fbpx
Wikipedia

Sclerophyll

Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat. The plants feature hard leaves, short internodes (the distance between leaves along the stem) and leaf orientation which is parallel or oblique to direct sunlight. The word comes from the Greek sklēros (hard) and phyllon (leaf). The term was coined by A.F.W. Schimper in 1898 (translated in 1903), originally as a synonym of xeromorph, but the two words were later differentiated.[1]

The hard leaves of a Banksia integrifolia (notice the short internodes)

Sclerophyllous plants occur in many parts of the world,[2] but are most typical of areas with low rainfall or seasonal droughts, such as Australia, Africa, and western North and South America. They are prominent throughout Australia, parts of Argentina, the Cerrado biogeographic region of Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil, and in the Mediterranean biomes that cover the Mediterranean Basin, California, Chile, and the Cape Province of South Africa.

In the Mediterranean basin, holm oak, cork oak and olives are typical hardwood trees. In addition, there are several species of pine under the trees in the vegetation zone. The shrub layer contains numerous herbs such as rosemary, thyme and lavender. In relation to the potential natural vegetation, around 2% of the earth's land surface is covered by sclerophyll woodlands, and a total of 10% of all plant species on earth live there.

Description

 
Sclerophyllous woodland in Spain

Sclerophyll woody plants are characterized by their relatively small, stiff, leathery and long-lasting leaves. The sclerophyll vegetation is the result of an adaptation of the flora to the summer dry period of a Mediterranean-type climate.

Plant species with this type of adaptation tend to be evergreen with great longevity, slow growth and with no loss of leaves during the unfavorable season. To note, "sclerophyll" and "evergreen" are not synonymous. As a result, the thickets that make up these ecosystems are of the persistent evergreen type, in addition to the predominance of plants, even herbaceous ones, with "hard" leaves, which are covered by a thick leathery layer called the cuticle, that prevents water loss during the dry season. The aerial and underground structures of these plants are modified to make up for water shortages that may affect their survival.

The name sclerophyll derives from the highly developed sclerenchyma from the plant, which is responsible for the hardness or stiffness of the leaves. This structure of the leaves inhibits transpiration and thus prevents major water losses during the dry season. Most of the plant species in the sclerophyll zone are not only insensitive to summer drought, they have also used various strategies to adapt to frequent wildfires, heavy rainfall and nutrient deficiencies.[3]

Ecology

 
Sclerophyll woodland in Tuscany, Italy

The type of sclerophyllic trees in the Palearctic flora region include the holm oak (Quercus ilex), myrtle (Myrtus communis), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), wild olive (Olea europaea), laurel (Laurus nobilis), mock privet (Phillyrea latifolia), the Italian buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus), etc.[4]

Climate

 
A sclerophyll bushland in Sydney (which falls in the humid subtropical zone)

The sclerophyll regions are located in the outer subtropics bordering the temperate zone (also known as the warm-temperate zone). Accordingly, the annual average temperatures are relatively high at 12–24 °C; An average of over 18 °C is reached for at least four months, eight to twelve months it is over 10 °C and no month is below 5 °C on average. Frost and snow occur only occasionally and the growing season lasts longer than 150 days and is in the winter half-year.[9] The lower limit of the moderate annual precipitation is 300mm (semi-arid climate) and the upper limit 900–1000 mm.

Generally, the summers are dry and hot with a dry season of a maximum of seven months, but at least two to three months. The winters are rainy and cool. However, not all regions with sclerophyll vegetation feature the classic Mediterranean climate; parts of eastern Italy, eastern Australia and eastern South Africa, which feature sclerophyll woodlands, tend to have uniform rainfall or even a more summer-dominant rainfall, whereby falling under the humid subtropical climate zone (Cfa/Cwa). Furthermore, other areas with sclerophyll flora would grade to the oceanic climate (Cfb); particularly the eastern parts of the Eastern Cape province in South Africa, and Tasmania, Victoria and southern New South Wales in Australia.[10]

Distribution

The zone of the sclerophyll vegetation lies in the border area between the subtropics and the temperate zone, approximately between the 30th and 40th degree of latitude (in the northern hemisphere also up to the 45th degree of latitude). Their presence is limited to the coastal western sides of the continents, but nonetheless can typical in any regions of a continent with scarce annual precipitation or frequent seasonal droughts and poor soils that are heavily leached.[11]

