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Galliformes

Galliformes /ˌɡælɪˈfɔːrmz/ is an order of heavy-bodied ground-feeding birds that includes turkeys, chickens, quail, and other landfowl. Gallinaceous birds, as they are called, are important in their ecosystems as seed dispersers and predators, and are often reared by humans for their meat and eggs, or hunted as game birds.

Galliformes
Temporal range: Eocene-Recent, 55–0 Ma [1][full citation needed]
Possible earlier origin based on molecular clock[2]
Clockwise from top left: Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus), Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), Gunnison grouse (Centrocercus minimus), wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), great curassow (Crax rubra), helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris)
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Pangalliformes
Order: Galliformes
Temminck, 1820
Extant families
Synonyms

Phasianiformes

The order contains about 290 species, inhabiting every continent except Antarctica, and divided into five families: Phasianidae (including chicken, quail, partridges, pheasants, turkeys, peafowl (peacocks) and grouse), Odontophoridae (New World quail), Numididae (guinea fowl), Cracidae (including chachalacas and curassows), and Megapodiidae (incubator birds like malleefowl and brush-turkeys). They adapt to most environments except for innermost deserts and perpetual ice.

Many gallinaceous species are skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying. Males of most species are more colorful than the females, with often elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting, fluffing of tail or head feathers, and vocal sounds. They are mainly nonmigratory. Several species have been domesticated during their long and extensive relationships with humans.

The name galliformes derives from "gallus", Latin for "rooster". Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds, landfowl, gallinaceous birds, or galliforms. Galliforms and waterfowl (order Anseriformes) are collectively called fowl.

Systematics and evolution edit

 
Despite its distinct appearance, the wild turkey is actually a very close relative of pheasants

The living Galliformes were once divided into seven or more families. Despite their distinctive appearance, grouse and turkeys probably do not warrant separation as families due to their recent origin from partridge- or pheasant-like birds. The turkeys became larger after their ancestors colonized temperate and subtropical North America, where pheasant-sized competitors were absent. The ancestors of grouse, though, adapted to harsh climates and could thereby colonize subarctic regions. Consequently, the Phasianidae are expanded in current taxonomy to include the former Tetraonidae and Meleagrididae as subfamilies.[3]

The Anseriformes (waterfowl) and the Galliformes together make up the Galloanserae. They are basal among the living neognathous birds, and normally follow the Paleognathae (ratites and tinamous) in modern bird classification systems. This was first proposed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and has been the one major change of that proposed scheme that was almost universally adopted. However, the Galliformes as they were traditionally delimited are called Gallomorphae in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, which splits the Cracidae and Megapodiidae as an order "Craciformes". This is not a natural group, however, but rather an erroneous result of the now-obsolete phenetic methodology employed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.[4] Phenetic studies do not distinguish between plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters, which leads to basal lineages appearing as monophyletic groups.

Historically, the buttonquails (Turnicidae), mesites (Mesitornithidae) and the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) were placed in the Galliformes, too. The former are now known to be shorebirds adapted to an inland lifestyle, whereas the mesites are probably closely related to pigeons and doves. The relationships of the hoatzin are entirely obscure, and it is usually treated as a monotypic order Opisthocomiformes to signify this.

The fossil record for the Galliformes is incomplete.[5]

Galliformes

Megapodiidae – megapodes (21 species)  

Cracidae – chachalacas, curassows, guans (56 species)  

Numididae – guineafowl (6 species)  

Odontophoridae – New World quail (34 species)  

Phasianidae – pheasants & allies (184 species)  

Phylogeny of the Galliformes based a study by De Chen and collaborators published in 2021.[6] The number of species are from the list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithologists' Union.[7]

Evolution edit

Galloanserae-like birds were one of the main survivors of the K-T Event, that killed off the rest of the dinosaurs. The dominant birds of the dinosaur era were the enantiornithes, toothed birds that dominated the trees and skies. Unlike those enantiornithes, the ancestors of the galliformes were a niche group that were toothless and ground-dwelling. When the asteroid impact killed off all non-avian dinosaurs, and the dominant birds, it destroyed all creatures that lived in trees and on open ground. The enantiornithes were wiped out, but the ancestors of galliformes were small and lived in the ground (unlike water for Anseriformes) which protected them from the blast and destruction.[8]

Fossils of these galliform-like birds originate in the Late Cretaceous, most notably those of Austinornis lentus. Its partial left tarsometatarsus was found in the Austin Chalk near Fort McKinney, Texas, dating to about 85 million years ago (Mya). This bird was quite certainly closely related to Galliformes, but whether it was a part of these or belongs elsewhere in the little-known galliform branch of Galloanserae is not clear. However, in 2004, Clarke classified it as a member of the larger group Pangalliformes, more closely related to chickens than to ducks, but not a member of the crown group that includes all modern galliformes.[9] Another specimen, PVPH 237, from the Late Cretaceous Portezuelo Formation (Turonian-Coniacian, about 90 Mya) in the Sierra de Portezuelo (Argentina) has also been suggested to be an early galliform relative. This is a partial coracoid of a neornithine bird, which in its general shape and particularly the wide and deep attachment for the muscle joining the coracoid and the humerus bone resembles the more basal lineages of galliforms.[10]

Additional galliform-like pangalliformes are represented by extinct families from the Paleogene, namely the Gallinuloididae, Paraortygidae and Quercymegapodiidae. In the early Cenozoic, some additional birds may or may not be early Galliformes, though even if they are, they are unlikely to belong to extant families:

  • Argillipes (London Clay Early Eocene of England)
  • Coturnipes (Early Eocene of England, and Virginia, USA?)
  • Palaeophasianus (Willwood Early Eocene of Bighorn County, USA)
  • Percolinus (London Clay Early Eocene of England)
  • Amitabha (Bridger middle Eocene of Forbidden City, USA) – phasianid?
  • "Palaeorallus" alienus (middle Oligocene of Tatal-Gol, Mongolia)
  • Anisolornis (Santa Cruz Middle Miocene of Karaihen, Argentina)

From the mid-Eocene onwards – about 45 Mya or so, true galliforms are known, and these completely replace their older relatives in the early Neogene. Since the earliest representatives of living galliform families apparently belong to the Phasianidae – the youngest family of galliforms, the other families of Galliformes must be at least of Early Eocene origin but might even be as old as the Late Cretaceous. The ichnotaxon Tristraguloolithus cracioides is based on fossil eggshell fragments from the Late Cretaceous Oldman Formation of southern Alberta, Canada, which are similar to chachalaca eggs,[11] but in the absence of bone material, their relationships cannot be determined except that they are apparently avian in origin.

Modern genera of phasianids start appearing around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, roughly 25–20 Mya. It is not well known whether the living genera of the other, older, galliform families originated around the same time or earlier, though at least in the New World quail, pre-Neogene forms seem to belong to genera that became entirely extinct later on.

A number of Paleogene to mid-Neogene fossils are quite certainly Galliformes, but their exact relationships in the order cannot be determined:

  • †Galliformes gen. et sp. indet. (Oligocene) – formerly in Gallinuloides; phasianid?[12]
  • Palaealectoris (Agate Fossil Beds Early Miocene of Sioux County, USA) – tetraonine?

List of major taxa edit

For a long time, the pheasants, partridges, and relatives were indiscriminately lumped in the Phasianidae, variously including or excluding turkeys, grouse, New World quail, and guineafowl, and divided into two subfamilies – the Phasianinae (pheasant-like forms) and the Perdicinae (partridge-like forms). This crude arrangement was long considered to be in serious need of revision, but even with modern DNA sequence analyses and cladistic methods, the phylogeny of the Phasianidae has resisted complete resolution.[13]

 
Palaeortyx skeleton, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris

A tentative list of the higher-level galliform taxa, listed in evolutionary sequence, is:[13][14]

