analysis of Anima in His Astrology". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 36 (1): 7–20. Bibcode:2005JHA....36....7B. doi:10.1177/002182860503600102. S2CID 124764022.
  76. ^ Simon, G. (1975). "Kepler's astrology: The direction of a reform". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 439–448. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..439S. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90122-1.
  77. ^ Brackenridge, J. Bruce; Rossi, Mary Ann (1979). "Johannes Kepler's on the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology Prague 1601". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 123 (2): 85–116. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986232.
  78. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 178–81
  79. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 181–85. The full title is Tertius Interveniens, das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos, Medicos vnd Philosophos, sonderlich D. Philippum Feselium, dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschütten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen, translated by C. Doris Hellman as "Tertius Interveniens, that is warning to some theologians, medics and philosophers, especially D. Philip Feselius, that they in cheap condemnation of the star-gazer's superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession."
  80. ^ Quotation from Caspar, Kepler, pp. 265–266, translated from Harmonice Mundi
  81. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 264–66, 290–93
  82. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 266–90
  83. ^ Miller, Arthur I. (24 March 2009). Deciphering the cosmic number: the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-393-06532-9. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
  84. ^ Westfall, Never at Rest, pp. 143, 152, 402–03; Toulmin and Goodfield, The Fabric of the Heavens, p 248; De Gandt, 'Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia', chapter 2; Wolf, History of Science, Technology and Philosophy, p. 150; Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science, chapters 7 and 8
  85. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, p. 502
  86. ^ Finger, "Origins of Neuroscience," p. 74. Oxford University Press, 2001.
  87. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 142–146
  88. ^ Morris Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, p. 299. Oxford University Press, 1972.
  89. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 192–197
  90. ^ Koestler, The Sleepwalkers p. 384
  91. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 198–202
  92. ^ Schneer, "Kepler's New Year's Gift of a Snowflake," pp. 531–45
  93. ^ Kepler, Johannes (1966) [1611]. Hardie, Colin (ed.). De nive sexangula [The Six-sided Snowflake]. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 974730.
  94. ^ Caspar, Kepler, pp. 209–20, 227–240. In 2018 a complete English translation was publihed: Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum / New solid geometry of wine barrels. Accessit stereometriæ Archimedeæ supplementum / A supplement to the Archimedean solid geometry has been added. Edited and translated, with an Introduction, by Eberhard Knobloch. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2018. ISBN 978-2-251-44832-9
  95. ^ Belyi, Y. A. (1975). "Johannes Kepler and the development of mathematics". Vistas in Astronomy. 18 (1): 643–660. Bibcode:1975VA.....18..643B. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90149-X.
  96. ^ Thorvaldsen, S. (2010). "Early Numerical Analysis in Kepler's New Astronomy". Science in Context. 23 (1): 39–63. doi:10.1017/S0269889709990238. S2CID 122605799.
  97. ^ Cardil, Roberto (2020). "Kepler: The Volume of a Wine Barrel". Mathematical Association of America. Retrieved 16 July 2022.
  98. ^ Albinus, Hans-Joachim (June 2002). "Joannes Keplerus Leomontanus: Kepler's childhood in Weil der Stadt and Leonberg 1571–1584". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 24 (3): 50–58. doi:10.1007/BF03024733. ISSN 0343-6993. S2CID 123965600.
  99. ^ For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler's astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum, "Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler: Researches and Problems," History of Science, 34(1996): 451–504.
  100. ^ Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution, pp. 362–364
  101. ^ North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp.  355–60
  102. ^ van Helden, Albert (1976). "The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 7: 1–10. Bibcode:1976JHA.....7....1V. doi:10.1177/002182867600700101. S2CID 220916972.
  103. ^ HM Nautical Almanac Office (10 June 2004). . Archived from the original on 1 October 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.
  104. ^ Allan Chapman, "Jeremiah Horrocks, the transit of Venus, and the 'New Astronomy' in early 17th-century England," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 31 (1990): 333–357.
  105. ^ North, History of Astronomy and Cosmology, pp.  348–349
  106. ^ Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch, "Boulliau, Mercator, and Horrock's Venus in sole visa: Three Unpublished Letters," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 14(1983): 166–179
  107. ^ Lawrence Nolan (ed.), The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, 2016, "Inertia."
  108. ^ Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp. 238, 246–252
  109. ^ Frautschi, Steven C.; Olenick, Richard P.; Apostol, Tom M.; Goodstein, David L. (2007). The Mechanical Universe: Mechanics and Heat (Advanced ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. p. 451. ISBN 978-0-521-71590-4. OCLC 227002144.
  110. ^ Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 363–367
  111. ^ Jardine, "Koyré's Kepler/Kepler's Koyré," pp. 367–372; Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, pp. 1–2
  112. ^ Pauli, "The Influence of Archetypical Ideas"
  113. ^ Gingerich, introduction to Caspar's Kepler, pp. 3–4
  114. ^ Ulrich Grigull, "Sechzig Jahre Kepler-Kommission", in: Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften [Sitzung vom 5. Juli 1996], 1996.
  115. ^ kepler-kommission.de. Ulf Hashagen, Walther von Dyck (1856–1934). Mathematik, Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH München, Stuttgart, 2003.
  116. ^ Quote from Carl Sagan, Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, episode III: "The Harmony of the Worlds".
  117. ^ Stephen Toulmin, Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 59, no. 18 (1962), pp. 500–503
  118. ^ William Donahue, "A Novelist's Kepler," Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 135–136; "Dancing the grave dance: Science, art and religion in John Banville's Kepler," English Studies, Vol. 86, no. 5 (October 2005), pp. 424–438
  119. ^ Marcelo Gleiser, "Kepler in the Dock", review of Gilder and Gilder's Heavenly Intrigue, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 35, pt. 4 (2004), pp. 487–489
  120. ^ . Austrian Mint. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
  121. ^ MacDonald, Calum (2004). "Review of Hindemith: Die Harmonie der Welt". Tempo. 58 (227): 63–66. doi:10.1017/S0040298204210063. ISSN 0040-2982. JSTOR 3878689.
  122. ^ Rodgers, John; Ruff, Willie (1979). "Kepler's Harmony of the World: A Realization for the Ear". American Scientist. 67 (3): 286–292. Bibcode:1979AmSci..67..286R. ISSN 0003-0996. JSTOR 27849220.
  123. ^ Pasachoff, Jay M.; Pasachoff, Naomi (December 2009). "Third physics opera for Philip Glass". Nature. 462 (7274): 724. Bibcode:2009Natur.462..724P. doi:10.1038/462724a. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4391370.
