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Caldera

January 21, 2023

For other uses, see Caldera (disambiguation).

A caldera (English pronunciation: /kɔːlˈdɛrə, kæl-/[1] kawl-DERR-ə, kal-) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption. When large volumes of magma are erupted over a short time, structural support for the rock above the magma chamber is gone. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter).[2] Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur each century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times per century.[3] Only seven caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2016.[3] More recently, a caldera collapse occurred at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018.[4]

Mount Mazama's eruption timeline, an example of caldera formation

Etymology

The term caldera comes from Spanish caldera, and Latin caldaria, meaning "cooking pot".[5] In some texts the English term cauldron is also used,[6] though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor.[5] The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands,[note 1] where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife, with Mount Teide dominating the landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma.[7][5]

Caldera formation

 
Animation of analogue experiment showing the origin of the volcanic caldera in box filled with flour
 
Landsat image of Lake Toba, on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (100 km/62 mi long and 30 km/19 mi wide, one of the world's largest calderas). A resurgent dome formed the island of Samosir.

A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora[8] in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007)[9] or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes.[10]: 86–89  Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture.[11] As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers.[5]

Mineralization in calderas

 
Caldera formation under water

Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium.[12] One of the world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era[13] about 2.7 billion years ago.[14] In the San Juan volcanic field, ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera.[15]

Types of caldera

Explosive caldera eruptions

Further information: Explosive eruption

Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt.[10]: 23–26  The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7 wt% for the most silica-rich magmas.[16] When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases.[17]

The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows.[18] Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts.[10]: 77  For example, when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris.[19]

Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago.[20][21]

The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks.[22] The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet).[23][24]

If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera, Lake Toba, the San Juan volcanic field,[6] Cerro Galán,[25] Yellowstone,[26] and many other calderas.[6]

Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883[27] or Mount Pinatubo in 1991,[28] may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland,[22] the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene epochs) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic eon).[29]

Valles

 
Valle Caldera, New Mexico
Main article: Valles Caldera

For their 1968 paper[6] that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology,[5] R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved,[30] and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera.[5] The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the Bandelier Tuff, were among the first to be thoroughly characterized.[31]

Toba

Main articles: Lake Toba and Toba catastrophe theory

About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose[32] proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck. More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people.[33] There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species.[34] There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption.[35]

 
Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on Fernandina Island in the Galápagos archipelago
 
Oblique aerial photo of Nemrut Caldera, Van Lake, Eastern Turkey

Non-explosive calderas

 
Sollipulli Caldera, located in central Chile near the border with Argentina, filled with ice. The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile's Parque Nacional Villarica.[36]

Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt, which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft).[37]

Extraterrestrial calderas

Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism).[38] Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km (3.7 mi); Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum.[39]

The Moon

The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believe to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form.[38] Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.[40]

Mars

Further information: Volcanism on Mars

The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas.[38] Mars has the largest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons, which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.[41]

Venus

Further information: Volcanism on Venus

Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across.[38]

Io

Further information: Volcanism on Io

Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io's orbital resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede, which keep its orbit slightly eccentric. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.[38]

List of volcanic calderas

See also: Category:Calderas

Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas

Erosion calderas

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Leopold von Buch's book Physical Description of the Canary Isles was published in 1825.

References

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Further reading

  • Clough, C. T.; Maufe, H. B.; Bailey, E. B. (1909). "The Cauldron-Subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated Igneous Phenomena". Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. 65 (1–4): 611–78. doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1909.065.01-04.35. S2CID 129342758.
  • Gudmundsson, Agust (2008). "Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation". Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modelling and Response. Developments in Volcanology. Vol. 10. pp. 313–349. doi:10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3. ISBN 978-0-444-53165-0.
  • Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland. ISBN 9780852725252. Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map.
  • Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X
  • Williams, Howell (1941). "Calderas and their origin". University of California Publications Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences. 25: 239–346.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caldera.
 
