Arbëresh language

This article is about a dialect spoken in Italy. For the related dialect spoken in Greece, see Arvanitika.

Arbëresh (gluha/gjuha/gjufa Arbëreshe, also known as Arbërisht, Arbreshi, Arbërishtja or Tarbrisht) is the variety of Albanian spoken by the Arbëreshë people of Italy. It is derived from the Albanian Tosk spoken in Albania, in Epirus and is also spoken by the Arvanites, with endonym Arvanitika.

Arbëresh
Arbërisht
Pronunciation	[ˌaɾbəˈɾiʃt]
Native to	Italy
Region	Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Sicily
Ethnicity	Arbëreshë people
Native speakers	100,000 (2007)^[1]
Language family	Indo-European Albanian Tosk Arbëresh
Early forms	Proto-Indo-European Proto-Albanian
Writing system	Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3	aae
Glottolog	arbe1236
ELP	Arbëreshë
Linguasphere	55-AAA-ah
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

History

Main article: Arbëreshë people § History

Between the 11th and 14th centuries, Albanian-speaking mercenaries from the areas of Albania, Epirus and now Greece, were often recruited by the Franks, Aragonese, Italians and Byzantines.

The invasion of the Balkans by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century caused large waves of emigration from the Balkans to southern Italy. In 1448, the King of Naples, Alfonso V of Aragon, asked the Albanian noble Skanderbeg to transfer to his service ethnic Albanian mercenaries. Led by Demetrio Reres and his two sons, these men and their families were settled in twelve villages in the Catanzaro area of Calabria. The following year, some of their relatives and other Albanians were settled in four villages in Sicily.^[2][3] In 1459 Ferdinand I of Naples also requested assistance from Skanderbeg. After victories in two battles, a second contingent of Albanians was rewarded with land east of Taranto, in Apulia, where they founded 15 villages.^[4][5] After the death of Skanderbeg (1468), resistance to the Ottomans in Albania came to an end. Subsequently, many Albanians fled to neighbouring countries and some settled in villages in Calabria.

There was a constant flow of ethnic Albanians into Italy into the 16th century, and other Albanian villages were formed on Italian soil.^[6][5] The new immigrants often took up work as mercenaries with Italian armies. For instance, between 1500 and 1534, Albanians from central Greece were employed as mercenaries by Venice, to evacuate its colonies in the Peloponnese, as the Turks invaded. Afterwards these troops reinforced defences in southern Italy against the threat of Turkish invasion. They established self-contained communities, which enabled their distinct language and culture to flourish. Arbëreshë, as they became known, were often soldiers for the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Venice, between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Despite an Arbëreshë cultural and artistic revival in the 19th century, emigration from southern Italy significantly reduced the population. In particular, migration to the Americas between 1900 and 1940 caused the total depopulation of approximately half of the Arbëreshë villages. The speech community forms part of the highly heterogenous linguistic landscape of Italy, with 12 recognised linguistic minorities Italian state law (law 482/1999). These languages are: Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene and Croatian well as the minorities speaking French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladino, Occitan and Sardinian. The exact Arbëresh speech population is uncertain, as the Italian national census does not collect data on minority language speakers. This is also further complicated by the Italian state’s protection of the Albanian culture and population. This law theoretically implements specific measures in various fields such as education, communication, radio, press and TV public service, but in the case of the Arberesh community the legal construction of the language as “Albanian” and the community as the “Albanian population” effectively homogenises the language and has not led to adequate provision for the linguistic needs of the communities. This law also contrasts sharply with the 31 languages of Italy recognised by UNESCO, which also lists Arberesh as definitely endangered.

Classification

Arbëresh derives from a medieval variety of Tosk, which was spoken in southern Albania and from which the modern Tosk is also derived. It follows a similar evolutionary pattern to Arvanitika, a similar language spoken in Greece. Arbëresh is spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Abruzzi, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Molise, Apulia and Sicily. The varieties of Arbëresh are closely related to each other but are not always entirely mutually intelligible.

Arbëresh retains many features of medieval Albanian from the time before the Ottoman invasion of Albania in the 15th century. It also retains some Greek elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation, most of which it shares with its relative Arvanitika. Many of the conservative features of Arbëresh were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbëresh gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). Arbëresh most resembles the dialect of Albanian spoken in the south-central region of Albania, and also that of Çam Albanians.

Arbëresh was commonly called 'Albanese' ('Albanian' in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Arbëresh speakers used to have only very vague notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Until the 1980s Arbëresh was exclusively a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Byzantine Church, and Arbëreshë people had no practical connection with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they did not use this form in writing or in media. When a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Italy in the 1990s and came into contact with local Arbëreshë communities, the differences and similarities were for the first time made apparent. ^[7]

Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.