  • Archaeophasianus Lambrecht 1933 (Oligocene? – Late Miocene)
  • Argillipes Harrison & Walker 1977
  • Austinornis Clarke 2004 [Pedioecetes Baird 1858] (Austin Chalk Late Cretaceous of Fort McKinney, USA)
  • Chambiortyx Mourer-Chauviré et al. 2013
  • Coturnipes Harrison & Walker 1977
  • Cyrtonyx tedfordi (Barstow Late Miocene of Barstow, USA)
  • Linquornis Yeh 1980 (middle Miocene)
  • Namaortyx Mourer-Chauviré, Pickford & 2011
  • Palaeorallus alienus Kuročkin 1968 nomen dubium
  • Sobniogallus Tomek et al. 2014
  • Tristraguloolithus Zelenitsky, Hills & Curri 1996 [ootaxa- cracid?]
  • Procrax Tordoff & Macdonald 1957 (middle Eocene? – Early Oligocene)
  • Paleophasianus Wetmore 1940
  • Taoperdix Milne-Edwards 1869 (Late Oligocene)
  • Family †Paraortygidae Mourer-Chauviré 1992
    • Pirortyx Brodkorb 1964
    • Scopelortyx Mourer-Chauviré, Pickford & Senut 2015
    • Paraortyx Gaillard 1908 sensu Brodkorb 1964
    • Xorazmortyx Zelenkov & Panteleyev 2019
  • Family †Quercymegapodiidae Mourer-Chauviré 1992
    • Taubacrex de Alvarenga 1988
    • Ameripodius de Alvarenga 1995
    • Quercymegapodius Mourer-Chauviré 1992
  • Family Megapodiidae – mound-builders and scrubfowl, or megapodes
    • Mwalau Worthy et al. 2015 (Lini's megapode)
    • Ngawupodius & Ivison 1999
    • Brushturkey group
      • Talegalla Lesson 1828
      • Leipoa Gould 1840 [Progura de Vis 1889; Chosornis de Vis 1889; Palaeopelargus de Vis 1892] (Malleefowl)
      • Alectura Gray 1831 [Catheturus Swainson 1837] (Australian Brushturkeys)
      • Aepypodius Oustalet 1880
    • Scrubfowl group
  • Family Cracidae – chachalacas, guans and curassows
    • Archaealectrornis Crowe & Short 1992 (Oligocene)
    • Boreortalis Brodkorb 1954
    • Palaeonossax Wetmore 1956 (Brule Late Oligocene of South Dakota, USA)
    • Penelopinae Bonaparte 1851 (Guans)
    • Cracinae Rafinesque 1815
      • Ortalis Merrem 1786 [Ganix Rafinesque 1815] {Ortalidini Donegan 2012} (Chachalacas)
      • Oreophasis Gray 1844 {Oreophasini Bonaparte 1853} (Horned Guans)
      • Cracini Rafinesque 1815 (Curassows)
        • Nothocrax Burmeister 1856 (Nocturnal Curassows)
        • Pauxi Temminck 1813 [Ourax Cuvier 1817; Lophocerus Swainson 1837 non Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1833; Urax Reichenbach 1850]
        • Mitu Lesson 1831 (razor-billed curassows)
        • Crax Linnaeus 1758
  • Suborder Phasiani
    • Family †Gallinuloididae – tentatively placed here
      • Gallinuloides Eastman 1900 [Palaeobonasa Shufeldt 1915]
      • Paraortygoides Mayr 2000
    • Family Numididae – guineafowl
      • Guttera Wagler 1832
      • Numida Linnaeus 1764 [Querelea Reichenbach 1852] (Helmeted Guineafowl)
      • Acryllium Gray 1840 (Vulturine Guineafowl)
      • Agelastes Bonaparte 1850
    • Family Odontophoridae – New World quail
    • Family Phasianidaepheasants, partridges and relatives
      • Alectoris” pliocaena Tugarinov 1940b
      • Bantamyx Kuročkin 1982
      • Centuriavis lioae Ksepka et al., 2022
      • Diangallus Hou 1985
      • "Gallus" beremendensis Jánossy 1976b
      • "Gallus" europaeus Harrison 1978
      • Lophogallus Zelenkov & Kuročkin 2010
      • Megalocoturnix Sánchez Marco 2009
      • Miophasianus Brodkorb 1952 [Miophasianus Lambrecht 1933 nomen nudum ; Miogallus Lambrecht 1933 ]
      • Palaeocryptonyx Depéret 1892 [Chauvireria Boev 1997; Pliogallus Tugarinov 1940b non Gaillard 1939; Lambrechtia Janossy 1974 ]
      • Palaeortyx Milne-Edwards 1869 [Palaeoperdix Milne-Edwards 1869]
      • Plioperdix Kretzoi 1955 [Pliogallus Tugarinov 1940 nec Gaillard 1939]
      • Rustaviornis Burchak-Abramovich & Meladze 1972
      • Schaubortyx Brodkorb 1964
      • Shandongornis Yeh 1997
      • Shanxiornis Wang et al. 2006
      • Tologuica Zelenkov & Kuročkin 2009
      • Subfamily Rollulinae Bonaparte, 1850
      • Subfamily Phasianinae
      • Subfamily Pavoninae
        • Tribe Pavonini Rafinesque 1815 – peafowl, arguses, and Tropicoperdix partridges
        • Tribe Polyprectronini Blyth 1852 – peacock-pheasants, Asian spurfowl, and crimson-headed partridge
        • Tribe Gallini Brehm 1831 – junglefowl, bamboo partridges, and true francolins
        • Tribe Coturnicini Reichenbach, 1848 - Old World quail, snowcocks, and allies

The relationships of many pheasants and partridges were formerly very badly resolved and much confounded by adaptive radiation (in the former) and convergent evolution (in the latter).[15] Thus, the bulk of the Phasianidae was alternatively treated as a single subfamily Phasianinae. The grouse, turkeys, true pheasants, etc., would then become tribes of this subfamily, similar to how the Coturnicinae are commonly split into a quail and a spurfowl tribe.[16] In 2021, Kimball et al. found the family to comprise three distinct subfamilies, with two containing multiple genera; these results were followed by the International Ornithological Congress.[14][17][18]

The partridge of Europe is not closely related to other partridge-like Galliformes, as already indicated by its sexually dimorphic coloration and possession of more than 14 rectrices, traits it shares with the other advanced phasianids. However, among these its relationships are obscure; it is unclear whether it is closer to the turkeys or to certain short-tailed pheasants like Ithaginis, Lophophorus, Pucrasia, and Tragopan.[19] In 2021, Kimball et al. found it to belong to the subfamily Phasianini, alongside the true pheasants.[18]

Phylogeny edit

Living Galliformes based on the work by John Boyd.[20]

Description edit

 
Female (left) and male common pheasants: Sexual dimorphism is conspicuous in this species, one of the most apomorphic gamefowl

As their name suggests they are chicken-like in appearance, with rounded bodies and blunt wings, and range in size from small at 15 cm (6 inches) to large at 120 cm (4 feet). They are mainly terrestrial birds and their wings are short and rounded for short-distance flight. Galliforms are anisodactyl like passerines, but some of the adult males grow spurs that point backwards.

Gallinaceous birds are arboreal or terrestrial animals; many prefer not to fly, but instead walk and run for locomotion. They live 5–8 years in the wild and up to 30 years in captivity.[citation needed] They can be found worldwide and in a variety of habitats, including forests, deserts, and grasslands. They use visual displays and vocalizations for communication, courtship, fighting, territoriality, and brooding.

They have diverse mating strategies: some are monogamous, while others are polygamous or polygynandrous. Male courtship behavior includes elaborate visual displays of plumage. They breed seasonally in accordance with the climate and lay three to 16 eggs per year in nests built on the ground or in trees.

Gallinaceous birds feed on a variety of plant and animal material, which may include fruits, seeds, leaves, shoots, flowers, tubers, roots, insects, snails, worms, lizards, snakes, small rodents, and eggs.

These birds vary in size from the diminutive king quail (Coturnix chinensis) (5 in) long and weighing 28–40 g (1–1.4 oz) to the largest extant galliform species, the North American wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), which may weigh as much as 14 kg (30.5 lb) and may exceed 120 cm (47 in).

The galliform bird species with the largest wingspan and largest overall length (including a train of over 6 feet) is most likely the green peafowl (Pavo muticus). Most galliform genera are plump-bodied with thick necks and moderately long legs, with rounded and rather short wings. Grouse, pheasants, francolins, and partridges are typical in their outwardly corpulent silhouettes.

Adult males of many galliform birds have one to several sharp horny spurs on the back of each leg, which they use for fighting. In several lineages, pronounced sexual dimorphism occurs, and among each galliform clade, the more apomorphic ("advanced") lineages tend to be more sexually dimorphic.

Flightlessness edit

While most galliformes are rather reluctant flyers, truly flightless forms are unknown among the extant members of the order. Though they are often mischaracterised as weak-flying, Galliformes are actually highly specialised for their particular flight style, bearing extremely powerful flight muscles, and some species are even migratory.[21] Adult snowcocks are, however, flightless, requiring gravity to launch, although juveniles can still fly relatively well.[22]

Nonetheless, a few birds outside the Galliforme crown-group did produce flightlessness.

The genus Sylviornis, a huge prehistorically extinct species of New Caledonia, was flightless, but as opposed to most other flightless birds like ratites or island rails which become flightless due to arrested development of their flight apparatus and subsequently evolve to larger size, Sylviornis seems to have become flightless simply due to its bulk, with the wing reduction following a consequence, not the reason for its flightlessness.

The gigantic Australian mihirungs, which may be closer to Galliformes than to Anseriformes as traditionally expected,[23] achieved flightlessness more traditionally, strongly reducing their wings and keel. They were massive herbivorous birds, among the largest avian dinosaurs of all time.

