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Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn[a][b] (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008)[6][7] was a Russian novelist. A prominent Soviet dissident, Solzhenitsyn was an outspoken critic of communism and helped to raise global awareness of political repression in the Soviet Union, in particular the Gulag system.

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
Solzhenitsyn in February 1974
Native name
Александр Исаевич Солженицын
Born(1918-12-11)11 December 1918
Kislovodsk, Soviet Russia
Died3 August 2008(2008-08-03) (aged 89)
Moscow, Russia
Occupation
  • Novelist
  • essayist
  • historian
Citizenship
Alma materRostov State University
Notable works
Notable awards Order of St. Andrew (Refused the reward)
Spouses
Natalia Alekseyevna Reshetovskaya
(m. 1940; div. 1952)
(m. 1957; div. 1972)
Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova
(m. 1973)
Children
Signature
Website
solzhenitsyn.ru

Solzhenitsyn was born into a family that defied the Soviet anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and remained devout members of the Russian Orthodox Church. However, Solzhenitsyn lost his faith in Christianity, became an atheist, and embraced Marxism–Leninism. While serving as a captain in the Red Army during World War II, Solzhenitsyn was arrested by the SMERSH and sentenced to eight years in the Gulag and then internal exile for criticizing Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in a private letter. As a result of his experience in prison and the camps, he gradually became a philosophically-minded Eastern Orthodox Christian.

As a result of the Khrushchev Thaw, Solzhenitsyn was released and exonerated. He pursued writing novels about repression in the Soviet Union and his experiences. He published his first novel, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich in 1962, with approval from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, which was an account of Stalinist repressions. Solzhenitsyn's last work to be published in the Soviet Union was Matryona's Place in 1963. Following the removal of Khrushchev from power, the Soviet authorities attempted to discourage Solzhenitsyn from continuing to write. He continued to work on further novels and their publication in other countries including Cancer Ward in 1966, In the First Circle in 1968, August 1914 in 1971, and The Gulag Archipelago in 1973, the publication of which outraged the Soviet authorities. In 1974 Solzhenitsyn lost his Soviet citizenship and was flown to West Germany. In 1976, he moved with his family to the United States, where he continued to write. In 1990, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, his citizenship was restored, and four years later he returned to Russia, where he remained until his death in 2008.

He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature "for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature",[8] and The Gulag Archipelago was a highly influential work that "amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state", and sold tens of millions of copies.[9]

Biography

Early years

Solzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk (now in Stavropol Krai, Russia). His father, Isaakiy Semyonovich Solzhenitsyn, was of Russian descent and his mother, Taisiya Zakharovna (née Shcherbak), was of Ukrainian descent.[10] Taisiya's father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner, acquiring a large estate in the Kuban region in the northern foothills of the Caucasus[11] and during World War I, Taisiya had gone to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy, a young officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origin and fellow native of the Caucasus region. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of August 1914, and in the later Red Wheel novels.[12]

In 1918, Taisiya became pregnant with Aleksandr. On 15 June, shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident. Aleksandr was raised by his widowed mother and his aunt in lowly circumstances. His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War. By 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father's background in the old Imperial Army a secret. His educated mother encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith;[13][14] she died in 1944 having never remarried.[15]

As early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for planned epic work on World War I and the Russian Revolution. This eventually led to the novel August 1914; some of the chapters he wrote then still survive.[citation needed] Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics and physics at Rostov State University. At the same time, he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History, which by this time were heavily ideological in scope. As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he spent time in the camps.[16]

World War II

During the war, Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a sound-ranging battery in the Red Army,[17] was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated. He was awarded the Order of the Red Star on 8 July 1944 for sound-ranging two German artillery batteries and adjusting counterbattery fire onto them, resulting in their destruction.[18]

A series of writings published late in his life, including the early uncompleted novel Love the Revolution!, chronicle his wartime experience and growing doubts about the moral foundations of the Soviet regime.[19]

While serving as an artillery officer in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn witnessed war crimes against local German civilians by Soviet military personnel. Of the atrocities, Solzhenitsyn wrote: "You know very well that we've come to Germany to take our revenge" for Nazi atrocities committed in the Soviet Union.[20] The noncombatants and the elderly were robbed of their meager possessions and women and girls were gang-raped. A few years later, in the forced labor camp, he memorized a poem titled "Prussian Nights" about a woman raped to death in East Prussia. In this poem, which describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers mistakenly thought to be a German,[21] the first-person narrator comments on the events with sarcasm and refers to the responsibility of official Soviet writers like Ilya Ehrenburg.