Arbëresh has been replaced by local Romance languages and by Italian in several villages, and in others is experiencing contact-induced language shift. Many scholars have produced language learning materials for communities, including those by Zef Skirò Di Maxho (Giuseppe Schirò Di Modica) who has written two books, Udha e Mbarë and Udhëtimi, both used in schools in the village of Piana degli Albanesi, Sicily. Gaetano Gerbino wrote Fjalori Arbëresh (Arbëresh dictionary). Other authors include Matteo Mandalà, and Zef Chiaramonte. The only book written in English for the U.S. and U.K. Arbëresh diaspora is Everyday Arberesh by Martin H. Di Maggio (2013).

 

Varieties of Albanian

Language or dialect

Arberesh evolved separately from other forms of Albanian since the 13th century when its first speakers emigrated to Morea from central Albania. A dialect is also defined linguistically as closely related and, despite their differences, by mutual intelligibility. In the absence of rigorous linguistic intelligibility tests, the claim cannot be made that Arberesh and Albanian are mutually intelligible, and thus this criterion cannot be used to define the former as a dialect of the latter. Furthermore, the views of its speakers are an important criterion, and to date there have been several studies whereby Arberesh speakers define their language as a language -and not as a dialect- and have resisted moves to implement Standard Albanian language as a language of instruction in their communities.^{[8][9][10][11]}

Varieties

The varieties of Arbëresh largely correspond with the regions where they are spoken, while some settlements have distinctive features that result in greater or lesser degrees of mutual intelligibility.

The Siculo-Arbëresh variety is spoken exclusively in the Province of Palermo and in three villages: Piana degli Albanesi, Santa Cristina Gela and Contessa Entellina; while the varieties of Piana and Santa Cristina Gela are similar enough to be entirely mutually intelligible, the variety of Contessa Entellina is not entirely intelligible. Therefore a further dialect within Siculo-Arbëresh known as the Palermitan-Arbëresh variety can be identified,^[12] as well as a Cosenza variety, a Basilicata variety, and a Campania variety represented by the speech of one single settlement of Greci. There is also a Molisan-Arbëresh and an Apulio-Arbëresh.

Within the Cosenza Calabrian varieties of Arbëresh, the dialect of Vaccarizzo Albanese is particularly distinct. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in Calabria by approximately 3,000 people, Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.

Phonology

Some features of Arbëresh distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.

Vowels

Ë

The letter ⟨Ë⟩ is pronounced as either a mid central vowel [ə] or as a close back unrounded vowel [ɯ]. So the word Arbëresh is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbɯˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.

Y to I

Arbëresh lacks the close front rounded vowel [y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel [i]. For example ty ('you') becomes ti, and hyni ('enter') becomes hini.

Consonants

GJ, Q

The letters ⟨GJ⟩ and ⟨Q⟩ are pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive [ɡʲ] and a palatalized voiceless velar plosive [kʲ], rather than a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ] and a voiceless palatal plosive [c] as in standard Albanian. E.g. the word gjith ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ], qiell ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ], and shqip ('Albanian') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].

GL, KL

In some words, Arbëresh has preserved the consonant clusters /ɡl/ and /kl/. In Standard Albanian these have mostly become the palatal stops gj and q, e.g. glet not gjet ('s/he looks like ... '), klumësht not qumësht ('milk'), and klisha instead of kisha ('church').

H, HJ

The letter ⟨H⟩ is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x] (a sound also found in Greek: χαρά [xaˈra], 'joy'). As such, the Albanian word ha ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ]. Arbëresh additionally has the palatalized counterpart, [ç]. Therefore, the word hjedh ('throw') is pronounced [çɛθ]. The letter combination ⟨HJ⟩ is present in a few standard Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.

LL, G

The letters ⟨LL⟩ and ⟨G⟩ are realised as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] (also found in Greek: γάλα [ˈɣala], 'milk'). The vast majority of these words originate in Sicilian, but the sound also occurs in words of Albanian origin. Often ⟨G⟩ is replaced by ⟨GH⟩ in the Arbëresh orthography. This feature is very strong that it is carried over into the Italian speech of inhabitants of Piana degli Albanesi and Santa Cristina Gela in words such as grazie, frigorifero, gallera, magro, gamba etc. which are realised respectively as [ʁratsiɛ], [friɣoˈrifero], [ɣaˈlɛra], [ˈmaɣro], [ˈʁamba] etc.^[13][14] In Piana degli Albanesi the tendency is to treat Italian loanwords differently from Sicilian, which results in the difference between llampjun, pronounced as [ʁampˈjun] (from lampione, 'lamp post'), and lampadhin, pronounced as [lampaˈðin] (from Italian lampadina). In the first example, the ⟨L⟩ becomes ⟨LL⟩ [ʁ] because it comes from Sicilian,^[why?] whereas in the process of transference from the Italian ampadina to Arbëresh lampadhin, the ⟨l⟩ does not change but the ⟨d⟩ becomes [ð].