Look up caldera in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • USGS page on calderas
  • (43 pages)
  • The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano – Australia
  • Supervolcanoes
  • Time-lapse video of Kīlauea caldera collapse, 2018

January 21, 2023
caldera, other, uses, disambiguation, caldera, english, pronunciation, kɔːlˈdɛrə, kæl, kawl, derr, large, cauldron, like, hollow, that, forms, shortly, after, emptying, magma, chamber, volcano, eruption, when, large, volumes, magma, erupted, over, short, time,. For other uses see Caldera disambiguation A caldera English pronunciation kɔːlˈdɛre kael 1 kawl DERR e kal is a large cauldron like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption When large volumes of magma are erupted over a short time structural support for the rock above the magma chamber is gone The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber leaving a large depression at the surface from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter 2 Although sometimes described as a crater the feature is actually a type of sinkhole as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur each century the formation of a caldera is a rare event occurring only a few times per century 3 Only seven caldera forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2016 3 More recently a caldera collapse occurred at Kilauea Hawaii in 2018 4 Mount Mazama s eruption timeline an example of caldera formation Contents 1 Etymology 2 Caldera formation 3 Mineralization in calderas 4 Types of caldera 4 1 Explosive caldera eruptions 4 1 1 Valles 4 1 2 Toba 4 2 Non explosive calderas 5 Extraterrestrial calderas 5 1 The Moon 5 2 Mars 5 3 Venus 5 4 Io 6 List of volcanic calderas 7 Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas 8 Erosion calderas 9 See also 10 Explanatory notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology EditThe term caldera comes from Spanish caldera and Latin caldaria meaning cooking pot 5 In some texts the English term cauldron is also used 6 though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor 5 The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands note 1 where he first saw the Las Canadas caldera on Tenerife with Mount Teide dominating the landscape and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma 7 5 Caldera formation Edit Animation of analogue experiment showing the origin of the volcanic caldera in box filled with flour Landsat image of Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra Indonesia 100 km 62 mi long and 30 km 19 mi wide one of the world s largest calderas A resurgent dome formed the island of Samosir A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption see Tambora 8 in 1815 but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007 9 or in a connected fissure system see Bardarbunga in 2014 2015 If enough magma is ejected the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it A roughly circular fracture the ring fault develops around the edge of the chamber Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes 10 86 89 Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture 11 As the magma chamber empties the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers 5 Mineralization in calderas Edit Caldera formation under water Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits Metal rich fluids can circulate through the caldera forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead silver gold mercury lithium and uranium 12 One of the world s best preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario Canada which formed during the Neoarchean era 13 about 2 7 billion years ago 14 In the San Juan volcanic field ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera 15 Types of caldera EditExplosive caldera eruptions Edit Further information Explosive eruption Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica Silica rich magma has a high viscosity and therefore does not flow easily like basalt 10 23 26 The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases up to 7 wt for the most silica rich magmas 16 When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases 17 The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column However as the volume of erupted material increases the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows 18 Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts 10 77 For example when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650 