The sclerophyll zone often merges into temperate deciduous forests towards the poles, on the coasts also into temperate rainforests and towards the equator in hot semi-deserts or deserts. The Mediterranean areas, which have a very high biodiversity, are under great pressure from the population. This is especially true for the Mediterranean region since ancient times. Through overexploitation (logging, grazing, agricultural use) and frequent fires caused by people, the original forest vegetation is converted. In extreme cases, the hard-leaf vegetation disappears completely and is replaced by open rock heaths.

 
Sclerophyll shrubland in southwestern Madagascar

Some sclerophyll areas are closer to the equator than the Mediterranean zone—for example, the interior of Madagascar, the dry half of New Caledonia, the lower edge areas of the Madrean pine-oak woodlands of the Mexican highlands between 800 and 1800/2000 m or around 2000 m high plateaus of the Asir Mountains on the western edge of the Arabian Peninsula.[12]

Land use

While the winter rain areas of America, South Africa and Australia, with an unusually large variety of food crops, were ideal gathering areas for hunter gatherers until European colonization, agriculture and cattle breeding spread in the Mediterranean area since the Neolithic, which permanently changed the face of the landscape. In the sclerophyll regions near the coast, permanent crops such as olive and wine cultivation established themselves; However, the landscape forms that characterize the degenerate shrubbery and shrub heaths Macchie and Garigue are predominantly a result of grazing (especially with goats).

In the course of the last millennia, the original vegetation in almost all areas of this vegetation zone has been greatly changed by the influence of humans. Where the plants have not been replaced by vineyards and olive groves, the maquis was the predominant form of vegetation on the Mediterranean. The maquis has been degraded in many places to the low shrub heather, the garigue. Many plant species that are rich in aromatic oils belong to both vegetation societies. The diversity of the original sclerophyll vegetation in the world is high to extremely high (3000-5000 species per ha).[13]

Australian bush

 
Bush around Eagle Bay, Western Australia

Most areas of the Australian continent able to support woody plants are occupied by sclerophyll communities as forests, savannas, or heathlands. Common plants include the Proteaceae (grevilleas, banksias and hakeas), tea-trees, acacias, boronias, and eucalypts.

The most common sclerophyll communities in Australia are savannas dominated by grasses with an overstorey of eucalypts and acacias. Acacia (particularly mulga) shrublands also cover extensive areas. All the dominant overstorey acacia species and a majority of the understorey acacias have a scleromorphic adaptation in which the leaves have been reduced to phyllodes consisting entirely of the petiole.[14]

Many plants of the sclerophyllous woodlands and shrublands also produce leaves unpalatable to herbivores by the inclusion of toxic and indigestible compounds which assure survival of these long-lived leaves. This trait is particularly noticeable in the eucalypt and Melaleuca species which possess oil glands within their leaves that produce a pungent volatile oil that makes them unpalatable to most browsers.[15] These traits make the majority of woody plants in these woodlands largely unpalatable to domestic livestock.[16] It is therefore important from a grazing perspective that these woodlands support a more or less continuous layer of herbaceous ground cover dominated by grasses.

Sclerophyll forests cover a much smaller area of the continent, being restricted to relatively high rainfall locations. They have a eucalyptus overstory (10 to 30 metres) with the understory also being hard-leaved. Dry sclerophyll forests are the most common forest type on the continent, and although it may seem barren dry sclerophyll forest is highly diverse. For example, a study of sclerophyll vegetation in Seal Creek, Victoria, found 138 species.[17]

Even less extensive are wet sclerophyll forests. They have a taller eucalyptus overstory than dry sclerophyll forests, 30 metres or more (typically mountain ash, alpine ash, rose gum, karri, messmate stringybark, or manna gum, and a soft-leaved, fairly dense understory (tree ferns are common). They require ample rainfall—at least 1000 mm (40 inches).