In The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn wrote, "There is nothing that so assists the awakening of omniscience within us as insistent thoughts about one's own transgressions, errors, mistakes. After the difficult cycles of such ponderings over many years, whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking bureaucrats, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my Captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were we any better?'"[22]

Imprisonment

In February 1945, while serving in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn was arrested by SMERSH for writing derogatory comments in private letters to a friend, Nikolai Vitkevich,[23] about the conduct of the war by Joseph Stalin, whom he called "Khozyain" ("the boss"), and "Balabos" (Yiddish rendering of Hebrew baal ha-bayit for "master of the house").[24] He also had talks with the same friend about the need for a new organization to replace the Soviet regime.[25][clarification needed]

Solzhenitsyn was accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 58, paragraph 10 of the Soviet criminal code, and of "founding a hostile organization" under paragraph 11.[26][27] Solzhenitsyn was taken to the Lubyanka prison in Moscow, where he was interrogated. On 9 May 1945, it was announced that Germany had surrendered and all of Moscow broke out in celebrations with fireworks and searchlights illuminating the sky to celebrate the victory in the Great Patriotic War. From his cell in the Lubyanka, Solzhenitsyn remembered: "Above the muzzle of our window, and from all the other cells of the Lubyanka, and from all the windows of the Moscow prisons, we too, former prisoners of war and former front-line soldiers, watched the Moscow heavens, patterned with fireworks and crisscrossed with beams of searchlights. There was no rejoicing in our cells and no hugs and no kisses for us. That victory was not ours."[28] On 7 July 1945, he was sentenced in his absence by Special Council of the NKVD to an eight-year term in a labour camp. This was the normal sentence for most crimes under Article 58 at the time.[29]

The first part of Solzhenitsyn's sentence was served in several work camps; the "middle phase", as he later referred to it, was spent in a sharashka (a special scientific research facility run by Ministry of State Security), where he met Lev Kopelev, upon whom he based the character of Lev Rubin in his book The First Circle, published in a self-censored or "distorted" version in the West in 1968 (an English translation of the full version was eventually published by Harper Perennial in October 2009).[30] In 1950, Solzhenitsyn was sent to a "Special Camp" for political prisoners. During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of Ekibastuz in Kazakhstan, he worked as a miner, bricklayer, and foundry foreman. His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the book One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. One of his fellow political prisoners, Ion Moraru, remembers that Solzhenitsyn spent some of his time at Ekibastuz writing.[31] While there, Solzhenitsyn had a tumor removed. His cancer was not diagnosed at the time.

In March 1953, after his sentence ended, Solzhenitsyn was sent to internal exile for life at Birlik,[32] a village in Baidibek District of South Kazakhstan.[33] His undiagnosed cancer spread until, by the end of the year, he was close to death. In 1954, Solzhenitsyn was permitted to be treated in a hospital in Tashkent, where his tumor went into remission. His experiences there became the basis of his novel Cancer Ward and also found an echo in the short story "The Right Hand."

