fbpx
Wikipedia

Jupiter

January 12, 2023

This article is about the planet. For the Roman god, see Jupiter (mythology). For other uses, see Jupiter (disambiguation).

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, while being slightly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky after the Moon and Venus, and it has been observed since prehistoric times. It was named after Jupiter, the chief deity of ancient Roman religion.

Jupiter
Full disk view of Jupiter in natural color, with the shadow of its largest moon Ganymede cast onto it and the Great Red Spot at the left horizon.
Designations
Pronunciation/ˈdʒuːpɪtər/ (listen)[1]
Named after
Jupiter
AdjectivesJovian /ˈdʒoʊviən/
Orbital characteristics[7]
Epoch J2000
Aphelion816.363 Gm (5.4570 AU)
Perihelion740.595 Gm (4.9506 AU)
778.479 Gm (5.2038 AU)
Eccentricity0.0489
398.88 d
13.07 km/s (8.12 mi/s)
20.020°[3]
Inclination
100.464°
21 January 2023[5]
273.867°[3]
Known satellites84 (as of 2023)[6]
Physical characteristics[7][13][14]
Mean radius
69,911 km (43,441 mi)[a]
10.973 of Earth's
Equatorial radius
71,492 km (44,423 mi)[a]
11.209 of Earth's
Polar radius
66,854 km (41,541 mi)[a]
10.517 of Earth's
Flattening0.06487
6.1469×1010 km2 (2.3733×1010 sq mi)
120.4 of Earth's
Volume1.4313×1015 km3 (3.434×1014 cu mi)[a]
1,321 of Earth's
Mass1.8982×1027 kg (4.1848×1027 lb)
  • 317.8 of Earth's
  • 1/1047 of Sun's[8]
Mean density
1,326 kg/m3 (2,235 lb/cu yd)[b]
24.79 m/s2 (81.3 ft/s2)[a]
2.528 g
0.2756±0.0006[9]
59.5 km/s (37.0 mi/s)[a]
9.9258 h (9 h 55 m 33 s)[2]
9.9250 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s)
Equatorial rotation velocity
12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h)
3.13° (to orbit)
North pole right ascension
268.057°; 17h 52m 14s
North pole declination
64.495°
Albedo0.503 (Bond)[10]
0.538 (geometric)[11]
Temperature88 K (−185 °C) (blackbody temperature)
Surface temp. min mean max
1 bar 165 K
0.1 bar 78 K 128 K
−2.94[12] to −1.66[12]
29.8" to 50.1"
Atmosphere[7]
Surface pressure
200–600 kPa (30–90 psi)
(opaque cloud deck)[15]
27 km (17 mi)
Composition by volume

Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen, but helium constitutes one-quarter of its mass and one-tenth of its volume. It probably has a rocky core of heavier elements, but (like the Solar System's other giant planets) lacks a well-defined solid surface. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet's shape is an oblate spheroid, having a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm which has been observed since at least 1831.

Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. The planet's magnetic tail is nearly 800 million kilometres (5.3 astronomical units; 500 million miles) long, covering nearly the entire distance to Saturn's orbit. Jupiter has 84 known moons and likely many more, including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Io and Europa are about the size of Earth's Moon, Ganymede is larger than the planet Mercury, and Callisto slightly smaller than Ganymede.

Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter, making its closest approach to the planet in December 1973. Jupiter has since been explored by multiple robotic spacecraft, beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979, and later with the Galileo orbiter in 1995. In 2007, New Horizons visited Jupiter using its gravity to increase its speed, bending its trajectory en route to Pluto. The latest probe to visit Jupiter, Juno, entered its orbit in July 2016. Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include Europa, which likely has an ice-covered liquid ocean.

Name and symbol

In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon: Zeus for the Greeks and Jupiter for the Romans. The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976, and has since named newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants.[16] The planetary symbol for Jupiter,  , descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, ⟨Ƶ⟩, as an abbreviation for Zeus.[17][18]

In Germanic mythology, Jupiter is equated to Thor, the namesake of Thursday.[19] It has been theorized that this replaced the Latin name for the day, i.e. Dies Iovi ('Day of Jupiter').[20] The Latin name Iovis is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove, is only known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century.[21]

The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno-, which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenographic.[c] Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology.[22]

Formation and migration

Main article: Grand tack hypothesis
See also: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System.[23] Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line: a distance from the early Sun where the temperature is sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids.[24] The planet began as a solid core, which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed.[25] During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth (about half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents). When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final masses in 3–4 million years.[23]

According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and orbital resonances with Saturn caused it to migrate inward.[24][26] This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards too, much faster than Jupiter, until the two planets became captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations.[27] All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.[26][28] Jupiter's departure from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble.[29]

There are several problems with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.[30] It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula.[31] Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present day planet.[25] Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).[32][33]

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N2) snowline, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun,[34][35] and possibly even outside the argon snowline, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have migrated inwards to its current location. This inward migration would have occurred over a roughly 700,000-year time period,[32][33] during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards.

Physical characteristics

Jupiter is a gas giant, being primarily composed of gas and liquid rather than solid matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator.[36] The average density of Jupiter, 1.326 g/cm3, is about the same as simple syrup (syrup USP),[37] and is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.[38][39]

Composition

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume. Since helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 24% helium by mass.[40] The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also fractional amounts of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found.[41] The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.[42][43]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.[44] Helium is also reduced to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the interior of the planet.[45][46]

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.[47] These planets are known as ice giants, because the majority of their volatile compounds are in solid form.

Size and mass

Main article: Jupiter mass
 
Jupiter with its moon Europa on the left. Earth's diameter is 11 times smaller than Jupiter, and 4 times larger than Europa.

Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre.[48] Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: it has 1,321 times the volume of the Earth, but only 318 times the mass.[7][49]: 6  Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun,[50] and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun, as the densities of the two bodies are similar.[51] A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ, while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of 12.8 MJ.[52]

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably.[53] As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve.[54] The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved.[55] Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star,[56] the smallest red dwarf may be only slightly larger in radius than Saturn.[57]

Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior.[58]: 30 [59] This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in)/yr.[60][61] When it formed, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.[62]

Internal structure

 
Diagram of Jupiter, its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons.

Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,[63] and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen.[61] Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a very diffuse core that mixes into its mantle.[64][65][66] This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.[67] Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core.[68][69] It is estimated that the core takes up 30–50% of the planet's radius, and contains heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.[70]

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F).[71] In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.[58]: 22 [72][73][74] Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.[75][76]

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[45][77] Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds).[78] Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn[79] and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.[80]

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward because the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection.[46] At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region of supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.[81]

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Jupiter
 
Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system moving over the course of one month (photographed during Voyager 1 flyby in 1979)

The atmosphere of Jupiter extends to a depth of 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.[81]

Cloud layers

 
View of Jupiter's south pole
 
Enhanced colour view of Jupiter's southern storms

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well.[82] The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams.[83] The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.[49]: 6 

The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin clearer region on top with a thick lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[84] These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.[85] The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.[86] The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere.[87] These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere.[88] Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen.[89][90]

The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[58]: 39 [91] These colourful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view.[92]

Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.[49]: 54 

Great Red Spot and other vortices

 
Close-up of the Great Red Spot imaged by the Juno spacecraft in April 2018

The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot,[93] a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator. It is known to have existed since at least 1831,[94] and possibly since 1665.[95][96] Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.[97][98] The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger.[99] The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days.[100] The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops.[101] The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation.[102]

The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.[103] Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet.[104] However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi).[105] Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi),[105] and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[103][106] In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi).[107]

Juno missions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one.[108][109] These polar structures are caused by the turbulence in Jupiter's atmosphere and can be compared with the hexagon at Saturn's north pole.

 
Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA. It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot".[110][111]

In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole. This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.[112]

Magnetosphere

Main article: Magnetosphere of Jupiter
 
Aurorae on the north and south poles
(animation)
 
Aurorae on the north pole
(Hubble)
 
Infrared view of southern lights
(Jovian IR Mapper)

Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System,[92] with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT).[113] This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the liquid metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from the solar wind.[58]: 69 

The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, forming a gas torus along the moon's orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere, producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers.[114][115] As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.[116]

Planetary rings

Main article: Rings of Jupiter

Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.[117] These rings appear to be made of dust, while Saturn's rings are made of ice.[58]: 65  The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis, which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts.[118] In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring.[118] There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit.[119]

Orbit and rotation

 
Orbit of Jupiter and other outer Solar System planets

Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7% of the Sun's radius.[120][121] The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance.[122] The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion.[7]

The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.[123]

Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere.[124] The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles.[76] On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter.[7]

Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking the planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s.[125] System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.[126]

Observation

 
Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen through an amateur telescope

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon, and Venus),[92] although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun.[12] The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33.[12] The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds.[7] Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth.[127] Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement.[128]

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[129] A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 in (10.16–15.24 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.[130][131]

History

Pre-telescopic research

 
Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)

Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC.[132] The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the "Suì Star" (Suìxīng 歲星) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name (simplified as 歲) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac,[133] and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer,[134] reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet,[135] which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.[136][137]

A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BCE for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic.[138] In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.[139]

Ground-based telescope research

 
Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its "Medicean Stars" from Sidereus Nuncius

In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614.[140] It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour of Copernicus' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition.[141]

During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colourful bands in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.[142] In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes differential rotation.[143]

The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.[144] The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878.[145] It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century.[146]

Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected),[43] and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.[147][148]

In 1892, E. E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. This moon was later named Amalthea.[149] It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope.[150] An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979.[d]

 
Jupiter viewed in infrared by JWST
(July 14, 2022)

In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.[151] Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as separate features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but never merging. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.[152]

Space-based telescope research

On July 14, 2022, NASA presented images of Jupiter and related areas captured, for the first time, and including infrared views, by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).[153]

Radiotelescope research

 
Image of Jupiter and its radiation belts in radio

In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz.[58]: 36  The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.[154]

Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

  • Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.[155]
  • Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959.[58]: 36  The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[156]
  • Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[58]: 43 

Exploration

Main article: Exploration of Jupiter

Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973, when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.[157][158] Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s,[159] which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.[160] Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter.[161]

Flyby missions

Spacecraft Closest
approach 		Distance
Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000 km
Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000 km
Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000 km
Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000 km
Ulysses February 8, 1992[162] 408,894 km
February 4, 2004[162] 120,000,000 km
Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000 km
New Horizons February 28, 2007 2,304,535 km

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.[49]: 47 [163]

Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hue since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere.[49]: 87 [164]

The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance.[162]

In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images.[165]

The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto.[166] The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.[167]

Galileo mission

Main article: Galileo (spacecraft)
 
Galileo in preparation for mating with the rocket, 1989

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995.[54] It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileo's high-gain antenna.[168]

A 340-kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7.[54] It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1600 mph)[54] and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed.[169] The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003. NASA destroyed the spacecraft in order to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa, which may harbour life.[168]

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.[54] The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (570 °F) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.[54]

Juno mission

Main article: Juno (spacecraft)
 
Juno preparing for testing in a rotation stand, 2011

NASA's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016 with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit. The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months.[170][64][171] During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere, which may cause future failure of certain instruments.[172] On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first fly-by of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole.[173]

Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending July 2018.[174] In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io.[175][176] When Juno reaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere. This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter's moons.[177][178]

Cancelled missions and future plans

There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans. Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005.[179] A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESA mission called EJSM/Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter.[180] However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection.[181] These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2023,[182] followed by NASA's Europa Clipper mission, scheduled for launch in 2024.[183]

Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration's Tianwen-4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035,[184] and CNSA's Interstellar Express[185] and NASA's Interstellar Probe,[186] which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.

Moons

Main article: Moons of Jupiter
See also: Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons and Satellite system (astronomy)

Jupiter has 84 known natural satellites.[6] Of these, 68 are less than 10 km in diameter.[6] The four largest moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, collectively known as the "Galilean moons", and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.[187]

Galilean moons

Main article: Galilean moons

The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularise their orbits.[188]

The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons.[189] This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces),[189] and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa's surface, which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior.[190]

The Galilean moons compared to the Earth's Moon
Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period
km % kg % km % days %
Io /ˈaɪ.oʊ/ 3,643 105 8.9×1022 120 421,700 110 1.77 7
Europa /jʊˈroʊpə/ 3,122 90 4.8×1022 65 671,034 175 3.55 13
Ganymede /ˈɡænimiːd/ 5,262 150 14.8×1022 200 1,070,412 280 7.15 26
Callisto /kəˈlɪstoʊ/ 4,821 140 10.8×1022 150 1,882,709 490 16.69 61
 
The Galilean moons Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (in order of increasing distance from Jupiter)

Classification

Jupiter's moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on their similar orbital elements.[191] This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are currently divided into several different groups, although there are several moons which are not part of any group.[192]

The eight innermost regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, whilst the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.[193][194]

Regular moons
Inner group The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.
Galilean moons[195] These four moons, discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System.
Irregular moons
Himalia group A tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11,000,000–12,000,000 km from Jupiter.[196]
Ananke group This retrograde orbit group has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.[194]
Carme group A fairly distinct retrograde group that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.[194]
Pasiphae group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons.[197]

Interaction with the Solar System

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception of Mercury, the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane. The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter,[198] and the planet may have been responsible for the purported Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System's history.[199]

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps" to honour the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered.[200] The largest is 624 Hektor.[201]

The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi-major axis smaller than Jupiter's; most short-period comets belong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularised by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter.[202]

Impacts

Main article: Impact events on Jupiter
 
Brown spots mark Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9's impact sites on Jupiter

Jupiter has been called the Solar System's vacuum cleaner[203] because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. There are more impacts on Jupiter, such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System.[204] For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.[54] In the past, scientists believed that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment.[54] However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them.[205] This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt, while others believes that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud.[206]

In July 1994, the Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter.[207][208] The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft.[209][210][211][212] The event was widely covered by the media.[213]

Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar.[214]

In culture

See also: Jupiter in fiction and Planets in astrology § Jupiter
 
Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae

The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.[215] To the Babylonians, this planet represented their god Marduk,[216] chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period.[217] They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.[216]

The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.[218] The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon (Φαέθων), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star".[219][220] The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near-Eastern gods, including the Semitic El and Baal, the Sumerian Enlil, and the Babylonian god Marduk.[221] The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BCE, as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries.[222]

The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principal god of Roman mythology. The Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" (Iuppiter Stella)," as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God").[223] As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and appropriately called the god of light and sky.

In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru", which means the "Teacher".[224][225] In Central Asian Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star"). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements on the sky.[226] The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the "wood star" (Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five Elements.[227][228][229] In China it became known as the "Year-star" (Sui-sing) as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings the years were named, at least in principle, in correlation with the Jovian zodiacal signs.[230]

Gallery

  •  

    Infrared view of Jupiter, imaged by the Gemini North telescope in Hawaiʻi, January 11, 2017

  •  

    Jupiter imaged in visible light by the Hubble Space Telescope, January 11, 2017

  •  

    Ultraviolet view of Jupiter by Hubble, January 11, 2017[231]

  •  

    Jupiter and Europa, taken by Hubble on 25 August 2020, when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth.[232]

  •  

    Infrared photo by James Webb Space Telescope, August 2022[233]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
  2. ^ Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
  3. ^ See for example: "IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h". International Astronomical Union. October 1, 1975. Retrieved October 24, 2010. That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See: "Query Results from the Astronomy Database". Smithsonian/NASA. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
  4. ^ See Moons of Jupiter for details and cites