000 years ago it released about 1 000 km3 of material as measured in dense rock equivalent DRE covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris 19 Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado where the 5 000 cubic kilometres 1 200 cu mi Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27 8 million years ago 20 21 The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff rhyolite and other igneous rocks 22 The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff also called an ash flow sheet 23 24 If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera Lake Toba the San Juan volcanic field 6 Cerro Galan 25 Yellowstone 26 and many other calderas 6 Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event it can cause catastrophic environmental effects Even small caldera forming eruptions such as Krakatoa in 1883 27 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991 28 may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world Large calderas may have even greater effects The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia At some points in geological time rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland 22 the San Juan Mountains of Colorado formed during the Oligocene Miocene and Pliocene epochs or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri erupted during the Proterozoic eon 29 Valles Edit Valle Caldera New Mexico Main article Valles Caldera For their 1968 paper 6 that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology 5 R L Smith and R A Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large it is relatively young 1 25 million years old and unusually well preserved 30 and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera 5 The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera such as the Bandelier Tuff were among the first to be thoroughly characterized 31 Toba Edit Main articles Lake Toba and Toba catastrophe theory About 74 000 years ago this Indonesian volcano released about 2 800 cubic kilometres 670 cu mi dense rock equivalent of ejecta This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period the last 2 6 million years and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years In the late 1990s anthropologist Stanley Ambrose 32 proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2 000 20 000 individuals resulting in a population bottleneck More recently Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5 000 10 000 people 33 There is no direct evidence however that either theory is correct and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction even in environmentally sensitive species 34 There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption 35 Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on Fernandina Island in the Galapagos archipelago Oblique aerial photo of Nemrut Caldera Van Lake Eastern Turkey Non explosive calderas Edit Sollipulli Caldera located in central Chile near the border with Argentina filled with ice The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile s Parque Nacional Villarica 36 Some volcanoes such as the large shield volcanoes Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii form calderas in a different fashion The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor As a result the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas For instance the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres 1 150 ft 37 Extraterrestrial calderas EditSince the early 1960s it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft volcanism has been discovered on Venus Mars the Moon and Io a satellite of Jupiter None of these worlds have plate tectonics which contributes approximately 60 of the Earth s volcanic activity the other 40 is attributed to hotspot volcanism 38 Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies though the size varies considerably The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km 42 mi The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km 25 mi and the mode is 6 km 3 7 mi Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km 180 mi The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km 30 mi smaller than Venus Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1 6 80 km 1 50 mi as a maximum 39 The Moon Edit The Moon has an outer shell of low density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick which formed due to a rapid creation The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity but are currently believe to have been formed by meteorites nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed Around 500 million years afterward the Moon s mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters Also eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust This forms a dome possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form 38 Although caldera like structures are rare on the Moon they are not completely absent The Compton Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera possibly an ash flow caldera 40 Mars Edit Further information Volcanism on Mars The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces Tharsis and Elysium Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots The surfaces are dominated by lava flows and all have one or more collapse calderas 38 Mars has the largest volcano in the Solar System Olympus Mons which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest with a diameter of 520 km 323 miles The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas 41 Venus Edit Further information Volcanism on Venus Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere This causes enormous lava flows accounting for 80 of Venus surface area Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150 400 km 95 250 mi in diameter and 2 4 km 1 2 2 5 mi high More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km 37 mi across 38 Io Edit Further information Volcanism on Io Io unusually is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io s orbital resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede which keep its orbit slightly eccentric Unlike any of the planets mentioned Io is continuously volcanically active For example the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979 Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across 38 List of volcanic calderas EditSee also Category Calderas Africa Ngorongoro Crater Tanzania Menengai Crater Kenya Mount Elgon Uganda Kenya Mount Fogo Cape Verde Mount Longonot Kenya Mount Meru Tanzania Erta Ale Ethiopia Nabro Volcano Eritrea Mallahle Eritrea SeeEuropefor calderas in the Canary Islands Americas Argentina Aguas Calientes Salta Province Caldera del Atuel Mendoza Province Galan Catamarca Province Bolivia Pastos Grandes United States Crater Lake Oregon formed around 5 680 BC Aniakchak caldera Alaska Mount Aniakchak Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve Alaska Crater Lake on Mount Mazama Crater Lake National Park Oregon Mount Katmai Alaska Kilauea Hawaii Mauna Loa Hawaii La Garita Caldera Colorado Long Valley California Henry s Fork Caldera Idaho Island Park Caldera Idaho Wyoming Newberry Volcano Oregon McDermitt Caldera Oregon Medicine Lake Volcano California Mount Okmok Alaska Valles Caldera New Mexico Yellowstone Caldera Wyoming Canada Silverthrone Caldera British Columbia Mount Edziza British Columbia Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex British Columbia Yukon Mount Pleasant Caldera New Brunswick Sturgeon Lake Caldera Ontario Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex Yukon Blake River Megacaldera Complex Quebec Ontario New Senator Caldera Quebec Misema Caldera Ontario Quebec Noranda Caldera Quebec Colombia Arenas crater caldera Nevado del Ruiz volcano Caldas Department Laguna Verde caldera Azufral volcano Narino Department Mexico La primavera Caldera Jalisco Amealco Caldera Queretaro Las Cumbres Caldera Veracruz Puebla Los Azufres Caldera Michoacan Los Humeros Caldera Veracruz Puebla Mazahua Caldera Mexico State Chile Chaiten Cordillera Nevada Caldera Laguna del Maule Pacana Caldera Sollipulli Ecuador Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve Cuicocha Quilotoa Fernandina Island Galapagos Islands Sierra Negra Galapagos El Salvador Coatepeque Caldera El Salvador crater lake Lake Ilopango Lake Coatepeque Guatemala Lake Amatitlan Lake Atitlan Xela Barahona Other Masaya Nicaragua Asia East Asia Dakantou Caldera 大墈头 Shanhuyan Village Taozhu Town Linhai Zhejiang China Ma anshan Caldera 马鞍山 Shishan Town 石山镇 Xiuying Hainan China Yiyang Caldera 宜洋 Shuangxi Town 双溪镇宜洋村 Pingnan County Fujian China Aira Caldera Kagoshima Prefecture Japan Kussharo Hokkaido Japan Kuttara Hokkaido Japan Mashu Hokkaido Japan Aso Caldera Mount Aso Kumamoto Prefecture Japan Kikai Caldera Kagoshima Prefecture Japan Towada Aomori Prefecture Japan Tazawa Akita Prefecture Japan Hakone Kanagawa Prefecture Japan Mount Halla Jeju do South Korea Heaven Lake Baekdu Mountain North Korea