  124. ^ "... in 1614, Johannes Kepler published his book De vero anno quo aeternus dei filius humanum naturam in utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit, on the chronology related to the Star of Bethlehem.", The Star of Bethlehem, Kapteyn Astronomical Institute

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External links

January 12, 2023
johannes, kepler, kepler, redirects, here, european, cargo, spacecraft, space, observatory, kepler, space, telescope, other, uses, kepler, disambiguation, german, joˈhanəs, ˈkɛplɐ, nɛs, listen, december, 1571, november, 1630, german, astronomer, mathematician,. Kepler redirects here For the European cargo spacecraft see Johannes Kepler ATV For the space observatory see Kepler space telescope For other uses see Kepler disambiguation Johannes Kepler ˈ k ɛ p l er 2 German joˈhanes ˈkɛplɐ nɛs listen 3 4 27 December 1571 15 November 1630 was a German astronomer mathematician astrologer natural philosopher and writer on music 5 He is a key figure in the 17th century Scientific Revolution best known for his laws of planetary motion and his books Astronomia nova Harmonice Mundi and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae These works also provided one of the foundations for Newton s theory of universal gravitation 6 Johannes KeplerPortrait of Kepler by an unknown artist in 1620 Born 1571 12 27 27 December 1571Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt Holy Roman EmpireDied15 November 1630 1630 11 15 aged 58 Free Imperial City of Regensburg Holy Roman EmpireEducationTubinger Stift University of Tubingen M A 1591 1 Known forKepler s laws of planetary motionKepler conjectureRudolphine TablesScientific careerFieldsAstronomy astrology mathematics natural philosophyDoctoral advisorMichael MaestlinInfluencesNicolaus CopernicusTycho BrahePythagorasInfluencedSir Isaac NewtonBenoit MandelbrotThomas BrowneSignatureKepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II He also taught mathematics in Linz and was an adviser to General Wallenstein Additionally he did fundamental work in the field of optics invented an improved version of the refracting or Keplerian telescope and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei He was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome 7 Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology but there was a strong division between astronomy a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts and physics a branch of natural philosophy Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason 8 Kepler described his new astronomy as celestial physics 9 as an excursion into Aristotle s Metaphysics 10 and as a supplement to Aristotle s On the Heavens 11 transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics 12 Contents 1 Early life 1 1 Childhood 1571 1590 1 2 Graz 1594 1600 1 3 Other research 2 Scientific career 2 1 Prague 1600 1612 2 2 Imperial Advisor 2 3 Supernova of 1604 3 Later life 3 1 Troubles 3 2 Linz 1612 1630 3 3 Christianity 4 Astronomy 4 1 Mysterium Cosmographicum 4 2 Astronomia Nova 4 3 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 4 4 Rudolphine Tables 5 Astrology 5 1 De Fundamentis 5 2 Tertius Interveniens 6 Music 6 1 Harmonice Mundi 7 Optics 7 1 Astronomiae Pars Optica 7 2 Dioptrice 8 Mathematics and physics 9 Legacy 9 1 Reception of his astronomy 9 2 History of science 9 3 Editions and translations 9 4 Cultural influence and eponymy 10 Works 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 13 1 Citations 14 Sources 15 External linksEarly life EditChildhood 1571 1590 Edit Kepler s birthplace in Weil der Stadt Kepler was born on 27 December 1571 in the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden Wurttemberg 30 km west of Stuttgart s center His grandfather Sebald Kepler had been Lord Mayor of the city By the time Johannes was born he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline His father Heinrich Kepler earned a precarious living as a mercenary and he left the family when Johannes was five years old He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years War in the Netherlands His mother Katharina Guldenmann an innkeeper s daughter was a healer and herbalist Born prematurely Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child Nevertheless he often impressed travelers at his grandfather s inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty 13 As a child Kepler witnessed the Great Comet of 1577 which attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe He was introduced to astronomy at an early age and developed a strong passion for it that would span his entire life At age six he observed the Great Comet of 1577 writing that he was taken by his mother to a high place to look at it 14 In 1580 at age nine he observed another astronomical event a lunar eclipse recording that he remembered being called outdoors to see it and that the Moon appeared quite red 14 However childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy 15 In 1589 after moving through grammar school Latin school and seminary at Maulbronn Kepler attended Tubinger Stift at the University of Tubingen There he studied philosophy under Vitus Muller 16 and theology under Jacob Heerbrand a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student until he became Chancellor at Tubingen in 1590 17 He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer casting horoscopes for fellow students Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin Tubingen s professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631 17 he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion He became a Copernican at that time In a student disputation he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe 18 Despite his desire to become a minister near the end of his studies Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz He accepted the position in April 1594 at the age of 22 19 Graz 1594 1600 Edit Portraits of Kepler and his wife House of Kepler and Barbara Muller in Gossendorf near Graz 1597 1599 Before concluding his studies at Tubingen Kepler accepted an offer to teach mathematics as a replacement to Georg Stadius at the Protestant school in Graz now in Styria Austria 20 During this period 1594 1600 he issued many official calendars and prognostications that enhanced his reputation as an astrologer Although Kepler had mixed feelings about astrology and disparaged many customary practices of astrologers he believed deeply in a connection between the cosmos and the individual He eventually published some of the ideas he had entertained while a student in the Mysterium Cosmographicum 1596 published a little over a year after his arrival at Graz 21 In December 1595 Kepler was introduced to Barbara Muller a 23 year old widow twice over with a young daughter Regina Lorenz and he began courting her Muller an heiress to the estates of her late husbands was also the daughter of a successful mill owner Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage Even though Kepler had inherited his grandfather s nobility Kepler s poverty made him an unacceptable match Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication However Protestant officials who had helped set up the match pressured the Mullers to honor their agreement Barbara and Johannes were married on 27 April 1597 22 In the first years of their marriage the Keplers had two children Heinrich and Susanna both of whom died in infancy In 1602 they had a daughter Susanna in 1604 a son Friedrich and in 1607 another son Ludwig 23 Other research Edit Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work He planned four additional books one on the stationary aspects of the universe the Sun and the fixed stars one on the planets and their motions one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features focused especially on Earth and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth to include atmospheric optics meteorology and astrology 24 He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium among them Reimarus Ursus Nicolaus Reimers Bar the imperial mathematician to Rudolf II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe Ursus did not reply directly but republished Kepler s flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over what is now called the Tychonic system with Tycho Despite this black mark Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler s system among a host of objections Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus Through their letters Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory particularly its theological viability But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho s observatory Kepler had no way to address many of these issues 25 Instead he turned his attention to chronology and harmony the numerological relationships among music mathematics and the physical world and their astrological consequences By assuming the Earth to possess a soul a property he would later invoke to explain how the Sun causes the motion of planets he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena By 1599 however he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz In December of that year Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague on 1 January 1600 before he even received the invitation Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho s patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones 26 Scientific career EditPrague 1600 1612 Edit Tycho Brahe On 4 February 1600 Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benatky nad Jizerou 35 km from Prague the site where Tycho s new observatory was being constructed Over the next two months he stayed as a guest analyzing some of Tycho s observations of Mars Tycho guarded his data closely but was impressed by Kepler s theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access Kepler planned to test his theory 27 from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data but he estimated that the work would take up to two years since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use With the help of Johannes Jessenius Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on 6 April Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements and in June Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family 