It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn developed the philosophical and religious positions of his later life, gradually becoming a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of his experience in prison and the camps.[34][35][36] He repented for some of his actions as a Red Army captain, and in prison compared himself to the perpetrators of the Gulag. His transformation is described at some length in the fourth part of The Gulag Archipelago ("The Soul and Barbed Wire"). The narrative poem The Trail (written without benefit of pen or paper in prison and camps between 1947 and 1952) and the 28 poems composed in prison, forced-labour camp, and exile also provide crucial material for understanding Solzhenitsyn's intellectual and spiritual odyssey during this period. These "early" works, largely unknown in the West, were published for the first time in Russian in 1999 and excerpted in English in 2006.[37][38]

Marriages and children

On 7 April 1940, while at the university, Solzhenitsyn married Natalia Alekseevna Reshetovskaya.[39] They had just over a year of married life before he went into the army, then to the Gulag. They divorced in 1952, a year before his release because the wives of Gulag prisoners faced the loss of work or residence permits. After the end of his internal exile, they remarried in 1957,[40] divorcing a second time in 1972. Reshetovskaya wrote negatively of Solzhenitsyn in her memoirs, accusing him of having affairs, and said of the relationship that "[Solzhenitsyn]'s despotism ... would crush my independence and would not permit my personality to develop."[41] In her 1974 memoir, Sanya: My Life with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, she wrote that she was "perplexed" that the West had accepted The Gulag Archipelago as "the solemn, ultimate truth", saying its significance had been "overestimated and wrongly appraised". Pointing out that the book's subtitle is "An Experiment in Literary Investigation", she said that her husband did not regard the work as "historical research, or scientific research". She contended that it was, rather, a collection of "camp folklore", containing "raw material" which her husband was planning to use in his future productions.

In 1973, Solzhenitsyn married his second wife, Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova, a mathematician who had a son, Dmitri Turin, from a brief prior marriage.[42] He and Svetlova (born 1939) had three sons: Yermolai (1970), Ignat (1972), and Stepan (1973).[43] Dmitri Turin died on 18 March 1994, aged 32, at his home in New York City.[44]

After prison

After Khrushchev's Secret Speech in 1956, Solzhenitsyn was freed from exile and exonerated. Following his return from exile, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing. In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech he wrote that "during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared this would become known."[45]

In 1960, aged 42, Solzhenitsyn approached Aleksandr Tvardovsky, a poet and the chief editor of the Novy Mir magazine, with the manuscript of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. It was published in edited form in 1962, with the explicit approval of Nikita Khrushchev, who defended it at the presidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publication, and added: "There's a Stalinist in each of you; there's even a Stalinist in me. We must root out this evil."[46] The book quickly sold out and became an instant hit.[47] In the 1960s, while Solzhenitsyn was publicly known to be writing Cancer Ward, he was simultaneously writing The Gulag Archipelago. During Khrushchev's tenure, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was studied in schools in the Soviet Union, as were three more short works of Solzhenitsyn's, including his short story "Matryona's Home", published in 1963. These would be the last of his works published in the Soviet Union until 1990.

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich brought the Soviet system of prison labour to the attention of the West. It caused as much of a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did in the West—not only by its striking realism and candour, but also because it was the first major piece of Soviet literature since the 1920s on a politically charged theme, written by a non-party member, indeed a man who had been to Siberia for "libelous speech" about the leaders, and yet its publication had been officially permitted. In this sense, the publication of Solzhenitsyn's story was almost unheard of instance of free, unrestrained discussion of politics through literature. However, after Khrushchev had been ousted from power in 1964, the time for such raw, exposing works came to an end.[47]

Later years in the Soviet Union

Every time when we speak about Solzhenitsyn as the enemy of the Soviet regime, this just happens to coincide with some important [international] events and we postpone the decision.

Andrei Kirilenko, a Politburo member

Solzhenitsyn made an unsuccessful attempt, with the help of Tvardovsky, to have his novel Cancer Ward legally published in the Soviet Union. This required the approval of the Union of Writers. Though some there appreciated it, the work was ultimately denied publication unless it was to be revised and cleaned of suspect statements and anti-Soviet insinuations.[48]

After Khrushchev's removal in 1964, the cultural climate again became more repressive. Publishing of Solzhenitsyn's work quickly stopped; as a writer, he became a non-person, and, by 1965, the KGB had seized some of his papers, including the manuscript of The First Circle. Meanwhile, Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work on the most well-known of his writings, The Gulag Archipelago. The seizing of his novel manuscript first made him desperate and frightened, but gradually he realized that it had set him free from the pretenses and trappings of being an "officially acclaimed" writer, a status which had become familiar but which was becoming increasingly irrelevant.