Changbai Mountains China Southeast Asia Mount Pinatubo Philippines Apolaki Caldera Benham Rise Philippines Corregidor Caldera Manila Bay Philippines Mount Pinatubo Luzon Philippines Taal Volcano Luzon Philippines Laguna Caldera Luzon Philippines Irosin Caldera Luzon Philippines Batur Bali Indonesia Krakatoa Sunda Strait Indonesia Lake Maninjau Sumatra Indonesia Lake Toba Sumatra Indonesia Mount Rinjani Lombok Indonesia Mount Tondano Sulawesi Indonesia Mount Tambora Sumbawa Indonesia Tengger Caldera Java Indonesia Southwest Asia Derik Mardin Turkey Nemrut volcano Turkey Russia Caldera of the island Yankicha Ushishir Kuril Islands Akademia Nauk Kamchatka Peninsula Golovnin Kuril Islands Karymsky Caldera Kamchatka Peninsula Karymshina Kamchatka Peninsula Khangar Kamchatka Peninsula Ksudach Kamchatka Peninsula Kurile Lake Kamchatka Peninsula Lvinaya Past Kuril Islands Tao Rusyr Caldera Kuril Islands Uzon Kamchatka Peninsula Zavaritski Caldera Kuril Islands Yankicha Ushishir Kuril Islands Chegem Caldera Kabardino Balkarian Republic North Caucasus Europe 3D CGI aerial spinning view over Santorini Greece Aerial view of the Laacher See Germany Caldeira do Faial on the Caldeira Volcano Faial Island Azores Banska Stiavnica Slovakia Bakuriani Didveli Caldera Georgia Samsari Georgia Santorini Greece Nisyros Greece Askja Iceland Grimsvotn Iceland Bardarbunga Iceland Katla Iceland Krafla Iceland Phlegraean Fields Italy Lake Bracciano Italy Lake Bolsena Italy Mount Somma which contains Mount Vesuvius Italy Las Canadas Tenerife Spain Glen Coe Scotland Scafell Caldera Lake District England 42 Laacher See Germany Lagoa das Sete Cidades amp Furnas Sao Miguel the Azores Portugal Caldeira do Faial Faial Portugal Caldeirao do Corvo Corvo Portugal Oceania Satellite photo of Lake Taupō Cerberean Cauldron Australia 43 Dakataua Papua New Guinea Kapenga New Zealand Kilauea Hawaii US Lake Ohakuri New Zealand Lake Ōkataina New Zealand Lake Rotorua New Zealand Lake Taupō New Zealand Maroa New Zealand Moku aweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa Hawaii US Mount Warning Australia Prospect Hill Australia Rano Kau Easter Island Chile Reporoa caldera New Zealand Antarctica Deception Island Indian Ocean Cirque de Mafate Cirque de Salazie Enclos Fouque and Cirque de Cilaos on ReunionExtraterrestrial volcanic calderas EditMars Olympus Mons caldera Venus Maat Mons calderaErosion calderas EditAmericas Guaichane Mamuta Chile Mount Tehama California US Europe Caldera de Taburiente Spain Oceania Tweed Valley New South Wales Queensland Australia Asia Chegem Caldera Kabardino Balkarian Republic Northern Caucasus Region Russia Taal volcano Philippines Batangas ProvinceSee also EditComplex volcano Landform of more than one related volcanic centre Maar Low relief volcanic crater Somma volcano Volcanic caldera that has been partially filled by a new central cone Supervolcano Volcano that has erupted 1000 cubic km of lava in a single eruption Volcanic Explosivity IndexExplanatory notes Edit Leopold von Buch s book Physical Description of the Canary Isles was published in 1825 References Edit caldera Dictionary com Unabridged Online n d Troll V R Walter T R Schmincke H U 1 February 2002 Cyclic caldera collapse Piston or piecemeal subsidence Field and experimental evidence Geology 30 2 135 38 Bibcode 2002Geo 30 135T doi 10 1130 0091 7613 2002 030 lt 0135 CCCPOP gt 2 0 CO 2 ISSN 0091 7613 a b Gudmundsson Magnus T Jonsdottir Kristin Hooper Andrew Holohan Eoghan P Halldorsson Saemundur A ofeigsson Benedikt G Cesca Simone Vogfjord Kristin S Sigmundsson Freysteinn Hognadottir Thordis Einarsson Pall Sigmarsson Olgeir Jarosch Alexander H Jonasson Kristjan Magnusson Eyjolfur Hreinsdottir Sigrun Bagnardi Marco Parks Michelle M Hjorleifsdottir Vala Palsson Finnur Walter Thomas R Schopfer Martin P J Heimann Sebastian Reynolds Hannah I Dumont Stephanie Bali Eniko Gudfinnsson Gudmundur H Dahm Torsten Roberts Matthew J Hensch Martin Belart Joaquin M C Spaans Karsten Jakobsson Sigurdur Gudmundsson Gunnar B Fridriksdottir Hildur M Drouin Vincent Durig Tobias Adalgeirsdottir Gudfinna Riishuus Morten S Pedersen Gro B M van Boeckel Tayo Oddsson Bjorn Pfeffer Melissa A Barsotti Sara Bergsson Baldur Donovan Amy Burton Mike R Aiuppa Alessandro 15 July 2016 Gradual caldera collapse at Bardarbunga volcano Iceland regulated by lateral magma outflow PDF Science 353 6296 aaf8988 doi 10 1126 science aaf8988 hdl 10447 227125 PMID 27418515 S2CID 206650214 Archived PDF from the original on 24 