28 Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies Kepler sought an appointment as a mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand To that end Kepler composed an essay dedicated to Ferdinand in which he proposed a force based theory of lunar motion In Terra inest virtus quae Lunam ciet There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move 29 Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand s court it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses which he applied during the 10 July eclipse in Graz These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica 30 On 2 August 1600 after refusing to convert to Catholicism Kepler and his family were banished from Graz Several months later Kepler returned now with the rest of his household to Prague Through most of 1601 he was supported directly by Tycho who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho s by then deceased rival Ursus In September Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold Two days after Tycho s unexpected death on 24 October 1601 Kepler was appointed his successor as the imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life 31 Imperial Advisor Edit Kepler s primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events he had been casting well received detailed horoscopes for friends family and patrons since his time as a student in Tubingen In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders the emperor sought Kepler s advice in times of political trouble Rudolf was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars including numerous alchemists and kept up with Kepler s work in physical astronomy as well 32 Officially the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist but Kepler s position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family but the difficulties of the over extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle Partly because of financial troubles his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant marred with bickering and bouts of sickness Court life however brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars Johannes Matthaus Wackher von Wackhenfels Jost Burgi David Fabricius Martin Bachazek and Johannes Brengger among others and astronomical work proceeded rapidly 33 Supernova of 1604 Edit See also Kepler s Supernova Remnant of Kepler s Supernova SN 1604 In October 1604 a bright new evening star SN 1604 appeared but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself 34 Kepler began systematically observing the supernova Astrologically the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon the start of the about 800 year cycle of great conjunctions astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne c 800 years earlier and the birth of Christ c 1600 years earlier and thus expected events of great portent especially regarding the emperor 35 It was in this context as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova In it Kepler addressed the star s astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating He noted its fading luminosity speculated about its origin and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens Kepler also attached an appendix where he discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga he calculated that if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind then the Star of Bethlehem analogous to the present new star would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800 year cycle 36 Over the following years Kepler attempted unsuccessfully to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini and dealt with chronology especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus Around 1611 Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published posthumously as Somnium The Dream Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet to show the feasibility of a non geocentric system The manuscript which disappeared after changing hands several times described a fantastic trip to the Moon it was part allegory part autobiography and part treatise on interplanetary travel and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction Years later a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel Following her eventual acquittal Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story several times longer than the actual text which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content particularly regarding lunar geography hidden within the text 37 Later life EditTroubles Edit Karlova street in Old Town Prague house where Kepler lived Now a museum 2 In 1611 the growing political religious tension in Prague came to a head Emperor Rudolf whose health was failing was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias Both sides sought Kepler s astrological advice an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice with little reference to the stars except in general statements to discourage drastic action However it was clear that Kepler s future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim 38 Also in that year Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever then began having seizures As Barbara was recovering Kepler s three children all fell sick with smallpox Friedrich 6 died Following his son s death Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Wurttemberg and Padua At the University of Tubingen in Wurttemberg concerns over Kepler s perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return The University of Padua on the recommendation of the departing Galileo sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship but Kepler preferring to keep his family in German territory instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz However Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler s return 39 Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolf s death in early 1612 though between political upheaval religious tension and family tragedy along with the legal dispute over his wife s estate Kepler could do no research Instead he pieced together a chronology manuscript Eclogae Chronicae from correspondence and earlier work Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor Matthias re affirmed Kepler s position and salary as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz 40 Linz 1612 1630 Edit A statue of Kepler in Linz In Linz Kepler s primary responsibilities beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services In his first years there he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the accusation and ultimate verdict of witchcraft against his mother Katharina in the Protestant town of Leonberg That blow happening only a few years after Kepler s excommunication is not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the full fledged assault waged by the Lutherans against Kepler 41 His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno 1613 an expanded treatise on the year of Christ s birth He also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory s reformed calendar to Protestant German lands On 30 October 1613 Kepler married the 24 year old Susanna Reuttinger Following the death of his first wife Barbara Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem 42 He eventually returned to Reuttinger the fifth match who he wrote won me over with love humble loyalty economy of household diligence and the love she gave the stepchildren 43 The first three children of this marriage Margareta Regina Katharina and Sebald died in childhood Three more survived into adulthood Cordula born 1621 Fridmar born 1623 and Hildebert born 1625 According to Kepler s biographers this was a much happier marriage than his first 44 On 8 October 1630 Kepler set out for Regensburg hoping to collect interest on work he had done previously A few days after reaching Regensburg Kepler became sick and progressively became worse On 15 November 1630 just over a month after his arrival he died He was buried in a Protestant churchyard that was completely destroyed during the Thirty Years War 45 Christianity Edit Kepler s belief that God created the cosmos in an orderly fashion caused him to attempt to determine and comprehend the laws that govern the natural world most profoundly in astronomy 46 47 The phrase I am merely thinking God s thoughts after Him has been attributed to him although this is probably a capsulized version of a writing from his hand Those laws of nature are within the grasp of the human mind God wanted us to recognize them by creating us after his own image so that we could share in his own thoughts 48 Kepler advocated for tolerance among Christian denominations for example arguing that Catholics and Lutherans should be able to take communion together He wrote Christ the Lord neither was nor is Lutheran nor Calvinist nor Papist 49 Astronomy EditMysterium Cosmographicum Edit Kepler s Platonic solid model of the Solar System from Mysterium Cosmographicum 1596 Kepler s first major astronomical work Mysterium Cosmographicum The Cosmographic Mystery 1596 was the first published defense of the Copernican system Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on 19 July 1595 while teaching in Graz demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios which he reasoned might be the geometrical basis of the universe After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations even with extra planets added to the system Kepler began experimenting with 3 dimensional polyhedra He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs nesting these solids each encased in a sphere within one another would produce six layers corresponding to the six known planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter and Saturn By ordering the solids selectively octahedron icosahedron dodecahedron tetrahedron cube Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet s path assuming the planets circle the Sun Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet s orb to the length of its orbital period from inner to outer planets the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius However Kepler later rejected this formula because it was not precise enough 50 Kepler thought the Mysterium had revealed God s geometrical plan for the universe Much of Kepler s enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual the universe itself was an image of God with the Sun corresponding to the Father the stellar sphere to the Son and the intervening space between them to the Holy Spirit His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism 51 With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin Kepler received permission from the Tubingen university senate to publish his manuscript pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler more understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler s new ideas Mysterium was published late in 1596 and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597 it was not widely read but it established Kepler s reputation as a highly skilled astronomer The effusive dedication to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system 52 In 1621 Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium half as long again as the first detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication 53 In terms of impact the Mysterium can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book he resorted to Ptolemaic devices viz epicycles and eccentric circles in order to explain the change in planets orbital speed and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the Earth s orbit rather than that of the Sun as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy Modern astronomy owes much to Mysterium Cosmographicum despite flaws in its main thesis since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it 54 Astronomia Nova Edit Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of apparent retrograde motion in Astronomia Nova 1609 The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia Nova A New Astronomy including the first two laws of planetary motion began with the analysis under Tycho s direction of the orbit of Mars In this work Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit a path of a planet in space resulting from the action of physical causes distinct from previously held notion of planetary orb a spherical shell to which planet is attached As a result of this breakthrough astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws 55 Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars s orbit using an equant the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho s observations to within two arcminutes the average measurement error But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data 56 In Kepler s religious view of the cosmos the Sun a symbol of God the Father was the source of motive force in the Solar System As a physical basis Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert s theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete 1600 and on his own work on optics Kepler supposed that the motive power or motive species 57 radiated by the Sun weakens with distance causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it 58 note 1 Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars he created a formula in which a planet s rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle required very extensive calculation to simplify this task by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry planets sweep out equal areas in equal times his second law of planetary motion 60 He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg shaped ovoid orbit After approximately 40 failed attempts in late 1604 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse 61 which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked 62 Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data the Vicarious Hypothesis Kepler immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses with the Sun at one focus his first law of planetary motion Because he employed no calculating assistants he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars By the end of the year he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho s observations the property of his heirs 63 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy Edit Further information Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae Since completing the Astronomia Nova Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook that would cover all the fundamentals of heliocentric astronomy 64 Kepler spent the next several years working on what would become Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae Epitome of Copernican Astronomy Despite its title which merely hints at heliocentrism the Epitome is less about Copernicus s work and more about Kepler s own astronomical system The Epitome contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes 65 Although it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion applied to Mars in Astronomia nova to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter note 2 it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data 68 Originally intended as an introduction for the uninitiated Kepler sought to model his Epitome after that of his master Michael Maestlin who published a well regarded book explaining the basics of geocentric astronomy to non experts 69 Kepler completed the first of three volumes consisting of Books I III by 1615 in the same question answer format of Maestlin s and have it printed in 1617 70 However the banning of Copernican books by the Catholic Church as well as the start of the Thirty Years War meant that publication of the next two volumes would be delayed In the interim and to avoid being subject to the ban Kepler switched the audience of the Epitome from beginners to that of expert astronomers and mathematicians as the arguments became more and more sophisticated and required advanced mathematics to be understood 69 The second volume consisting of Book IV was published in 1620 followed by the third volume consisting of Books V VII in 1621 Rudolphine Tables Edit Two pages from Kepler s Rudolphine Tables showing eclipses of the Sun and Moon In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova most of Kepler s research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides specific predictions of planet and star positions based on the table though neither would be completed for many years 71 Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1623 which at the time was considered his major work However due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe s heir it would not be printed until 1627 72 Astrology Edit Kepler s horoscope for General Wallenstein Like Ptolemy Kepler considered astrology as the counterpart to astronomy and as being of equal interest and value However in the following years the two subjects drifted apart until astrology was no longer practiced among professional astronomers 73 Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology in his own day as he was continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology but it was the only thing for which people would pay him and on it after a fashion he lived 74 Nonetheless Kepler spent a huge amount of time trying to restore astrology on a firmer philosophical footing composing numerous astrological calendars more than 800 nativities and a number of treaties dealing with the subject of astrology proper 75 De Fundamentis Edit In his bid to become imperial astronomer Kepler wrote De Fundamentis 1601 whose full title can be translated as On Giving Astrology Sounder Foundations as a short foreword to one of his yearly almanacs 76 In this work Kepler describes the effects of the Sun Moon and the planets in terms of their light and their influences upon humors finalizing with Kepler s view that the Earth possesses a soul with some sense of geometry Stimulated by the geometric convergence of rays formed around it the world soul is sentient but not conscious As a shepherd is pleased by the piping of a flute without understanding the theory of musical harmony so likewise Earth responds to the angles and aspects made by the heavens but not in a conscious manner Eclipses are important as omens because the animal faculty of the Earth is violently disturbed by the sudden intermission of light experiencing something like emotion and persisting in it for some time 73 Kepler surmises that the Earth has cycles of humors as living animals do and gives for an example that the highest tides of the sea are said by sailors to return after nineteen years around the same days of the year This may refer to the 18 6 year lunar node precession cycle Kepler advocates searching for such cycles by gathering observations over a period of many years and so far this observation has not been made 77 Tertius Interveniens Edit Kepler and Helisaeus Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter attacks on the importance of astrology after the supernova of 1604 around the same time physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether and Roeslin s work in particular 78 In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens 1610 Nominally this work presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars the titled meaning Third party interventions but it also set out Kepler s general views on the value of astrology including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the evil smelling dung in which an industrious hen scrapes there was an occasional grain seed indeed even a pearl or a gold nugget to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer 79 Music EditHarmonice Mundi Edit Main article Harmonice Mundi Geometrical harmonies from Harmonice Mundi 1619 Kepler was convinced that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world 80 In Harmonice Mundi 1619 he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects in terms of music note 3 The central set of harmonies was the musica universalis or music of the spheres which had been studied by Pythagoras Ptolemy and others before Kepler in fact soon after publishing Harmonice Mundi Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd who had recently published his own harmonic theory 81 Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler s solids From there he extended his harmonic analysis to music meteorology and astrology harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies and in the case of astrology the interaction between those tones and human souls In the final portion of the work Book V Kepler dealt with