Words of Albanian Origin

Written	Pronounced	English
gëzim	[ʁzim]	joy
gajdhur	[ɣajˈður]	donkey
grish	[ʁriʃ]	invite
llah	[ɣaχ]	eat until stuffed
pagëzim	[paʁˈzim]	baptism

Words of Sicilian Origin

Written	Pronounced
fughurë	[fuɣurə]
fugatjar	[fuɣatˈjar]
garazh	[ɣarˈaʒ]
ghurg	[ɣurɣ]
ghust	[ɣust]
ghuant	[ɣwant]
maghare	[maɣaˈri]

Final devoicing of consonants

In contrast with standard Albanian, Arbëresh has retained an archaic system^{[citation needed]} of final devoicing of consonants. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are the voiced stops b, d, g, gj; the voiced affricates x, xh; and the voiced fricatives dh, ll, v, z, zh.

Original voiced	b [b]	d [d]	g [ɡ]/[ɣ]	gj [ɡʲ]	x [dz]	xh [dʒ]	dh [ð]	ll [ɣ]	v [v]	z [z]	zh [ʒ]
Devoiced	p [p]	t [t]	k [k]	q [kʲ]	c [ts]	ch [tʃ]	th [θ]	h [x]	f [f]	s [s]	sh [ʃ]

Examples:

• b > p: thelb ('clove') - [θɛlp]
• d > t: vend ('place') - [vɛnt]
• dh > th: zgledh ('read') - [sklɛθ]
• g > k: lig ('bad') - [lɪk]
• gj > q: zogj ('chicks') - [zɔkʲ]
• j > hj: vaj ('oil') - [vaç]
• ll > h: uthull ('vinegar') - [ʊθʊχ]
• x > c: ndanx ('near') - [ndant͡s]
• z > s: loz ('dance') - [lɔs]
• zh > sh: gozhda ('pin') - [ɣɔʃda]

Stress

Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in Italian.

Morphology

In Arbëresh the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in NJ, whereas in Albanian this is normally marked by J. So, 'I live' is rrónj in Arbëresh and rroj in standard Albanian. The present continuous or gerund differs from Standard Albanian; Arbëresh uses the form "jam'e bënj" instead of "po bej" (I am doing).

Non-Albanian derived elements

Vocabulary

The adoption of words of ancient Greek origin or of the Koine comes above all from their use in Byzantine religious practices, when the corresponding use in Albanian declined, the "courtly" one of the church was used. The Arberesh use ancient Greek in their liturgies. Thus synonyms are created, such as parkales or lutje for the word "prayer".

Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Koine Greek influence. Examples:

• amáhj [aˈmaç] ('war') < μάχη [ˈmaçi] ('battle').
• haristís [xaɾiˈstis] ('thank') < ευχαριστώ [e̞fˌxariˈsto̞] ('thank you'). Arvanitika uses fharistisem.
• hora [xɔˈɾə] ('village') < χώρα [chóra] ('land, village')
• parkalés [paɾkaˈlɛs] ('I plead', 'please') from παρακαλώ [paˌrakaˈlo̞] ('please').
• hiravol (sheaf, a bundle of harvested crop), < χειρόβολο (χειρ = hand).

Some Arbëresh words appear to be of Albanian Arvanitika which has influenced the current Greek areas since the Middle Ages. Examples:

• dhomat (bundle, pack), < Gr. δεμάτιον.
• argomē (fallow, plowing), < όργωμα. Today surviving in the toponym Argomazit of Piana dei Albanesi.
• kalogreshza (little woman monk), < καλόγρια = woman monk.
• gjitonia (neighbourhood), < γειτονία.
• dhaskal (teacher), < δάσκαλος.

On the Koine Greek elements in the Italo-Albanian dialects see T. Jochalas (1975).^[15]

Archaic Latin-Sicilianisms

In the Arbëresh varieties of Sicily and Calabria there are loanwords from the Sicilian language that have crystallized into the Arberesh language matrix at some time in the past but have now mostly disappeared, or evolved in the romance vocabulary of the local population. This also occurs in other Arberesh varieties outside of Sicily with the local Romance varieties of their communities.

Examples:

• ghranet ('money') < Sic. granna, meaning 'grains'. It is still used in some contexts by modern Sicilian speakers, but in all situations in Arbëresh. Another Arbëresh word for 'money' is haromë, but is no longer used.
• qaca ('square') < Sic. chiazza; used in all Arbëresh dialects as well as Sicilian. The Albanian word sheshi which means 'square' in standard Albanian means 'plateau' in Arbëresh.
• rritrenjet ('toilets') < Norman French via Sic. retained in Arbëresh, but no longer in use in modern Sicilian.
• rritrat ('photograph') < Sic. 'picture' (ritrattu), more common in Arbëresh than in modern Sicilian.
• zdar (to go to the countryside) < Sic. sdari; no longer commonly used in Sicilian.
• zgarrar (to make a mistake; to err) < Sic. sgarrari (now carries a different meaning in Sicilian).