By contrast, the stem-galliform Scopelortyx appears to have been more aerial than modern fowl, with a flight style more suited for gliding and soaring.[24]

Behaviour and ecology edit

Most of the galliform birds are more or less resident, but some of the smaller temperate species (such as quail) do migrate over considerable distances. Altitudinal migration is evidently quite common amongst montane species, and a few species of subtropical and subarctic regions must reach their watering and/or foraging areas through sustained flight. Species known to make extensive flights include the ptarmigans, sage-grouse (Centrocercus), crested partridge, green peafowl, crested argus, mountain peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron inopinatum), koklass pheasant (Pucrasia macrolopha), Reeves's pheasant, and (Syrmaticus reevesii). Other species — most of the New World quail (also known as the ‘toothed quail’), the enigmatic stone partridge (Ptilopachus petrosus) of Africa, guineafowl, and eared pheasants (Crossoptilon) — are all notable for their daily excursions on foot which may take them many miles in a given day.

Some Galliformes are adapted to grassland habitat, and these genera are remarkable for their long, thin necks, long legs, and large, wide wings. Fairly unrelated species like the crested fireback (Lophura ignita), vulturine guineafowl (Acryllium vulturinum), and malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata) are outwardly similar in their body types (see also convergent evolution).

Most species that show only limited sexual dimorphism are notable for the great amount of locomotion required to find food throughout the majority of the year. Those species that are highly sedentary but with marked ecological transformations over seasons exhibit marked distinct differences between the sexes in size and/or appearance. Eared-pheasants, guineafowl, toothed quail, and the snow partridge (Lerwa lerwa) are examples of limited sexual differences and requirements for traveling over wide terrain to forage.

Winter ecology edit

Gallinaceous birds are well adapted to regions with cold winters. Their larger size, increased plumage, and lower activity levels help them to withstand the cold and conserve energy. Under such conditions, they are able to change their feeding strategy to that of a ruminant. This allows them to feed on and extract energy and nutrients from coarse, fibrous plant material, such as buds, twigs, and conifer needles. This provides a virtually unlimited source of accessible food and requires little energy to harvest.

Food and feeding edit

 
Flock of adult and young helmeted guineafowl foraging

Herbivorous to slightly omnivorous galliforms, forming the majority of the group, are typically stoutly built and have short, thick bills primarily adapted for foraging on the ground for rootlets or the consumption of other plant material such as heather shoots. The young birds will also take insects.

Peafowl, junglefowl and most of the subtropical pheasant genera have very different nutritional requirements from typical Palearctic genera. The Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus) has been observed digging in the rotting wood of deadfall in a similar manner to woodpeckers to extract invertebrates, even bracing itself with aid of its squared tail. The cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi), crested argus (Rheinardia ocellata), the crested partridge (Rollulus roulroul) and the crested guineafowl (Guttera pucherani) are similar ecologically to the Himalayan monal in that they too forage in rotting wood for termites, ant and beetle larvae, molluscs, crustaceans and young rodents.

Typical peafowl (Pavo), most of the peacock-pheasants (Polyplectron), the Bulwer's pheasant (Lophura bulweri), the ruffed pheasants (Chrysolophus) and the hill partridges (Arborophila) have narrow, relatively delicate bills, poorly suited for digging. These galliform genera prefer instead to capture live invertebrates in leaf litter, in sand, or shallow pools or along stream banks. These genera are also outwardly similar in that they each have exceptionally long, delicate legs and toes and the tendency to frequent seasonally wet habitats to forage, especially during chick-rearing. The blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus) is famed in its native India for its appetite for snakes – even poisonous cobras – which it dispatches with its strong feet and sharp bill. The Lady Amherst's pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae), green peafowl (Pavo muticus), Bulwer's pheasant and the crestless fireback (Lophura erythrophthalma) are notable for their aptitude to forage for crustaceans such as crayfish and other aquatic small animals in shallow streams and amongst rushes in much the same manner as some members of the rail family (Rallidae). Similarly, although wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) have a diet primarily of vegetation, they will eat insects, mice, lizards, and amphibians, wading in water to hunt for the latter. Domestic hens (Gallus domesticus) share this opportunistic behaviour and will eat insects, mice, worms, and amphibians.

 
During mating season, the male western capercaillie feeds mainly on bilberry leaves, which are toxic to most herbivores

The tragopans (Tragopan), mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado), and several species of grouse and ptarmigan are exceptional in their largely vegetarian and arboreal foraging habitats; grouse are especially notable for being able to feed on plants rich in terpenes and quinones—such as sagebrush or conifers—which are often avoided by other herbivores. Many species of moderate altitudes—for example the long-tailed pheasants of the genus Syrmaticus—also find a great deal of their daily nutritional requirements in the tree canopies, especially during the snowy and rainy periods when foraging on the ground is dangerous and less than fruitful for a variety of reasons. Although members of the genus Syrmaticus are capable of subsisting almost entirely on vegetarian materials for months at a time, this is not true for many of the subtropical genera. For example, the great argus (Argusianus argus) and crested argus may do most of their foraging during rainy months in the canopy of the jungle, as well. There they are known to forage on slugs, snails, ants, and amphibians to the exclusion of plant material. How they forage in the forest canopy during the rainy months is unknown.

Reproduction edit

Most galliforms are very prolific, with clutches regularly exceeding 10 eggs in many species. In contrast to most birds which are – at least for a particular breeding season – monogamous, galliforms are often polygynous or polygamous. Such species can be recognized by their pronounced sexual dimorphism.

Galliform young are very precocious and roam with their mothers – or both parents in monogamous species – mere hours after hatching. The most extreme case are the Megapodiidae, where the adults do not brood, but leave incubation to mounds of rotting vegetation, volcanic ash, or hot sand. The young must dig out of the nest mounds after hatching, but they emerge from the eggs fully feathered, and upon leaving the mound, they are able to fly considerable distances.

Common species edit

Grouse and ptarmigans - Family Tetraonidae

Grouse, ptarmigans, and prairie chickens are all chicken-like birds with short, curved, strong bills, part of the family Tetraonidae. This group includes 25 species residing mostly in North America. They are mainly ground-dwellers and have short, rounded wings for brief flights. They are well adapted to winter by growing feather "snowshoes" on their feet and roosting beneath the snow. They range in size from the 13-inch (33 cm) white-tailed ptarmigan to the 28-inch (71 cm) sage grouse. Their plumage is dense and soft and is most commonly found in shades of red, brown, and gray to camouflage to the ground. They are polygamous and male courtship behavior includes strutting and dancing and aggressive fighting for possession of females. The typical clutch size is between seven and 12 eggs.

Turkeys - Family Meleagrididae

Turkeys are large, long-legged birds that can grow up to 4 feet (1.2 m) in height and weigh up to 30 pounds (14 kg) in the wild. They have a long, broad, rounded tail with 14–19 blunt feathers. They have a naked, wrinkled head and feathered body. The North American wild turkey – Meleagris gallopavo – has five distinct subspecies (Eastern, Rio Grande, Florida [Osceola], Merriam's, and Gould's). Hybrids also exist where the ranges of these subspecies overlap. All are native only to North America, though transplanted populations exist elsewhere. Their plumage differs slightly by subspecies, but is generally dark to black for males, with buff to cream highlights, and generally drab brown for females. The feathers are quite iridescent and can take on distinct reddish/copper hues in sunlight. Their feathers are well defined with broad, square ends, giving the bird the appearance of being covered in scales. Males have a "beard" of coarse black bristles hanging from the center of their upper breasts and tend to have more vibrantly colored plumage than do females. They breed in the spring and their typical clutch size is between 10 and 12 eggs. The ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata), a different species of turkey, currently exists only in a portion of the Yucatán peninsula. After the 19th and early 20th centuries, wild turkey populations dropped significantly because of hunting and habitat loss. However, populations now flourish again due to hunting management and transplanting. The ocellated turkey, not commonly hunted, is currently threatened due to ongoing habitat loss in the Yucutan.

Pheasants, quail, and partridges - Family Phasianidae

The family is divided into four groups: 30 species of new world quail, residing between Paraguay and Canada, 11 species of Old World quail in Africa, Australia, and Asia, 94 species of partridges, and 48 species of pheasants. This family includes a wide range of bird sizes from a 5+12 inches (14 cm) quail to pheasants up to almost 30 inches (76 cm). Pheasants and quail have heavy, round bodies and rounded wings. Though they have short legs, they are very fast runners when escaping predators.

Chachalacas - Family Cracidae

Chachalacas are found in the chaparral ecosystems from southern Texas through Mexico and Costa Rica. They are mainly arboreal and make their nests in trees 5 to 15 feet (1.5 to 4.6 m) above the ground. They are large, long-legged birds that can grow up to 26 inches (66 cm) long. They have long tails and are chicken-like in appearance. Their frail-looking yet sturdy nests are made of sticks and leaves. Their clutch size is three or four eggs. The males make a unique, loud, mating call that give them their name. Chachalacas feed mainly on berries, but also eat insects. They are a popular game bird, as their flesh is good to eat. They are also commonly domesticated as pets.