Evolution

 
Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora) in a sclerophyll woodland, Melbourne (Cfb climate)

Sclerophyllous plants are all part of a specific environment and are anything but newcomers. By the time of European settlement, sclerophyll forest accounted for the vast bulk of the forested areas.

Most of the wooded parts of present-day Australia have become sclerophyll dominated as a result of the extreme age of the continent combined with Aboriginal fire use. Deep weathering of the crust over many millions of years leached chemicals out of the rock, leaving Australian soils deficient in nutrients, particularly phosphorus. Such nutrient deficient soils support non-sclerophyllous plant communities elsewhere in the world and did so over most of Australia prior to European arrival. However such deficient soils cannot support the nutrient losses associated with frequent fires and are rapidly replaced with sclerophyllous species under traditional Aboriginal burning regimens. With the cessation of traditional burning non-sclerophyllous species have re-colonized sclerophyll habitat in many parts of Australia.[citation needed]

The presence of toxic compounds combined with a high carbon : nitrogen ratio make the leaves and branches of scleromorphic species long-lived in the litter, and can lead to a large build-up of litter in woodlands.[18][19] The toxic compounds of many species, notably Eucalyptus species, are volatile and flammable and the presence of large amounts of flammable litter, coupled with an herbaceous understorey, encourages fire.[20]

All the Australian sclerophyllous communities are liable to be burnt with varying frequencies and many of the woody plants of these woodlands have developed adaptations to survive and minimise the effects of fire.[21]

Sclerophyllous plants generally resist dry conditions well, making them successful in areas of seasonally variable rainfall. In Australia, however, they evolved in response to the low level of phosphorus in the soil—indeed, many native Australian plants cannot tolerate higher levels of phosphorus and will die if fertilised incorrectly. The leaves are hard due to lignin, which prevents wilting and allows plants to grow, even when there is not enough phosphorus for substantial new cell growth.[22]

Regions

 
Sclerophyll vegetation on Mount Meron in Israel
 
Hard-leaved vegetation in the High Atlas mountains, Morocco

These are the biomes or ecoregions in the world that feature an abundance of, or are known for having, sclerophyll vegetation:

See also

References

  1. ^ Bowman, D. M. J. S. (2000). The sclerophyll problem. In: Australian Rainforests. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. pp. 48-67, [1].
  2. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2010. Leather Oak, Quercus durata. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and Environment. Washington, DC
  3. ^ Georg Grabherr: Farbatlas Ökosysteme der Erde. Ulmer, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-8001-3489-6.
  4. ^ Richard Pott: Allgemeine Geobotanik. Berlin/ Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 3-540-23058-0, S. 353–398.
  5. ^ . World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2012. (material included verbatim under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license
  6. ^ Duncan, F; Brown, M.J (1985). "Dry Sclerophyll vegetation in Tasmania". Wildlife Division Technical Report 85/1- National Parks and Wildlife Services.
  7. ^ "Sydney Coastal Dry Sclerophyll Forests". NSW Environment & Heritage. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
  8. ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008)
  9. ^ Jörg S. Pfadenhauer und Frank A. Klötzli: Vegetation der Erde. Springer Spektrum, Berlin/Heidelberg 2014, ISBN 978-3-642-41949-2. S. 289–291.
  10. ^ Jürgen Schultz: Handbuch der Ökozonen, Ulmer, Stuttgart 2000, pp. 45–46 and Post et al., 1982, p. 35.
  11. ^ Susanne Heise: Vegetation zones: The zone of the evergreen hardwood plants, in TERRA-Online/Realschule on Klett.de, Klett, Leipzig 2003, version January 26, 2006, accessed on December 17, 2020.
  12. ^ Josef Schmithüsen (Ed.): Atlas for Biogeography. Meyer's large physical world atlas, vol. 3., Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim, Vienna, Zurich 1976, ISBN 3-411-00303-0 . P. 19 (Asir Mountains), P. 43 (Mexican Highlands).
  13. ^ Klaus Müller-Hohenstein: The geo-ecological zones of the earth. In: Geography and School. Issue 59, Bayreuth 1989.
  14. ^ Simmons, M. 1982. Acacias of Australia. Thomas Nelson, Melbourne
  15. ^ Florence, R. G. 1996. Ecology and silviculture of eucalypt forests. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.
  16. ^ Mott, J. J., and J. C. Tothill. 1984. Tropical and subtropical woodlands. in G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson, editors. Management of Australia's Rangelands. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
  17. ^ Parsons R. F.; Cameron D .G. (1974). "Maximum Plant Species Diversity in Terrestrial Communities". Biotropica. The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation. 6 (3): 202. doi:10.2307/2989653. JSTOR 2989653.
  18. ^ White, M. E. 1986. The Greening of Gondwana. Reed Books, Frenchs Forest, Australia.
  19. ^ Flannery, T. 1994. The future eaters. Reed New Holland, Frenchs Forest, Australia.
  20. ^ Burrows, W. H., J. O. Carter, J. C. Scanlan, and E. R. Anderson. 1990. Management of savannas for livestock production in north-east Australia: contrasts across the tree-grass continuum. Journal of Biogeography 17:503–512.
  21. ^ Harrington, G. N., M. H. Friedel, K. C. Hodgkinson, and J. C. Noble. 1984. Vegetation ecology and management. in G. N. Harrington and A. D. Wilson, editors. Management of Australia's Rangelands. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
  22. ^ R. Major (2003). "Sclerophyll forests". Australian Museum. Retrieved February 14, 2005.