Incorporation

Alongside the Sicilian vocabulary element in Siculo-Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the incorporation of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh, which differs from the rules concerning Albanian lexical material.

Examples:

• pincar ('think'), originally mendonj – mbanj mend but also mëndinj; derived from the Sicilian 'pinzari'. Which conjugates in the present tense as follows:
• U pincar = I think
• Ti pincar = You think
• Ai/Ajo pincar = He/She thinks
• Na pincarjëm = We think
• Ju pincarni = You (pl) think
• Ata/Ato pincarjën = They think

In the past tense this conjugates as follows:

• U pincarta = I thought
• Ti pincarte = You thought
• Ai/Ajo pincarti = He/She thought
• Na pincartëm = We thought
• Ju pincartët = You (pl.) thought
• Ata/Ato pincartën = They thought

Contractions

M’e tha mua	He told it to me (feminine object)
Ngë m’i tha mua	He did not tell it to me (masculine object)
T’e thom	I tell you it (feminine object)
T’i thom	I tell you it (masculine object)

Diminutives and augmentatives

The Arbëresh diminutive and augmentative system is calqued from Sicilian and takes the form of /-ats(-ɛ)/ = Sic. -azz(u/a); for example "kalac" (cavallone/big horse), and the diminutive takes the form of /-tʃ-ɛl(-ɛ) from Sic. /-c-edd(u/a); for example "vajziçele" (raggazzina/little girl).The Arbëresh word for "swear word" is "fjalac" and comes from a fusion of the Arbëresh word of Albanian etymology: "fjalë" plus the Sicilian augmentative /-azz[a]/ minus the feminine gendered ending /-a/; this calques the Sicilian word 'palurazza' which is cognate with Italian 'parolaccia'.^[14]

Comparison with other forms of Albanian

There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance:

Arbërisht	Shqip (Standard Albanian)	Meaning
Falem (Falemi if more than one person)	Përshëndetje / Tungjatjeta	Hello
Mirë se na jerdhët / Mirë se vini	Mirë se erdhët	Welcome
Mirëmenat	Mirëmëngjes	Good morning (morning, until noon)
Vjen’ më rarë or vjen më thënë	do të thotë or do me thënë	It means
Bëjëm të shkonj (Piana degli Albanesi)	më le të kaloj	Let me pass
Shkòmë musturën	më jep piperin	Pass me the pepper
Zotërote ë një "zot"?	Zotëri, jeni prift?	Sir, are you a priest?
E ghrish zotërisë satë për një pasjatë	ju ftoj për një shëtitje	I invite you for a stroll
Zglith/djovasë mirë	lexo mirë	Read well
qëroi isht burinë i lik	moti është shumë i keq	The weather is very bad
U rri Sëndahstinë	jetoj në Shën Kristinë	I live in Santa Cristina
Ka bëjëm të ngrënit	do ta gatuajmë ushqimin	We will prepare the food
U ka jecur njera qacës	unë kam ecur deri sheshit	I have walked to the square
Ghajdhuri isht ndë horë/katund	gomari është në katund/fshat	The donkey is into the village
Jam e vete ngulem/flë	unë do të shtrohem/flë	I'm going to sleep
lip ndjesë se zgarrarta/gabova shumë	më fal se gabova shumë	I'm sorry that I've made so many errors
Ajo isht jime shoqe	ajo është gruaja ime	She is my wife
Flit t'arbrisht	fol shqip	Speak Albanian
Jim shoq isht e ngulet	burri im/Im'shoq është duke fjetur	My husband is sleeping
Më përqen rritëratin tënd	më pëlqen fotografia jote	I like our photograph
Mortatë or motrëmëmë	hallë or tezë	Aunt
Lalë or vovi	xhaxha or Lalë (dialect)	Uncle or Older brother
Larbukri	burri i motrës së babait	Uncle uncle in law (father's sister's husband)
Vova	motra e madhe	Older sister
Tata	babai or at (dialect)	Father
Mëmë	nëna or mamaja	Mother
Mëdhè	edhe/ende	Also
ghua	vëlla	brother
Ndrëngova	Kuptova	I understood
Sprasmja	Fund	end
Jot'ëm sempri të thëshjë të mos haje nga tajuri çë ngë ka' klënë pastruar!	Jot'ëmë përherë/gjithmonë të thoshte të mos haje nga pjata që nuk është pastruar!	Your mother always said don't eat from plates that haven't been cleaned!
Kemi besë se ai ngë i ftes	besojmë se ai nuk ka faj	We believe he is not at fault