References edit

  1. ^ Mourer-Chauviré; et al. (2013). (PDF). Proceed. 8th Inter nat. Meeting Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2023.
  2. ^ Kuhl., H.; Frankl-Vilches, C.; Bakker, A.; Mayr, G.; Nikolaus, G.; Boerno, S. T.; Klages, S.; Timmermann, B.; Gahr, M. (2020). "An unbiased molecular approach using 3'UTRs resolves the avian family-level tree of life". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 38: 108–127. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa191. PMC 7783168. PMID 32781465.
  3. ^ Kimball et al. (1999), Dyke et al. (2003), Smith et al. (2005), Crowe et al. (2006a,b)
  4. ^ Smith et al. (2005), Crowe et al. (2006a,b)
  5. ^ Jackson, Christine E. (2006). Peacock. pp. 15. ISBN 9781861892935.
  6. ^ Chen, D.; Hosner, P.A.; Dittmann, D.L.; O’Neill, J.P.; Birks, S.M.; Braun, E.L.; Kimball, R.T. (2021). "Divergence time estimation of Galliformes based on the best gene shopping scheme of ultraconserved elements". BMC Ecology and Evolution. 21 (1): 209. doi:10.1186/s12862-021-01935-1. PMC 8609756. PMID 34809586.
  7. ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Pheasants, partridges, francolins". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  8. ^ Quaillike creatures were the only birds to survive the dinosaur-killing asteroid impact
  9. ^ Clarke (2004)
  10. ^ Agnolin et al. (2006)
  11. ^ Zelenitsky et al. (1996)
  12. ^ Specimen MCZ 342506. A proximal humerus of a bird larger than Gallinuloides: Mayr & Weidig (2004)
  13. ^ a b Kimball et al. (1999, 2001), Crowe et al. (2006a,b)
  14. ^ a b "Taxonomic Updates – IOC World Bird List". Retrieved 2021-08-01.
  15. ^ Dyke et al. (2003)
  16. ^ See e.g. the phylogenies in Kimball et al. (2006) and Crowe et al. (2006a,b)
  17. ^ Kimball, Rebecca T.; Hosner, Peter A.; Braun, Edward L. (2021-05-01). "A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes (Landfowl) reveals biased branch lengths". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 158: 107091. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107091. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 33545275. S2CID 231963063.
  18. ^ a b "Galliformes". bird-phylogeny (in German). Retrieved 2021-08-01.
  19. ^ Kimball et al. (1999, 2001), Smith et al. (2005), Crowe et al. (2006a,b)
  20. ^ John Boyd's website [1] Boyd, John (2007). "GALLIFORMES- Landfowl". Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  21. ^ Gary W. Kaiser, The Inner Bird: Anatomy and Evolution Paperback – 1 Feb 2008
  22. ^ Madge, Steve; McGowan, J. K.; Kirwan, Guy M. (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse: A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quail, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquail and Sandgrouse of the World. A.C. Black. pp. 174–180. ISBN 9780713639667.
  23. ^ Worthy, T., Mitri, M., Handley, W., Lee, M., Anderson, A., Sand, C. 2016. Osteology supports a steam-galliform affinity for the giant extinct flightless birds Sylviornis neocaledoniae (Sylviornithidae, Galloanseres). PLOS ONE. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150871
  24. ^ Mourer-Chauviré, C.; Pickford, M. (2015). "Stemp group galliform and stemp group psittaciform birds (Aves, Galliformes, Paraortygidae, and Psittaciformes, family incertae sedis) from the Middle Eocene of Namibia". Journal of Ornithology. 156 (1): 275–286. doi:10.1007/s10336-014-1124-y. S2CID 16336177.

Further reading edit

  • Agnolin, Federico L.; Novas, Fernando E. & Lio, Gabriel (2006): Neornithine bird coracoid from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia. Ameghiniana 43(1): 245–248. HTML fulltext
  • Clarke, Julia A (2004). "Morphology, Phylogenetic Taxonomy, and Systematics of Ichthyornis and Apatornis (Avialae: Ornithurae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 286: 1–179. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2004)286<0001:mptaso>2.0.co;2. S2CID 84035285.
  • Crowe, Timothy M.; Bloomer, Paulette; Randi, Ettore; Lucchini, Vittorio; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L. & Groth, Jeffrey G. (2006a): Supra-generic cladistics of landfowl (Order Galliformes). Acta Zoologica Sinica 52(Supplement): 358–361. PDF fulltext 2010-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
  • Crowe, Timothy M.; Bowie, Rauri C.K.; Bloomer, Paulette; Mandiwana, Tshifhiwa G.; Hedderson, Terry A.J.; Randi, Ettore; Pereira, Sergio L. & Wakeling, Julia (2006b): Phylogenetics, biogeography and classification of, and character evolution in, gamebirds (Aves: Galliformes): effects of character exclusion, data partitioning and missing data. Cladistics 22(6): 495–532. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2006.00120.x
  • Dyke, Gareth J; Gulas, Bonnie E. & Crowe, Timothy M. (2003): Suprageneric relationships of galliform birds (Aves, Galliformes): a cladistic analysis of morphological characters. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 137(2): 227–244. doi:10.1046/j.1096-3642.2003.00048.x PDF fulltext
  • Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L.; Zwartjes, P.W.; Crowe, Timothy M. & Ligon, J. David (1999): A molecular phylogeny of the pheasants and partridges suggests that these lineages are not monophyletic. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 11(1): 38–54. doi:10.1006/mpev.1998.0562 PDF fulltext 2011-04-28 at the Wayback Machine
  • Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L.; Ligon, J. David; Lucchini, Vittorio & Randi, Ettore (2001): A molecular phylogeny of the peacock-pheasants (Galliformes: Polyplectron spp.) indicates loss and reduction of ornamental traits and display behaviours. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 73(2): 187–198. doi:10.1006/bijl.2001.0536
  • Kimball, Rebecca T.; Braun, Edward L.; Ligon, J. David; Randi, Ettore & Lucchini, Vittorio (2006): Using molecular phylogenetics to interpret evolutionary changes in morphology and behavior in the Phasianidae. Acta Zoologica Sinica 52(Supplement): 362–365.
  • Mandiwana-Neudani, T.G.; Little, R.M.; Crowe, T.M.; Bowie, R.C.K. (2019). "Taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography of African spurfowl Galliformes, Phasianidae, Phasianinae, Coturnicini: Pternistis spp". Ostrich. 90 (2): 145–172. doi:10.2989/00306525.2019.1584925. S2CID 195417777.
  • Mayr, Gerald; Weidig, Ilka (2004). "The Early Eocene bird Gallinuloides wyomingensis – a stem group representative of Galliformes". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 49 (2): 211–217.
  • Smith, Edward J.; Shi, Li & Tu, Zhijian (2005): Gallus gallus aggrecan gene-based phylogenetic analysis of selected avian taxonomic groups. Genetica 124(1): 23–32. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2001.tb01356.x (HTML abstract)
  • Zelenitsky, Darla K.; Hills, L.V. & Currie, Philip J. (1996): Parataxonomic classification of ornithoid eggshell fragments from the Oldman Formation (Judith River Group; Upper Cretaceous), Southern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 33(12): 1655–1667.
  • Bent, Arthur C. 1963. Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds, New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
  • Eaton, Stephen W. 1992. The Birds of North America: Wild Turkey No. 22. The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington DC: The American Ornithologists’ Union.
  • Forbush, Edward H. 1929. Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States, Norwood Massachusetts: Norwood press.
  • Harrison, Kit and George. 1990. The Birds of Winter, New York: Random House.
  • Pearson, T. Gilbert, et al. 1936. Birds of America, New York: Garden City Publishing Company, Inc.
  • Peterson, M.J. 2000. The Birds of North America: Plain Chachalaca (Ortalis vetula), No. 550. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
  • Robbins, Chandler S. et al. 1966. A Guide to Field Identification: Birds of North America, New York: Golden Press.

External links edit

  • The World Pheasant Association – The ultimate authority on Galliformes
  • Galliformes – Conservation and aviculture 2019-07-22 at the Wayback Machine