sclerophyll, type, vegetation, that, adapted, long, periods, dryness, heat, plants, feature, hard, leaves, short, internodes, distance, between, leaves, along, stem, leaf, orientation, which, parallel, oblique, direct, sunlight, word, comes, from, greek, sklēr. Sclerophyll is a type of vegetation that is adapted to long periods of dryness and heat The plants feature hard leaves short internodes the distance between leaves along the stem and leaf orientation which is parallel or oblique to direct sunlight The word comes from the Greek skleros hard and phyllon leaf The term was coined by A F W Schimper in 1898 translated in 1903 originally as a synonym of xeromorph but the two words were later differentiated 1 Chaparral vegetation in Southern California The hard leaves of a Banksia integrifolia notice the short internodes Sclerophyllous plants occur in many parts of the world 2 but are most typical of areas with low rainfall or seasonal droughts such as Australia Africa and western North and South America They are prominent throughout Australia parts of Argentina the Cerrado biogeographic region of Bolivia Paraguay and Brazil and in the Mediterranean biomes that cover the Mediterranean Basin California Chile and the Cape Province of South Africa In the Mediterranean basin holm oak cork oak and olives are typical hardwood trees In addition there are several species of pine under the trees in the vegetation zone The shrub layer contains numerous herbs such as rosemary thyme and lavender In relation to the potential natural vegetation around 2 of the earth s land surface is covered by sclerophyll woodlands and a total of 10 of all plant species on earth live there Contents 1 Description 2 Ecology 3 Climate 4 Distribution 4 1 Land use 5 Australian bush 5 1 Evolution 6 Regions 7 See also 8 ReferencesDescription Edit Sclerophyllous woodland in Spain Sclerophyll woody plants are characterized by their relatively small stiff leathery and long lasting leaves The sclerophyll vegetation is the result of an adaptation of the flora to the summer dry period of a Mediterranean type climate Plant species with this type of adaptation tend to be evergreen with great longevity slow growth and with no loss of leaves during the unfavorable season To note sclerophyll and evergreen are not synonymous As a result the thickets that make up these ecosystems are of the persistent evergreen type in addition to the predominance of plants even herbaceous ones with hard leaves which are covered by a thick leathery layer called the cuticle that prevents water loss during the dry season The aerial and underground structures of these plants are modified to make up for water shortages that may affect their survival The name sclerophyll derives from the highly developed sclerenchyma from the plant which is responsible for the hardness or stiffness of the leaves This structure of the leaves inhibits transpiration and thus prevents major water losses during the dry season Most of the plant species in the sclerophyll zone are not only insensitive to summer drought they have also used various strategies to adapt to frequent wildfires heavy rainfall and nutrient deficiencies 3 Ecology Edit Sclerophyll woodland in Tuscany Italy The type of sclerophyllic trees in the Palearctic flora region include the holm oak Quercus ilex myrtle Myrtus communis strawberry tree Arbutus unedo wild olive Olea europaea laurel Laurus nobilis mock privet Phillyrea latifolia the Italian buckthorn Rhamnus alaternus etc 4 In central and southern California the coastal hills are covered in sclerophyll vegetation known as chaparral The flora of this ecoregion also includes tree species Scrub oak Quercus dumosa California buckeye Aesculus californica San Gabriel Mountain liveforever Dudlea densiflora Catalina mahogany Cercocarpus traskiae and the threatened jewelflower Streptanthus albidus ssp Peramoenus 5 In South Africa in the Cape region there are Mediterranean open forests known as fynbos The abundance of endemics is so extraordinary 68 of the 8600 vascular plant species in the area that the South African sclerophyll area the cape flora forms the smallest of the six flora kingdoms on earth Plants include Elegia Thamnochortus and Willdenowia and proteas such as king protea Protea cynaroides and blushing bride Serruria florida In most of Australia sclerophyll vegetation such as