The Lord's Prayer Arbëresh by Sicily (first row) Compared with Standard Tosk Albanian (second row), and Gheg Albanian (third row). Áti jinë çë je në qiell, shejtëruar kloft embri jít. Ati ynë që je në qiell, u shënjtëroftë emri yt. Ati ynë që je në qiell, shejtnue kjoftë emni yt. Our father who art in heaven hallowed be thy name arthët rregjëria jóte; u bëftë vullimi jít, arthtë mbretëria jote; u bëftë dëshira jote, ardhtë mbretnia jote; u baftë vullnesa jote, thy kingdom come thy will be done si ndë qiell, ashtú në dhé; si në qiell, edhe mbi dhe. si në qiell ashtu në dhe. on earth as it is in heaven bukën tënë të përditshme ëna neve sòt; bukën tonë të përditëshme jepna neve sot; bukën tonë të përditshme epna ne sot; give us this day our daily bread ndëjena dëtyrët tóna, edhe falna fajet tona, e ndiejna ne fajet e mëkatet tona, and forgive us our trespasses ashtù si na ja ndëjejëm dëtyruamëvet tanë; sikundër edhe ne ua falim fajtorëvet tanë; si i ndiejmë na fajtorët tanë; as we forgive those who trespass against us e mos na le të biem në ngarje, pó lirona nga i ligu; edhe mos na shtjerë në ngasje, po shpëtona nga i ligu; e mos na len me ra në keq, por largona prej gjith së keq; and lead us not into temptation but deliver us from evil Ashtu kloft. Ashtu qoft. Amin.

Grammar comparison

There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example:

Arbërisht	Shqip	Meaning	Notes
ka shkosh	do të kalosh	You will pass	Arbërisht uses the common Balkan participle ka, whereas Shqip uses do which translates as 'want', which is also a feature of the Balkan sprachsbund
flini alluras/anangasij	folni/flisni shpejt	Speak fast (pl.)
flëni	flini	Sleep! (pl.)
bëjëm të shkonj	më lër të kaloj	Let me pass	Shqip uses 'allow me to pass' whereas Arbërisht uses 'we do to pass' and 'able to pass'.
vajta	shkova	I went	Arbërisht conjugates from the Tosk word të vete whereas shkova means 'I passed' in Arbërisht
ke gjegjur	ke dëgjuar	You have heard
Zoti/prifti zën fill parkalesin/lutjen	Prifti fillon lutjen	The priest starts the prayer
Stis	Ndërtoj	I build
Jo, nëng/ngë e kam parë	Jo, nuk e kam parë	No, I haven't seen it
jam e flas, je flet, ai isht e flet, ajo isht e flet, jem'e flasjëm, jan'e flasjën, jan'e flini	po flas, ti po flet, ai po flet, ajo po flet, po flasim, po flasin, po flisni	I am talking, you are talking, he is talking, she is talking, we are talking, they are talking, you (pl) are talking	The present continuous is marked with the structure 'I am, You are, He is, She is, We are, They are etc. Whereas Shqip uses po which literally means 'yes'
ki’ të zgjoneshjëm	duhet të ishim zgjuar	We should have got up
Ku ë/isht/osht Mëria?	Ku është Maria?	Where is Maria?	The locative marker te which literally means 'to' is added before ku 'where'. (A similar phenomena occurs in Welsh English and West Country English i.e. 'Where to you going?' or 'Where's he to?')
Mërìa rri alartë	Maria jeton lartë	Maria lives upstairs
Si ë Zotërote?	Si jeni ju, Zotëri?	How are you sir?	The polite or formal is marked by use of Zotërote with ju being reserved for the plural only

Name

The name Arbërishte is derived from the ethnonym "Albanoi", which in turn comes from the toponym "Arbëria" (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today Albania (Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) used to be the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.

Within the Arbëresh community the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje." The origin of the term "gjegje" is uncertain, however this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht. Gheg is also the name of one of the two major dialects of Albanian as spoken in the Balkans. The name Gheg is derived from the term initially used by the Orthodox Christian population of pre-Ottoman Albania for confessional denotation when referring to their Catholic neighbors who converted to Catholicism to better resist the Orthodox Serbs.^{[16][circular reference]}

Arbëresh names

Every Italo-Albanian person is given a legal Italian name and also a name in Albanian Arbërisht. Quite often the Arbëresh name is merely a translation of the Italian name. Arbëresh surnames are also used amongst villagers but do not carry any legal weight; the Arbëresh surname is called an "ofiqe" in Arbërisht. Some Arbëresh 'ofiqe' are 'Butijuni', 'Pafundi', 'Skarpari' (shoemaker from Italian word 'scarpa').

Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:

Italian	Arbëresh
Giuseppe	Zef, Josif
Marco	Marku
Luca	Lekë, Lekini/u
Francesco	Frangjishk, Nxhiku, Çiku
Nicola	Kola, Koll, Nikoll
Angelica	Ëngjëlliqe
Gabriele	Gavril, Bjelli
Alessandro	Lishëndër-i
Elena, Elenuccia	Lena, Lenuca
Giacomo	Minu, Minikeli, Jakini
Mario, Mariuccio	Marjani, Marjucë
Emanuele, Manuele	Manuel-i
Maria	Mëria
Martino	Martini, Tinuçë
Gaetano	Tani
Eleuterio	Lëfteri
Antonio	Ndon, Nton, Gjon
Gaspare	Ghaspani
Domenica	Mima
Lorenzo	Lloreu
Giovanni	Jani, Xhuan, Vanù
Demetrio	Dhimitër-i
Spiridione	Spiridhon, Dhoni, Spiro
Rosalia, Rosario	Sallja, Saridu
Tommaso, Tommasino	Masinë
Cosimo	Gësmëni
Saverio	Shaverë
Andrea	Ndrica

Writing system

The language is not usually written outside of the church and a few highly educated families, but officials are now using the standard Albanian alphabet, which is used on street signs in villages as well as being taught in schools.

Language samples

Pronouns

	Personal pronouns		Possessive pronouns
1Sg.	u	I	jim	mine
2Sg.	ti	you	jytë	yours
3Sg.m.	aji	he	i/e tíj	his
3Sg.f.	ajo	she	i/e saj	hers
1Pl.	na	we	jynë	ours
2Pl.	ju	you	juaj	yours
3Pl.m.	ata	they (m.)	atyre	theirs (m.)
3Pl.f.	ato	they (f.)	atyre	theirs (f.)

Verbs

Arbëresh verbs often differ, somewhat drastically, from their Standard Albanian counterparts.

Personal moods

Mood	Tense	Number and person						English equivalent (only sg. 1st)
		Singular			Plural
		1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd
Indicative	Pluperfect	kisha burë	kishe burë	kishë burë	kishëm burë	kishni burë	kishin burë	I had done
	Imperfect	ish'e buja (she buja)	ish'e buje (she buje)	ish'e bun (she bun)	ishm'e bujëm	ishn'e buni	ishn'e bujën	I was doing
	Perfect	bura	bure	burë	burëm	burën	burën	I did
	Present perfect	ka burë	ka burë	ka burë	ka burë	ka burë	ka burë	I have done
	Present	bunj	bun	bun	bujëm	buni	bujën	I do, I am doing
	Future	ka bunj	ka bush	ka buje	ka bujëm	ka buni	ka bujën	I will do
Imperative	Present	–	buje!	–	–	buni!	–	do! (2nd person only)

Verbals

Type	Form	English
Infinitive	të bunj	to do
Gerund	jam e bunj	doing

	The verb HAVE				The verb BE
	Pres.	Imperf.	Subj.Impf.	Subj.Perf.	Pres.	Imperf.	Subj.Impf.	Subj.Perf.
1Sg.	kam	keshë	të kem	të keshë	jam	jeshë	të jem	të jeshë
2Sg.	ke	keshe	të kesh	të keshe	je	jeshe	të jesh	të jëshe
3Sg.	ka	kish	të ket	të kish	ishtë, është	ish	të jet	të ish
1Pl.	kemi	keshëm	të kemi	te keshëm	jemi	jeshëm	të jeshëm	të jeshëm
2Pl.	kini	keshëtë	të kini	te keshëtë	jini	jeshëtë	të jeshëtë	të jeshëtë
3Pl.	kanë	kishnë	të kenë	të kishnë	janë	ishnë	të jenë	të ishnë

Some common phrases

Arberesh	English
Falem	Hello.
Çë bun? Si rri?	What are you doing? How are you?
Jam shum mirë	I am very well
Të haristis, je mirë?	Thank you, and are you well?
O, jam edhe u mirë.	Yes, I'm fine too.
Flet arbreshin?	Do you speak Arbërisht?
Ka vjen?	Where are you from?
Jam arbëresh	I'm Italo-Albanian
Mëma isht ka Srigari	My mother is from San Cosmo Albanese
Ju parkales	Please
Gëzonem të të njoh	Pleased to meet you
Mirëdita	Good morning
Shihemi	See you soon
Gjegjemi njize	We'll speak soon
Si të thon?	What's your name?
Mua më thonë Marieja	My name is Maria
Ëj/ò	Yes (Piana degli Albanesi)
Arà/ëj	Yes (Santa Cristina Gela)
Ora/ëj	Yes (Contessa Entellina)
Jo	No

Prepositions

Arbëresh	English
te	to
nga/ka	from
prapa	behind
te ana e	beside, next to
mbatanë	on the other side
kundër	against
me	with
'e (f), i (m), të (n & pl)	of
brënda	within, inside
jashtë	outside
sipër	on, above
njera	until
për	for
nën	under
mjes/midis/ndër	between, among

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns replace nouns once they are able to be understood from their context.