galliformes, this, article, includes, list, general, references, lacks, sufficient, corresponding, inline, citations, please, help, improve, this, article, introducing, more, precise, citations, november, 2015, learn, when, remove, this, template, message, ɔːr. This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations November 2015 Learn how and when to remove this template message Galliformes ˌ ɡ ae l ɪ ˈ f ɔːr m iː z is an order of heavy bodied ground feeding birds that includes turkeys chickens quail and other landfowl Gallinaceous birds as they are called are important in their ecosystems as seed dispersers and predators and are often reared by humans for their meat and eggs or hunted as game birds GalliformesTemporal range Eocene Recent 55 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N 1 full citation needed Possible earlier origin based on molecular clock 2 Clockwise from top left Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus red junglefowl Gallus gallus golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus Chukar partridge Alectoris chukar Gunnison grouse Centrocercus minimus wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo great curassow Crax rubra helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass AvesClade PangalliformesOrder GalliformesTemminck 1820Extant familiesMegapodiidae CracidaeSuperfamily Phasianoidea Odontophoridae Numididae PhasianidaeSynonymsPhasianiformesThe order contains about 290 species inhabiting every continent except Antarctica and divided into five families Phasianidae including chicken quail partridges pheasants turkeys peafowl peacocks and grouse Odontophoridae New World quail Numididae guinea fowl Cracidae including chachalacas and curassows and Megapodiidae incubator birds like malleefowl and brush turkeys They adapt to most environments except for innermost deserts and perpetual ice Many gallinaceous species are skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying Males of most species are more colorful than the females with often elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting fluffing of tail or head feathers and vocal sounds They are mainly nonmigratory Several species have been domesticated during their long and extensive relationships with humans The name galliformes derives from gallus Latin for rooster Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds landfowl gallinaceous birds or galliforms Galliforms and waterfowl order Anseriformes are collectively called fowl Contents 1 Systematics and evolution 1 1 Evolution 1 2 List of major taxa 2 Phylogeny 3 Description 4 Flightlessness 5 Behaviour and ecology 5 1 Winter ecology 5 2 Food and feeding 5 3 Reproduction 6 Common species 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksSystematics and evolution edit nbsp Despite its distinct appearance the wild turkey is actually a very close relative of pheasantsThe living Galliformes were once divided into seven or more families Despite their distinctive appearance grouse and turkeys probably do not warrant separation as families due to their recent origin from partridge or pheasant like birds The turkeys became larger after their ancestors colonized temperate and subtropical North America where pheasant sized competitors were absent The ancestors of grouse though adapted to harsh climates and could thereby colonize subarctic regions Consequently the Phasianidae are expanded in current taxonomy to include the former Tetraonidae and Meleagrididae as subfamilies 3 The Anseriformes waterfowl and the Galliformes together make up the Galloanserae They are basal among the living neognathous birds and normally follow the Paleognathae ratites and tinamous in modern bird classification systems This was first proposed in the Sibley Ahlquist taxonomy and has been the one major change of that proposed scheme that was almost universally adopted However the Galliformes as they were traditionally delimited are called Gallomorphae in the Sibley Ahlquist taxonomy which splits the Cracidae and Megapodiidae as an order Craciformes This is not a natural group however but rather an erroneous result of the now obsolete phenetic methodology employed in the Sibley Ahlquist taxonomy 4 Phenetic studies do not distinguish between plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters which leads to basal lineages appearing as monophyletic groups Historically the buttonquails Turnicidae mesites Mesitornithidae and the hoatzin Opisthocomus hoazin were placed in the Galliformes too The former are now known to be shorebirds adapted to an inland lifestyle whereas the mesites are probably closely related to pigeons and doves The relationships of the hoatzin are entirely obscure and it is usually treated as a monotypic order Opisthocomiformes to signify this The fossil record for the Galliformes is incomplete 5 Galliformes Megapodiidae megapodes 21 species nbsp Cracidae chachalacas curassows guans 56 species nbsp Numididae guineafowl 6 species nbsp Odontophoridae New World quail 34 species nbsp Phasianidae pheasants amp allies 184 species nbsp Phylogeny of the Galliformes based a study by De Chen and collaborators published in 2021 6 The number of species are from the list maintained by Frank Gill Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithologists Union 7 Evolution edit Galloanserae like birds were one of the main survivors of the K T Event that killed off the rest of the dinosaurs The dominant birds of the dinosaur era were the enantiornithes toothed birds that dominated the trees and skies Unlike those enantiornithes the ancestors of the galliformes were a niche group that were toothless and ground dwelling When the asteroid impact killed off all non avian dinosaurs and the dominant birds it destroyed all creatures that lived in trees and on open ground The enantiornithes were wiped out but the ancestors of galliformes were small and lived in the ground unlike water for Anseriformes which protected them from the blast and destruction 8 Fossils of these galliform like birds originate in the Late Cretaceous most notably those of Austinornis lentus Its partial left tarsometatarsus was found in the Austin Chalk near Fort McKinney Texas dating to about 85 million years ago Mya This bird was quite certainly closely related to Galliformes but whether it was a part of these or belongs elsewhere in the little known galliform branch of Galloanserae is not clear However in 2004 Clarke classified it as a member of the larger group Pangalliformes more closely related to chickens than to ducks but not a member of the crown group that includes all modern galliformes 9 Another specimen PVPH 237 from the Late Cretaceous Portezuelo Formation Turonian Coniacian about 90 Mya in the Sierra de Portezuelo Argentina has also been suggested to be an early galliform relative This is a partial coracoid of a neornithine bird which in its general shape and particularly the wide and deep attachment for the muscle joining the coracoid and the humerus bone resembles the more basal lineages of galliforms 10 Additional galliform like pangalliformes are represented by extinct families from the Paleogene namely the Gallinuloididae Paraortygidae and Quercymegapodiidae In the early Cenozoic some additional birds may or may not be early Galliformes though even if they are they are unlikely to belong to extant families Argillipes London Clay Early Eocene of England Coturnipes Early Eocene of England and Virginia USA Palaeophasianus Willwood Early Eocene of Bighorn County USA Percolinus London Clay Early Eocene of England Amitabha Bridger middle Eocene of Forbidden City USA phasianid Palaeorallus alienus middle Oligocene of Tatal Gol Mongolia Anisolornis Santa Cruz Middle Miocene of Karaihen Argentina From the mid Eocene onwards about 45 Mya or so true galliforms are known and these completely replace their older relatives in the early Neogene Since the earliest representatives of living galliform families apparently belong to the Phasianidae the youngest family of galliforms the other families of Galliformes must be at least of Early Eocene origin but might even be as old as the Late Cretaceous The ichnotaxon Tristraguloolithus cracioides is based on fossil eggshell fragments from the Late Cretaceous Oldman Formation of southern Alberta Canada which are similar to chachalaca eggs 11 but in the absence of bone material their relationships cannot be determined except that they are apparently avian in origin Modern genera of phasianids start appearing around the Oligocene Miocene boundary roughly 25 20 Mya It is not well known whether the living genera of the other older galliform families originated around the same time or earlier though at least in the New World quail pre Neogene forms seem to belong to genera that became entirely extinct later on A number of Paleogene to mid Neogene fossils are quite certainly Galliformes but their exact relationships in the order cannot be determined Galliformes gen et sp indet Oligocene formerly in Gallinuloides phasianid 12 Palaealectoris Agate Fossil Beds Early Miocene of Sioux County USA tetraonine List of major taxa edit See also List of Galliformes For a long time the pheasants partridges and relatives were indiscriminately lumped in the Phasianidae variously including or excluding turkeys grouse New World quail and guineafowl and divided into two subfamilies the Phasianinae pheasant like forms and the Perdicinae partridge like forms This crude arrangement was long considered to be in serious need of revision but even with modern DNA sequence analyses and cladistic methods the phylogeny of the Phasianidae has resisted complete resolution 13 nbsp Palaeortyx skeleton Museum national d histoire naturelle ParisA tentative list of the higher level galliform taxa listed in evolutionary sequence is 13 14 Archaeophasianus Lambrecht 1933 Oligocene Late Miocene Argillipes