planetary motions especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers but Kepler with Tycho s data and his own astronomical theories treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them 82 Among many other harmonies Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion He tried many combinations until he discovered that approximately The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances Although he gives the date of this epiphany 8 March 1618 he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion 83 However the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens newly discovered law of centrifugal force it enabled Isaac Newton Edmund Halley and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them 84 This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated and also by Galileo s student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics 85 Optics EditAstronomiae Pars Optica Edit A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica illustrating the structure of eyes of various species As Kepler slowly continued analyzing Tycho s Mars observations now available to him in their entirety and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600 Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena such as unexpected shadow sizes the red color of a total lunar eclipse and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations Through most of 1603 Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory the resulting manuscript presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604 was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica The Optical Part of Astronomy In it Kepler described the inverse square law governing the intensity of light reflection by flat and curved mirrors and principles of pinhole cameras as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies He also extended his study of optics to the human eye and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye s lens onto the retina The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics although he did suggest that the image was later corrected in the hollows of the brain due to the activity of the Soul 86 Today Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent 87 With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci the geometric form would morph or degenerate one into another In this way an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another a circle is formed As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity thus having the properties of a large circle 88 Dioptrice Edit In the first months of 1610 Galileo Galilei using his powerful new telescope discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius Starry Messenger Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler in part to bolster the credibility of his observations Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo Conversation with the Starry Messenger He endorsed Galileo s observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo s discoveries and telescopic methods for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology Later that year Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus providing further support of Galileo To Kepler s disappointment however Galileo never published his reactions if any to Astronomia Nova 89 Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic lenses using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne 90 The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611 In it Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double convex converging lenses and double concave diverging lenses and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope as well as the concepts of real vs virtual images upright vs inverted images and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction He also described an improved telescope now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo s combination of convex and concave lenses 91 Mathematics and physics Edit A diagram illustrating the Kepler conjecture from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula 1611 As a New Year s gift that year 1611 he also composed for his friend and some time patron Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula A New Year s Gift of Hexagonal Snow In this treatise he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres 92 93 Kepler wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum in 1613 on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels which was published in 1615 94 Kepler also contributed to the development of infinitesimal methods and numerical analysis including iterative approximations infinitesimals and the early use of logarithms and transcendental equations 95 96 Kepler s work on calculating volumes of shapes and on finding the optimal shape of a wine barrel were significant steps toward the development of calculus 97 Simpson s rule an approximation method used in integral calculus is known in German as Keplersche Fassregel Kepler s barrel rule 98 Legacy EditReception of his astronomy Edit Kepler s laws of planetary motion were not immediately accepted Several major figures such as Galileo and Rene Descartes completely ignored Kepler s Astronomia nova Many astronomers including Kepler s teacher Michael Maestlin objected to Kepler s introduction of physics into his astronomy Some adopted compromise positions Ismael Bullialdus accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler s area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant 99 100 101 Several astronomers tested Kepler s theory and its various modifications against astronomical observations Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631 Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted a confirmation of Kepler s prediction 102 This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury However his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe including Paris 103 Jeremiah Horrocks who observed the 1639 Venus transit had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model predicted the transit and then built apparatus to observe the transit He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model 104 105 106 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe and following Kepler s death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler s ideas In the period 1630 1650 this book was the most widely used astronomy textbook winning many converts to ellipse based astronomy 65 However few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions In the late 17th century a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler s work notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke began to incorporate attractive forces though not the quasi spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler and the Cartesian concept of inertia 107 This culminated in Isaac Newton s Principia Mathematica 1687 in which Newton derived Kepler s laws of planetary motion from a force based theory of universal gravitation 108 a mathematical challenge later known as solving the Kepler problem 109 History of science Edit Monument to Tycho Brahe and Kepler in Prague Czech Republic Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean Etienne Montucla s 1758 Histoire des mathematiques and Jean Baptiste Delambre s 1821 Histoire de l astronomie moderne These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler s metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval but later Romantic era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success William Whewell in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837 found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840 Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method Similarly Ernst Friedrich Apelt the first to extensively study Kepler s manuscripts after their purchase by Catherine the Great identified Kepler as a key to the Revolution of the sciences Apelt who saw Kepler s mathematics aesthetic sensibility physical ideas and theology as part of a unified system of thought produced the first extended analysis of Kepler s life and work 110 Alexandre Koyre s work on Kepler was after Apelt the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler s cosmology and its influence In the 1930s and 1940s Koyre and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science described the Scientific Revolution as the central event in the history of science and Kepler as a perhaps the central figure in the revolution Koyre placed Kepler s theorization rather than his empirical work at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world views Since the 1960s the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly including studies of his astrology and meteorology his geometrical methods the role of his religious views in his work his literary and rhetorical methods his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time and even his role as an historian of science 111 Philosophers of science such as Charles Sanders Peirce Norwood Russell Hanson Stephen Toulmin and Karl Popper have repeatedly turned to Kepler examples of incommensurability analogical reasoning falsification and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler s work Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler s priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation 112 Editions and translations Edit The GDR stamp featuring Kepler Modern translations of a number of Kepler s books appeared in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 and is nearing completion in the early 21st century An edition in eight volumes Kepleri Opera omnia was prepared by Christian Frisch 1807 1881 during 1858 to 1871 on the occasion of Kepler s 300th birthday Frisch s edition only included Kepler s Latin with a Latin commentary A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck 1856 1934 Dyck compiled copies of Kepler s unedited manuscripts using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch Dyck s photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler s unpublished manuscripts Max Caspar 1880 1956 published his German translation of Kepler s Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923 Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill 1842 1935 Caspar became Dyck s