References

  1. ^ Simpson, J. A.; Weiner, E. S. C. (1989). "Jupiter". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861220-9.
  2. ^ a b Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Retrieved August 13, 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d Simon, J. L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
  4. ^ Souami, D.; Souchay, J. (July 2012). "The solar system's invariable plane". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 543: 11. Bibcode:2012A&A...543A.133S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219011. A133.
  5. ^ "HORIZONS Planet-center Batch call for January 2023 Perihelion". ssd.jpl.nasa.gov (Perihelion for Jupiter's planet-centre (599) occurs on 2023-Jan-21 at 4.9510113au during a rdot flip from negative to positive). NASA/JPL. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
  6. ^ a b c Sheppard, Scott S. "Moons of Jupiter". Earth & Planets Laboratory. Carnegie Institution for Science. Retrieved December 20, 2022.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Williams, David R. (December 23, 2021). "Jupiter Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
  8. ^ "Astrodynamic Constants". JPL Solar System Dynamics. February 27, 2009. Retrieved August 8, 2007.
  9. ^ Ni, D. (2018). "Empirical models of Jupiter's interior from Juno data". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 613: A32. Bibcode:2018A&A...613A..32N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732183.
  10. ^ Li, Liming; Jiang, X.; West, R. A.; Gierasch, P. J.; Perez-Hoyos, S.; Sanchez-Lavega, A.; Fletcher, L. N.; Fortney, J. J.; Knowles, B.; Porco, C. C.; Baines, K. H.; Fry, P. M.; Mallama, A.; Achterberg, R. K.; Simon, A. A.; Nixon, C. A.; Orton, G. S.; Dyudina, U. A.; Ewald, S. P.; Schmude, R. W. (2018). "Less absorbed solar energy and more internal heat for Jupiter". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3709. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.3709L. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06107-2. PMC 6137063. PMID 30213944.
  11. ^ Mallama, Anthony; Krobusek, Bruce; Pavlov, Hristo (2017). "Comprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine". Icarus. 282: 19–33. arXiv:1609.05048. Bibcode:2017Icar..282...19M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023. S2CID 119307693.
  12. ^ a b c d Mallama, A.; Hilton, J. L. (2018). "Computing Apparent Planetary Magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac". Astronomy and Computing. 25: 10–24. arXiv:1808.01973. Bibcode:2018A&C....25...10M. doi:10.1016/j.ascom.2018.08.002. S2CID 69912809.
  13. ^ Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, Brent A.; A'Hearn, Michael F.; Conrad, Albert R.; Consolmagno, Guy J.; Hestroffer, Daniel; Hilton, James L.; Krasinsky, Georgij A.; Neumann, Gregory A.; Oberst, Jürgen; Stooke, Philip J.; Tedesco, Edward F.; Tholen, David J.; Thomas, Peter C.; Williams, Iwan P. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 98 (3): 155–180. Bibcode:2007CeMDA..98..155S. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y.
  14. ^ de Pater, Imke; Lissauer, Jack J. (2015). Planetary Sciences (2nd updated ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-521-85371-2.
  15. ^ Bjoraker, G. L.; Wong, M. H.; de Pater, I.; Ádámkovics, M. (September 2015). "Jupiter's Deep Cloud Structure Revealed Using Keck Observations of Spectrally Resolved Line Shapes". The Astrophysical Journal. 810 (2): 10. arXiv:1508.04795. Bibcode:2015ApJ...810..122B. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/810/2/122. S2CID 55592285. 122.
  16. ^ "Naming of Astronomical Objects". International Astronomical Union. Retrieved March 23, 2022.
  17. ^ Jones, Alexander (1999). Astronomical papyri from Oxyrhynchus. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-87169-233-7. It is now possible to trace the medieval symbols for at least four of the five planets to forms that occur in some of the latest papyrus horoscopes ([ P.Oxy. ] 4272, 4274, 4275 [...]). That for Jupiter is an obvious monogram derived from the initial letter of the Greek name.
  18. ^ Maunder, A. S. D. (August 1934). "The origin of the symbols of the planets". The Observatory. 57: 238–247. Bibcode:1934Obs....57..238M.
  19. ^ Falk, Michael; Koresko, Christopher (2004). "Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 93: 122–133. arXiv:astro-ph/0307398. Bibcode:1999JRASC..93..122F. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2003.07.002. S2CID 118954190.
  20. ^ Simek, Rudolf (1993) [1984]. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Hall, Angela. D. S. Brewer. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-85991-513-7.
  21. ^ Harper, Douglas. Jove. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  22. ^ "Jovial". Dictionary.com. Retrieved July 29, 2007.
  23. ^ a b Kruijer, Thomas S.; Burkhardt, Christoph; Budde, Gerrit; Kleine, Thorsten (June 2017). "Age of Jupiter inferred from the distinct genetics and formation times of meteorites". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (26): 6712–6716. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.6712K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1704461114. PMC 5495263. PMID 28607079.
  24. ^ a b Bosman, A. D.; Cridland, A. J.; Miguel, Y. (December 2019). "Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N2 ice line". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 632: 5. arXiv:1911.11154. Bibcode:2019A&A...632L..11B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936827. S2CID 208291392. L11.
  25. ^ a b D'Angelo, G.; Weidenschilling, S. J.; Lissauer, J. J.; Bodenheimer, P. (2021). "Growth of Jupiter: Formation in disks of gas and solids and evolution to the present epoch". Icarus. 355: 114087. arXiv:2009.05575. Bibcode:2021Icar..35514087D. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114087. S2CID 221654962.
  26. ^ a b Walsh, K. J.; Morbidelli, A.; Raymond, S. N.; O'Brien, D. P.; Mandell, A. M. (2011). "A low mass for Mars from Jupiter's early gas-driven migration". Nature. 475 (7355): 206–209. arXiv:1201.5177. Bibcode:2011Natur.475..206W. doi:10.1038/nature10201. PMID 21642961. S2CID 4431823.
  27. ^ Batygin, Konstantin (2015). "Jupiter's decisive role in the inner Solar System's early evolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (14): 4214–4217. arXiv:1503.06945. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4214B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1423252112. PMC 4394287. PMID 25831540.
  28. ^ Haisch Jr., K. E.; Lada, E. A.; Lada, C. J. (2001). "Disc Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 553 (2): 153–156. arXiv:astro-ph/0104347. Bibcode:2001ApJ...553L.153H. doi:10.1086/320685. S2CID 16480998.
  29. ^ Fazekas, Andrew (March 24, 2015). "Observe: Jupiter, Wrecking Ball of Early Solar System". National Geographic. from the original on March 14, 2017. Retrieved April 18, 2021.
  30. ^ Zube, N.; Nimmo, F.; Fischer, R.; Jacobson, S. (2019). "Constraints on terrestrial planet formation timescales and equilibration processes in the Grand Tack scenario from Hf-W isotopic evolution". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 522 (1): 210–218. arXiv:1910.00645. Bibcode:2019E&PSL.522..210Z. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.07.001. PMC 7339907. PMID 32636530. S2CID 199100280.
  31. ^ D'Angelo, G.; Marzari, F. (2012). "Outward Migration of Jupiter and Saturn in Evolved Gaseous Disks". The Astrophysical Journal. 757 (1): 50 (23 pp.). arXiv:1207.2737. Bibcode:2012ApJ...757...50D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/50. S2CID 118587166.
  32. ^ a b Pirani, S.; Johansen, A.; Bitsch, B.; Mustill, A.J.; Turrini, D. (March 2019). "Consequences of planetary migration on the minor bodies of the early solar system". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 623: A169. arXiv:1902.04591. Bibcode:2019A&A...623A.169P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833713.
  33. ^ a b "Jupiter's Unknown Journey Revealed". ScienceDaily. Lund University. March 22, 2019. Retrieved March 25, 2019.
  34. ^ Öberg, K.I.; Wordsworth, R. (2019). "Jupiter's Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N_{2} Snowline". The Astronomical Journal. 158 (5). arXiv:1909.11246. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab46a8. S2CID 202749962.
  35. ^ Öberg, K.I.; Wordsworth, R. (2020). "Erratum: "Jupiter's Composition Suggests Its Core Assembled Exterior to the N2 Snowline"". The Astronomical Journal. 159 (2): 78. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab6172. S2CID 214576608.
  36. ^ Denecke, Edward J. (January 7, 2020). Regents Exams and Answers: Earth Science—Physical Setting 2020. Barrons Educational Series. p. 419. ISBN 978-1-5062-5399-2.
  37. ^ Swarbrick, James (2013). Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology. Vol. 6. CRC Press. p. 3601. ISBN 978-1-4398-0823-8. Syrup USP (1.31 g/cm3)
  38. ^ Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N. (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer. pp. 295–296. ISBN 978-0-387-98746-0.
  39. ^ Polyanin, Andrei D.; Chernoutsan, Alexei (October 18, 2010). A Concise Handbook of Mathematics, Physics, and Engineering Sciences. CRC Press. p. 1041. ISBN 978-1-4398-0640-1.
  40. ^ Guillot, Tristan; Gautier, Daniel; Hubbard, William B (December 1997). "NOTE: New Constraints on the Composition of Jupiter from Galileo Measurements and Interior Models". Icarus. 130 (2): 534–539. arXiv:astro-ph/9707210. Bibcode:1997Icar..130..534G. doi:10.1006/icar.1997.5812. S2CID 5466469.
  41. ^ Kim, S. J.; Caldwell, J.; Rivolo, A. R.; Wagner, R. (1985). "Infrared Polar Brightening on Jupiter III. Spectrometry from the Voyager 1 IRIS Experiment". Icarus. 64 (2): 233–248. Bibcode:1985Icar...64..233K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(85)90201-5.
  42. ^ Gautier, D.; Conrath, B.; Flasar, M.; Hanel, R.; Kunde, V.; Chedin, A.; Scott, N. (1981). "The helium abundance of Jupiter from Voyager". Journal of Geophysical Research. 86 (A10): 8713–8720. Bibcode:1981JGR....86.8713G. doi:10.1029/JA086iA10p08713. hdl:2060/19810016480. S2CID 122314894.
  43. ^ a b Kunde, V. G.; Flasar, F. M.; Jennings, D. E.; Bézard, B.; Strobel, D. F.; et al. (September 10, 2004). "Jupiter's Atmospheric Composition from the Cassini Thermal Infrared Spectroscopy Experiment". Science. 305 (5690): 1582–1586. Bibcode:2004Sci...305.1582K. doi:10.1126/science.1100240. PMID 15319491. S2CID 45296656. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
  44. ^ Niemann, H. B.; Atreya, S. K.; Carignan, G. R.; Donahue, T. M.; Haberman, J. A.; et al. (1996). "The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere". Science. 272 (5263): 846–849. Bibcode:1996Sci...272..846N. doi:10.1126/science.272.5263.846. PMID 8629016. S2CID 3242002.
  45. ^ a b von Zahn, U.; Hunten, D. M.; Lehmacher, G. (1998). "Helium in Jupiter's atmosphere: Results from the Galileo probe Helium Interferometer Experiment". Journal of Geophysical Research. 103 (E10): 22815–22829. Bibcode:1998JGR...10322815V. doi:10.1029/98JE00695.
  46. ^ a b Stevenson, David J. (May 2020). . Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 48: 465–489. Bibcode:2020AREPS..48..465S. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-081619-052855. S2CID 212832169. Archived from the original on May 7, 2020. Retrieved March 18, 2022.
  47. ^ Ingersoll, A. P.; Hammel, H. B.; Spilker, T. R.; Young, R. E. (June 1, 2005). "Outer Planets: The Ice Giants" (PDF). Lunar & Planetary Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2007.
  48. ^ MacDougal, Douglas W. (2012). "A Binary System Close to Home: How the Moon and Earth Orbit Each Other". Newton's Gravity. Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics. Springer New York. pp. 193–211. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5444-1_10. ISBN 978-1-4614-5443-4. the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.
  49. ^ a b c d e Burgess, Eric (1982). By Jupiter: Odysseys to a Giant. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-05176-7.
  50. ^ Shu, Frank H. (1982). The physical universe: an introduction to astronomy. Series of books in astronomy (12th ed.). University Science Books. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-935702-05-7.
  51. ^ Davis, Andrew M.; Turekian, Karl K. (2005). Meteorites, comets, and planets. Treatise on geochemistry. Vol. 1. Elsevier. p. 624. ISBN 978-0-08-044720-9.
  52. ^ Schneider, Jean (2009). "The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia: Interactive Catalogue". Paris Observatory.
  53. ^ Seager, S.; Kuchner, M.; Hier-Majumder, C. A.; Militzer, B. (2007). "Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets". The Astrophysical Journal. 669 (2): 1279–1297. arXiv:0707.2895. Bibcode:2007ApJ...669.1279S. doi:10.1086/521346. S2CID 8369390.
  54. ^ a b c d e f g h How the Universe Works 3. Vol. Jupiter: Destroyer or Savior?. Discovery Channel. 2014.
  55. ^ Guillot, Tristan (1999). "Interiors of Giant Planets Inside and Outside the Solar System" (PDF). Science. 286 (5437): 72–77. Bibcode:1999Sci...286...72G. doi:10.1126/science.286.5437.72. PMID 10506563. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 24, 2022.
  56. ^ Burrows, Adam; Hubbard, W. B.; Lunine, J. I.; Liebert, James (July 2001). "The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets". Reviews of Modern Physics. 73 (3): 719–765. arXiv:astro-ph/0103383. Bibcode:2001RvMP...73..719B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719. S2CID 204927572. Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Yα = 50.25 is 0.07 – 0.074 M☉, ... while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0.092 M☉
  57. ^ von Boetticher, Alexander; Triaud, Amaury H. M. J.; Queloz, Didier; Gill, Sam; Lendl, Monika; Delrez, Laetitia; Anderson, David R.; Collier Cameron, Andrew; Faedi, Francesca; Gillon, Michaël; Gómez Maqueo Chew, Yilen; Hebb, Leslie; Hellier, Coel; Jehin, Emmanuël; Maxted, Pierre F. L.; Martin, David V.; Pepe, Francesco; Pollacco, Don; Ségransan, Damien; Smalley, Barry; Udry, Stéphane; West, Richard (August 2017). "The EBLM project. III. A Saturn-size low-mass star at the hydrogen-burning limit". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 604: 6. arXiv:1706.08781. Bibcode:2017A&A...604L...6V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731107. S2CID 54610182. L6.
  58. ^ a b c d e f g h Elkins-Tanton, Linda T. (2011). Jupiter and Saturn (revised ed.). New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 978-0-8160-7698-7.
  59. ^ Irwin, Patrick (2003). Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 62. ISBN 978-3-540-00681-7.
  60. ^ Irwin, Patrick G. J. (2009) [2003]. Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure (Second ed.). Springer. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-642-09888-8. the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm/yr.
  61. ^ a b Guillot, Tristan; Stevenson, David J.; Hubbard, William B.; Saumon, Didier (2004). "Chapter 3: The Interior of Jupiter". In Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (eds.). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81808-7.
  62. ^ Bodenheimer, P. (1974). "Calculations of the early evolution of Jupiter". Icarus. 23. 23 (3): 319–325. Bibcode:1974Icar...23..319B. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(74)90050-5.
  63. ^ Smoluchowski, R. (1971). "Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn". The Astrophysical Journal. 166: 435. Bibcode:1971ApJ...166..435S. doi:10.1086/150971.
  64. ^ a b Chang, Kenneth (July 5, 2016). "NASA's Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter's Orbit". The New York Times. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
  65. ^ Wall, Mike (May 26, 2017). "More Jupiter Weirdness: Giant Planet May Have Huge, 'Fuzzy' Core". space.com. Retrieved April 20, 2021.
  66. ^ Weitering, Hanneke (January 10, 2018). "'Totally Wrong' on Jupiter: What Scientists Gleaned from NASA's Juno Mission". space.com. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
  67. ^ Stevenson, D. J.; Bodenheimer, P.; Lissauer, J. J.; D'Angelo, G. (2022). "Mixing of Condensable Constituents with H-He during the Formation and Evolution of Jupiter". The Planetary Science Journal. 3 (4): id.74. arXiv:2202.09476. Bibcode:2022PSJ.....3...74S. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ac5c44. S2CID 247011195.
  68. ^ Liu, S. F.; Hori, Y.; Müller, S.; Zheng, X.; Helled, R.; Lin, D.; Isella, A. (2019). "The formation of Jupiter's diluted core by a giant impact". Nature. 572 (7769): 355–357. arXiv:2007.08338. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..355L. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1470-2. PMID 31413376. S2CID 199576704.
  69. ^ Guillot, T. (2019). "Signs that Jupiter was mixed by a giant impact". Nature. 572 (7769): 315–317. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..315G. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02401-1. PMID 31413374.