eucalyptus trees melaleucas banksias callistemons and grevilleas dominate the mallee and woodland areas of its cities including those lacking a Mediterranean climate such as Sydney Melbourne Hobart and Brisbane 6 7 In Chile south of the desert areas there is evergreen bushland called matorral Typical species include Litre Lithraea venenosa Quillay or Soapbark Tree Quillaja saponaria and bromeliads of genus Puya 8 Climate Edit A sclerophyll bushland in Sydney which falls in the humid subtropical zone The sclerophyll regions are located in the outer subtropics bordering the temperate zone also known as the warm temperate zone Accordingly the annual average temperatures are relatively high at 12 24 C An average of over 18 C is reached for at least four months eight to twelve months it is over 10 C and no month is below 5 C on average Frost and snow occur only occasionally and the growing season lasts longer than 150 days and is in the winter half year 9 The lower limit of the moderate annual precipitation is 300mm semi arid climate and the upper limit 900 1000 mm Generally the summers are dry and hot with a dry season of a maximum of seven months but at least two to three months The winters are rainy and cool However not all regions with sclerophyll vegetation feature the classic Mediterranean climate parts of eastern Italy eastern Australia and eastern South Africa which feature sclerophyll woodlands tend to have uniform rainfall or even a more summer dominant rainfall whereby falling under the humid subtropical climate zone Cfa Cwa Furthermore other areas with sclerophyll flora would grade to the oceanic climate Cfb particularly the eastern parts of the Eastern Cape province in South Africa and Tasmania Victoria and southern New South Wales in Australia 10 Distribution EditThe zone of the sclerophyll vegetation lies in the border area between the subtropics and the temperate zone approximately between the 30th and 40th degree of latitude in the northern hemisphere also up to the 45th degree of latitude Their presence is limited to the coastal western sides of the continents but nonetheless can typical in any regions of a continent with scarce annual precipitation or frequent seasonal droughts and poor soils that are heavily leached 11 The sclerophyll zone often merges into temperate deciduous forests towards the poles on the coasts also into temperate rainforests and towards the equator in hot semi deserts or deserts The Mediterranean areas which have a very high biodiversity are under great pressure from the population This is especially true for the Mediterranean region since ancient times Through overexploitation logging grazing agricultural use and frequent fires caused by people the original forest vegetation is converted In extreme cases the hard leaf vegetation disappears completely and is replaced by open rock heaths Sclerophyll shrubland in southwestern Madagascar Some sclerophyll areas are closer to the equator than the Mediterranean zone for example the interior of Madagascar the dry half of New Caledonia the lower edge areas of the Madrean pine oak woodlands of the Mexican highlands between 800 and 1800 2000 m or around 2000 m high plateaus of the Asir Mountains on the western edge of the Arabian Peninsula 12 Land use Edit While the winter rain areas of America South Africa and Australia with an unusually large variety of food crops were ideal gathering areas for hunter gatherers until European colonization agriculture and cattle breeding spread in the Mediterranean area since the Neolithic which permanently changed the face of the landscape In the sclerophyll regions near the coast permanent crops such as olive and wine cultivation established themselves However the landscape forms that characterize the degenerate shrubbery and shrub heaths Macchie and Garigue are predominantly a result of grazing especially with goats In the course of the last millennia the original vegetation in almost all areas of this vegetation zone has been greatly changed by the influence of humans Where the plants have not been replaced by vineyards and olive groves the maquis was the predominant form of vegetation on the Mediterranean The maquis has been degraded in many places to the low shrub heather the garigue Many plant species that are rich in aromatic oils belong to both vegetation societies The diversity of the original