Harrison amp Walker 1977 Austinornis Clarke 2004 Pedioecetes Baird 1858 Austin Chalk Late Cretaceous of Fort McKinney USA Chambiortyx Mourer Chauvire et al 2013 Coturnipes Harrison amp Walker 1977 Cyrtonyx tedfordi Barstow Late Miocene of Barstow USA Linquornis Yeh 1980 middle Miocene Namaortyx Mourer Chauvire Pickford amp 2011 Palaeorallus alienus Kurockin 1968 nomen dubium Sobniogallus Tomek et al 2014 Tristraguloolithus Zelenitsky Hills amp Curri 1996 ootaxa cracid Procrax Tordoff amp Macdonald 1957 middle Eocene Early Oligocene Paleophasianus Wetmore 1940 Taoperdix Milne Edwards 1869 Late Oligocene Family Paraortygidae Mourer Chauvire 1992 Pirortyx Brodkorb 1964 Scopelortyx Mourer Chauvire Pickford amp Senut 2015 Paraortyx Gaillard 1908 sensu Brodkorb 1964 Xorazmortyx Zelenkov amp Panteleyev 2019 Family Quercymegapodiidae Mourer Chauvire 1992 Taubacrex de Alvarenga 1988 Ameripodius de Alvarenga 1995 Quercymegapodius Mourer Chauvire 1992 Family Megapodiidae mound builders and scrubfowl or megapodes Mwalau Worthy et al 2015 Lini s megapode Ngawupodius amp Ivison 1999 Brushturkey group Talegalla Lesson 1828 Leipoa Gould 1840 Progura de Vis 1889 Chosornis de Vis 1889 Palaeopelargus de Vis 1892 Malleefowl Alectura Gray 1831 Catheturus Swainson 1837 Australian Brushturkeys Aepypodius Oustalet 1880 Scrubfowl group Macrocephalon Muller 1846 Megacephalon Gray 1846 Megacephalon Gray 1844 nomen nudum Galeocephala Mathews 1926 Maleos Eulipoa Ogilvie Grant 1893 Moluccan Megapodes Megapodius Gaimard 1823 non sic Mathews 1913 Megathelia Mathews 1914 Amelous Gloger 1841 Family Cracidae chachalacas guans and curassows Archaealectrornis Crowe amp Short 1992 Oligocene Boreortalis Brodkorb 1954 Palaeonossax Wetmore 1956 Brule Late Oligocene of South Dakota USA Penelopinae Bonaparte 1851 Guans Chamaepetes Wagler 1832 black amp sickle winged guan Penelopina Reichenbach 1861 Highland Guans Aburria Reichenbach 1853 Opetioptila Sundevall 1873 Pipile Bonaparte 1856 non Pipilo Vieillot 1816 Cumana Coues 1900 Penelope Merrem 1786 Penelopsis Bonaparte 1856 Cracinae Rafinesque 1815 Ortalis Merrem 1786 Ganix Rafinesque 1815 Ortalidini Donegan 2012 Chachalacas Oreophasis Gray 1844 Oreophasini Bonaparte 1853 Horned Guans Cracini Rafinesque 1815 Curassows Nothocrax Burmeister 1856 Nocturnal Curassows Pauxi Temminck 1813 Ourax Cuvier 1817 Lophocerus Swainson 1837 non Hemprich amp Ehrenberg 1833 Urax Reichenbach 1850 Mitu Lesson 1831 razor billed curassows Crax Linnaeus 1758 Suborder Phasiani Family Gallinuloididae tentatively placed here Gallinuloides Eastman 1900 Palaeobonasa Shufeldt 1915 Paraortygoides Mayr 2000 Family Numididae guineafowl Guttera Wagler 1832 Numida Linnaeus 1764 Querelea Reichenbach 1852 Helmeted Guineafowl Acryllium Gray 1840 Vulturine Guineafowl Agelastes Bonaparte 1850 Family Odontophoridae New World quail Miortyx Miller 1944 Nanortyx Weigel 1963 Neortyx Holman 1961 Ptilopachinae Bowie Coehn amp Crowe 2013 Ptilopachus Swainson 1837 Odontophorinae Gould 1844 Rhynchortyx Ogilvie Grant 1893 Tawny faced Quail Oreortyx Baird 1858 Orortyx Coues 1882 Mountain Quail Dendrortyx Gould 1844 Wood Partridges Philortyx Gould 1846 non Des Murs 1854 Banded Quail Colinus Goldfuss 1820 Eupsychortyx Gould 1844 Gnathodon Streubel fi 1842 Ortygia Boie 1826 Philortyx Des Murs 1854 non Gould 1846 Bobwhites Callipepla Wagler 1832 Lophortyx Bonaparte 1838 Cyrtonyx Gould 1844 Dactylortyx Ogilvie Grant 1893 Singing Quail Odontophorus Vieillot 1816 Dentophorus Boie 1828 Wood Quail Family Phasianidae pheasants partridges and relatives Alectoris pliocaena Tugarinov 1940b Bantamyx Kurockin 1982 Centuriavis lioae Ksepka et al 2022 Diangallus Hou 1985 Gallus beremendensis Janossy 1976b Gallus europaeus Harrison 1978 Lophogallus Zelenkov amp Kurockin 2010 Megalocoturnix Sanchez Marco 2009 Miophasianus Brodkorb 1952 Miophasianus Lambrecht 1933 nomen nudum Miogallus Lambrecht 1933 Palaeocryptonyx Deperet 1892 Chauvireria Boev 1997 Pliogallus Tugarinov 1940b non Gaillard 1939 Lambrechtia Janossy 1974 Palaeortyx Milne Edwards 1869 Palaeoperdix Milne Edwards 1869 Plioperdix Kretzoi 1955 Pliogallus Tugarinov 1940 nec Gaillard 1939 Rustaviornis Burchak Abramovich amp Meladze 1972 Schaubortyx Brodkorb 1964 Shandongornis Yeh 1997 Shanxiornis Wang et al 2006 Tologuica Zelenkov amp Kurockin 2009 Subfamily Rollulinae Bonaparte 1850 Subfamily Phasianinae Tribe Lerwini von Boetticher 1939 snow partridge Tribe Ithaginini Wolters 197 blood pheasant Tribe Lophophorini Gray 1841 monals monal partridges and tragopans Tribe Pucrasiini Wolters 1976 koklass pheasant Tribe Meleagridini turkey Tribe Tetraonini Leach 1820 grouse Tribe Rhizotherini long billed partridges Tribe Phasianini Horsfield 1821 true pheasants and partridges Subfamily Pavoninae Tribe Pavonini Rafinesque 1815 peafowl arguses and Tropicoperdix partridges Tribe Polyprectronini Blyth 1852 peacock pheasants Asian spurfowl and crimson headed partridge Tribe Gallini Brehm 1831 junglefowl bamboo partridges and true francolins Tribe Coturnicini Reichenbach 1848 Old World quail snowcocks and alliesThe relationships of many pheasants and partridges were formerly very badly resolved and much confounded by adaptive radiation in the former and convergent evolution in the latter 15 Thus the bulk of the Phasianidae was alternatively treated as a single subfamily Phasianinae The grouse turkeys true pheasants etc would then become tribes of this subfamily similar to how the Coturnicinae are commonly split into a quail and a spurfowl tribe 16 In 2021 Kimball et al found the family to comprise three distinct subfamilies with two containing multiple genera these results were followed by the International Ornithological Congress 14 17 18 The partridge of Europe is not closely related to other partridge like Galliformes as already indicated by its sexually dimorphic coloration and possession of more than 14 rectrices traits it shares with the other advanced phasianids However among these its relationships are obscure it is unclear whether it is closer to the turkeys or to certain short tailed pheasants like Ithaginis Lophophorus Pucrasia and Tragopan 19 In 2021 Kimball et al found it to belong to the subfamily Phasianini alongside the true pheasants 18 Phylogeny editLiving Galliformes based on the work by John Boyd 20 Galliformes classificationMegapodiidae TalegallaLeipoa nbsp AlecturaAepypodius nbsp Macrocephalon nbsp Eulipoa nbsp Megapodius nbsp bushturkeys Cracidae Penelopinae ChamaepetesPenelopinaAburriaPenelope nbsp guans Cracinae Ortalis nbsp Oreophasis nbsp Cracini Nothocrax nbsp Pauxi nbsp Mitu nbsp Crax nbsp curassows Phasiani Numididae GutteraNumida nbsp Acryllium nbsp Agelastes nbsp guineafowl Phasianoidea Odontophoridae Ptilopachus nbsp Odontophorinae Rhynchortyx nbsp Cyrtonyx nbsp DactylortyxOdontophorus nbsp Oreortyx nbsp DendrortyxPhilortyxColinus nbsp Callipepla nbsp New World quail Phasianidae Rollulinae Melanoperdix RhizotheraXenoperdixArborophila nbsp Rollulus nbsp Caloperdix nbsp Pavoninae TropicoperdixCoturnicini Ammoperdix nbsp Synoicus nbsp Excalfactoria nbsp Anurophasis nbsp Margaroperdix nbsp CoturnixTetraogallus nbsp Alectoris nbsp Pternistis nbsp Ophrysia nbsp Perdicula nbsp Old World quail amp partridges Gallini Bambusicola nbsp Gallus nbsp Scleroptila nbsp Peliperdix nbsp Francolinus nbsp junglefowl amp francolins Pavonini Rheinardia nbsp Argusianus nbsp Afropavo nbsp Pavo nbsp peafowl and arguses Polyplectronini GalloperdixHaematortyxPolyplectron nbsp Phasianinae Ithaginis nbsp Lophophorini Tragopan nbsp Lerwa nbsp Tetraophasis nbsp Lophophorus nbsp tragopans amp monals Phasianini Perdix nbsp Syrmaticus nbsp Phasianus nbsp Chrysolophus nbsp LophuraCatreus nbsp Crossoptilon nbsp true pheasants Tetraonini Pucrasia nbsp Meleagris nbsp BonasaTetrastesCentrocercina CentrocercusDendragapusTympanuchusTetraonina LagopusFalcipennisCanachitesTetraoLyrurus turkeys amp grouse Description edit nbsp Female left and male common pheasants Sexual dimorphism is conspicuous in this species one of the most apomorphic gamefowlAs their name suggests they are chicken like in appearance with rounded bodies and blunt wings and range in size from small at 15 cm 6 inches to large at 120 cm 4 feet They are mainly terrestrial birds and their wings are short and rounded for short distance flight Galliforms are anisodactyl like passerines but some of the adult males grow spurs that point backwards Gallinaceous birds are arboreal or terrestrial animals many prefer not to fly but instead walk and run for locomotion They live 5 8 years in the wild and up to 30 years in captivity citation needed They can be found worldwide and in a variety of habitats including forests deserts and grasslands They use visual displays and vocalizations for communication courtship fighting territoriality and brooding They have diverse mating strategies some are monogamous while others are polygamous or polygynandrous Male courtship behavior includes elaborate visual displays of plumage They breed seasonally in accordance with the climate and lay three to 16 eggs per year in nests built on the ground or in trees Gallinaceous birds feed on a variety of plant and animal material which may include fruits seeds leaves shoots flowers tubers roots insects snails worms lizards snakes small rodents and eggs These birds vary in size from the diminutive king quail Coturnix chinensis 5 in long and weighing 28 40 g 1 1 4 oz to the largest extant galliform species the North American wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo which may weigh as much as 14 kg 30 5 lb and may exceed 120 cm 47 in The galliform bird species with the largest wingspan and largest overall length including a train of over 6 feet is most likely the green peafowl Pavo muticus Most galliform genera are plump bodied with thick necks and moderately long legs with rounded and rather short wings Grouse pheasants francolins