  70. ^ Wahl, S. M.; Hubbard, William B.; Militzer, B.; Guillot, Tristan; Miguel, Y.; Movshovitz, N.; Kaspi, Y.; Helled, R.; Reese, D.; Galanti, E.; Levin, S.; Connerney, J. E.; Bolton, S. J. (2017). "Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (10): 4649–4659. arXiv:1707.01997. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.4649W. doi:10.1002/2017GL073160.
  71. ^ Trachenko, K.; Brazhkin, V. V.; Bolmatov, D. (March 2014). "Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen: Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants". Physical Review E. 89 (3): 032126. arXiv:1309.6500. Bibcode:2014PhRvE..89c2126T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.89.032126. PMID 24730809. S2CID 42559818. 032126.
  72. ^ Coulter, Dauna. "A Freaky Fluid inside Jupiter?". NASA. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  73. ^ Bwaldwin, Emily. "Oceans of diamond possible on Uranus and Neptune". Astronomy Now. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  74. ^ "NASA System Exploration Jupiter". NASA. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  75. ^ Guillot, T. (1999). "A comparison of the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn". Planetary and Space Science. 47 (10–11): 1183–1200. arXiv:astro-ph/9907402. Bibcode:1999P&SS...47.1183G. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00043-4. S2CID 19024073.
  76. ^ a b Lang, Kenneth R. (2003). . NASA. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2007.
  77. ^ Lodders, Katharina (2004). (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 611 (1): 587–597. Bibcode:2004ApJ...611..587L. doi:10.1086/421970. S2CID 59361587. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2020.
  78. ^ Brygoo, S.; Loubeyre, P.; Millot, M.; Rygg, J. R.; Celliers, P. M.; Eggert, J. H.; Jeanloz, R.; Collins, G. W. (2021). "Evidence of hydrogen−helium immiscibility at Jupiter-interior conditions". Nature. 593 (7860): 517–521. Bibcode:2021Natur.593..517B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03516-0. OSTI 1820549. PMID 34040210. S2CID 235217898.
  79. ^ Kramer, Miriam (October 9, 2013). "Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn". Space.com. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
  80. ^ Kaplan, Sarah (August 25, 2017). "It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
  81. ^ a b Guillot, Tristan; Stevenson, David J.; Hubbard, William B.; Saumon, Didier (2004). "The interior of Jupiter". In Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (eds.). Jupiter. The planet, satellites and magnetosphere. Cambridge planetary science. Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 45. Bibcode:2004jpsm.book...35G. ISBN 0-521-81808-7.
  82. ^ Loeffler, Mark J.; Hudson, Reggie L. (March 2018). "Coloring Jupiter's clouds: Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH)" (PDF). Icarus. 302: 418–425. Bibcode:2018Icar..302..418L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.041. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
  83. ^ Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Dowling, Timothy E.; Gierasch, Peter J.; Orton, Glenn S.; Read, Peter L.; Sánchez-Lavega, Agustin; Showman, Adam P.; Simon-Miller, Amy A.; Vasavada, Ashwin R. (2004). Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (eds.). "Dynamics of Jupiter's Atmosphere" (PDF). Jupiter. The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge planetary science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1: 105–128. ISBN 0-521-81808-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved March 8, 2022.
  84. ^ Aglyamov, Yury S.; Lunine, Jonathan; Becker, Heidi N.; Guillot, Tristan; Gibbard, Seran G.; Atreya, Sushil; Bolton, Scott J.; Levin, Steven; Brown, Shannon T.; Wong, Michael H. (February 2021). "Lightning Generation in Moist Convective Clouds and Constraints on the Water Abundance in Jupiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 126 (2). arXiv:2101.12361. Bibcode:2021JGRE..12606504A. doi:10.1029/2020JE006504. S2CID 231728590. e06504.
  85. ^ Watanabe, Susan, ed. (February 25, 2006). "Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises". NASA. Retrieved February 20, 2007.
  86. ^ Kerr, Richard A. (2000). "Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather". Science. 287 (5455): 946–947. doi:10.1126/science.287.5455.946b. S2CID 129284864. Retrieved April 26, 2022.
  87. ^ Becker, Heidi N.; Alexander, James W.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Bolton, Scott J.; Brennan, Martin J.; Brown, Shannon T.; Guillaume, Alexandre; Guillot, Tristan; Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Levin, Steven M.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Aglyamov, Yury S.; Steffes, Paul G. (2020). "Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter". Nature. 584 (7819): 55–58. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...55B. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2532-1. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 32760043. S2CID 220980694.
  88. ^ Guillot, Tristan; Stevenson, David J.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Bolton, Scott J.; Becker, Heidi N. (2020). "Storms and the Depletion of Ammonia in Jupiter: I. Microphysics of "Mushballs"". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 125 (8): e2020JE006403. arXiv:2012.14316. Bibcode:2020JGRE..12506403G. doi:10.1029/2020JE006404. S2CID 226194362.
  89. ^ Giles, Rohini S.; Greathouse, Thomas K.; Bonfond, Bertrand; Gladstone, G. Randall; Kammer, Joshua A.; Hue, Vincent; Grodent, Denis C.; Gérard, Jean-Claude; Versteeg, Maarten H.; Wong, Michael H.; Bolton, Scott J.; Connerney, John E. P.; Levin, Steven M. (2020). "Possible Transient Luminous Events Observed in Jupiter's Upper Atmosphere". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 125 (11): e06659. arXiv:2010.13740. Bibcode:2020JGRE..12506659G. doi:10.1029/2020JE006659. S2CID 225075904. e06659.
  90. ^ Greicius, Tony, ed. (October 27, 2020). "Juno Data Indicates 'Sprites' or 'Elves' Frolic in Jupiter's Atmosphere". NASA. Retrieved December 30, 2020.
  91. ^ Strycker, P. D.; Chanover, N.; Sussman, M.; Simon-Miller, A. (2006). A Spectroscopic Search for Jupiter's Chromophores. DPS meeting #38, #11.15. American Astronomical Society. Bibcode:2006DPS....38.1115S.
  92. ^ a b c Gierasch, Peter J.; Nicholson, Philip D. (2004). . World Book @ NASA. Archived from the original on January 5, 2005. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
  93. ^ Chang, Kenneth (December 13, 2017). "The Great Red Spot Descends Deep into Jupiter". The New York Times. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
  94. ^ Denning, William F. (1899). "Jupiter, early history of the great red spot on". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 59 (10): 574–584. Bibcode:1899MNRAS..59..574D. doi:10.1093/mnras/59.10.574.
  95. ^ Kyrala, A. (1982). "An explanation of the persistence of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter". Moon and the Planets. 26 (1): 105–107. Bibcode:1982M&P....26..105K. doi:10.1007/BF00941374. S2CID 121637752.
  96. ^ Oldenburg, Henry, ed. (1665–1666). "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved December 22, 2011.
  97. ^ Wong, M.; de Pater, I. (May 22, 2008). "New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter". HubbleSite. NASA. Retrieved December 12, 2013.
  98. ^ Simon-Miller, A.; Chanover, N.; Orton, G. (July 17, 2008). "Three Red Spots Mix It Up on Jupiter". HubbleSite. NASA. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  99. ^ Covington, Michael A. (2002). Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-521-52419-3.
  100. ^ Cardall, C. Y.; Daunt, S. J. "The Great Red Spot". University of Tennessee. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  101. ^ Jupiter, the Giant of the Solar System. The Voyager Mission. NASA. 1979. p. 5.
  102. ^ Sromovsky, L. A.; Baines, K. H.; Fry, P. M.; Carlson, R. W. (July 2017). "A possibly universal red chromophore for modeling colour variations on Jupiter". Icarus. 291: 232–244. arXiv:1706.02779. Bibcode:2017Icar..291..232S. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.12.014. S2CID 119036239.
  103. ^ a b White, Greg (November 25, 2015). "Is Jupiter's Great Red Spot nearing its twilight?". Space.news. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
  104. ^ Sommeria, Jöel; Meyers, Steven D.; Swinney, Harry L. (February 25, 1988). "Laboratory simulation of Jupiter's Great Red Spot". Nature. 331 (6158): 689–693. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..689S. doi:10.1038/331689a0. S2CID 39201626.
  105. ^ a b Simon, Amy A.; Wong, M. H.; Rogers, J. H.; Orton, G. S.; de Pater, I.; Asay-Davis, X.; Carlson, R. W.; Marcus, P. S. (March 2015). Dramatic Change in Jupiter's Great Red Spot. 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. March 16–20, 2015. The Woodlands, Texas. Bibcode:2015LPI....46.1010S.
  106. ^ Doctor, Rina Marie (October 21, 2015). "Jupiter's Superstorm Is Shrinking: Is Changing Red Spot Evidence Of Climate Change?". Tech Times. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
  107. ^ Grush, Loren (October 28, 2021). "NASA's Juno spacecraft finds just how deep Jupiter's Great Red Spot goes". The Verge. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
  108. ^ Adriani, Alberto; Mura, A.; Orton, G.; Hansen, C.; Altieri, F.; et al. (March 2018). "Clusters of cyclones encircling Jupiter's poles". Nature. 555 (7695): 216–219. Bibcode:2018Natur.555..216A. doi:10.1038/nature25491. PMID 29516997. S2CID 4438233.
  109. ^ Starr, Michelle (December 13, 2017). "NASA Just Watched a Mass of Cyclones on Jupiter Evolve Into a Mesmerising Hexagon". Science Alert.
  110. ^ Steigerwald, Bill (October 14, 2006). "Jupiter's Little Red Spot Growing Stronger". NASA. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  111. ^ Wong, Michael H.; de Pater, Imke; Asay-Davis, Xylar; Marcus, Philip S.; Go, Christopher Y. (September 2011). "Vertical structure of Jupiter's Oval BA before and after it reddened: What changed?" (PDF). Icarus. 215 (1): 211–225. Bibcode:2011Icar..215..211W. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.032. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 27, 2022. {{cite journal}}: Missing |author2= (help)
  112. ^ Stallard, Tom S.; Melin, Henrik; Miller, Steve; Moore, Luke; O'Donoghue, James; Connerney, John E. P.; Satoh, Takehiko; West, Robert A.; Thayer, Jeffrey P.; Hsu, Vicki W.; Johnson, Rosie E. (April 10, 2017). "The Great Cold Spot in Jupiter's upper atmosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (7): 3000–3008. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.3000S. doi:10.1002/2016GL071956. PMC 5439487. PMID 28603321.
  113. ^ Connerney, J. E. P.; Kotsiaros, S.; Oliversen, R. J.; Espley, J. R.; Joergensen, J. L.; Joergensen, P. S.; Merayo, J. M. G.; Herceg, M.; Bloxham, J.; Moore, K. M.; Bolton, S. J.; Levin, S. M. (May 26, 2017). "A New Model of Jupiter's Magnetic Field From Juno's First Nine Orbits" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (6): 2590–2596. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.2590C. doi:10.1002/2018GL077312. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  114. ^ Brainerd, Jim (November 22, 2004). . The Astrophysics Spectator. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
  115. ^ . NASA. March 1, 2017. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
  116. ^ Phillips, Tony; Horack, John M. (February 20, 2004). . NASA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved February 1, 2007.
  117. ^ Showalter, M. A.; Burns, J. A.; Cuzzi, J. N.; Pollack, J. B. (1987). "Jupiter's ring system: New results on structure and particle properties". Icarus. 69 (3): 458–498. Bibcode:1987Icar...69..458S. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(87)90018-2.
  118. ^ a b Burns, J. A.; Showalter, M. R.; Hamilton, D. P.; Nicholson, P. D.; de Pater, I.; Ockert-Bell, M. E.; Thomas, P. C. (1999). "The Formation of Jupiter's Faint Rings". Science. 284 (5417): 1146–1150. Bibcode:1999Sci...284.1146B. doi:10.1126/science.284.5417.1146. PMID 10325220. S2CID 21272762.
  119. ^ Fieseler, P. D.; Adams, O. W.; Vandermey, N.; Theilig, E. E.; Schimmels, K. A.; Lewis, G. D.; Ardalan, S. M.; Alexander, C. J. (2004). "The Galileo Star Scanner Observations at Amalthea". Icarus. 169 (2): 390–401. Bibcode:2004Icar..169..390F. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.01.012.
  120. ^ Herbst, T. M.; Rix, H.-W. (1999). "Star Formation and Extrasolar Planet Studies with Near-Infrared Interferometry on the LBT". In Guenther, Eike; Stecklum, Bringfried; Klose, Sylvio (eds.). Optical and Infrared Spectroscopy of Circumstellar Matter. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 188. San Francisco, Calif.: Astronomical Society of the Pacific. pp. 341–350. Bibcode:1999ASPC..188..341H. ISBN 978-1-58381-014-9. – See section 3.4.
  121. ^ MacDougal, Douglas W. (December 16, 2012). Newton's Gravity: An Introductory Guide to the Mechanics of the Universe. Springer New York. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-4614-5444-1.
  122. ^ Michtchenko, T. A.; Ferraz-Mello, S. (February 2001). "Modeling the 5:2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter–Saturn Planetary System". Icarus. 149 (2): 77–115. Bibcode:2001Icar..149..357M. doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6539.
  123. ^ . Science@NASA. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved February 20, 2007.
  124. ^ Ridpath, Ian (1998). Norton's Star Atlas (19th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-582-35655-9.[page needed]
  125. ^ Hide, R. (January 1981). "On the rotation of Jupiter". Geophysical Journal. 64: 283–289. Bibcode:1981GeoJ...64..283H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1981.tb02668.x.
  126. ^ Russell, C. T.; Yu, Z. J.; Kivelson, M. G. (2001). "The rotation period of Jupiter" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (10): 1911–1912. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.1911R. doi:10.1029/2001GL012917. S2CID 119706637. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 28, 2022.
  127. ^ Rogers, John H. (July 20, 1995). "Appendix 3". The giant planet Jupiter. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-41008-3.
  128. ^ Price, Fred W. (October 26, 2000). The Planet Observer's Handbook. Cambridge University Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-521-78981-3.
  129. ^ Fimmel, Richard O.; Swindell, William; Burgess, Eric (1974). "8. Encounter with the Giant". Pioneer Odyssey (Revised ed.). NASA History Office. Retrieved February 17, 2007.
  130. ^ Chaple, Glenn F. (2009). Jones, Lauren V.; Slater, Timothy F. (eds.). Outer Planets. Greenwood Guides to the Universe. ABC-CLIO. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-313-36571-3.
  131. ^ North, Chris; Abel, Paul (October 31, 2013). The Sky at Night: How to Read the Solar System. Ebury Publishing. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-4481-4130-2.
  132. ^ Sachs, A. (May 2, 1974). "Babylonian Observational Astronomy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 276 (1257): 43–50 (see p. 44). Bibcode:1974RSPTA.276...43S. doi:10.1098/rsta.1974.0008. JSTOR 74273. S2CID 121539390.
  133. ^ Dubs, Homer H. (1958). "The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 78 (4): 295–300. doi:10.2307/595793. JSTOR 595793.
  134. ^ Chen, James L.; Chen, Adam (2015). A Guide to Hubble Space Telescope Objects: Their Selection, Location, and Significance. Springer International Publishing. p. 195. ISBN 978-3-319-18872-0.
  135. ^ Seargent, David A. J. (September 24, 2010). "Facts, Fallacies, Unusual Observations, and Other Miscellaneous Gleanings". Weird Astronomy: Tales of Unusual, Bizarre, and Other Hard to Explain Observations. Astronomers' Universe. pp. 221–282. ISBN 978-1-4419-6424-3.
  136. ^ Xi, Z. Z. (1981). "The Discovery of Jupiter's Satellite Made by Gan-De 2000 Years Before Galileo". Acta Astrophysica Sinica. 1 (2): 87. Bibcode:1981AcApS...1...85X.
  137. ^ Dong, Paul (2002). China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic. China Books. ISBN 978-0-8351-2676-2.
  138. ^ Ossendrijver, Mathieu (January 29, 2016). "Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph". Science. 351 (6272): 482–484. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..482O. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085. PMID 26823423. S2CID 206644971.
  139. ^ Pedersen, Olaf (1974). A Survey of the Almagest. Odense University Press. pp. 423, 428. ISBN 9788774920878.
  140. ^ Pasachoff, Jay M. (2015). "Simon Marius's Mundus Iovialis: 400th Anniversary in Galileo's Shadow". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 46 (2): 218–234. Bibcode:2015AAS...22521505P. doi:10.1177/0021828615585493. S2CID 120470649.
  141. ^ Westfall, Richard S. "Galilei, Galileo". The Galileo Project. Rice University. Retrieved January 10, 2007.