collaborator succeeding him as project leader in 1934 establishing the Kepler Kommission in the following year Assisted by Martha List 1908 1992 and Franz Hammer 1898 1969 Caspar continued editorial work during World War II Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948 113 The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas during 1976 2003 and Ulrich Grigull during 1984 1999 and Roland Bulirsch 1998 2014 114 115 Cultural influence and eponymy Edit Main article List of things named after Johannes Kepler The Kepler crater as photographed by Apollo 12 in 1969 Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer 116 The debate over Kepler s place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler s 1959 The Sleepwalkers in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero morally and theologically as well as intellectually of the revolution 117 A well received historical novel by John Banville Kepler 1981 explored many of the themes developed in Koestler s non fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science 118 A 2004 nonfiction book Heavenly Intrigue suggested that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data 119 In Austria a silver collector s 10 euro Johannes Kepler silver coin was minted in 2002 The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle the motif of the obverse of the coin In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum 120 The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt 1957 and during the prolonged process of its creation he also wrote a symphony of the same name based on the musical ideas he developed for it 121 Hindemith s opera inspired John Rodgers and Willie Ruff of Yale University to create a synthesizer composition based on Kepler s scheme for representing planetary motion with music 122 Philip Glass wrote an opera called Kepler 2009 based on Kepler s life with a libretto in German and Latin by Martina Winkel 123 Directly named for Kepler s contribution to science are Kepler s laws of planetary motion Kepler s Supernova SN 1604 which he observed and described the Kepler Poinsot polyhedra a set of geometrical constructions two of which were described by him and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing Places and entities named in his honor include multiple city streets and squares several educational institutions an asteroid and both a lunar and a Martian crater Works Edit Epitome astronomiae copernicanae 1618 Mysterium Cosmographicum The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos 1596 De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology 1601 Astronomiae pars optica in Latin Frankfurt am Main Claude de Marne 1604 De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii On the New Star in Ophiuchus s Foot 1606 Astronomia nova New Astronomy 1609 Tertius Interveniens Third party Interventions 1610 Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo Conversation with the Starry Messenger 1610 Dioptrice 1611 De nive sexangula On the Six Cornered Snowflake 1611 De vero Anno quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit 1614 124 Eclogae Chronicae 1615 published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum New Stereometry of Wine Barrels 1615 Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium 1617 30 Epitome astronomiae copernicanae in Latin Linz Johann Planck 1618 Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 1 3 De doctrina sphaerica in Latin Vol 44199 Linz Johann Planck 1618 Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 4 Doctrina theorica 1 Physica coelestis in Latin Vol 4 Linz Gottfried Tambach 1622 Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 5 7 Doctrina theorica in Latin Vol 44323 Linz Gottfried Tambach 1621 De cometis in Latin Augsburg Sebastian Muller 1619 Harmonice Mundi Harmony of the Worlds 1619 Mysterium cosmographicum The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos 2nd edition 1621 Tabulae Rudolphinae Rudolphine Tables 1627 Somnium The Dream 1634 English translation on Google Books preview Opere in Latin Vol 1 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1858 Opere in Latin Vol 2 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1859 Opere in Latin Vol 3 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1860 Opere in Latin Vol 4 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1863 Opere in Latin Vol 5 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1864 Opere in Latin Vol 6 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1866 Opere in Latin Vol 7 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1868 Opere in Latin Vol 8 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1870 Opere in Latin Vol 9 Frankfurt am Main Heyder amp Zimmer 1871 A critical edition of Kepler s collected works Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke KGW in 22 volumes is being edited by the Kepler Kommission founded 1935 on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften Vol 1 Mysterium Cosmographicum De Stella Nova Ed M Caspar 1938 2nd ed 1993 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01639 1 Vol 2 Astronomiae pars optica Ed F Hammer 1939 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01641 3 Vol 3 Astronomia Nova Ed M Caspar 1937 IV 487 p 2 ed 1990 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01643 X Semi parchment ISBN 3 406 01642 1 Vol 4 Kleinere Schriften 1602 1611 Dioptrice Ed M Caspar F Hammer 1941 ISBN 3 406 01644 8 Vol 5 Chronologische Schriften Ed F Hammer 1953 Out of print Vol 6 Harmonice Mundi Ed M Caspar 1940 2nd ed 1981 ISBN 3 406 01648 0 Vol 7 Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae Ed M Caspar 1953 2nd ed 1991 ISBN 3 406 01650 2 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01651 0 Vol 8 Mysterium Cosmographicum Editio altera cum notis De Cometis Hyperaspistes Commentary F Hammer 1955 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01653 7 Vol 9 Mathematische Schriften Ed F Hammer 1955 2nd ed 1999 Out of print Vol 10 Tabulae Rudolphinae Ed F Hammer 1969 ISBN 3 406 01656 1 Vol 11 1 Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium Commentary V Bialas 1983 ISBN 3 406 01658 8 Paperback ISBN 3 406 01659 6 Vol 11 2 Calendaria et Prognostica Astronomica minora Somnium Commentary V Bialas H Grossing 1993 ISBN 3 406 37510 3 Paperback ISBN 3 406 37511 1 Vol 12 Theologica Hexenprozess Tacitus Ubersetzung Gedichte Commentary J Hubner H Grossing F Boockmann F Seck Directed by V Bialas 1990 ISBN 3 406 01660 X Paperback ISBN 3 406 01661 8 Vols 13 18 Letters Vol 13 Briefe 1590 1599 Ed M Caspar 1945 432 p ISBN 3 406 01663 4 Vol 14 Briefe 1599 1603 Ed M Caspar 1949 Out of print 2nd ed in preparation Vol 15 Briefe 1604 1607 Ed M Caspar 1951 2nd ed 1995 ISBN 3 406 01667 7 Vol 16 Briefe 1607 1611 Ed M Caspar 1954 ISBN 3 406 01668 5 Vol 17 Briefe 1612 1620 Ed M Caspar 1955 ISBN 3 406 01671 5 Vol 18 Briefe 1620 1630 Ed M Caspar 1959 ISBN 3 406 01672 3 dd Vol 19 Dokumente zu Leben und Werk Commentary M List 1975 ISBN 978 3 406 01674 5 Vols 20 21 manuscriptsVol 20 1 Manuscripta astronomica I Apologia De motu Terrae Hipparchus etc Commentary V Bialas 1988 ISBN 3 406 31501 1 Paperback ISBN 3 406 31502 X Vol 20 2 Manuscripta astronomica II Commentaria in Theoriam Martis Commentary V Bialas 1998 Paperback ISBN 3 406 40593 2 Vol 21 1 Manuscripta astronomica III et mathematica De Calendario Gregoriano In preparation Vol 21 2 Manuscripta varia In preparation dd Vol 22 General index in preparation The Kepler Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana 2nd ed List 1968 a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler s works with a supplementary volume to the second edition ed Hamel 1998 See also EditTheoretical physics Cavalieri s principle History of astronomy History of physics Kepler orbit Kepler triangle Kepler Bouwkamp constant Penrose tiling Radiation pressureNotes Edit Kepler s decision to base his causal explanation of planetary motion on a distance velocity law rather than on uniform circular motions of compounded spheres marks a major shift from ancient to modern conceptions of science Kepler had begun with physical principles and had then derived a trajectory from it rather than simply constructing new models In other words even before discovering the area law Kepler had abandoned uniform circular motion as a physical principle 59 By 1621 or earlier Kepler recognized that Jupiter s moons obey his third law Kepler contended that rotating massive bodies communicate their rotation to their satellites so that the satellites are swept around the central body thus the rotation of the Sun drives the revolutions of the planets and the rotation of the Earth drives the revolution of the Moon In Kepler s era no one had any evidence of Jupiter s rotation However Kepler argued that the force by which a central body causes its satellites to revolve around it weakens with distance consequently satellites that are farther from the central body revolve slower Kepler noted that Jupiter s moons obeyed this pattern and he inferred that a similar force was responsible He also noted that the orbital periods and semi major axes of Jupiter s satellites were roughly related by a 3 2 power law as are the orbits of the six then known planets However this relation was approximate the periods of Jupiter s moons were known within a few percent of their modern values but the moons semi major axes were determined less accurately Kepler discussed Jupiter s moons in his Summary of Copernican Astronomy 66 67 4 However the credibility of this argument is proved by the comparison of the four moons of Jupiter and Jupiter with the six planets and the Sun Because regarding the body of Jupiter whether it turns around its axis we don t have proofs for what suffices for us regarding the rotation of the body of the Earth and especially of the Sun certainly as reason proves to us but reason attests that just as it is clearly true among the six planets around the Sun so also it is among the four moons of Jupiter because around the body of Jupiter any satellite that can go farther from it orbits slower and even that orbit s period is not in the same proportion but greater than the distance from Jupiter that is 3 2 sescupla of the proportion of each of the distances from Jupiter which is clearly the very proportion