and partridges are typical in their outwardly corpulent silhouettes Adult males of many galliform birds have one to several sharp horny spurs on the back of each leg which they use for fighting In several lineages pronounced sexual dimorphism occurs and among each galliform clade the more apomorphic advanced lineages tend to be more sexually dimorphic Flightlessness editWhile most galliformes are rather reluctant flyers truly flightless forms are unknown among the extant members of the order Though they are often mischaracterised as weak flying Galliformes are actually highly specialised for their particular flight style bearing extremely powerful flight muscles and some species are even migratory 21 Adult snowcocks are however flightless requiring gravity to launch although juveniles can still fly relatively well 22 Nonetheless a few birds outside the Galliforme crown group did produce flightlessness The genus Sylviornis a huge prehistorically extinct species of New Caledonia was flightless but as opposed to most other flightless birds like ratites or island rails which become flightless due to arrested development of their flight apparatus and subsequently evolve to larger size Sylviornis seems to have become flightless simply due to its bulk with the wing reduction following a consequence not the reason for its flightlessness The gigantic Australian mihirungs which may be closer to Galliformes than to Anseriformes as traditionally expected 23 achieved flightlessness more traditionally strongly reducing their wings and keel They were massive herbivorous birds among the largest avian dinosaurs of all time By contrast the stem galliform Scopelortyx appears to have been more aerial than modern fowl with a flight style more suited for gliding and soaring 24 Behaviour and ecology editThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message Most of the galliform birds are more or less resident but some of the smaller temperate species such as quail do migrate over considerable distances Altitudinal migration is evidently quite common amongst montane species and a few species of subtropical and subarctic regions must reach their watering and or foraging areas through sustained flight Species known to make extensive flights include the ptarmigans sage grouse Centrocercus crested partridge green peafowl crested argus mountain peacock pheasant Polyplectron inopinatum koklass pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha Reeves s pheasant and Syrmaticus reevesii Other species most of the New World quail also known as the toothed quail the enigmatic stone partridge Ptilopachus petrosus of Africa guineafowl and eared pheasants Crossoptilon are all notable for their daily excursions on foot which may take them many miles in a given day Some Galliformes are adapted to grassland habitat and these genera are remarkable for their long thin necks long legs and large wide wings Fairly unrelated species like the crested fireback Lophura ignita vulturine guineafowl Acryllium vulturinum and malleefowl Leipoa ocellata are outwardly similar in their body types see also convergent evolution Most species that show only limited sexual dimorphism are notable for the great amount of locomotion required to find food throughout the majority of the year Those species that are highly sedentary but with marked ecological transformations over seasons exhibit marked distinct differences between the sexes in size and or appearance Eared pheasants guineafowl toothed quail and the snow partridge Lerwa lerwa are examples of limited sexual differences and requirements for traveling over wide terrain to forage Winter ecology edit Gallinaceous birds are well adapted to regions with cold winters Their larger size increased plumage and lower activity levels help them to withstand the cold and conserve energy Under such conditions they are able to change their feeding strategy to that of a ruminant This allows them to feed on and extract energy and nutrients from coarse fibrous plant material such as buds twigs and conifer needles This provides a virtually unlimited source of accessible food and requires little energy to harvest Food and feeding edit nbsp Flock of adult and young helmeted guineafowl foragingHerbivorous to slightly omnivorous galliforms forming the majority of the group are typically stoutly built and have short thick bills primarily adapted for foraging on the ground for rootlets or the consumption of other plant material such as heather shoots The young birds will also take insects Peafowl junglefowl and most of the subtropical pheasant genera have very different nutritional requirements from typical Palearctic genera The Himalayan monal Lophophorus impejanus has been observed digging in the rotting wood of deadfall in a similar manner to woodpeckers to extract invertebrates even bracing itself with aid of its squared tail The cheer pheasant Catreus wallichi crested argus Rheinardia ocellata the crested partridge Rollulus roulroul and the crested guineafowl Guttera pucherani are similar ecologically to the Himalayan monal in that they too forage in rotting wood for termites ant and beetle larvae molluscs crustaceans and young rodents Typical peafowl Pavo most of the peacock pheasants Polyplectron the Bulwer s pheasant Lophura bulweri the ruffed pheasants Chrysolophus and the hill partridges Arborophila have narrow relatively delicate bills poorly suited for digging These galliform genera prefer instead to capture live invertebrates in leaf litter in sand or shallow pools or along stream banks These genera are also outwardly similar in that they each have exceptionally long delicate legs and toes and the tendency to frequent seasonally wet habitats to forage especially during chick rearing The blue peafowl Pavo cristatus is famed in its native India for its appetite for snakes even poisonous cobras which it dispatches with its strong feet and sharp bill The Lady Amherst s pheasant Chrysolophus amherstiae green peafowl Pavo muticus Bulwer s pheasant and the crestless fireback Lophura erythrophthalma are notable for their aptitude to forage for crustaceans such as crayfish and other aquatic small animals in shallow streams and amongst rushes in much the same manner as some members of the rail family Rallidae Similarly although wild turkeys Meleagris gallopavo have a diet primarily of vegetation they will eat insects mice lizards and amphibians wading in water to hunt for the latter Domestic hens Gallus domesticus share this opportunistic behaviour and will eat insects mice worms and amphibians nbsp During mating season the male western capercaillie feeds mainly on bilberry leaves which are toxic to most herbivoresThe tragopans Tragopan mikado pheasant Syrmaticus mikado and several species of grouse and ptarmigan are exceptional in their largely vegetarian and arboreal foraging habitats grouse are especially notable for being able to feed on plants rich in terpenes and quinones such as sagebrush or conifers which are often avoided by other herbivores Many species of moderate altitudes for example the long tailed pheasants of the genus Syrmaticus also find a great deal of their daily nutritional requirements in the tree canopies especially during the snowy and rainy periods when foraging on the ground is dangerous and less than fruitful for a variety of reasons Although members of the genus Syrmaticus are capable of subsisting almost entirely on vegetarian materials for months at a time this is not true for many of the subtropical genera For example the great argus Argusianus argus and crested argus may do most of their foraging during rainy months in the canopy of the jungle as well There they are known to forage on slugs snails ants and amphibians to the exclusion of plant material How they forage in the forest canopy during the rainy months is unknown Reproduction edit Most galliforms are very prolific with clutches regularly exceeding 10 eggs in many species In contrast to most birds which are at least for a particular breeding season monogamous galliforms are often polygynous or polygamous Such species can be recognized by their pronounced sexual dimorphism Galliform young are very precocious and roam with their mothers or both parents in monogamous species mere hours after hatching The most extreme case are the Megapodiidae where the adults do not brood but leave incubation to mounds of rotting vegetation volcanic ash or hot sand The young must dig out of the nest mounds after hatching but they emerge from the eggs fully feathered and upon leaving the mound they are able to fly considerable distances Common species editSee also List of Galliformes by population Grouse and ptarmigans Family TetraonidaeGrouse ptarmigans and prairie chickens are all chicken like birds with short curved strong bills part of the family Tetraonidae This group includes 25 species residing mostly in North America They are mainly ground dwellers and have short rounded wings for brief flights They are well adapted to winter by growing feather snowshoes on their feet and roosting beneath the snow They range in size from the 13 inch 33 cm white tailed ptarmigan to the 28 inch 71 cm sage grouse Their plumage is dense and soft and is most commonly found in shades of red brown and gray to camouflage to the ground They are polygamous and male courtship behavior includes strutting and dancing and aggressive fighting for possession of females The typical clutch size is between seven and 12 eggs Turkeys Family MeleagrididaeTurkeys are large long legged birds that can grow up to 4 feet 1 2 m in height and weigh up to 30 pounds 14 kg in the wild They have a long broad rounded tail with 14 19 blunt feathers They have a naked wrinkled head and feathered body The North American wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo has five distinct subspecies Eastern Rio Grande Florida Osceola Merriam