  142. ^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (April 2003). "Giovanni Domenico Cassini". University of St. Andrews. Retrieved February 14, 2007.
  143. ^ Atkinson, David H.; Pollack, James B.; Seiff, Alvin (September 1998). "The Galileo probe Doppler wind experiment: Measurement of the deep zonal winds on Jupiter". Journal of Geophysical Research. 103 (E10): 22911–22928. Bibcode:1998JGR...10322911A. doi:10.1029/98JE00060.
  144. ^ Murdin, Paul (2000). Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-226690-4.
  145. ^ Rogers, John H. (1995). The giant planet Jupiter. Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0-521-41008-3.
  146. ^ Fimmel, Richard O.; Swindell, William; Burgess, Eric (August 1974). "Jupiter, Giant of the Solar System". Pioneer Odyssey (Revised ed.). NASA History Office. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
  147. ^ Brown, Kevin (2004). "Roemer's Hypothesis". MathPages. Retrieved January 12, 2007.
  148. ^ Bobis, Laurence; Lequeux, James (July 2008). "Cassini, Rømer, and the velocity of light". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 11 (2): 97–105. Bibcode:2008JAHH...11...97B.
  149. ^ Tenn, Joe (March 10, 2006). . Sonoma State University. Archived from the original on September 17, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2007.
  150. ^ . NASA/JPL. October 1, 2001. Archived from the original on November 24, 2001. Retrieved February 21, 2007.
  151. ^ Dunham Jr., Theodore (1933). "Note on the Spectra of Jupiter and Saturn". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 45 (263): 42–44. Bibcode:1933PASP...45...42D. doi:10.1086/124297.
  152. ^ Youssef, A.; Marcus, P. S. (2003). "The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger". Icarus. 162 (1): 74–93. Bibcode:2003Icar..162...74Y. doi:10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00060-X.
  153. ^ Chang, Kenneth (July 15, 2022). "NASA Shows Webb's View of Something Closer to Home: Jupiter – The powerful telescope will help scientists make discoveries both within our solar system and well beyond it". The New York Times. Retrieved July 16, 2022.
  154. ^ Weintraub, Rachel A. (September 26, 2005). "How One Night in a Field Changed Astronomy". NASA. Retrieved February 18, 2007.
  155. ^ Garcia, Leonard N. "The Jovian Decametric Radio Emission". NASA. Retrieved February 18, 2007.
  156. ^ Klein, M. J.; Gulkis, S.; Bolton, S. J. (1996). "Jupiter's Synchrotron Radiation: Observed Variations Before, During and After the Impacts of Comet SL9". Conference at University of Graz. NASA: 217. Bibcode:1997pre4.conf..217K. Retrieved February 18, 2007.
  157. ^ "The Pioneer Missions". NASA. March 26, 2007. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
  158. ^ "NASA Glenn Pioneer Launch History". NASA – Glenn Research Center. March 7, 2003. Retrieved December 22, 2011.
  159. ^ Fortescue, Peter W.; Stark, John; Swinerd, Graham (2003). Spacecraft systems engineering (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-470-85102-9.
  160. ^ Hirata, Chris. . California Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on July 15, 2006. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
  161. ^ Wong, Al (May 28, 1998). . NASA. Archived from the original on January 5, 1997. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
  162. ^ a b c Chan, K.; Paredes, E. S.; Ryne, M. S. (2004). "Ulysses Attitude and Orbit Operations: 13+ Years of International Cooperation". Space OPS 2004 Conference. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2004-650-447.
  163. ^ Lasher, Lawrence (August 1, 2006). . NASA Space Projects Division. Archived from the original on January 1, 2006. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
  164. ^ "Jupiter". NASA/JPL. January 14, 2003. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
  165. ^ Hansen, C. J.; Bolton, S. J.; Matson, D. L.; Spilker, L. J.; Lebreton, J.-P. (2004). "The Cassini–Huygens flyby of Jupiter". Icarus. 172 (1): 1–8. Bibcode:2004Icar..172....1H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.06.018.
  166. ^ "Pluto-Bound New Horizons Sees Changes in Jupiter System". NASA. October 9, 2007. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
  167. ^ "Pluto-Bound New Horizons Provides New Look at Jupiter System". NASA. May 1, 2007. Retrieved July 27, 2007.
  168. ^ a b McConnell, Shannon (April 14, 2003). . NASA/JPL. Archived from the original on November 3, 2004. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
  169. ^ Magalhães, Julio (December 10, 1996). . NASA Space Projects Division. Archived from the original on January 2, 2007. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  170. ^ Goodeill, Anthony (March 31, 2008). . NASA. Archived from the original on February 3, 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
  171. ^ "Juno, NASA's Jupiter probe". The Planetary Society. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
  172. ^ Jet Propulsion Laboratory (June 17, 2016). "NASA's Juno spacecraft to risk Jupiter's fireworks for science". phys.org. Retrieved April 10, 2022.
  173. ^ Firth, Niall (September 5, 2016). "NASA's Juno probe snaps first images of Jupiter's north pole". New Scientist. Retrieved September 5, 2016.
  174. ^ Clark, Stephen (February 21, 2017). "NASA's Juno spacecraft to remain in current orbit around Jupiter". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
  175. ^ Agle, D. C.; Wendel, JoAnna; Schmid, Deb (June 6, 2018). "NASA Re-plans Juno's Jupiter Mission". NASA/JPL. Retrieved January 5, 2019.
  176. ^ Talbert, Tricia (January 8, 2021). "NASA Extends Exploration for Two Planetary Science Missions". NASA. Retrieved January 11, 2021.
  177. ^ Dickinson, David (February 21, 2017). "Juno Will Stay in Current Orbit Around Jupiter". Sky & Telescope. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
  178. ^ Bartels, Meghan (July 5, 2016). "To protect potential alien life, NASA will destroy its $1 billion Jupiter spacecraft on purpose". Business Insider. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
  179. ^ Berger, Brian (February 7, 2005). "White House scales back space plans". MSNBC. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
  180. ^ "Laplace: A mission to Europa & Jupiter system". European Space Agency. Retrieved January 23, 2009.
  181. ^ Favata, Fabio (April 19, 2011). "New approach for L-class mission candidates". European Space Agency.
  182. ^ "ESA Science & Technology – JUICE". ESA. November 8, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
  183. ^ Foust, Jeff (July 10, 2020). "Cost growth prompts changes to Europa Clipper instruments". Space News. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
  184. ^ Jones, Andrew (January 12, 2021). "Jupiter Mission by China Could Include Callisto Landing". The Planetary Society. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  185. ^ Jones, Andrew (April 16, 2021). "China to launch a pair of spacecraft towards the edge of the solar system". Space News. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  186. ^ Billings, Lee (November 12, 2019). "Proposed Interstellar Mission Reaches for the Stars, One Generation at a Time". Scientific American. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
  187. ^ Carter, Jamie (2015). A Stargazing Program for Beginners. Springer International Publishing. p. 104. ISBN 978-3-319-22072-7.
  188. ^ Musotto, S.; Varadi, F.; Moore, W. B.; Schubert, G. (2002). . Icarus. 159 (2): 500–504. Bibcode:2002Icar..159..500M. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6939. Archived from the original on August 10, 2011. Retrieved February 19, 2007.
  189. ^ a b Lang, Kenneth R. (March 3, 2011). The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-139-49417-5.
  190. ^ McFadden, Lucy-Ann; Weissmann, Paul; Johnson, Torrence (2006). Encyclopedia of the Solar System. Elsevier Science. p. 446. ISBN 978-0-08-047498-4.
  191. ^ Kessler, Donald J. (October 1981). "Derivation of the collision probability between orbiting objects: the lifetimes of jupiter's outer moons". Icarus. 48 (1): 39–48. Bibcode:1981Icar...48...39K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(81)90151-2. Retrieved December 30, 2020.
  192. ^ Hamilton, Thomas W. M. (2013). Moons of the Solar System. SPBRA. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-62516-175-8.
  193. ^ Jewitt, D. C.; Sheppard, S.; Porco, C. (2004). Bagenal, F.; Dowling, T.; McKinnon, W. (eds.). (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81808-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2009.
  194. ^ a b c Nesvorný, D.; Alvarellos, J. L. A.; Dones, L.; Levison, H. F. (2003). "Orbital and Collisional Evolution of the Irregular Satellites" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal. 126 (1): 398–429. Bibcode:2003AJ....126..398N. doi:10.1086/375461. S2CID 8502734.
  195. ^ Showman, A. P.; Malhotra, R. (1999). "The Galilean Satellites". Science. 286 (5437): 77–84. Bibcode:1999Sci...296...77S. doi:10.1126/science.286.5437.77. PMID 10506564. S2CID 9492520.
  196. ^ Sheppard, Scott S.; Jewitt, David C. (May 2003). (PDF). Nature. 423 (6937): 261–263. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..261S. doi:10.1038/nature01584. PMID 12748634. S2CID 4424447. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 13, 2006.
  197. ^ Nesvorný, David; Beaugé, Cristian; Dones, Luke; Levison, Harold F. (July 2003). "Collisional Origin of Families of Irregular Satellites" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal. 127 (3): 1768–1783. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.1768N. doi:10.1086/382099. S2CID 27293848. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  198. ^ Ferraz-Mello, S. (1994). Milani, Andrea; Di Martino, Michel; Cellino, A. (eds.). Kirkwood Gaps and Resonant Groups. Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 1993: Proceedings of the 160th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union, held in Belgirate, Italy, June 14–18, 1993, International Astronomical Union. Symposium no. 160. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 175. Bibcode:1994IAUS..160..175F.
  199. ^ Kerr, Richard A. (2004). "Did Jupiter and Saturn Team Up to Pummel the Inner Solar System?". Science. 306 (5702): 1676. doi:10.1126/science.306.5702.1676a. PMID 15576586. S2CID 129180312.
  200. ^ "List Of Jupiter Trojans". IAU Minor Planet Center. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
  201. ^ Cruikshank, D. P.; Dalle Ore, C. M.; Geballe, T. R.; Roush, T. L.; Owen, T. C.; Cash, Michele; de Bergh, C.; Hartmann, W. K. (October 2000). "Trojan Asteroid 624 Hektor: Constraints on Surface Composition". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 32: 1027. Bibcode:2000DPS....32.1901C.
  202. ^ Quinn, T.; Tremaine, S.; Duncan, M. (1990). "Planetary perturbations and the origins of short-period comets". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1. 355: 667–679. Bibcode:1990ApJ...355..667Q. doi:10.1086/168800.
  203. ^ "Caught in the act: Fireballs light up Jupiter". ScienceDaily. September 10, 2010. Retrieved April 26, 2022.
  204. ^ Nakamura, T.; Kurahashi, H. (1998). "Collisional Probability of Periodic Comets with the Terrestrial Planets: An Invalid Case of Analytic Formulation". Astronomical Journal. 115 (2): 848–854. Bibcode:1998AJ....115..848N. doi:10.1086/300206.
  205. ^ Horner, J.; Jones, B. W. (2008). "Jupiter – friend or foe? I: the asteroids". International Journal of Astrobiology. 7 (3–4): 251–261. arXiv:0806.2795. Bibcode:2008IJAsB...7..251H. doi:10.1017/S1473550408004187. S2CID 8870726.
  206. ^ Overbye, Dennis (July 25, 2009). "Jupiter: Our Comic Protector?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 27, 2009.
  207. ^ "In Depth | P/Shoemaker-Levy 9". NASA Solar System Exploration. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  208. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (January 24, 2018). "Shoemaker-Levy 9: Comet's Impact Left Its Mark on Jupiter". Space.com. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  209. ^ information@eso.org. "The Big Comet Crash of 1994 – Intensive Observational Campaign at ESO". www.eso.org. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  210. ^ "Top 20 Comet Shoemaker-Levy Images". www2.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  211. ^ information@eso.org. "Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9 "Gang Of Four"". www.spacetelescope.org. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  212. ^ Savage, Donald; Elliott, Jim; Villard, Ray (December 30, 2004). "Hubble Observations Shed New Light on Jupiter Collision". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  213. ^ "NASA TV Coverage on Comet Shoemaker-Levy". www2.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
  214. ^ Tabe, Isshi; Watanabe, Jun-ichi; Jimbo, Michiwo (February 1997). "Discovery of a Possible Impact SPOT on Jupiter Recorded in 1690". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 49: L1–L5. Bibcode:1997PASJ...49L...1T. doi:10.1093/pasj/49.1.l1.
  215. ^ . ABC News. June 16, 2005. Archived from the original on May 12, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2008.
  216. ^ a b Rogers, J. H. (1998). "Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions". Journal of the British Astronomical Association. 108: 9–28. Bibcode:1998JBAA..108....9R.
  217. ^ Waerden, B. L. (1974). "Old-Babylonian Astronomy" (PDF). Science Awakening II. Dordrecht: Springer: 46–59. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-2952-9_3. ISBN 978-90-481-8247-3. (PDF) from the original on March 21, 2022. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  218. ^ "Greek Names of the Planets". April 25, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2012. In Greek the name of the planet Jupiter is Dias, the Greek name of god Zeus. See also the Greek article about the planet.
  219. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1888). Cicero's Tusculan Disputations; also, Treatises on The Nature of the Gods, and on The Commonwealth. Translated by Yonge, Charles Duke. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. p. 274 – via Internet Archive.
  220. ^ Cicero, Marcus Tullus (1967) [1933]. Warmington, E. H. (ed.). De Natura Deorum [On The Nature of the Gods]. Cicero. Vol. 19. Translated by Rackham, H. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. p. 175 – via Internet Archive.
  221. ^ Zolotnikova, O. (2019). "Mythologies in contact: Syro-Phoenician traits in Homeric Zeus". The Scientific Heritage. 41 (5): 16–24. Retrieved April 26, 2022.
  222. ^ Tarnas, R. (2009). "The planets". Archai: The Journal of Archetypal Cosmology. 1 (1): 36–49. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.5030.
  223. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Jupiter". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved February 23, 2007.
  224. ^ "Guru". Indian Divinity.com. Retrieved February 14, 2007.
  225. ^ Sanathana, Y. S.; Manjil, Hazarika1 (November 27, 2020). "Astrolatry in the Brahmaputra Valley: Reflecting upon the Navagraha Sculptural Depiction" (PDF). Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 8 (2): 157–174. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved July 4, 2022.[dead link]
  226. ^ "Türk Astrolojisi-2" (in Turkish). NTV. Archived from the original on January 4, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2010.
  227. ^ De Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1912). Religion in China: universism. a key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism. American lectures on the history of religions. Vol. 10. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 300. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
  228. ^ Crump, Thomas (1992). The Japanese numbers game: the use and understanding of numbers in modern Japan. Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series. Routledge. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-415-05609-0.
  229. ^ Hulbert, Homer Bezaleel (1909). The passing of Korea. Doubleday, Page & Company. p. 426. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
  230. ^ Dubs, Homer H. (1958). "The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 78 (4): 295–300. doi:10.2307/595793. JSTOR 595793.
  231. ^ Wong, Mike; Kocz, Amanda (May 11, 2021). "By Jove! Jupiter Shows Its Stripes and Colors" (Press release). NOIRLab. National Science Foundation. Retrieved June 17, 2021.
  232. ^ Roth, Lorenz; Downer, Bethany (October 14, 2021). "Hubble Finds Evidence of Persistent Water Vapour Atmosphere on Europa" (Press release). ESA Hubble. European Space Agency. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
  233. ^ Overbye, Dennis (August 23, 2022). "How the Webb Telescope Expanded My Universe – As new images of Jupiter and a galactic survey spring forth from NASA's new observatory, our cosmic affairs correspondent confesses he didn't anticipate their power". The New York Times. Retrieved August 24, 2022.