July 2018 Shelly D R Thelen W A 2019 Anatomy of a Caldera Collapse Kilauea 2018 Summit Seismicity Sequence in High Resolution Geophysical Research Letters 46 24 14395 14403 Bibcode 2019GeoRL 4614395S doi 10 1029 2019GL085636 S2CID 214287960 a b c d e f Cole J Milner D Spinks K February 2005 Calderas and caldera structures a review Earth Science Reviews 69 1 2 1 26 Bibcode 2005ESRv 69 1C doi 10 1016 j earscirev 2004 06 004 a b c d Smith Robert L Bailey Roy A 1968 Resurgent Cauldrons Geological Society of America Memoirs 116 613 662 doi 10 1130 MEM116 p613 von Buch L 1820 Ueber die Zusammensetzung der basaltischen Inseln und ueber Erhebungs Cratere Berlin University of Lausanne Retrieved 28 December 2020 Greshko Michael 8 April 2016 201 Years Ago This Volcano Caused a Climate Catastrophe National Geographic National Geographic Retrieved 2 September 2020 Piton de la Fournaise Global Volcanism Program Smithsonian Institution 2019 a b c Philpotts Anthony R Ague Jay J 2009 Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology 2nd ed Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521880060 Dethier David P Kampf Stephanie K 2007 Geology of the Jemez Region II Ne Mexico Geological Society p 499 p Archived from the original on 17 October 2015 Retrieved 6 November 2015 John D A 1 February 2008 Supervolcanoes and Metallic Ore Deposits Elements 4 1 22 doi 10 2113 GSELEMENTS 4 1 22 UMD Precambrian Research Center University of Minnesota Duluth Archived from the original on 4 March 2016 Retrieved 20 March 2014 Ron Morton Caldera Volcanoes University of Minnesota Duluth Retrieved 3 July 2015 Steven Thomas A Luedke Robert G Lipman Peter W 1974 Relation of mineralization to calderas in the San Juan volcanic field southwestern Colorado J Res US Geol Surv 2 405 409 Schmincke Hans Ulrich 2003 Volcanism Berlin Springer pp 42 43 ISBN 9783540436508 Schmincke 2003 pp 155 157 Schmincke 2003 p 157 Lowenstern Jacob B Christiansen Robert L Smith Robert B Morgan Lisa A Heasler Henry 10 May 2005 Steam Explosions Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions What s in Yellowstone s Future U S Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005 3024 United States Geological Survey a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help What s the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Ever livescience com 10 November 2010 Retrieved 1 February 2014 Best Myron G Christiansen Eric H Deino Alan L Gromme Sherman Hart Garret L Tingey David G August 2013 The 36 18 Ma Indian Peak Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas southeastern Great Basin USA Multicyclic super eruptions Geosphere 9 4 864 950 Bibcode 2013Geosp 9 864B doi 10 1130 GES00902 1 a b Troll Valentin R Emeleus C Henry Donaldson Colin H 1 November 2000 Caldera formation in the Rum Central Igneous Complex Scotland Bulletin of Volcanology 62 4 301 317 Bibcode 2000BVol 62 301T doi 10 1007 s004450000099 ISSN 1432 0819 S2CID 128985944 Best Myron G Christiansen Eric H Deino Alan L Gromme C Sherman Tingey David G 10 December 1995 Correlation and emplacement of a large zoned discontinuously exposed ash flow sheet The 40 Ar 39 Ar chronology paleomagnetism and petrology of the Pahranagat Formation Nevada Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 100 B12 24593 24609 Bibcode 1995JGR 10024593B doi 10 1029 95JB01690 Cook Geoffrey W Wolff John A Self Stephen February 2016 Estimating the eruptive volume of a large pyroclastic body the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff Valles caldera New Mexico Bulletin of Volcanology 78 2 10 Bibcode 2016BVol 78 10C doi 10 1007 s00445 016 1000 0 S2CID 130061015 Grocke Stephanie B Andrews Benjamin J de Silva Shanaka L November 2017 Experimental and petrological constraints on long term magma dynamics and post climactic eruptions at the Cerro Galan caldera system NW Argentina Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 347 296 311 Bibcode 2017JVGR 347 296G doi 10 1016 j jvolgeores 2017 09 021 Tizzani P Battaglia M Castaldo R Pepe A Zeni G Lanari R April 2015 Magma and fluid migration at Yellowstone Caldera in the last three decades inferred from InSAR leveling and gravity measurements Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120 4 2627 2647 Bibcode 2015JGRB 120 2627T doi 10 1002 2014JB011502 Schaller N Griesser T Fischer A Stickler A and Bronnimann S 2009 Climate effects of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption Historical and present perspectives VJSCHR Natf Ges Zurich 