s and Gould s Hybrids also exist where the ranges of these subspecies overlap All are native only to North America though transplanted populations exist elsewhere Their plumage differs slightly by subspecies but is generally dark to black for males with buff to cream highlights and generally drab brown for females The feathers are quite iridescent and can take on distinct reddish copper hues in sunlight Their feathers are well defined with broad square ends giving the bird the appearance of being covered in scales Males have a beard of coarse black bristles hanging from the center of their upper breasts and tend to have more vibrantly colored plumage than do females They breed in the spring and their typical clutch size is between 10 and 12 eggs The ocellated turkey Meleagris ocellata a different species of turkey currently exists only in a portion of the Yucatan peninsula After the 19th and early 20th centuries wild turkey populations dropped significantly because of hunting and habitat loss However populations now flourish again due to hunting management and transplanting The ocellated turkey not commonly hunted is currently threatened due to ongoing habitat loss in the Yucutan Pheasants quail and partridges Family PhasianidaeThe family is divided into four groups 30 species of new world quail residing between Paraguay and Canada 11 species of Old World quail in Africa Australia and Asia 94 species of partridges and 48 species of pheasants This family includes a wide range of bird sizes from a 5 1 2 inches 14 cm quail to pheasants up to almost 30 inches 76 cm Pheasants and quail have heavy round bodies and rounded wings Though they have short legs they are very fast runners when escaping predators Chachalacas Family CracidaeChachalacas are found in the chaparral ecosystems from southern Texas through Mexico and Costa Rica They are mainly arboreal and make their nests in trees 5 to 15 feet 1 5 to 4 6 m above the ground They are large long legged birds that can grow up to 26 inches 66 cm long They have long tails and are chicken like in appearance Their frail looking yet sturdy nests are made of sticks and leaves Their clutch size is three or four eggs The males make a unique loud mating call that give them their name Chachalacas feed mainly on berries but also eat insects They are a popular game bird as their flesh is good to eat They are also commonly domesticated as pets References edit Mourer Chauvire et al 2013 A new taxon of stem group Galliformes and the earliest record for stem group Cuculidae from the Eocene of Djebel Chambi Tunisia PDF Proceed 8th Inter nat Meeting Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution Archived from the original PDF on 20 October 2023 Kuhl H Frankl Vilches C Bakker A Mayr G Nikolaus G Boerno S T Klages S Timmermann B Gahr M 2020 An unbiased molecular approach using 3 UTRs resolves the avian family level tree of life Molecular Biology and Evolution 38 108 127 doi 10 1093 molbev msaa191 PMC 7783168 PMID 32781465 Kimball et al 1999 Dyke et al 2003 Smith et al 2005 Crowe et al 2006a b Smith et al 2005 Crowe et al 2006a b Jackson Christine E 2006 Peacock pp 15 ISBN 9781861892935 Chen D Hosner P A Dittmann D L O Neill J P Birks S M Braun E L Kimball R T 2021 Divergence time estimation of Galliformes based on the best gene shopping scheme of ultraconserved elements BMC Ecology and Evolution 21 1 209 doi 10 1186 s12862 021 01935 1 PMC 8609756 PMID 34809586 Gill Frank Donsker David Rasmussen Pamela eds July 2021 Pheasants partridges francolins IOC World Bird List Version 11 2 International Ornithologists Union Retrieved 23 November 2021 Quaillike creatures were the only birds to survive the dinosaur killing asteroid impact Clarke 2004 Agnolin et al 2006 Zelenitsky et al 1996 Specimen MCZ 342506 A proximal humerus of a bird larger than Gallinuloides Mayr amp Weidig 2004 a b Kimball et al 1999 2001 Crowe et al 2006a b a b Taxonomic Updates IOC World Bird List Retrieved 2021 08 01 Dyke et al 2003 See e g the phylogenies in Kimball et al 2006 and Crowe et al 2006a b Kimball Rebecca T Hosner Peter A Braun Edward L 2021 05 01 A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes Landfowl reveals biased branch lengths Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 158 107091 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2021 107091 ISSN 1055 7903 PMID 33545275 S2CID 231963063 a b Galliformes bird phylogeny in German Retrieved 2021 08 01 Kimball et al 1999 2001 Smith et al 2005 Crowe et al 2006a b John Boyd s website 1 Boyd John 2007 GALLIFORMES Landfowl Retrieved 30 December 2015 Gary W Kaiser The Inner Bird Anatomy and Evolution Paperback 1 Feb 2008 Madge Steve McGowan J K Kirwan Guy M 2002 Pheasants Partridges and Grouse A Guide to the Pheasants Partridges Quail Grouse Guineafowl Buttonquail and Sandgrouse of the World A C Black pp 174 180 ISBN 9780713639667 Worthy T Mitri M Handley W Lee M Anderson A Sand C 2016 Osteology supports a steam galliform affinity for the giant extinct flightless birds Sylviornis neocaledoniae Sylviornithidae Galloanseres PLOS ONE doi 10 1371 journal pone 0150871 Mourer Chauvire C Pickford M 2015 Stemp group galliform and stemp group psittaciform birds Aves Galliformes Paraortygidae and Psittaciformes family incertae sedis from the Middle Eocene of Namibia Journal of Ornithology 156 1 275 286 doi 10 1007 s10336 014 1124 y S2CID 16336177 Further reading editAgnolin Federico L Novas Fernando E amp Lio Gabriel 2006 Neornithine bird coracoid from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia Ameghiniana 43 1 245 248 HTML fulltext Clarke Julia A 2004 Morphology Phylogenetic Taxonomy and Systematics of Ichthyornis and Apatornis Avialae Ornithurae PDF Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 286 1 179 doi 10 1206 0003 0090 2004 286 lt 0001 mptaso gt 2 0 co 2 S2CID 84035285 Crowe Timothy M Bloomer Paulette Randi Ettore Lucchini Vittorio Kimball Rebecca T Braun Edward L amp Groth Jeffrey G 2006a Supra generic cladistics of landfowl Order Galliformes Acta Zoologica Sinica 52 Supplement 358 361 PDF fulltext Archived 2010 06 23 at the Wayback Machine Crowe Timothy M Bowie Rauri C K Bloomer Paulette Mandiwana Tshifhiwa G Hedderson Terry A J Randi Ettore Pereira Sergio L amp Wakeling Julia 2006b Phylogenetics biogeography and classification of and character evolution in gamebirds Aves Galliformes effects of character exclusion data partitioning and missing data Cladistics 22 6 495 532 doi 10 1111 j 1096 0031 2006 00120 x PDF fulltext Dyke Gareth J Gulas Bonnie E amp Crowe Timothy M 2003 Suprageneric relationships of galliform birds Aves Galliformes a cladistic analysis of morphological characters Zool J Linn Soc 137 2 227 244 doi 10 1046 j 1096 3642 2003 00048 x PDF fulltext Kimball Rebecca T Braun Edward L Zwartjes P W Crowe Timothy M amp Ligon J David 1999 A molecular phylogeny of the pheasants and partridges suggests that these lineages are not monophyletic Mol Phylogenet Evol 11 1 38 54 doi 10 1006 mpev 1998 0562 PDF fulltext Archived 2011 04 28 at the Wayback Machine Kimball Rebecca T Braun Edward L Ligon J David Lucchini Vittorio amp Randi Ettore 2001 A molecular phylogeny of the peacock pheasants Galliformes Polyplectron spp indicates loss and reduction of ornamental traits and display behaviours Biol J Linn Soc 73 2 187 198 doi 10 1006 bijl 2001 0536 PDF fulltext Kimball Rebecca T Braun Edward L Ligon J David Randi Ettore amp Lucchini Vittorio 2006 Using molecular phylogenetics to interpret evolutionary changes in morphology and behavior in the Phasianidae Acta Zoologica Sinica 52 Supplement 362 365 PDF fulltext Mandiwana Neudani T G Little R M Crowe T M Bowie R C K 2019 Taxonomy phylogeny and biogeography of African spurfowl Galliformes Phasianidae Phasianinae Coturnicini Pternistis spp Ostrich 90 2 145 172 doi 10 2989 00306525 2019 1584925 S2CID 195417777 Mayr Gerald Weidig Ilka 2004 The Early Eocene bird Gallinuloides wyomingensis a stem group representative of Galliformes Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 49 2 211 217 Smith Edward J Shi Li amp Tu Zhijian 2005 Gallus gallus aggrecan gene based phylogenetic analysis of selected avian taxonomic groups Genetica 124 1 23 32 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 2001 tb01356 x HTML abstract Zelenitsky Darla K Hills L V amp Currie Philip J 1996 Parataxonomic classification of ornithoid eggshell fragments from the Oldman Formation Judith River Group Upper Cretaceous Southern Alberta Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 33 12 1655 1667 PDF fulltext Bent Arthur C 1963 Life Histories of North American Gallinaceous Birds New York Dover Publications Inc Eaton Stephen W 1992 The Birds of North America Wild Turkey No 22 The Academy of Natural Sciences Washington DC The American Ornithologists Union Forbush Edward H 1929 Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States Norwood Massachusetts Norwood press Harrison Kit and George 1990 The Birds of Winter New York Random House Pearson T Gilbert et al 1936 Birds of America New York Garden City Publishing Company Inc Peterson M J 2000 The Birds of North America Plain Chachalaca Ortalis vetula No 550 The Birds of North America Inc Philadelphia PA Robbins Chandler S et al 1966 A Guide to Field Identification Birds of North America New York Golden Press External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Galliformes nbsp Wikisource has the text of a 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article about Galliformes The World Pheasant Association The ultimate authority on Galliformes Gamebird Journal An Online Magazine Devoted To The Gamebird Enthusiast Galliformes Conservation and aviculture Archived 2019 07 22 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Galliformes amp oldid 1186332357, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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