External links

  • Lohninger, Hans; et al. (November 2, 2005). "Jupiter, As Seen By Voyager 1". A Trip into Space. Virtual Institute of Applied Science. Retrieved March 9, 2007.
  • Dunn, Tony (2006). "The Jovian System". Gravity Simulator. Retrieved March 9, 2007. – A simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter.
  • Jupiter in Motion, album of Juno imagery stitched into short videos
  • June 2010 impact video
  • Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  • Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system June 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
  • Video (animation; 4:00): Flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter (NASA; 15 July 2021).

January 12, 2023
jupiter, this, article, about, planet, roman, mythology, other, uses, disambiguation, fifth, planet, from, largest, solar, system, giant, with, mass, more, than, half, times, that, other, planets, solar, system, combined, while, being, slightly, less, than, th. This article is about the planet For the Roman god see Jupiter mythology For other uses see Jupiter disambiguation Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined while being slightly less than one thousandth the mass of the Sun Jupiter is the third brightest natural object in the Earth s night sky after the Moon and Venus and it has been observed since prehistoric times It was named after Jupiter the chief deity of ancient Roman religion JupiterFull disk view of Jupiter in natural color with the shadow of its largest moon Ganymede cast onto it and the Great Red Spot at the left horizon DesignationsPronunciation ˈ dʒ uː p ɪ t er listen 1 Named afterJupiterAdjectivesJovian ˈ dʒ oʊ v i e n Orbital characteristics 7 Epoch J2000Aphelion816 363 Gm 5 4570 AU Perihelion740 595 Gm 4 9506 AU Semi major axis778 479 Gm 5 2038 AU Eccentricity0 0489Orbital period sidereal 11 862 yr 4 332 59 d 10 476 8 Jovian solar days 2 Orbital period synodic 398 88 dAverage orbital speed13 07 km s 8 12 mi s Mean anomaly20 020 3 Inclination1 303 to ecliptic 3 6 09 to Sun s equator 3 0 32 to invariable plane 4 Longitude of ascending node100 464 Time of perihelion21 January 2023 5 Argument of perihelion273 867 3 Known satellites84 as of 2023 update 6 Physical characteristics 7 13 14 Mean radius69 911 km 43 441 mi a 10 973 of Earth sEquatorial radius71 492 km 44 423 mi a 11 209 of Earth sPolar radius66 854 km 41 541 mi a 10 517 of Earth sFlattening0 06487Surface area6 1469 1010 km2 2 3733 1010 sq mi 120 4 of Earth sVolume1 4313 1015 km3 3 434 1014 cu mi a 1 321 of Earth sMass1 8982 1027 kg 4 1848 1027 lb 317 8 of Earth s 1 1047 of Sun s 8 Mean density1 326 kg m3 2 235 lb cu yd b Surface gravity24 79 m s2 81 3 ft s2 a 2 528 gMoment of inertia factor0 2756 0 0006 9 Escape velocity59 5 km s 37 0 mi s a Synodic rotation period9 9258 h 9 h 55 m 33 s 2 Sidereal rotation period9 9250 hours 9 h 55 m 30 s Equatorial rotation velocity12 6 km s 7 8 mi s 45 000 km h Axial tilt3 13 to orbit North pole right ascension268 057 17h 52m 14sNorth pole declination64 495 Albedo0 503 Bond 10 0 538 geometric 11 Temperature88 K 185 C blackbody temperature Surface temp min mean max1 bar 165 K0 1 bar 78 K 128 KApparent magnitude 2 94 12 to 1 66 12 Angular diameter29 8 to 50 1 Atmosphere 7 Surface pressure200 600 kPa 30 90 psi opaque cloud deck 15 Scale height27 km 17 mi Composition by volume89 2 0 hydrogen10 2 0 helium0 3 0 1 methane0 026 0 004 ammonia0 0028 0 001 hydrogen deuteride0 0006 0 0002 ethane0 0004 0 0004 waterJupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen but helium constitutes one quarter of its mass and one tenth of its volume It probably has a rocky core of heavier elements but like the Solar System s other giant planets lacks a well defined solid surface The ongoing contraction of Jupiter s interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun Because of its rapid rotation the planet s shape is an oblate spheroid having a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries A prominent result of this is the Great Red Spot a giant storm which has been observed since at least 1831 Jupiter is surrounded by a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere The planet s magnetic tail is nearly 800 million kilometres 5 3 astronomical units 500 million miles long covering nearly the entire distance to Saturn s orbit Jupiter has 84 known moons and likely many more including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 Io Europa Ganymede and Callisto Io and Europa are about the size of Earth s Moon Ganymede is larger than the planet Mercury and Callisto slightly smaller than Ganymede Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter making its closest approach to the planet in December 1973 Jupiter has since been explored by multiple robotic spacecraft beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979 and later with the Galileo orbiter in 1995 In 2007 New Horizons visited Jupiter using its gravity to increase its speed bending its trajectory en route to Pluto The latest probe to visit Jupiter Juno entered its orbit in July 2016 Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include Europa which likely has an ice covered liquid ocean Contents 1 Name and symbol 2 Formation and migration 3 Physical characteristics 3 1 Composition 3 2 Size and mass 3 3 Internal structure 3 4 Atmosphere 3 4 1 Cloud layers 3 4 2 Great Red Spot and other vortices 3 5 Magnetosphere 3 6 Planetary rings 4 Orbit and rotation 5 Observation 6 History 6 1 Pre telescopic research 6 2 Ground based telescope research 6 3 Space based telescope research 6 4 Radiotelescope research 6 5 Exploration 6 5 1 Flyby missions 6 5 2 Galileo mission 6 5 3 Juno mission 6 5 4 Cancelled missions and future plans 7 Moons 7 1 Galilean moons 7 2 Classification 8 Interaction with the Solar System 8 1 Impacts 9 In culture 10 Gallery 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External linksName and symbolIn both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon Zeus for the Greeks and Jupiter for the Romans The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named newly discovered satellites for the god s lovers favourites and descendants 16 The planetary symbol for Jupiter descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke Ƶ as an abbreviation for Zeus 17 18 In Germanic mythology Jupiter is equated to Thor the namesake of Thursday 19 It has been theorized that this replaced the Latin name for the day i e Dies Iovi Day of Jupiter 20 The Latin name Iovis is associated with the etymology of Zeus sky father The English equivalent Jove is only known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century 21 The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno which is used to form some Jupiter related words such as zenographic c Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter The older adjectival form jovial employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages has come to mean happy or merry moods ascribed to Jupiter s influence in astrology 22 Formation and migrationMain article Grand tack hypothesis See also Formation and evolution of the Solar System Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System 23 Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond the snow line a distance from the early Sun where the temperature is sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids 24 The planet began as a solid core which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere As a consequence the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed 25 During its formation Jupiter s mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth about half of which was made up of silicates ices and other heavy element constituents When the proto Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula Thereafter the growing planet reached its final masses in 3 4 million years 23 According to the grand tack hypothesis Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3 5 AU 520 million km 330 million mi from the Sun As the young planet accreted mass interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and orbital resonances with Saturn caused it to migrate inward 24 26 This upset the orbits of several super Earths orbiting closer to the Sun causing them to collide destructively Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards too much faster than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in a 3 2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1 5 AU 220 million km 140 million mi from the Sun This changed the direction of migration causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations 27 All of this happened over a period of 3 6 million years with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years 26 28 Jupiter s departure from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets including Earth to form from the rubble 29 There are several problems with the grand tack hypothesis The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition 30 It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula 31 Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present day planet 25 Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out such as 18 AU 2 7 billion km 1 7 billion mi 32 33 Based on Jupiter s composition researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen N2 snowline which is estimated at 20 30 AU 3 0 4 5 billion km 1 9 2 8 billion mi from the Sun 34 35 and possibly even outside the argon snowline which may be as far as 40 AU 6 0 billion km 3 7 billion mi Having formed at one of these extreme distances Jupiter would then have migrated inwards to its current location This inward migration would have occurred over a roughly 700 000 year time period 32 33 during an epoch approximately 2 3 million years after the planet began to form In this model Saturn Uranus and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter and Saturn would also have migrated inwards Physical characteristicsJupiter is a gas giant being primarily composed of gas and liquid rather than solid matter It is the largest planet in the Solar System with a diameter of 142 984 km 88 846 mi at its equator 36 The average density of Jupiter 1 326 g cm3 is about the same as simple syrup syrup USP 37 and is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets 38 39 Composition Jupiter s upper atmosphere is about 90 hydrogen and 10 helium by volume Since helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules Jupiter s atmosphere is approximately 24 helium by mass 40 The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane water vapour ammonia and silicon based compounds There are also fractional amounts of carbon ethane hydrogen sulfide neon oxygen phosphine and sulfur The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found 41 The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials by mass it is roughly 71 hydrogen 24 helium and 5 other elements 42 43 The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun 44 Helium is also reduced to about 80 of the Sun s helium composition This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements as helium rich droplets a process that happens deep in the interior of the planet 45 46 Based on spectroscopy Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements including oxygen carbon nitrogen and sulfur 47 These planets are known as ice giants because the majority of their volatile compounds are in solid form Size and mass Main article Jupiter mass Jupiter with its moon Europa on the left Earth s diameter is 11 times smaller than Jupiter and 4 times larger than Europa Jupiter s mass is 2 5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun s surface at 1 068 solar radii from the Sun s centre 48 Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense it has 1 321 times the volume of the Earth but only 318 times the mass 7 49 6 Jupiter s radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun 50 and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun as the densities of the two bodies are similar 51 A Jupiter mass MJ or MJup is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs For example the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0 69 MJ while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of 12 8 MJ 52 Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40 more mass the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter For smaller changes in its mass the radius would not change appreciably 53 As a result Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve 54 The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved 55 Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star 56 the smallest red dwarf may be only slightly larger in radius than Saturn 57 Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation due to the Kelvin Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior 58 30 59 This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm 0 039 in yr 60 61 When it formed Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter 62 Internal structure Diagram of Jupiter its interior surface features rings and inner moons Before the early 21st century most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter If the planet accreted first as a solid body it would consist of a dense core a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium extending outward to about 80 of the radius of the planet 63 and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen 61 Alternatively if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk it was expected to completely lack a core consisting instead of denser and denser fluid predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen all the way to the centre Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a very diffuse core that mixes into its mantle 64 65 66 This mixing process could have arisen during formation while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula 67 Alternatively it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter s formation which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core 68 69 It is estimated that the core takes up 30 50 of the planet s radius and contains heavy elements with a combined mass 7 25 times the Earth 70 Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen At this depth the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen s critical pressure of 1 3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K 240 2 C 400 3 F 71 In this state there are no distinct liquid and gas phases hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids 58 22 72 73 74 Physically the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases 75 76 Rain like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere 45 77 Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60 000 km 37 000 mi 11 000 km 6 800 mi below the cloud tops and merge again at 50 000 km 31 000 mi 22 000 km 14 000 mi beneath the clouds 78 Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur as well as on Saturn 79 and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune 80 The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward because the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection 46 At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar 0 10 MPa the temperature is around 165 K 108 C 163 F The region of supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50 400 GPa with temperatures of 5 000 8 400 K 4 730 8 130 C 8 540 14 660 F respectively The temperature of Jupiter s diluted core is estimated to be 20 000 K 19 700 C 35 500 F with a pressure of around 4 000 GPa 81 Atmosphere Main article Atmosphere of Jupiter Timelapse of Jupiter s cloud system moving over the course of one month photographed during Voyager 1 flyby in 1979 The atmosphere of Jupiter extends to a depth of 3 000 km 2 000 mi below the cloud layers 81 Cloud layers View of Jupiter s south pole Enhanced colour view of Jupiter s southern storms Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well 82 The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere forming bands at different latitudes known as tropical regions These are subdivided into lighter hued zones and darker belts The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence Wind speeds of 100 metres per second 360 km h 220 mph are common in zonal jet streams 83 The zones have been observed to vary in width colour and intensity from year to year but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them 49 6 The cloud layer is about 50 km 31 mi deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds a thin clearer region on top with a thick lower deck There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter 84 These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth 85 The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior 86 The Juno mission revealed the presence of shallow lightning which originates from ammonia water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere 87 These discharges carry mushballs of water ammonia slushes covered in ice which fall deep into the atmosphere 88 Upper atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter s upper atmosphere bright flashes of light that last around 1 4 milliseconds These are known as elves or sprites and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen 89 90 The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun The exact makeup remains uncertain but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons 58 39 91 These colourful compounds known as chromophores mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck The light coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view 92 Jupiter s low axial tilt means that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet s equatorial region Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer 49 54 Great Red Spot and other vortices Close up of the Great Red Spot imaged by the Juno spacecraft in April 2018 The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot 93 a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22 south of the equator It is known to have existed since at least 1831 94 and possibly since 1665 95 96 Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two red spots adjacent to the Great Red Spot 97 98 The storm is visible through Earth based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger 99 The oval object rotates counterclockwise with a period of about six days 100 The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km 5 mi above the surrounding cloud tops 101 The Spot s composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation 102 The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth 103 Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet 104 However it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41 000 km 25 500 mi across By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979 the storm had a length of 23 300 km 14 500 mi and a width of approximately 13 000 km 8 000 mi 105 Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20 950 km 13 020 mi and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17 910 km 11 130 mi As of 2015 update the storm was measured at approximately 16 500 by 10 940 km 10 250 by 6 800 mi 105 and was decreasing in length by about 930 km 580 mi per year 103 106 In October 2021 a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot putting it at around 300 500 kilometres 190 310 mi 107 Juno missions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter s poles The northern group contains nine cyclones with a large one in the centre and eight others around it while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one 108 109 These polar structures are caused by the turbulence in Jupiter s atmosphere and can be compared with the hexagon at Saturn s north pole Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals In 2000 an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot but smaller This was created when smaller white oval shaped storms merged to form a single feature these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939 1940 The merged feature was named Oval BA It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red earning it the nickname Little Red Spot 110 111 In April 2017 a Great Cold Spot was discovered in Jupiter s thermosphere at its north pole This feature is 24 000 km 15 000 mi across 12 000 km 7 500 mi wide and 200 C 360 F cooler than surrounding material While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot and appears to be quasi stable like the vortices in Earth s thermosphere This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter resulting in a redistribution of heat flow 112 Magnetosphere Main article Magnetosphere of Jupiter Aurorae on the north and south poles animation Aurorae on the north pole Hubble Infrared view of southern lights Jovian IR Mapper Jupiter s magnetic field is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System 92 with a dipole moment of 4 170 gauss 0 4170 mT that is tilted at an angle of 10 31 to the pole of rotation The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss 0 20 mT up to 20 gauss 2 0 mT 113 This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents swirling movements of conducting materials within the liquid metallic hydrogen core At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock Surrounding Jupiter s magnetosphere is a magnetopause located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath a region between it and the bow shock The solar wind interacts with these regions elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter s lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere which protects them from the solar wind 58 69 The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide forming a gas torus along the moon s orbit The gas is ionized in Jupiter s magnetosphere producing sulfur and oxygen ions They together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter form a plasma sheet in Jupiter s equatorial plane The plasma in the sheet co rotates with the planet causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature with short superimposed bursts in the range of 0 6 30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer grade shortwave radio receivers 114 115 As Io moves through this torus the interaction