as is used for the six planets above In his book The World of Jupiter Mundus Jovialis 1614 Simon Mayr 1573 1624 presents these distances from Jupiter of the four moons of Jupiter 3 5 8 13 or 14 according to Galileo Mayr presents their time periods 1 day 18 1 2 hours 3 days 13 1 3 hours 7 days 3 hours 16 days 18 hours for all of these data the proportion is greater than double thus greater than the proportion of the distances 3 5 8 13 or 14 although less than the proportion of the squares which double the proportions of the distances namely 9 25 64 169 or 196 just as a power of 3 2 is also greater than 1 but less than 2 The opening of the movie Mars et Avril by Martin Villeneuve is based on German astronomer Johannes Kepler s cosmological model from the 17th century Harmonice Mundi in which the harmony of the universe is determined by the motion of celestial bodies Benoit Charest also composed the score according to this theory References EditCitations Edit Liscia Daniel A Di Johannes Kepler In Zalta Edward N ed Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Kepler Random House Webster s Unabridged Dictionary Dudenredaktion Kleiner Stefan Knobl Ralf 2015 First published 1962 Das Ausspracheworterbuch The Pronunciation Dictionary in German 7th ed Berlin Dudenverlag pp 487 505 ISBN 978 3 411 04067 4 Krech Eva Maria Stock Eberhard Hirschfeld Ursula Anders Lutz Christian 2009 Deutsches Ausspracheworterbuch German Pronunciation Dictionary in German Berlin Walter de Gruyter pp 628 646 ISBN 978 3 11 018202 6 Jeans Susi 2013 2001 Kepler Keppler Johannes Grove Music Online Revised by H Floris Cohen Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 gmo 9781561592630 article 14903 ISBN 978 1 56159 263 0 Retrieved 26 September 2021 subscription or UK public library membership required Voelkel James R 2001 Commentary on Ernan McMullin The Impact of Newton s Principia on the Philosophy of Science Philosophy of Science 68 3 319 326 doi 10 1086 392885 ISSN 0031 8248 JSTOR 3080920 S2CID 144781947 1 permanent dead link Retrieved 9 July 2017 Barker and Goldstein Theological Foundations of Kepler s Astronomy pp 112 13 Kepler New Astronomy title page tr Donohue pp 26 7 Kepler New Astronomy p 48 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in Great Books of the Western World Vol 15 p 845 Stephenson Kepler s Physical Astronomy pp 1 2 Dear Revolutionizing the Sciences pp 74 78 Caspar Kepler pp 29 36 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 23 46 a b Koestler The Sleepwalkers p 234 translated from Kepler s family horoscope Caspar Kepler pp 36 38 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 25 27 Connor James A Kepler s Witch 2004 p 58 a b Barker Peter Goldstein Bernard R Theological Foundations of Kepler s Astronomy Osiris 2nd Series Vol 16 Sciencein Theistic Contexts Cognitive Dimensions 2001 p 96 Westman Robert S Kepler s Early Physico Astrological Problematic Journal for the History of Astronomy 32 2001 227 36 Caspar Kepler pp 38 52 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 49 69 Caspar Kepler pp 50 51 Caspar Kepler pp 58 65 Caspar Kepler pp 71 75 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 89 100 114 116 Caspar Kepler pp 75 77 Caspar Kepler pp 85 86 Caspar Kepler pp 86 89 Caspar Kepler pp 89 100 Using Tycho s data see Two views of a system Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Caspar Kepler pp 100 08 Caspar Kepler p 110 Caspar Kepler pp 108 11 Caspar Kepler pp 111 22 Caspar Kepler pp 149 53 Caspar Kepler pp 146 148 159 177 Caspar Kepler p 151 Caspar Kepler pp 151 153 Caspar Kepler pp 153 157 Lear Kepler s Dream pp 1 78 Caspar Kepler pp 202 204 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 222 226 Caspar Kepler pp 204 07 Caspar Kepler pp 208 11 Mazer Arthur 2010 Shifting the Earth The Mathematica Quest to Understand the Motion of the Universe Hoboken NJ John Wiley amp Sons Inc ISBN 978 1 118 02427 0 Ferguson Thomas S 1989 Who solved the secretary problem Statistical Science 4 3 282 289 doi 10 1214 ss 1177012493 JSTOR 2245639 When the celebrated German astronomer Johannes Kepler 1571 1630 lost his first wife to cholera in 1611 he set about finding a new wife using the same methodical thoroughness and careful consideration of the data that he used in finding the orbit of Mars to be an ellipse The process consumed much of his attention and energy for nearly 2 years Quotation from Connor Kepler s Witch p 252 translated from an 23 October 1613 letter from Kepler to an anonymous nobleman Caspar Kepler pp 220 223 Connor Kepler s Witch pp 251 54 Caspar Kepler pp 358 360 Johannes Kepler Biography Discoveries amp Facts Astronomy the techniques of astronomy Letter 9 10 Apr 1599 to the Bavarian chancellor Herwart von Hohenburg Collected in Carola Baumgardt and Jamie Callan Johannes Kepler Life and Letters 1953 50 Rothman Aviva 1 January 2020 Johannes Kepler s pursuit of harmony Physics Today 73 1 36 42 Bibcode 2020PhT 73a 36R doi 10 1063 PT 3 4388 ISSN 0031 9228 S2CID 214144110 Caspar Kepler pp 60 65 see also Barker and Goldstein Theological Foundations of Kepler s Astronomy Barker and Goldstein Theological Foundations of Kepler s Astronomy pp 99 103 112 113 Caspar Kepler pp 65 71 Field Kepler s Geometrical Cosmology Chapter IV p 73ff Dreyer J L E A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler Dover Publications 1953 pp 331 377 379 Goldstein Bernard Hon Giora 2005 Kepler s Move from Orbs to Orbits Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept Perspectives on Science 13 74 111 doi 10 1162 1063614053714126 S2CID 57559843 Caspar Kepler pp 123 128 On motive species see Lindberg The Genesis of Kepler s Theory of Light pp 38 40 Koyre The Astronomical Revolution pp 199 202 Peter Barker and Bernard R Goldstein Distance and Velocity in Kepler s Astronomy Annals of Science 51 1994 59 73 at p 60 Caspar Kepler pp 129 132 Dreyer John Louis Emil 1906 History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler Cambridge England Cambridge University Press p 402 Caspar Kepler p 133 Caspar Kepler pp 131 140 Koyre The Astronomical Revolution pp 277 279 Caspar Kepler pp 239 240 293 300 a b Gingerich Kepler Johannes from Dictionary of Scientific Biography pp 302 04 Linz Lentiis ad Danubium Austria Johann Planck 1622 book 4 part 2 page 554 Christian Frisch ed Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia vol 6 Frankfurt am Main Germany Heyder amp Zimmer 1866 page 361 Wolf A History of Science Technology and Philosophy pp 140 41 Pannekoek A History of Astronomy p 252 a b Rothman A 2021 Kepler s Epitome of Copernican Astronomy in context Centaurus 63 171 191 doi 10 1111 1600 0498 12356 ISSN 0008 8994 S2CID 230613099 Gingerich Owen 1990 Five Centuries of Astronomical Textbooks and Their Role in Teaching The Teaching of Astronomy Proceedings of IAU Colloq 105 Held in Williamstown MA 27 30 July 1988 189 Bibcode 1990teas conf 189G Caspar Kepler pp 178 179 Robert J King Johannes Kepler and Australia The Globe no 90 2021 pp 15 24 a b Field J V 1984 A Lutheran Astrologer Johannes Kepler Archive for History of Exact Sciences 31 3 189 272 Bibcode 1984AHES 31 189F doi 10 1007 BF00327703 ISSN 0003 9519 JSTOR 41133735 S2CID 119811074 Lodge O J Johann Kepler in The World of Mathematics Vol 1 1956 Ed Newman J R Simon and Schuster pp 231 Boner P J 2005 Soul Searching with Kepler An Analysis of Anima in His Astrology Journal for the History of Astronomy 36 1 7 20 Bibcode 2005JHA 36 7B doi 10 1177 002182860503600102 S2CID 124764022 Simon G 1975 Kepler s astrology The direction of a reform Vistas in Astronomy 18 1 439 448 Bibcode 1975VA 18 439S doi 10 1016 0083 6656 75 90122 1 Brackenridge J Bruce Rossi Mary Ann 1979 Johannes Kepler s on the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology Prague 1601 Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 123 2 85 116 ISSN 0003 049X JSTOR 986232 Caspar Kepler pp 178 81 Caspar Kepler pp 181 85 The full title is Tertius Interveniens das ist Warnung an etliche Theologos Medicos vnd Philosophos sonderlich D Philippum Feselium dass sie bey billicher Verwerffung der Sternguckerischen Aberglauben nict das Kindt mit dem Badt aussschutten vnd hiermit jhrer Profession vnwissendt zuwider handlen translated by C Doris Hellman as Tertius Interveniens that is warning to some theologians medics and philosophers especially D Philip Feselius that they in cheap condemnation of the star gazer s superstition do not throw out the child with the bath and hereby unknowingly act contrary to their profession Quotation from Caspar Kepler pp 265 266 translated from Harmonice Mundi Caspar Kepler pp 264 66 290 93 Caspar Kepler pp 266 90 Miller Arthur I 24 March 2009 Deciphering the cosmic number the strange friendship of Wolfgang Pauli and Carl Jung W W Norton amp Company p 80 ISBN 978 0 393 06532 9 Retrieved 7 March 2011 Westfall Never at Rest pp 143 152 402 03 Toulmin and Goodfield The Fabric of the Heavens p 248 De Gandt Force and Geometry in Newton s Principia chapter 2 Wolf History of Science Technology and Philosophy p 150 Westfall The Construction of Modern Science chapters 7 and 8 Koyre The Astronomical Revolution p 502 Finger Origins of Neuroscience p 74 Oxford University Press 2001 Caspar Kepler pp 142 146 Morris Kline Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times p 299 Oxford University Press 1972 Caspar Kepler pp 192 197 Koestler The Sleepwalkers p 384 Caspar Kepler pp 198 202 Schneer Kepler s New Year s Gift of a Snowflake pp 531 45 Kepler Johannes 1966 1611 Hardie Colin ed De nive sexangula The Six sided Snowflake Oxford Clarendon Press OCLC 974730 Caspar Kepler pp 209 20 227 240 In 2018 a complete English translation was publihed Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum New solid geometry of wine barrels Accessit stereometriae Archimedeae supplementum A supplement to the Archimedean solid geometry has been added Edited and translated with an Introduction by Eberhard Knobloch Paris Les Belles Lettres 2018 ISBN 978 2 251 44832 9 Belyi Y A 1975 Johannes Kepler and the development of mathematics Vistas in Astronomy 18 1 643 660 Bibcode 1975VA 18 643B doi 10 1016 0083 6656 75 90149 X Thorvaldsen S 2010 Early Numerical Analysis in Kepler s New Astronomy Science in Context 23 1 39 63 doi 10 1017 S0269889709990238 S2CID 122605799 Cardil Roberto 2020 Kepler The Volume of