After the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn's materials in Moscow, in the years 1965 to 1967, the preparatory drafts of The Gulag Archipelago were turned into finished typescript in hiding at his friends' homes in Soviet Estonia. Solzhenitsyn had befriended Arnold Susi, a lawyer and former Minister of Education of Estonia in a Lubyanka Building prison cell. After completion, Solzhenitsyn's original handwritten script was kept hidden from the KGB in Estonia by Arnold Susi's daughter Heli Susi until the collapse of the Soviet Union.[49][50]

In 1969, Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Union of Writers. In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. He could not receive the prize personally in Stockholm at that time, since he was afraid he would not be let back into the Soviet Union. Instead, it was suggested he should receive the prize in a special ceremony at the Swedish embassy in Moscow. The Swedish government refused to accept this solution because such a ceremony and the ensuing media coverage might upset the Soviet Union and damage Swedish-Soviet relations. Instead, Solzhenitsyn received his prize at the 1974 ceremony after he had been expelled from the Soviet Union. In 1973, another manuscript written by Solzhenitsyn was confiscated by the KGB after his friend Elizaveta Voronyanskaya was questioned non-stop for five days until she revealed its location, according to a statement by Solzhenitsyn to Western reporters on September 6, 1973. According to Solzhenitsyn, "When she returned home, she hanged herself."[51]

The Gulag Archipelago was composed from 1958 to 1967, and has sold over thirty million copies in thirty-five languages. It was a three-volume, seven-part work on the Soviet prison camp system, which drew from Solzhenitsyn's experiences and the testimony of 256[52] former prisoners and Solzhenitsyn's own research into the history of the Russian penal system. It discusses the system's origins from the founding of the Communist regime, with Vladimir Lenin having responsibility, detailing interrogation procedures, prisoner transports, prison camp culture, prisoner uprisings and revolts such as the Kengir uprising, and the practice of internal exile. Soviet and Communist studies historian and archival researcher Stephen G. Wheatcroft wrote that the book was essentially a "literary and political work", and "never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective" but that in the case of qualitative estimates, Solzhenitsyn gave his high estimate as he wanted to challenge the Soviet authorities to show that "the scale of the camps was less than this."[53] Historian J. Arch Getty wrote of Solzhenitsyn's methodology that "such documentation is methodically unacceptable in other fields of history",[54] which gives priority to vague hearsay and leads towards selective bias.[55] According to journalist Anne Applebaum, who has made extensive research on the Gulag, The Gulag Archipelago's rich and varied authorial voice, its unique weaving together of personal testimony, philosophical analysis, and historical investigation, and its unrelenting indictment of Communist ideology made it one of the most influential books of the 20th century.[56]

 
Solzhenitsyn (right) and his long-time friend Mstislav Rostropovich (left) at the celebration of Solzhenitsyn's 80th birthday

On 8 August 1971, the KGB allegedly attempted to assassinate Solzhenitsyn using an unknown chemical agent (most likely ricin) with an experimental gel-based delivery method.[57][58] The attempt left him seriously ill but he survived.[59][60]

Although The Gulag Archipelago was not published in the Soviet Union, it was extensively criticized by the Party-controlled Soviet press. An editorial in Pravda on 14 January 1974 accused Solzhenitsyn of supporting "Hitlerites" and making "excuses for the crimes of the Vlasovites and Bandera gangs." According to the editorial, Solzhenitsyn was "choking with pathological hatred for the country where he was born and grew up, for the socialist system, and for Soviet people."[61]

During this period, he was sheltered by the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, who suffered considerably for his support of Solzhenitsyn and was eventually forced into exile himself.[62]

Expulsion from the Soviet Union

In a discussion of its options in dealing with Solzhenitsyn, the members of the Politburo considered his arrest and imprisonment and his expulsion to a capitalist country willing to take him.[63] Guided by KGB chief Yuri Andropov, and following a statement from West German Chancellor Willy Brandt that Solzhenitsyn could live and work freely in West Germany, it was decided to deport the writer directly to that country.[64]