generates Alfven waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter As a result radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism and the energy is transmitted out along a cone shaped surface When Earth intersects this cone the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun 116 Planetary rings Main article Rings of Jupiter Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments an inner torus of particles known as the halo a relatively bright main ring and an outer gossamer ring 117 These rings appear to be made of dust while Saturn s rings are made of ice 58 65 The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet s strong gravitational influence New material is added by additional impacts 118 In a similar way the moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring 118 There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon s orbit 119 Orbit and rotation Orbit of Jupiter and other outer Solar System planets Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun though by only 7 of the Sun s radius 120 121 The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km 5 2 AU and it completes an orbit every 11 86 years This is approximately two fifths the orbital period of Saturn forming a near orbital resonance 122 The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1 30 compared to Earth Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0 049 Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion 7 The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small only 3 13 so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars 123 Jupiter s rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System s planets completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope Because Jupiter is not a solid body its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation The rotation of Jupiter s polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere 124 The planet is an oblate spheroid meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles 76 On Jupiter the equatorial diameter is 9 276 km 5 764 mi longer than the polar diameter 7 Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking the planetary rotation particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features System I applies to latitudes from 7 N to 7 S its period is the planet s shortest at 9h 50 m 30 0s System II applies at latitudes north and south of these its period is 9h 55 m 40 6s 125 System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet s magnetosphere its period is Jupiter s official rotation 126 Observation Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen through an amateur telescope Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky after the Sun the Moon and Venus 92 although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter Depending on Jupiter s position with respect to the Earth it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as 2 94 at opposition down to 1 66 during conjunction with the Sun 12 The mean apparent magnitude is 2 20 with a standard deviation of 0 33 12 The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50 1 to 30 5 arc seconds 7 Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit bringing it closer to Earth 127 Near opposition Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for a period of about 121 days moving backward through an angle of 9 9 before returning to prograde movement 128 Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11 5 thus Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth based telescopes It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained 129 A small telescope will usually show Jupiter s four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter s atmosphere A larger telescope with an aperture of 4 6 in 10 16 15 24 cm will show Jupiter s Great Red Spot when it faces Earth 130 131 HistoryPre telescopic research Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter relative to Earth Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC 132 The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the Sui Star Suixing 歲星 and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun the Chinese language still uses its name simplified as 歲 when referring to years of age By the 4th century BC these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac 133 and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter s position in the night sky These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac s twelve animals The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De an ancient Chinese astronomer 134 reported a small star in alliance with the planet 135 which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter s moons with the unaided eye If true this would predate Galileo s discovery by nearly two millennia 136 137 A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule was used by Babylonians before 50 BCE for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic 138 In his 2nd century work the Almagest the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter s motion relative to Earth giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332 38 days or 11 86 years 139 Ground based telescope research Galileo s drawings of Jupiter and its Medicean Stars from Sidereus Nuncius In 1610 Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter now known as the Galilean moons using a telescope This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth s Just one day after Galileo Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614 140 It was Marius s names for the major moons however that stuck Io Europa Ganymede and Callisto The discovery was a major point in favour of Copernicus heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets Galileo s outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition 141 During the 1660s Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colourful bands in Jupiter s atmosphere observe that the planet appeared oblate and estimate its rotation period 142 In 1692 Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes differential rotation 143 The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini although this is disputed The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831 144 The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878 145 It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century 146 Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter s moons which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet By the 1670s Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected Ole Romer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected 43 and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light 147 148 In 1892 E E Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36 inch 910 mm refractor at Lick Observatory in California This moon was later named Amalthea 149 It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope 150 An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of the Voyager 1 probe in 1979 d Jupiter viewed in infrared by JWST July 14 2022 In 1932 Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter 151 Three long lived anticyclonic features called white ovals were observed in 1938 For several decades they remained as separate features in the atmosphere sometimes approaching each other but never merging Finally two of the ovals merged in 1998 then absorbed the third in 2000 becoming Oval BA 152 Space based telescope research On July 14 2022 NASA presented images of Jupiter and related areas captured for the first time and including infrared views by the James Webb Space Telescope JWST 153 Radiotelescope research Image of Jupiter and its radiation belts in radio In 1955 Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin discovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22 2 MHz 58 36 The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter s rotation rate Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms long bursts or L bursts lasting up to several seconds and short bursts or S bursts lasting less than a hundredth of a second 154 Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter Decametric radio bursts with a wavelength of tens of metres vary with the rotation of Jupiter and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter s magnetic field 155 Decimetric radio emission with wavelengths measured in centimetres was first observed by Frank Drake and Hein Hvatum in 1959 58 36 The origin of this signal is a torus shaped belt around Jupiter s equator which generates cyclotron radiation from electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter s magnetic field 156 Thermal radiation is produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter 58 43 Exploration Main article Exploration of Jupiter Jupiter has been visited by automated spacecraft since 1973 when the space probe Pioneer 10 passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena 157 158 Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft or delta v Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta v of 6 3 km s 159 which is comparable to the 9 7 km s delta v needed to reach low Earth orbit 160 Gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter 161 Flyby missions Spacecraft Closest approach DistancePioneer 10 December 3 1973 130 000 kmPioneer 11 December 4 1974 34 000 kmVoyager 1 March 5 1979 349 000 kmVoyager 2 July 9 1979 570 000 kmUlysses February 8 1992 162 408 894 kmFebruary 4 2004 162 120 000 000 kmCassini December 30 2000 10 000 000 kmNew Horizons February 28 2007 2 304 535 kmBeginning in 1973 several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within observation range of Jupiter The Pioneer missions obtained the first close up images of Jupiter s atmosphere and several of its moons They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter s diameter and the amount of polar flattening 49 47 163 Six years later the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter s rings They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hue since the Pioneer missions turning from orange to dark brown A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io s orbital path which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon s surface As the spacecraft passed behind the planet it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere 49 87 164 The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe In February 1992 it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain a polar orbit around the Sun During this pass the spacecraft studied Jupiter s magnetosphere although it had no cameras to photograph the planet The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later this time at a much greater distance 162 In 2000 the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn and provided higher resolution images 165 The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route to Pluto 166 The probe s cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail 167 Galileo mission Main article Galileo spacecraft Galileo in preparation for mating with the rocket 1989 The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo mission which reached the planet on December 7 1995 54 It remained in orbit for over seven years conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 when it collided with Jupiter in 1994 Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction in Galileo s high gain antenna 168 A 340 kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995 entering Jupiter s atmosphere on December 7 54 It parachuted through 150 km 93 mi of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2 575 km h 1600 mph 54 and collected data for 57 6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed 169 The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21 2003 NASA destroyed the spacecraft in order to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa which may harbour life 168 Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 of Jupiter s atmosphere 54 The recorded temperature was more than 300 C 570 F and the windspeed measured more than 644 km h gt 400 mph before the probes vaporized 54 Juno mission Main article Juno spacecraft Juno preparing for testing in a rotation stand 2011 NASA s Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4 2016 with the goal of studying the planet in detail from a polar orbit The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty seven times over a period of twenty months 170 64 171 During the mission the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation from Jupiter s magnetosphere which may cause future failure of certain instruments 172 On August 27 2016 the spacecraft completed its first fly by of Jupiter and sent back the first ever images of Jupiter s north pole 173 Juno completed 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan ending July 2018 174 In June of that year NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021 and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys one of Ganymede one of Europa and two of Io 175 176 When Juno reaches the end of the mission it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter s atmosphere This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter s moons 177 178 Cancelled missions and future plans There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter s larger icy moons which may have subsurface liquid oceans Funding difficulties have delayed progress causing NASA s JIMO Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter to be cancelled in 2005 179 A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA ESA mission called EJSM Laplace with a provisional launch date around 2020 EJSM Laplace would have consisted of the NASA led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter 180 However the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011 citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable Instead ESA planned to go ahead with a European only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection 181 These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency s Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer JUICE due to launch in 2023 182 followed by NASA s Europa Clipper mission scheduled for launch in 2024 183 Other proposed missions include the Chinese National Space Administration s Tianwen 4 mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possibly Callisto around 2035 184 and CNSA s Interstellar Express 185 and NASA s Interstellar Probe 186 which would both use Jupiter s gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere MoonsMain article Moons of Jupiter See also Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons and Satellite system astronomy Jupiter has 84 known natural satellites 6 Of these 68 are less than 10 km in diameter 6 The four largest moons are Io Europa Ganymede and Callisto collectively known as the Galilean moons and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night 187 Galilean moons Main article Galilean moons The moons discovered by Galileo Io Europa Ganymede and Callisto are among the largest in the Solar System The orbits of Io Europa and Ganymede form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes The tidal force from Jupiter on the other hand works to circularise their orbits 188 The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons shapes with Jupiter s gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away The friction created by this tidal flexing generates heat in the interior of the moons 189 This is seen most dramatically in the volcanic activity of Io which is subject to the strongest tidal forces 189 and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa s surface which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon s exterior 190 The Galilean moons compared to the Earth s Moon Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital periodkm kg km days Io ˈaɪ oʊ 3 643 105 8 9 1022 120 421 700 110 1 77 7Europa jʊˈroʊpe 3 122 90 4 8 1022 65 671 034 175 3 55 13Ganymede ˈɡaenimiːd 5 262 150 14 8 1022 200 1 070 412 280 7 15 26Callisto keˈlɪstoʊ 4 821 140 10 8 1022 150 1 882 709 490 16 69 61 The Galilean moons Io Europa Ganymede and Callisto in order of increasing distance from Jupiter Classification Jupiter s moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four based on their similar orbital elements 191 This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999 Jupiter s moons are currently divided into several different groups although there are several moons which are not part of any group 192 The eight innermost regular moons which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter s equator are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter whilst the remainder are irregular moons and are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up 193 194 Regular moonsInner group The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km orbit at radii less than 200 000 km and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree Galilean moons 195 These four moons discovered by Galileo Galilei and by Simon Marius in parallel orbit between 400 000 and 2 000 000 km and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System Irregular moonsHimalia group A tightly clustered group of moons with orbits around 11 000 000 12 000 000 km from Jupiter 196 Ananke group This retrograde orbit group has rather indistinct borders averaging 21 276 000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees 194 Carme group A fairly distinct retrograde group that averages 23 404 000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees 194 Pasiphae group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons 197 Interaction with the Solar SystemAs the most massive of the eight planets the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System With the exception of Mercury the orbits of the system s planets lie closer to Jupiter s orbital plane than the Sun s equatorial plane The Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter 198 and the planet may have been responsible for the purported Late Heavy Bombardment in the inner Solar System s history 199 In addition to its moons Jupiter s gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled around the Lagrangian points that precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun These are known as the Trojan asteroids and are divided into Greek and Trojan camps to honour the Iliad The first of these 588 Achilles was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906 since then more than two thousand have been discovered 200 The largest is 624 Hektor 201 The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have a semi major axis smaller than Jupiter s most short period comets belong to this group Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune During close encounters with Jupiter they are perturbed into orbits with a smaller period which then becomes circularised by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter 202 Impacts Main article Impact events on Jupiter Brown spots mark Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 s impact sites on Jupiter Jupiter has been called the Solar System s vacuum cleaner 203 because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System There are more impacts on Jupiter such as comets than on any other planet in the Solar System 204 For example Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth 54 In the past scientists believed that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment 54 However computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them 205 This topic remains controversial among scientists as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt while others believes that Jupiter protects Earth from the Oort cloud 206 In July 1994 the Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 comet collided with Jupiter 207 208 The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world including the Hubble Space Telescope and Galileo spacecraft 209 210 211 212 The event was widely covered by the media 213 Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839 However a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar 214 In cultureSee also Jupiter in fiction and Planets in astrology Jupiter Jupiter woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti s Liber Astronomiae The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low 215 To the Babylonians this planet represented their god Marduk 216 chief of their pantheon from the Hammurabi period 217 They used Jupiter s roughly 12 year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac 216 The mythical Greek name for this planet is Zeus Zeys also referred to as Dias Dias the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek 218 The ancient Greeks knew the planet as Phaethon Fae8wn meaning shining one or blazing star 219 220 The Greek myths of Zeus from the Homeric period showed particular similarities to certain Near Eastern gods including the Semitic El and Baal the Sumerian Enlil and the Babylonian god Marduk 221 The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BCE as documented in the Epinomis of Plato and his contemporaries 222 The god Jupiter is the Roman counterpart of Zeus and he is the principal god of Roman mythology The Romans originally called Jupiter the star of Jupiter Iuppiter Stella as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god This name comes from the Proto Indo European vocative compound Dyeu peter nominative Dyeus peter meaning Father Sky God or Father Day God 223 As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon Jupiter was the god of thunder lightning and storms and appropriately called the god of light and sky In Vedic astrology Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati the religious teacher of the gods and often called it Guru which means the Teacher 224 225 In Central Asian Turkic myths Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentuz from eren of uncertain meaning and yultuz star The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentuz s movements on the sky 226 The Chinese Vietnamese Koreans and Japanese called it the wood star Chinese 木星 pinyin muxing based on the Chinese Five Elements 227 228 229 In China it became known as the Year star Sui sing