Arbëresh	English
ai/ajo	that (m/f)
ata/ato	those (m/f)
ki/kjo	this (m/f)
rta/rto	these
mosgjë/farëgjë	none

Sample text

Shërbesa e Kurorës - The Arbëresh Marriage Ceremony

Zoti : Gjergji, do ti të marsh për gruja Linën çë ë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde?

Priest: Do you George want to take as your wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life?

Dhëndërri: O, e dua!

Groom: Yes, I want!

Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë nga herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet.

Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries.

Populli: Amín.

People: Amen.

Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë.

Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord.

Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot.

People: Our Great God, we beseech you.

Bekimi të unazavet

Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis, Gjergji, lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis, Lina, në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt.

Priest: The servant of God, George, is tied to the servant of God, Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

Zoti jep krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127: Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij.

the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127 Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways.

Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si Glory to you, our God, glory to you.

Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi kështú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë.

That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good. See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home. That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table. That those who fear the Lord will be blessed.

Swadesh list (comparative list)

No.	English	Arbërisht (Albanian of Italy)
1	I	u
2	you (singular)	ty
3	he	ai, ajo
4	we	na, ne
5	you (plural)	ju
6	they	ata, ato
7	this	ky, kjo
8	that	ai, ajo
9	here	këtu
10	there	atì, atje
11	who	kush
12	what	çë
13	where	ku
14	when	kur
15	how	si
16	not	nëng/ngë
17	all	gjithë
18	many	shumë, burinë
19	some	ca
20	few	disa
21	other	jetrë
22	one	një
23	two	di
24	three	tri, tre
25	four	katër
26	five	pesë
27	big	i math, e madhe
28	long	i, e glat
29	wide	i, e trash
30	thick	i, e trash
31	heavy	i rëndë, e rëndë
32	small	i, e vogël
33	short	i, e shkurtur
34	narrow	i, e hollë
35	thin	i, e hollë
36	woman	grua
37	man (adult male)	burrë
38	man (human being)	njeri
39	child	fëmijë
40	wife	shoqja
41	husband	shoqi
42	mother	mëma
43	father	tata
44	animal	animall/kafsh
45	fish	pishk
46	bird	zog
47	dog	qen
48	louse
49	snake
50	worm	Gjalpër
51	tree	lis
52	forest	voshku/pyll
53	stick
54	fruit
55	seed
56	leaf
57	root
58	bark (of a tree)
59	flower	lule
60	grass
61	rope
62	skin	likur
63	meat	mish
64	blood	gjak
65	bone	asht
66	fat (noun)
67	egg	ves
68	horn
69	tail
70	feather
71	hair	krip
72	head	krie
73	ear	vesh
74	eye	si
75	nose	hun
76	mouth
77	tooth
78	tongue (organ)	gluhë
79	fingernail
80	foot	këmb
81	leg	këmb
82	knee	gluri
83	hand	dorë
84	wing	krah
85	belly	bark
86	guts
87	neck
88	back	kurrdhux
89	breast
90	heart	zëmbrë
91	liver
92	to drink	pi
93	to eat	ha
94	to bite
95	to suck
96	to spit
97	to vomit
98	to blow
99	to breathe	marr frim
100	to laugh	qesh
101	to see	shoh
102	to hear	gjegjëm
103	to know	di
104	to think	pincar/mëndonj
105	to smell
106	to fear
107	to sleep	flë
108	to live	rronj
109	to die	vdes
110	to kill	vras
111	to fight
112	to hunt
113	to hit
114	to cut
115	to split
116	to stab
117	to scratch
118	to dig
119	to swim
120	to fly
121	to walk	jec
122	to come	vinj
123	to lie (as in a bed)	ngulëm
124	to sit	t'ujëm
125	to stand
126	to turn (intransitive)
127	to fall	bie
128	to give	jap
129	to hold
130	to squeeze
131	to rub
132	to wash	lah
133	to wipe
134	to pull
135	to push
136	to throw
137	to tie
138	to sew
139	to count
140	to say	them
141	to sing	këndonj
142	to play	loz
143	to float
144	to flow
145	to freeze
146	to swell	dhëmbronj
147	sun	diell
148	moon	hënxë
149	star	illzë
150	water	ujë
151	rain	shi
152	river	lum
153	lake	ghaghu, liqen
154	sea	dejt
155	salt	krip
156	stone	gur
157	sand
158	dust
159	earth	dhe
160	cloud
161	fog
162	sky	qiell
163	wind	erë
164	snow	zborë
165	ice	akull
166	smoke
167	fire	zjarr
168	ash
169	to burn	djeg
170	road	dhromë/udhë
171	mountain	mal
172	red	kuq
173	green	i gjelbër
174	yellow
175	white	i bardh, e bardhe
176	black	i zi, e zezë
177	night	natë
178	day	ditë
179	year	vit
180	warm	vap
181	cold	tëtim
182	full	plot
183	new	i ri, e re
184	old	i, e vjetrë
185	good	i,e mirë
186	bad	i, e lig
187	rotten
188	dirty
189	straight	dreqtë
190	round
191	sharp (as a knife)
192	dull (as a knife)
193	smooth
194	wet	lagët
195	dry
196	correct	dreqtë, gjushtu
197	near	ndanxë
198	far	llarghu
199	right	drejtë
200	left	shtrëmbra
201	at	te
202	in	në
203	with	me
204	and	e
205	if	në
206	because	përçë
207	name	embër