In the West

 
Solzhenitsyn with Heinrich Böll in Langenbroich [de], West Germany, 1974

On 12 February 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested and deported the next day from the Soviet Union to Frankfurt, West Germany and stripped of his Soviet citizenship.[65] The KGB had found the manuscript for the first part of The Gulag Archipelago. U.S. military attaché William Odom managed to smuggle out a large portion of Solzhenitsyn's archive, including the author's membership card for the Writers' Union and his Second World War military citations. Solzhenitsyn paid tribute to Odom's role in his memoir Invisible Allies (1995).

In West Germany, Solzhenitsyn lived in Heinrich Böll's house in Langenbroich [de]. He then moved to Zürich, Switzerland before Stanford University invited him to stay in the United States to "facilitate your work, and to accommodate you and your family". He stayed at the Hoover Tower, part of the Hoover Institution, before moving to Cavendish, Vermont, in 1976. He was given an honorary literary degree from Harvard University in 1978 and on 8 June 1978 he gave a commencement address, condemning, among other things, the press, the lack of spirituality and traditional values, and the anthropocentrism of Western culture.[66]

On 19 September 1974, Yuri Andropov approved a large-scale operation to discredit Solzhenitsyn and his family and cut his communications with Soviet dissidents. The plan was jointly approved by Vladimir Kryuchkov, Philipp Bobkov, and Grigorenko (heads of First, Second and Fifth KGB Directorates).[67] The residencies in Geneva, London, Paris, Rome and other European cities participated in the operation. Among other active measures, at least three StB agents became translators and secretaries of Solzhenitsyn (one of them translated the poem Prussian Nights), keeping the KGB informed regarding all contacts by Solzhenitsyn.[67]

The KGB also sponsored a series of hostile books about Solzhenitsyn, most notably a "memoir published under the name of his first wife, Natalia Reshetovskaya, but probably mostly composed by Service A", according to historian Christopher Andrew.[67] Andropov also gave an order to create "an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between Pauk[c] and the people around him" by feeding him rumors that the people around him were KGB agents, and deceiving him at every opportunity. Among other things, he continually received envelopes with photographs of car crashes, brain surgery and other disturbing imagery. After the KGB harassment in Zürich, Solzhenitsyn settled in Cavendish, Vermont, reduced communications with others. His influence and moral authority for the West diminished as he became increasingly isolated and critical of Western individualism. KGB and CPSU experts finally concluded that he alienated American listeners by his "reactionary views and intransigent criticism of the US way of life", so no further active measures would be required.[67]

Over the next 17 years, Solzhenitsyn worked on his dramatized history of the Russian Revolution of 1917, The Red Wheel. By 1992, four sections had been completed and he had also written several shorter works.

Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in Western conservative circles (e.g. Ford administration staffers Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld advocated on Solzhenitsyn's behalf for him to speak directly to President Gerald Ford about the Soviet threat),[68] prior to and alongside the tougher foreign policy pursued by US President Ronald Reagan. At the same time, liberals and secularists became increasingly critical of what they perceived as his reactionary preference for Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox religion.

Solzhenitsyn also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant pop culture of the modern West, including television and much of popular music: "...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer, and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits... by TV stupor and by intolerable music." Despite his criticism of the "weakness" of the West, Solzhenitsyn always made clear that he admired the political liberty which was one of the enduring strengths of Western democratic societies. In a major speech delivered to the International Academy of Philosophy in Liechtenstein on 14 September 1993, Solzhenitsyn implored the West not to "lose sight of its own values, its historically unique stability of civic life under the rule of law—a hard-won stability which grants independence and space to every private citizen."[69]

In a series of writings, speeches, and interviews after his return to his native Russia in 1994, Solzhenitsyn spoke about his admiration for the local self-government he had witnessed first hand in Switzerland and New England.[70][71] He "praised 'the sensible and sure process of grassroots democracy, in which the local population solves most of its problems on its own, not waiting for the decisions of higher authorities.'"[72] Solzhenitsyn's patriotism was inward-looking. He called for Russia to "renounce all mad fantasies of foreign conquest and begin the peaceful long, long long period of recuperation," as he put it in a 1979 BBC interview with Latvian-born BBC journalist Janis Sapiets.[73]

Return to Russia

 
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn looks out from a train, in Vladivostok, summer 1994, before departing on a journey across Russia. Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia after nearly 20 years in exile.