as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped one zodiac constellation each year with corrections In some ancient Chinese writings the years were named at least in principle in correlation with the Jovian zodiacal signs 230 Gallery Infrared view of Jupiter imaged by the Gemini North telescope in Hawaiʻi January 11 2017 Jupiter imaged in visible light by the Hubble Space Telescope January 11 2017 Ultraviolet view of Jupiter by Hubble January 11 2017 231 Jupiter and Europa taken by Hubble on 25 August 2020 when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth 232 Infrared photo by James Webb Space Telescope August 2022 233 See alsoOutline of Jupiter Overview of and topical guide to Jupiter Eccentric Jupiter Jovian planet that orbits its star in an eccentric orbit Hot Jupiter Class of high mass planets orbiting close to a star Super Jupiter Class of planets with more mass than Jupiter Jovian Plutonian gravitational effect Astronomical hoax List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar SystemNotes a b c d e f Refers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure See for example IAUC 2844 Jupiter 1975h International Astronomical Union October 1 1975 Retrieved October 24 2010 That particular word has been in use since at least 1966 See Query Results from the Astronomy Database Smithsonian NASA Retrieved July 29 2007 See Moons of Jupiter for details and citesReferences Simpson J A Weiner E S C 1989 Jupiter Oxford English Dictionary Vol 8 2nd ed Clarendon Press ISBN 978 0 19 861220 9 a b Seligman Courtney Rotation Period and Day Length Retrieved August 13 2009 a b c d Simon J L Bretagnon P Chapront J Chapront Touze M Francou G Laskar J February 1994 Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets Astronomy and Astrophysics 282 2 663 683 Bibcode 1994A amp A 282 663S Souami D Souchay J July 2012 The solar system s invariable plane Astronomy amp Astrophysics 543 11 Bibcode 2012A amp A 543A 133S doi 10 1051 0004 6361 201219011 A133 HORIZONS Planet center Batch call for January 2023 Perihelion ssd jpl nasa gov Perihelion for Jupiter s planet centre 599 occurs on 2023 Jan 21 at 4 9510113au during a rdot flip from negative to positive NASA JPL Retrieved September 7 2021 a b c Sheppard Scott S Moons of Jupiter Earth amp Planets Laboratory Carnegie Institution for Science Retrieved December 20 2022 a b c d e f g Williams David R December 23 2021 Jupiter Fact Sheet NASA Retrieved October 13 2017 Astrodynamic Constants JPL Solar System Dynamics February 27 2009 Retrieved August 8 2007 Ni D 2018 Empirical models of Jupiter s interior from Juno data Astronomy amp Astrophysics 613 A32 Bibcode 2018A amp A 613A 32N doi 10 1051 0004 6361 201732183 Li Liming Jiang X West R A Gierasch P J Perez Hoyos S Sanchez Lavega A Fletcher L N Fortney J J Knowles B Porco C C Baines K H Fry P M Mallama A Achterberg R K Simon A A Nixon C A Orton G S Dyudina U A Ewald S P Schmude R W 2018 Less absorbed solar energy and more internal heat for Jupiter Nature Communications 9 1 3709 Bibcode 2018NatCo 9 3709L doi 10 1038 s41467 018 06107 2 PMC 6137063 PMID 30213944 Mallama Anthony Krobusek Bruce Pavlov Hristo 2017 Comprehensive wide band magnitudes and albedos for the planets with applications to exo planets and Planet Nine Icarus 282 19 33 arXiv 1609 05048 Bibcode 2017Icar 282 19M doi 10 1016 j icarus 2016 09 023 S2CID 119307693 a b c d Mallama A Hilton J L 2018 Computing Apparent Planetary Magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac Astronomy and Computing 25 10 24 arXiv 1808 01973 Bibcode 2018A amp C 25 10M doi 10 1016 j ascom 2018 08 002 S2CID 69912809 Seidelmann P Kenneth Archinal Brent A A Hearn Michael F Conrad Albert R Consolmagno Guy J Hestroffer Daniel Hilton James L Krasinsky Georgij A Neumann Gregory A Oberst Jurgen Stooke Philip J Tedesco Edward F Tholen David J Thomas Peter C Williams Iwan P 2007 Report of the IAU IAG Working Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements 2006 Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 98 3 155 180 Bibcode 2007CeMDA 98 155S doi 10 1007 s10569 007 9072 y de Pater Imke Lissauer Jack J 2015 Planetary Sciences 2nd updated ed New York Cambridge University Press p 250 ISBN 978 0 521 85371 2 Bjoraker G L Wong M H de Pater I Adamkovics M September 2015 Jupiter s Deep Cloud Structure Revealed Using Keck Observations of Spectrally Resolved Line Shapes The Astrophysical Journal 810 2 10 arXiv 1508 04795 Bibcode 2015ApJ 810 122B doi 10 1088 0004 637X 810 2 122 S2CID 55592285 122 Naming of Astronomical Objects International Astronomical Union Retrieved March 23 2022 Jones Alexander 1999 Astronomical papyri from Oxyrhynchus pp 62 63 ISBN 978 0 87169 233 7 It is now possible to trace the medieval symbols for at least four of the five planets to forms that occur in some of the latest papyrus horoscopes P Oxy 4272 4274 4275 That for Jupiter is an obvious monogram derived from the initial letter of the Greek name Maunder A S D August 1934 The origin of the symbols of the planets The Observatory 57 238 247 Bibcode 1934Obs 57 238M Falk Michael Koresko Christopher 2004 Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 93 122 133 arXiv astro ph 0307398 Bibcode 1999JRASC 93 122F doi 10 1016 j newast 2003 07 002 S2CID 118954190 Simek Rudolf 1993 1984 Dictionary of Northern Mythology Translated by Hall Angela D S Brewer p 371 ISBN 978 0 85991 513 7 Harper Douglas Jove Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved March 22 2022 Jovial Dictionary com Retrieved July 29 2007 a b Kruijer Thomas S Burkhardt Christoph Budde Gerrit Kleine Thorsten June 2017 Age of Jupiter inferred from the distinct genetics and formation times of meteorites Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 26 6712 6716 Bibcode 2017PNAS 114 6712K doi 10 1073 pnas 1704461114 PMC 5495263 PMID 28607079 a b Bosman A D Cridland A J Miguel Y December 2019 Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N2 ice line Astronomy amp Astrophysics 632 5 arXiv 1911 11154 Bibcode 2019A amp A 632L 11B doi 10 1051 0004 6361 201936827 S2CID 208291392 L11 a b D Angelo G Weidenschilling S J Lissauer J J Bodenheimer P 2021 Growth of Jupiter Formation in disks of gas and solids and evolution to the present epoch Icarus 355 114087 arXiv 2009 05575 Bibcode 2021Icar 35514087D doi 10 1016 j icarus 2020 114087 S2CID 221654962 a b Walsh K J Morbidelli A Raymond S N O Brien D P Mandell A M 2011 A low mass for Mars from Jupiter s early gas driven migration Nature 475 7355 206 209 arXiv 1201 5177 Bibcode 2011Natur 475 206W doi 10 1038 nature10201 PMID 21642961 S2CID 4431823 Batygin Konstantin 2015 Jupiter s decisive role in the inner Solar System s early evolution Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 14 4214 4217 arXiv 1503 06945 Bibcode 2015PNAS 112 4214B doi 10 1073 pnas 1423252112 PMC 4394287 PMID 25831540 Haisch Jr K E Lada E A Lada C J 2001 Disc Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters The Astrophysical Journal 553 2 153 156 arXiv astro ph 0104347 Bibcode 2001ApJ 553L 153H doi 10 1086 320685 S2CID 16480998 Fazekas Andrew March 24 2015 Observe Jupiter Wrecking Ball of Early Solar System National Geographic Archived from the original on March 14 2017 Retrieved April 18 2021 Zube N Nimmo F Fischer R Jacobson S 2019 Constraints on terrestrial planet formation timescales and equilibration processes in the Grand Tack scenario from Hf W isotopic evolution Earth and Planetary Science Letters 522 1 210 218 arXiv 1910 00645 Bibcode 2019E amp PSL 522 210Z doi 10 1016 j epsl 2019 07 001 PMC 7339907 PMID 32636530 S2CID 199100280 D Angelo G Marzari F 2012 Outward Migration of Jupiter and Saturn in Evolved Gaseous Disks The Astrophysical Journal 757 1 50 23 pp arXiv 1207 2737 Bibcode 2012ApJ 757 50D doi 10 1088 0004 637X 757 1 50 S2CID 118587166 a b Pirani S Johansen A Bitsch B Mustill A J Turrini D March 2019 Consequences of planetary migration on the minor bodies of the early solar system Astronomy amp Astrophysics 623 A169 arXiv 1902 04591 Bibcode 2019A amp A 623A 169P doi 10 1051 0004 6361 201833713 a b Jupiter s Unknown Journey Revealed ScienceDaily Lund University March 22 2019 Retrieved March 25 2019 Oberg K I Wordsworth R 2019 Jupiter s Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N 2 Snowline The Astronomical Journal 158 5 arXiv 1909 11246 doi 10 3847 1538 3881 ab46a8 S2CID 202749962 Oberg K I Wordsworth R 2020 Erratum Jupiter s Composition Suggests Its Core Assembled Exterior to the N2 Snowline The Astronomical Journal 159 2 78 doi 10 3847 1538 3881 ab6172 S2CID 214576608 Denecke Edward J January 7 2020 Regents Exams and Answers Earth Science Physical Setting 2020 Barrons Educational Series p 419 ISBN 978 1 5062 5399 2 Swarbrick James 2013 Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology Vol 6 CRC Press p 3601 ISBN 978 1 4398 0823 8 Syrup USP 1 31 g cm3 Allen Clabon Walter Cox Arthur N 2000 Allen s Astrophysical Quantities Springer pp 295 296 ISBN 978 0 387 98746 0 Polyanin Andrei D Chernoutsan Alexei October 18 2010 A Concise Handbook of Mathematics Physics and Engineering Sciences CRC Press p 1041 ISBN 978 1 4398 0640 1 Guillot Tristan Gautier Daniel Hubbard William B December 1997 NOTE New Constraints on the Composition of Jupiter from Galileo Measurements and Interior Models Icarus 130 2 534 539 arXiv astro ph 9707210 Bibcode 1997Icar 130 534G doi 10 1006 icar 1997 5812 S2CID 5466469 Kim S J Caldwell J Rivolo A R Wagner R 1985 Infrared Polar Brightening on Jupiter III Spectrometry from the Voyager 1 IRIS Experiment Icarus 64 2 233 248 Bibcode 1985Icar 64 233K doi 10 1016 0019 1035 85 90201 5 Gautier D Conrath B Flasar M Hanel R Kunde V Chedin A Scott N 1981 The helium abundance of Jupiter from Voyager Journal of Geophysical Research 86 A10 8713 8720 Bibcode 1981JGR 86 8713G doi 10 1029 JA086iA10p08713 hdl 2060 19810016480 S2CID 122314894 a b Kunde V G Flasar F M Jennings D E Bezard B Strobel D F et al September 10 2004 Jupiter s Atmospheric Composition from the Cassini Thermal Infrared Spectroscopy Experiment Science 305 5690 1582 1586 Bibcode 2004Sci 305 1582K doi 10 1126 science 1100240 PMID 15319491 S2CID 45296656 Retrieved April 4 2007 Niemann H B Atreya S K Carignan G R Donahue T M Haberman J A et al 1996 The Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer Composition of Jupiter s Atmosphere Science 272 5263 846 849 Bibcode 1996Sci 272 846N doi 10 1126 science 272 5263 846 PMID 8629016 S2CID 3242002 a b von Zahn U Hunten D M Lehmacher G 1998 Helium in Jupiter s atmosphere Results from the Galileo probe Helium Interferometer Experiment Journal of Geophysical Research 103 E10 22815 22829 Bibcode 1998JGR 10322815V doi 10 1029 98JE00695 a b Stevenson David J May 2020 Jupiter s Interior as Revealed by Juno Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 48 465 489 Bibcode 2020AREPS 48 465S doi 10 1146 annurev earth 081619 052855 S2CID 212832169 Archived from the original on May 7 2020 Retrieved March 18 2022 Ingersoll A P Hammel H B Spilker T R Young R E June 1 2005 Outer Planets The Ice Giants PDF Lunar amp Planetary Institute Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved February 1 2007 MacDougal Douglas W 2012 A Binary System Close to Home How the Moon and Earth Orbit Each Other Newton s Gravity Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics Springer New York pp 193 211 doi 10 1007 978 1 4614 5444 1 10 ISBN 978 1 4614 5443 4 the barycentre is 743 000 km from the centre of the Sun The Sun s radius is 696 000 km so it is 47 000 km above the surface a b c d e Burgess Eric 1982 By Jupiter Odysseys to a Giant New York Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 05176 7 Shu Frank H 1982 The physical universe an introduction to astronomy Series of books in astronomy 12th ed University Science Books p 426 ISBN 978 0 935702 05 7 Davis Andrew M Turekian Karl K 2005 Meteorites comets and planets Treatise on geochemistry Vol 1 Elsevier p 624 ISBN 978 0 08 044720 9 Schneider Jean 2009 The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia Interactive Catalogue Paris Observatory Seager S Kuchner M Hier Majumder C A Militzer B 2007 Mass Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets The Astrophysical Journal 669 2 1279 1297 arXiv 0707 2895 Bibcode 2007ApJ 669 1279S doi 10 1086 521346 S2CID 8369390 a b c d e f g h How the Universe Works 3 Vol Jupiter Destroyer or Savior Discovery Channel 2014 Guillot Tristan 1999 Interiors of Giant Planets Inside and Outside the Solar System PDF Science 286 5437 72 77 Bibcode 1999Sci 286 72G doi 10 1126 science 286 5437 72 PMID 10506563 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved April 24 2022 Burrows Adam Hubbard W B Lunine J I Liebert James July 2001 The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets Reviews of Modern Physics 73 3 719 765 arXiv astro ph 0103383 Bibcode 2001RvMP 73 719B doi 10 1103 RevModPhys 73 719 S2CID 204927572 Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Ya 50 25 is 0 07 0 074 M while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0 092 M von Boetticher Alexander Triaud Amaury H M J Queloz Didier Gill Sam Lendl Monika Delrez Laetitia Anderson David R Collier Cameron Andrew Faedi Francesca Gillon Michael Gomez Maqueo Chew Yilen Hebb Leslie Hellier Coel Jehin Emmanuel Maxted Pierre F L Martin David V Pepe Francesco Pollacco Don Segransan Damien Smalley Barry Udry Stephane West Richard August 2017 The EBLM project III A Saturn size low mass star at the hydrogen burning limit Astronomy amp Astrophysics 604 6 arXiv 1706 08781 Bibcode 2017A amp A 604L 6V doi 10 1051 0004 6361 201731107 S2CID 54610182 L6 a b c d e f g h Elkins Tanton Linda T 2011 Jupiter and Saturn revised ed New York Chelsea House ISBN 978 0 8160 7698 7 Irwin Patrick 2003 Giant Planets of Our Solar System Atmospheres Composition and Structure Springer Science amp Business Media p 62 ISBN 978 3 540 00681 7 Irwin Patrick G J 2009 2003 Giant Planets of Our Solar System Atmospheres Composition and Structure Second ed Springer p 4 ISBN 978 3 642 09888 8 the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm yr a b Guillot Tristan Stevenson David J Hubbard William B Saumon Didier 2004 Chapter 3 The Interior of Jupiter In Bagenal Fran Dowling Timothy E McKinnon William B eds Jupiter The Planet Satellites and Magnetosphere Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 81808 7 Bodenheimer P 1974 Calculations of the early evolution of Jupiter Icarus 23 23 3 319 325 Bibcode 1974Icar 23 319B doi 10 1016 0019 1035 74 90050 5 Smoluchowski R 1971 Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn The Astrophysical Journal 166 435 Bibcode 1971ApJ 166 435S doi 10 1086 150971 a b Chang Kenneth July 5 2016 NASA s Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter s Orbit The New York Times Retrieved July 5 2016 Wall Mike May 26 2017 More Jupiter Weirdness Giant Planet May Have Huge Fuzzy Core space com Retrieved April 20 2021 Weitering Hanneke January 10 2018 Totally Wrong on Jupiter What Scientists Gleaned from NASA s Juno Mission space com Retrieved February 26 2021 Stevenson D J Bodenheimer P Lissauer J J D Angelo G 2022 Mixing of Condensable Constituents with H He during the Formation and Evolution of Jupiter The Planetary Science Journal 3 4 id 74 arXiv 2202 09476 Bibcode 2022PSJ 3 74S doi 10 3847 PSJ ac5c44 S2CID 247011195 Liu S F Hori Y Muller S Zheng X Helled R Lin D Isella A 2019 The formation of Jupiter s diluted core by a giant impact Nature 572 7769 355 357 arXiv 2007 08338 Bibcode 2019Natur 572 355L doi 10 1038 s41586 019 1470 2 PMID 31413376 S2CID 199576704 Guillot T 2019 Signs that Jupiter was mixed by a giant impact Nature 572 7769 315 317 Bibcode 2019Natur 572 315G doi 10 1038 d41586 019 02401 1 PMID 31413374 Wahl S M Hubbard William B Militzer B Guillot Tristan Miguel Y Movshovitz N Kaspi Y Helled R Reese D Galanti E Levin S Connerney J E Bolton S J 2017 Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core Geophysical Research Letters 44 10 4649 4659 arXiv 1707 01997 Bibcode 2017GeoRL 44 4649W doi 10 1002 2017GL073160 Trachenko K Brazhkin V V Bolmatov D March 2014 Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants Physical Review E 89 3 032126 arXiv 1309 6500 Bibcode 2014PhRvE 89c2126T doi 10 1103 PhysRevE 89 032126 PMID 24730809 S2CID 42559818 032126 Coulter Dauna A Freaky Fluid inside Jupiter NASA Retrieved December 8 2021 Bwaldwin Emily Oceans of diamond possible on Uranus and Neptune Astronomy Now Retrieved December 8 2021 NASA System Exploration Jupiter NASA Retrieved December 8 2021 Guillot T 1999 A comparison of the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn Planetary and Space Science 47 10 11 1183 1200 arXiv astro ph 9907402 Bibcode 1999P amp SS 47 1183G doi 10 1016 S0032 0633 99 00043 4 S2CID 19024073 a b Lang Kenneth R 2003 Jupiter a giant primitive planet NASA Archived from the original on May 14 2011 Retrieved January 10 2007 Lodders Katharina 2004 Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice PDF The Astrophysical Journal 611 1 587 597 Bibcode 2004ApJ 611 587L doi 10 1086 421970 S2CID 59361587 Archived from the original PDF on April 12 2020 Brygoo S Loubeyre P Millot M Rygg J R Celliers P M Eggert J H Jeanloz R Collins G W 2021 Evidence of hydrogen helium immiscibility at Jupiter interior conditions Nature 593 7860 517 521 Bibcode 2021Natur 593 517B doi 10 1038 s41586 021 03516 0 OSTI 1820549 PMID 34040210 S2CID 235217898 Kramer Miriam October 9 2013 Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn Space com Retrieved August 27 2017 Kaplan Sarah August 25 2017 It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune The Washington Post Retrieved August 27 2017 a b Guillot Tristan Stevenson David J Hubbard William B Saumon Didier 2004 The interior of Jupiter In Bagenal Fran Dowling Timothy E McKinnon William B eds Jupiter The planet satellites and magnetosphere Cambridge planetary science Vol 1 Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press p 45 Bibcode 2004jpsm book 35G ISBN 0 521 81808 7 Loeffler Mark J Hudson Reggie L March 2018 Coloring Jupiter s clouds Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide NH4SH PDF Icarus 302 418 425 Bibcode 2018Icar 302 418L doi 10 1016 j icarus 2017 10 041 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved April 25 2022 Ingersoll Andrew P Dowling Timothy E Gierasch Peter J Orton Glenn S Read Peter L Sanchez Lavega Agustin Showman Adam P Simon Miller Amy A Vasavada Ashwin R 2004 Bagenal Fran Dowling Timothy E McKinnon William B eds Dynamics of Jupiter s Atmosphere PDF Jupiter The Planet Satellites and Magnetosphere Cambridge planetary science Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press 1 105 128 ISBN 0 521 81808 7 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved March 8 2022 Aglyamov Yury S Lunine Jonathan Becker Heidi N Guillot Tristan Gibbard Seran G Atreya Sushil Bolton Scott J Levin Steven Brown Shannon T Wong Michael H February 2021 Lightning Generation in Moist Convective Clouds and Constraints on the Water Abundance in Jupiter Journal of Geophysical Research Planets 126 2 arXiv 2101 12361 Bibcode 2021JGRE 12606504A doi 10 1029 2020JE006504 S2CID 231728590 e06504 Watanabe Susan ed February 25 2006 Surprising Jupiter Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises NASA Retrieved February 20 2007 Kerr Richard A 2000 Deep Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather Science 287 5455 946 947 doi 10 1126 science 287 5455 946b S2CID 129284864 Retrieved April 26 2022 Becker Heidi N Alexander James W Atreya Sushil K Bolton Scott J Brennan Martin J Brown Shannon T Guillaume Alexandre Guillot Tristan Ingersoll Andrew P Levin Steven M Lunine Jonathan I Aglyamov Yury S Steffes Paul G 2020 Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter Nature 584 7819 55 58 Bibcode 2020Natur 584 55B doi 10 1038 s41586 020 2532 1 ISSN 0028 0836 PMID 32760043 S2CID 220980694 Guillot Tristan Stevenson David J Atreya Sushil K Bolton Scott J Becker Heidi N 2020 Storms and the Depletion of Ammonia in Jupiter I Microphysics of Mushballs Journal of Geophysical Research Planets 125 8 e2020JE006403 arXiv 2012 14316 Bibcode 2020JGRE 12506403G doi 10 1029 2020JE006404 S2CID 226194362 Giles Rohini S Greathouse Thomas K Bonfond Bertrand Gladstone G Randall Kammer Joshua A Hue Vincent Grodent Denis C Gerard Jean Claude Versteeg Maarten H Wong Michael H Bolton Scott J Connerney John E P Levin Steven M 2020 Possible Transient Luminous Events Observed in Jupiter s Upper Atmosphere Journal of Geophysical Research Planets 125 11 e06659 arXiv 2010 13740 Bibcode 2020JGRE 12506659G doi 10 1029 2020JE006659 S2CID 225075904 e06659 Greicius Tony ed October 27 2020 Juno Data Indicates Sprites or Elves Frolic in Jupiter s Atmosphere NASA Retrieved December 30 2020 Strycker P D Chanover N Sussman M Simon Miller A 2006 A Spectroscopic Search for Jupiter s Chromophores DPS meeting 38 11 15 American Astronomical Society Bibcode 2006DPS 38 1115S a b c Gierasch Peter J Nicholson Philip D 2004 Jupiter World Book NASA Archived from the original on January 5 2005 Retrieved August 10 2006 Chang Kenneth December 13 2017 The Great Red Spot Descends Deep into Jupiter The New York Times Retrieved December 15 2017 Denning William F 1899 Jupiter early history of the great red spot on Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 59 10 574 584 Bibcode 1899MNRAS 59 574D doi 10 1093 mnras 59 10 574 Kyrala A 1982 An explanation of the persistence of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter Moon and the Planets 26 1 105 107 Bibcode 1982M amp P 26 105K doi 10 1007 BF00941374 S2CID 121637752 Oldenburg Henry ed 1665 1666 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Project Gutenberg Retrieved December 22 2011 Wong M de Pater I May 22 2008 New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter HubbleSite NASA Retrieved December 12 2013 Simon Miller A Chanover N Orton G July 17 2008 Three Red Spots Mix It Up on Jupiter HubbleSite NASA Retrieved April 26 2015 Covington Michael A 2002 Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes Cambridge University Press p 53 ISBN 978 0 521 52419 3 Cardall C Y Daunt S J The Great Red Spot University of Tennessee Retrieved February 2 2007 Jupiter the Giant of the Solar System The Voyager Mission NASA 1979 p 5 Sromovsky L A Baines K H Fry P M Carlson R W July 2017 A possibly universal red chromophore for modeling colour variations