Footnotes

1. Arbëresh at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)  
2. The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, report, National Research Council (U.S.) Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.)) Foreign field research program, sponsored by Office of Naval research, report ; no.25 Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964 page 24-25 link
3. Nasse, George Nicholas (1964). The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy. ISBN 9780598204004.
4. The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.))) Foreign field research program, sponsored by Office of Naval research, report ; no.25 Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964 page 25 link
5. Nasse, George Nicholas (1964). The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. ISBN 978-0-598-20400-4.
6. The Italo-Albanian villages of southern Italy Issue 25 of Foreign field research program, report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of Publication (National Research Council (U.S.))) Foreign field research program, sponsored by Office of Naval research, report ; no.25 Issue 25 of Report, National Research Council (U.S.). Division of Earth Sciences Volume 1149 of (National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council. Publication) Author George Nicholas Nasse Publisher National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1964 page 26 link
7. New Albanian Immigrants in the Old Albanian Diaspora: Piana Degli Albanesi. Eda Derhemi
8. Derhemi, Eda. "The role of grassroots' media and community leaders for the small endangered languages: The case of Arbëresh of Piana degli Albanesi".
9. New Albanian Immigrants in the Old Albanian Diaspora: Piana Degli Albanesi. Eda Derhemi
10. Derhemi, Eda. Language endangerment and maintenance in the Arbresh of Piana degli Albanesi. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2003.
11. Di Maggio, Martin Hasan. "Arbëresh: language mixing, translanguaging and possible solutions to maintenance problems."
12. Mandala', M., & Mandala' M (2005). Siculo-arbëresh e siciliano a contatto: alcune verifiche. In Der Einfluss des Italienischen auf die Grammatik der Minderheitensprachen. Morphologische und syntaktische Probleme (pagg. 13-21)
13. A. Guzzetta, La Parlata di Piana degli Albanesi, Parte I - Fonologia, Palermo 1978
14. Vito Matranga (January 1995). Ipotesi per il rilevamento dei dati variazionali nei punti albanofoni dell'Atlante linguistico della Sicilia (Report).
15. Jochalas Titos, "Sulla problematica dei prestiti Bizantini e Neo-Greci nei dialetti Italo-Albanesi", Balkan Studies 16, 1, 1975, p. 49.
16. Ghegs

References

• Babiniotis, Georgios (1985): Συνοπτική Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας με εισαγωγή στην ιστορικοσυγκριτική γλωσσολογία. ["A concise history of the Greek language, with an introduction to historical-comparative linguistics] Athens: Ellinika Grammata.
• Babiniotis, Georgios (1998), Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας ["Dictionary of Modern Greek"]. Athens: Kentro Lexikologias.
• Breu, Walter (1990): "Sprachliche Minderheiten in Italien und Griechenland." ["Linguistic minorities in Italy and Greece"]. In: B. Spillner (ed.), Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Frankfurt: Lang. 169-170.
• GHM (=Greek Helsinki Monitor) (1995): "Report: The Arvanites". Online report
• Hammarström, Harald (2005): Review of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th Edition. LINGUIST List 16.2637 (5 Sept 2005). Online article 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine Vol. II. Livadia: Exandas, 1999 PDF.
• Η Καινή Διαθήκη στα Αρβανίτικα: Διάτα ε Ρε ['The New Testament in Arvanitika']. Athens: Ekdoseis Gerou. No date.
• Kloss, Heinz (1967): "Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages". Anthropological linguistics 9.
• Salminen, Tapani (1993–1999): Unesco Red Book on Endangered Languages: Europe. [1].
• Strauss, Dietrich (1978): "Scots is not alone: Further comparative considerations". Actes du 2^e Colloque de langue et de littérature écossaises Strasbourg 1978. 80-97.
• Thomason, Sarah G. (2001): Language contact: An introduction. Washington: Georgetown University Press.
• Trudgill, Peter (2004): "Glocalisation [sic] and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In: A. Duszak, U. Okulska (eds.), Speaking from the margin: Global English from a European perspective. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

External links

 

Arbëresh language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

•   Arberesh phrasebook travel guide from Wikivoyage