In 1990, his Soviet citizenship was restored, and, in 1994, he returned to Russia with his wife, Natalia, who had become a United States citizen. Their sons stayed behind in the United States (later, his eldest son Yermolai returned to Russia). From then until his death, he lived with his wife in a dacha in Troitse-Lykovo in west Moscow between the dachas once occupied by Soviet leaders Mikhail Suslov and Konstantin Chernenko. A staunch believer in traditional Russian culture, Solzhenitsyn expressed his disillusionment with post-Soviet Russia in works such as Rebuilding Russia, and called for the establishment of a strong presidential republic balanced by vigorous institutions of local self-government. The latter would remain his major political theme.[74] Solzhenitsyn also published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative "miniatures" or prose poems, and a literary memoir on his years in the West The Grain Between the Millstones, translated and released as two works by the University of Notre Dame as part of the Kennan Institute's Solzhenitsyn Initiative.[75] The first, Between Two Millstones, Book 1: Sketches of Exile (1974–1978), was translated by Peter Constantine and published in October 2018, the second, Book 2: Exile in America (1978–1994) translated by Clare Kitson and Melanie Moore and published in October 2020.[76]

Once back in Russia Solzhenitsyn hosted a television talk show program.[77] Its eventual format was Solzhenitsyn delivering a 15-minute monologue twice a month; it was discontinued in 1995.[78] Solzhenitsyn became a supporter of Vladimir Putin, who said he shared Solzhenitsyn's critical view towards the Russian Revolution.[79]

All of Solzhenitsyn's sons became U.S. citizens.[80] One, Ignat, is a pianist and conductor.[81] Another Solzhenitsyn son, Yermolai, works for the Moscow office of McKinsey & Company, a management consultancy firm, where he is a senior partner.[82]

Death

 
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and many Russian public figures attended Solzhenitsyn's funeral ceremony, 6 August 2008

Solzhenitsyn died of heart failure near Moscow on 3 August 2008, at the age of 89.[65][83] A burial service was held at Donskoy Monastery, Moscow, on 6 August 2008.[citation needed] He was buried the same day in the monastery, in a spot he had chosen.[84] Russian and world leaders paid tribute to Solzhenitsyn following his death.[citation needed]

Views on history and politics

On Christianity, Tsarism, and Russian nationalism

According to William Harrison, Solzhenitsyn was an "arch-reactionary", who argued that the Soviet State "suppressed" traditional Russian and Ukrainian culture, called for the creation of a united Slavic state encompassing Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, and who was a fierce opponent of Ukrainian independence. It is well documented that his negative views on Ukrainian independence became more radical over the years.[85] Harrison also alleged that Solzhenitsyn held Pan-Slavist and monarchist views. According to Harrison, "His historical writing is imbued with a hankering after an idealized Tsarist era when, seemingly, everything was rosy. He sought refuge in a dreamy past, where, he believed, a united Slavic state (the Russian empire) built on Orthodox foundations had provided an ideological alternative to western individualistic liberalism."[86]

In his writings and speeches, Solzhenitsyn, however, sharply criticized the policies of every Tsar from the House of Romanov. A persistent theme in his criticism is that the Romanovs preferred, like Nicholas I during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, to intervene in the internal affairs of foreign countries while governing poorly at home.