sclerophyll vegetation in the world is high to extremely high 3000 5000 species per ha 13 Australian bush EditSee also Flora of Australia Bush around Eagle Bay Western Australia Most areas of the Australian continent able to support woody plants are occupied by sclerophyll communities as forests savannas or heathlands Common plants include the Proteaceae grevilleas banksias and hakeas tea trees acacias boronias and eucalypts The most common sclerophyll communities in Australia are savannas dominated by grasses with an overstorey of eucalypts and acacias Acacia particularly mulga shrublands also cover extensive areas All the dominant overstorey acacia species and a majority of the understorey acacias have a scleromorphic adaptation in which the leaves have been reduced to phyllodes consisting entirely of the petiole 14 Many plants of the sclerophyllous woodlands and shrublands also produce leaves unpalatable to herbivores by the inclusion of toxic and indigestible compounds which assure survival of these long lived leaves This trait is particularly noticeable in the eucalypt and Melaleuca species which possess oil glands within their leaves that produce a pungent volatile oil that makes them unpalatable to most browsers 15 These traits make the majority of woody plants in these woodlands largely unpalatable to domestic livestock 16 It is therefore important from a grazing perspective that these woodlands support a more or less continuous layer of herbaceous ground cover dominated by grasses Sclerophyll forests cover a much smaller area of the continent being restricted to relatively high rainfall locations They have a eucalyptus overstory 10 to 30 metres with the understory also being hard leaved Dry sclerophyll forests are the most common forest type on the continent and although it may seem barren dry sclerophyll forest is highly diverse For example a study of sclerophyll vegetation in Seal Creek Victoria found 138 species 17 Even less extensive are wet sclerophyll forests They have a taller eucalyptus overstory than dry sclerophyll forests 30 metres or more typically mountain ash alpine ash rose gum karri messmate stringybark or manna gum and a soft leaved fairly dense understory tree ferns are common They require ample rainfall at least 1000 mm 40 inches Evolution Edit Yellow Box Eucalyptus melliodora in a sclerophyll woodland Melbourne Cfb climate Sclerophyllous plants are all part of a specific environment and are anything but newcomers By the time of European settlement sclerophyll forest accounted for the vast bulk of the forested areas Most of the wooded parts of present day Australia have become sclerophyll dominated as a result of the extreme age of the continent combined with Aboriginal fire use Deep weathering of the crust over many millions of years leached chemicals out of the rock leaving Australian soils deficient in nutrients particularly phosphorus Such nutrient deficient soils support non sclerophyllous plant communities elsewhere in the world and did so over most of Australia prior to European arrival However such deficient soils cannot support the nutrient losses associated with frequent fires and are rapidly replaced with sclerophyllous species under traditional Aboriginal burning regimens With the cessation of traditional burning non sclerophyllous species have re colonized sclerophyll habitat in many parts of Australia citation needed The presence of toxic compounds combined with a high carbon nitrogen ratio make the leaves and branches of scleromorphic species long lived in the litter and can lead to a large build up of litter in woodlands 18 19 The toxic compounds of many species notably Eucalyptus species are volatile and flammable and the presence of large amounts of flammable litter coupled with an herbaceous understorey encourages fire 20 All the Australian sclerophyllous communities are liable to be burnt with varying frequencies and many of the woody plants of these woodlands have developed adaptations to survive and minimise the effects of fire 21 Sclerophyllous plants generally resist dry conditions well making them successful in areas of seasonally variable rainfall In Australia however they evolved in response to the low level of phosphorus in the soil indeed many native Australian plants cannot tolerate higher levels of phosphorus and will die if fertilised incorrectly The leaves