a Wine Barrel Mathematical Association of America Retrieved 16 July 2022 Albinus Hans Joachim June 2002 Joannes Keplerus Leomontanus Kepler s childhood in Weil der Stadt and Leonberg 1571 1584 The Mathematical Intelligencer 24 3 50 58 doi 10 1007 BF03024733 ISSN 0343 6993 S2CID 123965600 For a detailed study of the reception of Kepler s astronomy see Wilbur Applebaum Keplerian Astronomy after Kepler Researches and Problems History of Science 34 1996 451 504 Koyre The Astronomical Revolution pp 362 364 North History of Astronomy and Cosmology pp 355 60 van Helden Albert 1976 The Importance of the Transit of Mercury of 1631 Journal for the History of Astronomy 7 1 10 Bibcode 1976JHA 7 1V doi 10 1177 002182867600700101 S2CID 220916972 HM Nautical Almanac Office 10 June 2004 1631 Transit of Venus Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 28 August 2006 Allan Chapman Jeremiah Horrocks the transit of Venus and the New Astronomy in early 17th century England Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 31 1990 333 357 North History of Astronomy and Cosmology pp 348 349 Wilbur Applebaum and Robert Hatch Boulliau Mercator and Horrock s Venus in sole visa Three Unpublished Letters Journal for the History of Astronomy 14 1983 166 179 Lawrence Nolan ed The Cambridge Descartes Lexicon Cambridge University Press 2016 Inertia Kuhn The Copernican Revolution pp 238 246 252 Frautschi Steven C Olenick Richard P Apostol Tom M Goodstein David L 2007 The Mechanical Universe Mechanics and Heat Advanced ed Cambridge Cambridgeshire Cambridge University Press p 451 ISBN 978 0 521 71590 4 OCLC 227002144 Jardine Koyre s Kepler Kepler s Koyre pp 363 367 Jardine Koyre s Kepler Kepler s Koyre pp 367 372 Shapin The Scientific Revolution pp 1 2 Pauli The Influence of Archetypical Ideas Gingerich introduction to Caspar s Kepler pp 3 4 Ulrich Grigull Sechzig Jahre Kepler Kommission in Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Sitzung vom 5 Juli 1996 1996 kepler kommission de Ulf Hashagen Walther von Dyck 1856 1934 Mathematik Technik und Wissenschaftsorganisation an der TH Munchen Stuttgart 2003 Quote from Carl Sagan Cosmos A Personal Voyage episode III The Harmony of the Worlds Stephen Toulmin Review of The Sleepwalkers in The Journal of Philosophy Vol 59 no 18 1962 pp 500 503 William Donahue A Novelist s Kepler Journal for the History of Astronomy Vol 13 1982 pp 135 136 Dancing the grave dance Science art and religion in John Banville s Kepler English Studies Vol 86 no 5 October 2005 pp 424 438 Marcelo Gleiser Kepler in the Dock review of Gilder and Gilder s Heavenly Intrigue Journal for the History of Astronomy Vol 35 pt 4 2004 pp 487 489 Eggenberg Palace coin Austrian Mint Archived from the original on May 31 2011 Retrieved September 9 2009 MacDonald Calum 2004 Review of Hindemith Die Harmonie der Welt Tempo 58 227 63 66 doi 10 1017 S0040298204210063 ISSN 0040 2982 JSTOR 3878689 Rodgers John Ruff Willie 1979 Kepler s Harmony of the World A Realization for the Ear American Scientist 67 3 286 292 Bibcode 1979AmSci 67 286R ISSN 0003 0996 JSTOR 27849220 Pasachoff Jay M Pasachoff Naomi December 2009 Third physics opera for Philip Glass Nature 462 7274 724 Bibcode 2009Natur 462 724P doi 10 1038 462724a ISSN 0028 0836 S2CID 4391370 in 1614 Johannes Kepler published his book De vero anno quo aeternus dei filius humanum naturam in utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit on the chronology related to the Star of Bethlehem The Star of Bethlehem Kapteyn Astronomical InstituteSources EditAndersen Hanne Peter Barker and Xiang Chen The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions chapter 6 The Copernican Revolution New York Cambridge University Press 2006 ISBN 978 0 521 85575 4 Armitage Angus John Kepler Faber 1966 Banville John Kepler Martin Secker and Warburg London 1981 fictionalised biography Barker Peter and Bernard R Goldstein Theological Foundations of Kepler s Astronomy Osiris Volume 16 Science in Theistic Contexts University of Chicago Press 2001 pp 88 113 Caspar Max Kepler transl and ed by C Doris Hellman with a new introduction and references by Owen Gingerich bibliographic citations by Owen Gingerich and Alain Segonds New York Dover 1993 ISBN 978 0 486 67605 0 Connor James A Kepler s Witch An Astronomer s Discovery of Cosmic Order Amid Religious War Political Intrigue and the Heresy Trial of His Mother HarperSanFrancisco 2004 ISBN 978 0 06 052255 1 De Gandt Francois Force and Geometry in Newton s Principia Translated by Curtis Wilson Princeton University Press 1995 ISBN 978 0 691 03367 9 Dreyer J L E A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler Dover Publications Inc 1967 ISBN 0 486 60079 3 Ferguson Kitty The nobleman and his housedog Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler the strange partnership that revolutionized science London Review 2002 ISBN 978 0 7472 7022 5 published in the US as Tycho amp Kepler the unlikely partnership that forever changed our understanding of the heavens New York Walker 2002 ISBN 0 8027 1390 4 Field J V Kepler s geometrical cosmology University of Chicago Press 1988 ISBN 978 0 226 24823 3 Gilder Joshua and Anne Lee Gilder Heavenly Intrigue Johannes Kepler Tycho Brahe and the Murder Behind One of History s Greatest Scientific Discoveries Doubleday 18 May 2004 ISBN 978 0 385 50844 5 Reviews bookpage com crisismagazine com Gingerich Owen The Eye of Heaven Ptolemy Copernicus Kepler American Institute of Physics 1993 ISBN 978 0 88318 863 7 Masters of modern physics v 7 Gingerich Owen Kepler Johannes in Dictionary of Scientific Biography Volume VII Charles Coulston Gillispie editor New York Charles Scribner s Sons 1973 Greenbaum and Boockmann Kepler s Astrology Culture and Cosmos Vol 14 Special Double Issue 2012 Jardine Nick Koyre s Kepler Kepler s Koyre History of Science Vol 38 2000 pp 363 376 Kepler Johannes Johannes Kepler New Astronomy trans W Donahue foreword by O Gingerich Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0 521 30131 9 Kepler Johannes and Christian Frisch Joannis Kepleri Astronomi Opera Omnia John Kepler Astronomer Complete Works 8 vols 1858 1871 vol 1 1858 vol 2 1859 vol 3 1860 vol 6 1866 vol 7 1868 Frankfurt am Main and Erlangen Heyder amp Zimmer Google Books Kepler Johannes et al Great Books of the Western World Volume 16 Ptolemy Copernicus Kepler Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 1952 contains English translations by of Kepler s Epitome Books IV amp V and Harmonice Book 5 Koestler Arthur The Sleepwalkers A History of Man s Changing Vision of the Universe 1959 ISBN 978 0 14 019246 9 Koyre Alexandre Galilean Studies Harvester Press 1977 ISBN 978 0 85527 354 5 Koyre Alexandre The Astronomical Revolution Copernicus Kepler Borelli Ithaca NY Cornell University Press 1973 ISBN 978 0 8014 0504 4 Methuen 1973 ISBN 978 0 416 76980 7 Hermann 1973 ISBN 978 2 7056 5648 5 Kuhn Thomas S The Copernican Revolution Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought Cambridge MA Harvard University Press 1957 ISBN 978 0 674 17103 9 Lindberg David C The Genesis of Kepler s Theory of Light Light Metaphysics from Plotinus to Kepler Osiris N S 2 University of Chicago Press 1986 pp 5 42 Lear John Kepler s Dream Berkeley University of California Press 1965 M T K Al Tamimi Great collapse Kepler s first law Natural Science 2 2010 ISSN 2150 4091 North John The Fontana History of Astronomy and Cosmology Fontana Press 1994 ISBN 978 0 00 686177 5 Pannekoek Anton A History of Astronomy Dover Publications Inc 1989 ISBN 978 0 486 65994 7 Pauli Wolfgang Wolfgang Pauli Writings on physics and philosophy translated by Robert Schlapp and edited by P Enz and Karl von Meyenn Springer Verlag Berlin 1994 See section 21 The influence of archetypical ideas on the scientific theories of Kepler concerning Johannes Kepler and Robert Fludd 1574 1637 ISBN 978 3 540 56859 9 Schneer Cecil Kepler s New Year s Gift of a Snowflake Isis Volume 51 No 4 University of Chicago Press 1960 pp 531 545 Shapin Steven The Scientific Revolution Chicago University of Chicago Press 1996 ISBN 978 0 226 75020 0 Stephenson Bruce Kepler s physical astronomy New York Springer 1987 ISBN 978 0 387 96541 3 Studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences 13 reprinted Princeton Princeton Univ Pr 1994 ISBN 978 0 691 03652 6 Stephenson Bruce The Music of the Heavens Kepler s Harmonic Astronomy Princeton University Press 1994 ISBN 978 0 691 03439 3 Toulmin Stephen and June Goodfield The Fabric of the Heavens The Development of Astronomy and Dynamics Pelican 1963 Voelkel James R The Composition of Kepler s Astronomia nova Princeton University Press 2001 ISBN 978 0 691 00738 0 Westfall Richard S The Construction of Modern Science Mechanism and Mechanics John Wiley and Sons 1971 ISBN 0 471 93531 X reprinted Cambridge University Press 1978 ISBN 0 521 29295 6 Westfall Richard S Never at Rest A Biography of Isaac Newton Cambridge University Press 1981 ISBN 978 0 521 23143 5 Wolf A A History of Science Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th centuries George Allen amp Unwin 1950 External links EditJohannes Kepler at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Kepler s Conversation with the Starry Messenger English translation of Dissertation cum Nuncio Sidereo Archived 17 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine Herausgabe der Werke von Johannes Kepler with links to digital scans of the published volumes Johannes Kepler at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Works by Johannes Kepler at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Johannes Kepler at Internet Archive Walter W Bryant Kepler at Project Gutenberg 1920 book part of Men of Science series Clerke Agnes Mary 1911 Kepler Johann Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 15 11th ed pp 749 751 Johannes Kepler at Curlie Plant David Kepler and the Music of the Spheres O Connor John J Robertson Edmund F Johannes Kepler MacTutor History of Mathematics archive University of St Andrews Portals Biography Philosophy History of science Mathematics Arithmetic Astronomy Music Physics Technology Society Literature Speculative fiction Space Star Europe Germany Denmark Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Johannes Kepler amp oldid 1132056876, 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