on Jupiter Icarus 291 232 244 arXiv 1706 02779 Bibcode 2017Icar 291 232S doi 10 1016 j icarus 2016 12 014 S2CID 119036239 a b White Greg November 25 2015 Is Jupiter s Great Red Spot nearing its twilight Space news Retrieved April 13 2017 Sommeria Joel Meyers Steven D Swinney Harry L February 25 1988 Laboratory simulation of Jupiter s Great Red Spot Nature 331 6158 689 693 Bibcode 1988Natur 331 689S doi 10 1038 331689a0 S2CID 39201626 a b Simon Amy A Wong M H Rogers J H Orton G S de Pater I Asay Davis X Carlson R W Marcus P S March 2015 Dramatic Change in Jupiter s Great Red Spot 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference March 16 20 2015 The Woodlands Texas Bibcode 2015LPI 46 1010S Doctor Rina Marie October 21 2015 Jupiter s Superstorm Is Shrinking Is Changing Red Spot Evidence Of Climate Change Tech Times Retrieved April 13 2017 Grush Loren October 28 2021 NASA s Juno spacecraft finds just how deep Jupiter s Great Red Spot goes The Verge Retrieved October 28 2021 Adriani Alberto Mura A Orton G Hansen C Altieri F et al March 2018 Clusters of cyclones encircling Jupiter s poles Nature 555 7695 216 219 Bibcode 2018Natur 555 216A doi 10 1038 nature25491 PMID 29516997 S2CID 4438233 Starr Michelle December 13 2017 NASA Just Watched a Mass of Cyclones on Jupiter Evolve Into a Mesmerising Hexagon Science Alert Steigerwald Bill October 14 2006 Jupiter s Little Red Spot Growing Stronger NASA Retrieved February 2 2007 Wong Michael H de Pater Imke Asay Davis Xylar Marcus Philip S Go Christopher Y September 2011 Vertical structure of Jupiter s Oval BA before and after it reddened What changed PDF Icarus 215 1 211 225 Bibcode 2011Icar 215 211W doi 10 1016 j icarus 2011 06 032 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved April 27 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Missing author2 help Stallard Tom S Melin Henrik Miller Steve Moore Luke O Donoghue James Connerney John E P Satoh Takehiko West Robert A Thayer Jeffrey P Hsu Vicki W Johnson Rosie E April 10 2017 The Great Cold Spot in Jupiter s upper atmosphere Geophysical Research Letters 44 7 3000 3008 Bibcode 2017GeoRL 44 3000S doi 10 1002 2016GL071956 PMC 5439487 PMID 28603321 Connerney J E P Kotsiaros S Oliversen R J Espley J R Joergensen J L Joergensen P S Merayo J M G Herceg M Bloxham J Moore K M Bolton S J Levin S M May 26 2017 A New Model of Jupiter s Magnetic Field From Juno s First Nine Orbits PDF Geophysical Research Letters 45 6 2590 2596 Bibcode 2018GeoRL 45 2590C doi 10 1002 2018GL077312 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Brainerd Jim November 22 2004 Jupiter s Magnetosphere The Astrophysics Spectator Archived from the original on January 25 2021 Retrieved August 10 2008 Receivers for Radio JOVE NASA March 1 2017 Archived from the original on January 26 2021 Retrieved September 9 2020 Phillips Tony Horack John M February 20 2004 Radio Storms on Jupiter NASA Archived from the original on February 13 2007 Retrieved February 1 2007 Showalter M A Burns J A Cuzzi J N Pollack J B 1987 Jupiter s ring system New results on structure and particle properties Icarus 69 3 458 498 Bibcode 1987Icar 69 458S doi 10 1016 0019 1035 87 90018 2 a b Burns J A Showalter M R Hamilton D P Nicholson P D de Pater I Ockert Bell M E Thomas P C 1999 The Formation of Jupiter s Faint Rings Science 284 5417 1146 1150 Bibcode 1999Sci 284 1146B doi 10 1126 science 284 5417 1146 PMID 10325220 S2CID 21272762 Fieseler P D Adams O W Vandermey N Theilig E E Schimmels K A Lewis G D Ardalan S M Alexander C J 2004 The Galileo Star Scanner Observations at Amalthea Icarus 169 2 390 401 Bibcode 2004Icar 169 390F doi 10 1016 j icarus 2004 01 012 Herbst T M Rix H W 1999 Star Formation and Extrasolar Planet Studies with Near Infrared Interferometry on the LBT In Guenther Eike Stecklum Bringfried Klose Sylvio eds Optical and Infrared Spectroscopy of Circumstellar Matter ASP Conference Series Vol 188 San Francisco Calif Astronomical Society of the Pacific pp 341 350 Bibcode 1999ASPC 188 341H ISBN 978 1 58381 014 9 See section 3 4 MacDougal Douglas W December 16 2012 Newton s Gravity An Introductory Guide to the Mechanics of the Universe Springer New York p 199 ISBN 978 1 4614 5444 1 Michtchenko T A Ferraz Mello S February 2001 Modeling the 5 2 Mean Motion Resonance in the Jupiter Saturn Planetary System Icarus 149 2 77 115 Bibcode 2001Icar 149 357M doi 10 1006 icar 2000 6539 Interplanetary Seasons Science NASA Archived from the original on October 16 2007 Retrieved February 20 2007 Ridpath Ian 1998 Norton s Star Atlas 19th ed Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 582 35655 9 page needed Hide R January 1981 On the rotation of Jupiter Geophysical Journal 64 283 289 Bibcode 1981GeoJ 64 283H doi 10 1111 j 1365 246X 1981 tb02668 x Russell C T Yu Z J Kivelson M G 2001 The rotation period of Jupiter PDF Geophysical Research Letters 28 10 1911 1912 Bibcode 2001GeoRL 28 1911R doi 10 1029 2001GL012917 S2CID 119706637 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved April 28 2022 Rogers John H July 20 1995 Appendix 3 The giant planet Jupiter Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 41008 3 Price Fred W October 26 2000 The Planet Observer s Handbook Cambridge University Press p 140 ISBN 978 0 521 78981 3 Fimmel Richard O Swindell William Burgess Eric 1974 8 Encounter with the Giant Pioneer Odyssey Revised ed NASA History Office Retrieved February 17 2007 Chaple Glenn F 2009 Jones Lauren V Slater Timothy F eds Outer Planets Greenwood Guides to the Universe ABC CLIO p 47 ISBN 978 0 313 36571 3 North Chris Abel Paul October 31 2013 The Sky at Night How to Read the Solar System Ebury Publishing p 183 ISBN 978 1 4481 4130 2 Sachs A May 2 1974 Babylonian Observational Astronomy Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 276 1257 43 50 see p 44 Bibcode 1974RSPTA 276 43S doi 10 1098 rsta 1974 0008 JSTOR 74273 S2CID 121539390 Dubs Homer H 1958 The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy Journal of the American Oriental Society 78 4 295 300 doi 10 2307 595793 JSTOR 595793 Chen James L Chen Adam 2015 A Guide to Hubble Space Telescope Objects Their Selection Location and Significance Springer International Publishing p 195 ISBN 978 3 319 18872 0 Seargent David A J September 24 2010 Facts Fallacies Unusual Observations and Other Miscellaneous Gleanings Weird Astronomy Tales of Unusual Bizarre and Other Hard to Explain Observations Astronomers Universe pp 221 282 ISBN 978 1 4419 6424 3 Xi Z Z 1981 The Discovery of Jupiter s Satellite Made by Gan De 2000 Years Before Galileo Acta Astrophysica Sinica 1 2 87 Bibcode 1981AcApS 1 85X Dong Paul 2002 China s Major Mysteries Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People s Republic China Books ISBN 978 0 8351 2676 2 Ossendrijver Mathieu January 29 2016 Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter s position from the area under a time velocity graph Science 351 6272 482 484 Bibcode 2016Sci 351 482O doi 10 1126 science aad8085 PMID 26823423 S2CID 206644971 Pedersen Olaf 1974 A Survey of the Almagest Odense University Press pp 423 428 ISBN 9788774920878 Pasachoff Jay M 2015 Simon Marius s Mundus Iovialis 400th Anniversary in Galileo s Shadow Journal for the History of Astronomy 46 2 218 234 Bibcode 2015AAS 22521505P doi 10 1177 0021828615585493 S2CID 120470649 Westfall Richard S Galilei Galileo The Galileo Project Rice University Retrieved January 10 2007 O Connor J J Robertson E F April 2003 Giovanni Domenico Cassini University of St Andrews Retrieved February 14 2007 Atkinson David H Pollack James B Seiff Alvin September 1998 The Galileo probe Doppler wind experiment Measurement of the deep zonal winds on Jupiter Journal of Geophysical Research 103 E10 22911 22928 Bibcode 1998JGR 10322911A doi 10 1029 98JE00060 Murdin Paul 2000 Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics Bristol Institute of Physics Publishing ISBN 978 0 12 226690 4 Rogers John H 1995 The giant planet Jupiter Cambridge University Press pp 188 189 ISBN 978 0 521 41008 3 Fimmel Richard O Swindell William Burgess Eric August 1974 Jupiter Giant of the Solar System Pioneer Odyssey Revised ed NASA History Office Retrieved August 10 2006 Brown Kevin 2004 Roemer s Hypothesis MathPages Retrieved January 12 2007 Bobis Laurence Lequeux James July 2008 Cassini Romer and the velocity of light Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 11 2 97 105 Bibcode 2008JAHH 11 97B Tenn Joe March 10 2006 Edward Emerson Barnard Sonoma State University Archived from the original on September 17 2011 Retrieved January 10 2007 Amalthea Fact Sheet NASA JPL October 1 2001 Archived from the original on November 24 2001 Retrieved February 21 2007 Dunham Jr Theodore 1933 Note on the Spectra of Jupiter and Saturn Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 45 263 42 44 Bibcode 1933PASP 45 42D doi 10 1086 124297 Youssef A Marcus P S 2003 The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger Icarus 162 1 74 93 Bibcode 2003Icar 162 74Y doi 10 1016 S0019 1035 02 00060 X Chang Kenneth July 15 2022 NASA Shows Webb s View of Something Closer to Home Jupiter The powerful telescope will help scientists make discoveries both within our solar system and well beyond it The New York Times Retrieved July 16 2022 Weintraub Rachel A September 26 2005 How One Night in a Field Changed Astronomy NASA Retrieved February 18 2007 Garcia Leonard N The Jovian Decametric Radio Emission NASA Retrieved February 18 2007 Klein M J Gulkis S Bolton S J 1996 Jupiter s Synchrotron Radiation Observed Variations Before During and After the Impacts of Comet SL9 Conference at University of Graz NASA 217 Bibcode 1997pre4 conf 217K Retrieved February 18 2007 The Pioneer Missions NASA March 26 2007 Retrieved February 26 2021 NASA Glenn Pioneer Launch History NASA Glenn Research Center March 7 2003 Retrieved December 22 2011 Fortescue Peter W Stark John Swinerd Graham 2003 Spacecraft systems engineering 3rd ed John Wiley and Sons p 150 ISBN 978 0 470 85102 9 Hirata Chris Delta V in the Solar System California Institute of Technology Archived from the original on July 15 2006 Retrieved November 28 2006 Wong Al May 28 1998 Galileo FAQ Navigation NASA Archived from the original on January 5 1997 Retrieved November 28 2006 a b c Chan K Paredes E S Ryne M S 2004 Ulysses Attitude and Orbit Operations 13 Years of International Cooperation Space OPS 2004 Conference American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics doi 10 2514 6 2004 650 447 Lasher Lawrence August 1 2006 Pioneer Project Home Page NASA Space Projects Division Archived from the original on January 1 2006 Retrieved November 28 2006 Jupiter NASA JPL January 14 2003 Retrieved November 28 2006 Hansen C J Bolton S J Matson D L Spilker L J Lebreton J P 2004 The Cassini Huygens flyby of Jupiter Icarus 172 1 1 8 Bibcode 2004Icar 172 1H doi 10 1016 j icarus 2004 06 018 Pluto Bound New Horizons Sees Changes in Jupiter System NASA October 9 2007 Retrieved February 26 2021 Pluto Bound New Horizons Provides New Look at Jupiter System NASA May 1 2007 Retrieved July 27 2007 a b McConnell Shannon April 14 2003 Galileo Journey to Jupiter NASA JPL Archived from the original on November 3 2004 Retrieved November 28 2006 Magalhaes Julio December 10 1996 Galileo Probe Mission Events NASA Space Projects Division Archived from the original on January 2 2007 Retrieved February 2 2007 Goodeill Anthony March 31 2008 New Frontiers Missions Juno NASA Archived from the original on February 3 2007 Retrieved January 2 2007 Juno NASA s Jupiter probe The Planetary Society Retrieved April 27 2022 Jet Propulsion Laboratory June 17 2016 NASA s Juno spacecraft to risk Jupiter s fireworks for science phys org Retrieved April 10 2022 Firth Niall September 5 2016 NASA s Juno probe snaps first images of Jupiter s north pole New Scientist Retrieved September 5 2016 Clark Stephen February 21 2017 NASA s Juno spacecraft to remain in current orbit around Jupiter Spaceflight Now Retrieved April 26 2017 Agle D C Wendel JoAnna Schmid Deb June 6 2018 NASA Re plans Juno s Jupiter Mission NASA JPL Retrieved January 5 2019 Talbert Tricia January 8 2021 NASA Extends Exploration for Two Planetary Science Missions NASA Retrieved January 11 2021 Dickinson David February 21 2017 Juno Will Stay in Current Orbit Around Jupiter Sky amp Telescope Retrieved January 7 2018 Bartels Meghan July 5 2016 To protect potential alien life NASA will destroy its 1 billion Jupiter spacecraft on purpose Business Insider Retrieved January 7 2018 Berger Brian February 7 2005 White House scales back space plans MSNBC Retrieved January 2 2007 Laplace A mission to Europa amp Jupiter system European Space Agency Retrieved January 23 2009 Favata Fabio April 19 2011 New approach for L class mission candidates European Space Agency ESA Science amp Technology JUICE ESA November 8 2021 Retrieved November 10 2021 Foust Jeff July 10 2020 Cost growth prompts changes to Europa Clipper instruments Space News Retrieved July 10 2020 Jones Andrew January 12 2021 Jupiter Mission by China Could Include Callisto Landing The Planetary Society Retrieved April 27 2020 Jones Andrew April 16 2021 China to launch a pair of spacecraft towards the edge of the solar system Space News Retrieved April 27 2020 Billings Lee November 12 2019 Proposed Interstellar Mission Reaches for the Stars One Generation at a Time Scientific American Retrieved April 27 2020 Carter Jamie 2015 A Stargazing Program for Beginners Springer International Publishing p 104 ISBN 978 3 319 22072 7 Musotto S Varadi F Moore W B Schubert G 2002 Numerical simulations of the orbits of the Galilean satellites Icarus 159 2 500 504 Bibcode 2002Icar 159 500M doi 10 1006 icar 2002 6939 Archived from the original on August 10 2011 Retrieved February 19 2007 a b Lang Kenneth R March 3 2011 The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System Cambridge University Press p 304 ISBN 978 1 139 49417 5 McFadden Lucy Ann Weissmann Paul Johnson Torrence 2006 Encyclopedia of the Solar System Elsevier Science p 446 ISBN 978 0 08 047498 4 Kessler Donald J October 1981 Derivation of the collision probability between orbiting objects the lifetimes of jupiter s outer moons Icarus 48 1 39 48 Bibcode 1981Icar 48 39K doi 10 1016 0019 1035 81 90151 2 Retrieved December 30 2020 Hamilton Thomas W M 2013 Moons of the Solar System SPBRA p 14 ISBN 978 1 62516 175 8 Jewitt D C Sheppard S Porco C 2004 Bagenal F Dowling T McKinnon W eds Jupiter The Planet Satellites and Magnetosphere PDF Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 81808 7 Archived from the original PDF on March 26 2009 a b c Nesvorny D Alvarellos J L A Dones L Levison H F 2003 Orbital and Collisional Evolution of the Irregular Satellites PDF The Astronomical Journal 126 1 398 429 Bibcode 2003AJ 126 398N doi 10 1086 375461 S2CID 8502734 Showman A P Malhotra R 1999 The Galilean Satellites Science 286 5437 77 84 Bibcode 1999Sci 296 77S doi 10 1126 science 286 5437 77 PMID 10506564 S2CID 9492520 Sheppard Scott S Jewitt David C May 2003 An abundant population of small irregular satellites around Jupiter PDF Nature 423 6937 261 263 Bibcode 2003Natur 423 261S doi 10 1038 nature01584 PMID 12748634 S2CID 4424447 Archived from the original PDF on August 13 2006 Nesvorny David Beauge Cristian Dones Luke Levison Harold F July 2003 Collisional Origin of Families of Irregular Satellites PDF The Astronomical Journal 127 3 1768 1783 Bibcode 2004AJ 127 1768N doi 10 1086 382099 S2CID 27293848 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Ferraz Mello S 1994 Milani Andrea Di Martino Michel Cellino A eds Kirkwood Gaps and Resonant Groups Asteroids Comets Meteors 1993 Proceedings of the 160th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union held in Belgirate Italy June 14 18 1993 International Astronomical Union Symposium no 160 Dordrecht Kluwer Academic Publishers p 175 Bibcode 1994IAUS 160 175F Kerr Richard A 2004 Did Jupiter and Saturn Team Up to Pummel the Inner Solar System Science 306 5702 1676 doi 10 1126 science 306 5702 1676a PMID 15576586 S2CID 129180312 List Of Jupiter Trojans IAU Minor Planet Center Retrieved October 24 2010 Cruikshank D P Dalle Ore C M Geballe T R Roush T L Owen T C Cash Michele de Bergh C Hartmann W K October 2000 Trojan Asteroid 624 Hektor Constraints on Surface Composition Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 32 1027 Bibcode 2000DPS 32 1901C Quinn T Tremaine S Duncan M 1990 Planetary perturbations and the origins of short period comets Astrophysical Journal Part 1 355 667 679 Bibcode 1990ApJ 355 667Q doi 10 1086 168800 Caught in the act Fireballs light up Jupiter ScienceDaily September 10 2010 Retrieved April 26 2022 Nakamura T Kurahashi H 1998 Collisional Probability of Periodic Comets with the Terrestrial Planets An Invalid Case of Analytic Formulation Astronomical Journal 115 2 848 854 Bibcode 1998AJ 115 848N doi 10 1086 300206 Horner J Jones B W 2008 Jupiter friend or foe I the asteroids International Journal of Astrobiology 7 3 4 251 261 arXiv 0806 2795 Bibcode 2008IJAsB 7 251H doi 10 1017 S1473550408004187 S2CID 8870726 Overbye Dennis July 25 2009 Jupiter Our Comic Protector The New York Times Retrieved July 27 2009 In Depth P Shoemaker Levy 9 NASA Solar System Exploration Retrieved December 3 2021 Howell Elizabeth January 24 2018 Shoemaker Levy 9 Comet s Impact Left Its Mark on Jupiter Space com Retrieved December 3 2021 information eso org The Big Comet Crash of 1994 Intensive Observational Campaign at ESO www eso org Retrieved December 3 2021 Top 20 Comet Shoemaker Levy Images www2 jpl nasa gov Retrieved December 3 2021 information eso org Comet P Shoemaker Levy 9 Gang Of Four www spacetelescope org Retrieved December 3 2021 Savage Donald Elliott Jim Villard Ray December 30 2004 Hubble Observations Shed New Light on Jupiter Collision nssdc gsfc nasa gov Retrieved December 3 2021 NASA TV Coverage on Comet Shoemaker Levy www2 jpl nasa gov Retrieved December 3 2021 Tabe Isshi Watanabe Jun ichi Jimbo Michiwo February 1997 Discovery of a Possible Impact SPOT on Jupiter Recorded in 1690 Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 49 L1 L5 Bibcode 1997PASJ 49L 1T doi 10 1093 pasj 49 1 l1 Stargazers prepare for daylight view of Jupiter ABC News June 16 2005 Archived from the original on May 12 2011 Retrieved February 28 2008 a b Rogers J H 1998 Origins of the ancient constellations I The Mesopotamian traditions Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 9 28 Bibcode 1998JBAA 108 9R Waerden B L 1974 Old Babylonian Astronomy PDF Science Awakening II Dordrecht Springer 46 59 doi 10 1007 978 94 017 2952 9 3 ISBN 978 90 481 8247 3 Archived PDF from the original on March 21 2022 Retrieved March 21 2022 Greek Names of the Planets April 25 2010 Retrieved July 14 2012 In Greek the name of the planet Jupiter is Dias the Greek name of god Zeus See also the Greek article about the planet Cicero Marcus Tullius 1888 Cicero s Tusculan Disputations also Treatises on The Nature of the Gods and on The Commonwealth Translated by Yonge Charles Duke New York NY Harper amp Brothers p 274 via Internet Archive Cicero Marcus Tullus 1967 1933 Warmington E H ed De Natura Deorum On The Nature of the Gods Cicero Vol 19 Translated by Rackham H Cambridge MA Cambridge University Press p 175 via Internet Archive Zolotnikova O 2019 Mythologies in contact Syro Phoenician traits in Homeric Zeus The Scientific Heritage 41 5 16 24 Retrieved April 26 2022 Tarnas R 2009 The planets Archai The Journal of Archetypal Cosmology 1 1 36 49 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 456 5030 Harper Douglas November 2001 Jupiter Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved February 23 2007 Guru Indian Divinity com Retrieved February 14 2007 Sanathana Y S Manjil Hazarika1 November 27 2020 Astrolatry in the Brahmaputra Valley Reflecting upon the Navagraha Sculptural Depiction PDF Heritage Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 8 2 157 174 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved July 4 2022 dead link Turk Astrolojisi 2 in Turkish NTV Archived from the original on January 4 2013 Retrieved April 23 2010 De Groot Jan Jakob Maria 1912 Religion in China universism a key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism American lectures on the history of religions Vol 10 G P Putnam s Sons p 300 Retrieved January 8 2010 Crump Thomas 1992 The Japanese numbers game the use and understanding of numbers in modern Japan Nissan Institute Routledge Japanese studies series Routledge pp 39 40 ISBN 978 0 415 05609 0 Hulbert Homer Bezaleel 1909 The passing of Korea Doubleday Page amp Company p 426 Retrieved January 8 2010 Dubs Homer H 1958 The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy Journal of the American Oriental Society 78 4 295 300 doi 10 2307 595793 JSTOR 595793 Wong Mike Kocz Amanda May 11 2021 By Jove Jupiter Shows Its Stripes and Colors Press release NOIRLab National Science Foundation Retrieved June 17 2021 Roth Lorenz Downer Bethany October 14 2021 Hubble Finds Evidence of Persistent Water Vapour Atmosphere on Europa Press release ESA Hubble European Space Agency Retrieved October 26 2021 Overbye Dennis August 23 2022 How the Webb Telescope Expanded My Universe As new images of Jupiter and a galactic survey spring forth from NASA s new observatory our cosmic affairs correspondent confesses he didn t anticipate their power The New York Times Retrieved August 24 2022 External linksJupiter at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Lohninger Hans et al November 2 2005 Jupiter As Seen By Voyager 1 A Trip into Space Virtual Institute of Applied Science Retrieved March 9 2007 Dunn Tony 2006 The Jovian System Gravity Simulator Retrieved March 9 2007 A simulation of the 62 moons of Jupiter Jupiter in Motion album of Juno imagery stitched into short videos June 2010 impact video Photographs of Jupiter circa 1920s from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive UC Santa Cruz Library s Digital Collections Archived September 4 2015 at the Wayback Machine Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Jovian system Archived June 11 2020 at the Wayback Machine Video animation 4 00 Flyby of Ganymede and Jupiter NASA 15 July 2021 Portals Stars Spaceflight Outer space Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Jupiter amp oldid 1132268462, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.