are hard due to lignin which prevents wilting and allows plants to grow even when there is not enough phosphorus for substantial new cell growth 22 Regions Edit Sclerophyll vegetation on Mount Meron in Israel Hard leaved vegetation in the High Atlas mountains Morocco These are the biomes or ecoregions in the world that feature an abundance of or are known for having sclerophyll vegetation Cumberland Plain Woodland Sydney Sandstone Ridgetop Woodland Tasmanian dry sclerophyll forests Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests California chaparral and woodlands California coastal sage and chaparral Chilean Matorral Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands Italian sclerophyllous and semi deciduous forests Eastern Mediterranean conifer sclerophyllous broadleaf forests Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests Tyrrhenian Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests Mediterranean acacia argania dry woodlands Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe Southeastern Iberian shrubs and woodlands Cyprus Mediterranean forests Crete Mediterranean forests Cape Floristic Region Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests Albany thickets Northwest Iberian montane forestsSee also EditMediterranean forests woodlands and scrub Chaparral Fynbos Maquis shrubland Garrigue Kwongan Matorral Barren vegetationReferences Edit Bowman D M J S 2000 The sclerophyll problem In Australian Rainforests 1st ed Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000 pp 48 67 1 C Michael Hogan 2010 Leather Oak Quercus durata Encyclopedia of Earth National Council for Science and Environment Washington DC Georg Grabherr Farbatlas Okosysteme der Erde Ulmer Stuttgart 1997 ISBN 3 8001 3489 6 Richard Pott Allgemeine Geobotanik Berlin Heidelberg 2005 ISBN 3 540 23058 0 S 353 398 California Chaparral amp Woodlands World Wildlife Fund Archived from the original on October 8 2012 Retrieved June 15 2012 material included verbatim under the CC BY SA 3 0 license Duncan F Brown M J 1985 Dry Sclerophyll vegetation in Tasmania Wildlife Division Technical Report 85 1 National Parks and Wildlife Services Sydney Coastal Dry Sclerophyll Forests NSW Environment amp Heritage Retrieved September 17 2012 C Michael Hogan 2008 Chilean Wine Palm Jubaea chilensis GlobalTwitcher com ed N Stromberg Jorg S Pfadenhauer und Frank A Klotzli Vegetation der Erde Springer Spektrum Berlin Heidelberg 2014 ISBN 978 3 642 41949 2 S 289 291 Jurgen Schultz Handbuch der Okozonen Ulmer Stuttgart 2000 pp 45 46 and Post et al 1982 p 35 Susanne Heise Vegetation zones The zone of the evergreen hardwood plants in TERRA Online Realschule on Klett de Klett Leipzig 2003 version January 26 2006 accessed on December 17 2020 Josef Schmithusen Ed Atlas for Biogeography Meyer s large physical world atlas vol 3 Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim Vienna Zurich 1976 ISBN 3 411 00303 0 P 19 Asir Mountains P 43 Mexican Highlands Klaus Muller Hohenstein The geo ecological zones of the earth In Geography and School Issue 59 Bayreuth 1989 Simmons M 1982 Acacias of Australia Thomas Nelson Melbourne Florence R G 1996 Ecology and silviculture of eucalypt forests CSIRO Publishing Collingwood Mott J J and J C Tothill 1984 Tropical and subtropical woodlands in G N Harrington and A D Wilson editors Management of Australia s Rangelands CSIRO Publishing Melbourne Parsons R F Cameron D G 1974 Maximum Plant Species Diversity in Terrestrial Communities Biotropica The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation 6 3 202 doi 10 2307 2989653 JSTOR 2989653 White M E 1986 The Greening of Gondwana Reed Books Frenchs Forest Australia Flannery T 1994 The future eaters Reed New Holland Frenchs Forest Australia Burrows W H J O Carter J C Scanlan and E R Anderson 1990 Management of savannas for livestock production in north east Australia contrasts across the tree grass continuum Journal of Biogeography 17 503 512 Harrington G N M H Friedel K C Hodgkinson and J C Noble 1984 Vegetation ecology and management in G N Harrington and A D Wilson editors Management of Australia s Rangelands CSIRO Publishing Melbourne R Major 2003 Sclerophyll forests Australian Museum Retrieved February 14 2005 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sclerophyll amp oldid 1122779758, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.