154 31 40 Retrieved 29 December 2020 Robock A 15 February 2002 PINATUBO ERUPTION The Climatic Aftermath Science 295 5558 1242 1244 doi 10 1126 science 1069903 PMID 11847326 S2CID 140578928 Kisvarsanyi Eva B 1981 Geology of the Precambrian St Francois Terrane Southeastern Missouri Missouri Department of Natural Resources Division of Geology and Land Survey OCLC 256041399 page needed Goff Fraser Gardner Jamie N Reneau Steven L Kelley Shari A Kempter Kirt A Lawrence John R 2011 Geologic map of the Valles caldera Jemez Mountains New Mexico New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources Map Series 79 Bibcode 2011AGUFM V13C2606G Retrieved 18 May 2020 Ross Clarence S Smith Robert L 1961 Ash flow tuffs Their origin geologic relations and identification U S Geological Survey Professional Paper Professional Paper 366 doi 10 3133 pp366 Stanley Ambrose page University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign Retrieved 20 March 2014 Supervolcanoes BBC2 3 February 2000 Gathorne Hardy F J Harcourt Smith W E H September 2003 The super eruption of Toba did it cause a human bottleneck Journal of Human Evolution 45 3 227 230 doi 10 1016 s0047 2484 03 00105 2 PMID 14580592 Petraglia M Korisettar R Boivin N Clarkson C Ditchfield P Jones S Koshy J Lahr M M Oppenheimer C Pyle D Roberts R Schwenninger J L Arnold L White K 6 July 2007 Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super Eruption Science 317 5834 114 116 Bibcode 2007Sci 317 114P doi 10 1126 science 1141564 PMID 17615356 S2CID 20380351 EO Earthobservatory nasa gov 23 December 2013 Retrieved 20 March 2014 Fernandina Photo Global Volcanism Program Smithsonian Institution a b c d e Parfitt L Wilson L 19 February 2008 Volcanism on Other Planets Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology Malden MA Blackwell Publishing pp 190 212 ISBN 978 0 632 05443 5 OCLC 173243845 Gudmundsson Agust 2008 Magma Chamber Geometry Fluid Transport Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation Caldera Volcanism Analysis Modelling and Response Developments in Volcanology Vol 10 pp 313 349 doi 10 1016 S1871 644X 07 00008 3 ISBN 978 0 444 53165 0 Chauhan M Bhattacharya S Saran S Chauhan P Dagar A June 2015 Compton Belkovich Volcanic Complex CBVC An ash flow caldera on the Moon Icarus 253 115 129 Bibcode 2015Icar 253 115C doi 10 1016 j icarus 2015 02 024 Philip s World Reference Atlas including Stars and Planets ISBN 0 7537 0310 6 Publishing House Octopus publishing Group Ltd p 9 Borrowdale Volcanic Group upper silicic eruptive phase Caradoc magmatism Ordovician Northern England Earthwise Clemens J D Birch W D December 2012 Assembly of a zoned volcanic magma chamber from multiple magma batches The Cerberean Cauldron Marysville Igneous Complex Australia Lithos 155 272 288 Bibcode 2012Litho 155 272C doi 10 1016 j lithos 2012 09 007 Further reading EditClough C T Maufe H B Bailey E B 1909 The Cauldron Subsidence of Glen Coe and the Associated Igneous Phenomena Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 65 1 4 611 78 doi 10 1144 GSL JGS 1909 065 01 04 35 S2CID 129342758 Gudmundsson Agust 2008 Magma Chamber Geometry Fluid Transport Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation Caldera Volcanism Analysis Modelling and Response Developments in Volcanology Vol 10 pp 313 349 doi 10 1016 S1871 644X 07 00008 3 ISBN 978 0 444 53165 0 Kokelaar B P and Moore I D 2006 Glencoe caldera volcano Scotland ISBN 9780852725252 Pub British Geological Survey Keyworth Nottinghamshire There is an associated 1 25000 solid geology map Lipman P 1999 Caldera In Haraldur Sigurdsson ed Encyclopedia of Volcanoes Academic Press ISBN 0 12 643140 X Williams Howell 1941 Calderas and their origin University of California Publications Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences 25 239 346 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caldera Look up caldera in Wiktionary the free dictionary USGS page on calderas List of Caldera Volcanoes Collection of references on collapse calderas 43 pages The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano Australia Largest Explosive Eruptions New results for the 27 8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera San Juan volcanic field Colorado Supervolcanoes Time lapse video of Kilauea caldera collapse 2018 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Caldera amp oldid 1134885650, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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