Solzhenitsyn also repeatedly denounced Tsar Alexis of Russia and Patriarch Nikon of Moscow for causing the Great Schism of 1666, which Solzhenitsyn said both divided and weakened the Russian Orthodox Church at a time when unity was desperately needed. Solzhenitsyn also attacked both the Tsar and the Patriarch for using excommunication, Siberian exile, imprisonment, torture, and even burning at the stake against the Old Believers, who rejected the liturgical changes which caused the Schism.

Solzhenitsyn also argued that the Dechristianization of Russian culture, which he considered most responsible for the Bolshevik Revolution, began in 1666, became much worse during the Reign of Tsar Peter the Great, and accelerated into an epidemic during The Enlightenment, the Romantic era, and the Silver Age.

Expanding upon this theme, Solzhenitsyn once declared, "Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened. Since then I have spent well-nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.'"[87]

In an interview with Joseph Pearce, however, Solzhenitsyn commented, "[The Old Believers were] treated amazingly unjustly because some very insignificant, trifling differences in ritual which were promoted with poor judgment and without much sound basis. Because of these small differences, they were persecuted in very many cruel ways, they were suppressed, they were exiled. From the perspective of historical justice, I sympathise with them and I am on their side, but this in no way ties in with what I have just said about the fact that religion in order to keep up with mankind must adapt its forms toward modern culture. In other words, do I agree with the Old Believers that religion should freeze and not move at all? Not at all!"[88]

When asked by Pearce for his opinions about the division within the Roman Catholic Church over the Second Vatican Council and the Mass of Paul VI, Solzhenitsyn replied, "A question peculiar to the Russian Orthodox Church is, should we continue to use Old Church Slavonic, or should we start to introduce more of the contemporary Russian language into the service? I understand the fears of both those in the Orthodox and in the Catholic Church, the wariness, the hesitation, and the fear that this is lowering the Church to the modern condition, the modern surroundings. I understand this, but alas, I fear that if religion does not allow itself to change, it will be impossible to return the world to religion because the world is incapable on its own of rising as high as the old demands of religion. Religion needs to come and meet it somewhat."[89]

Surprised to hear Solzhenitsyn, "so often perceived as an arch-traditionalist, apparently coming down on the side of the reformers", Pearce then asked Solzhenitsyn what he thought of the division caused within the Anglican Communion by the decision to ordain female priests.[90]

Solzhenitsyn replied, "Certainly there are many firm boundaries that should not be changed. When I speak of some sort of correlation between the cultural norms of the present, it is really only a small part of the whole thing." Solzhenitsyn then added, "Certainly, I do not believe that women priests is the way to go!"[91]

On Russia and the Jews

 
Naftaly Frenkel (far right) and head of Gulag Matvei Berman (center) at the White Sea–Baltic Canal works, July 1932

This claim is discredited.[92][clarification needed][by whom?] In his 1974 essay "Repentance and Self-Limitation in the Life of Nations", Solzhenitsyn urged "Russian Gentiles" and Jews alike to take moral responsibility for the "renegades" from both communities who enthusiastically embraced atheism and Marxism–Leninism and participated in the Red Terror and many other acts of torture and mass murder following the October Revolution. Solzhenitsyn argued that both Russian Gentiles and Jews should be prepared to treat the atrocities committed by Jewish and Gentile Bolsheviks as though they were the acts of their own family members, before their consciences and before God. Solzhenitsyn said that if we deny all responsibility for the crimes of our national kin, "the very concept of a people loses all meaning."[93]

In a review of Solzhenitsyn's novel August 1914 in The New York Times on 13 November 1985, Jewish American historian Richard Pipes wrote: "Every culture has its own brand of anti-Semitism. In Solzhenitsyn's case, it's not racial. It has nothing to do with blood. He's certainly not a racist; the question is fundamentally religious and cultural. He bears some resemblance to Fyodor Dostoyevsky, who was a fervent Christian and patriot and a rabid anti-Semite. Solzhenitsyn is unquestionably in the grip of the Russian extreme right's view of the Revolution, which is that it was the doing of the Jews".[94][95] Award-winning Jewish novelist and the Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel disagreed and wrote that Solzhenitsyn was "too intelligent, too honest, too courageous, too great a writer" to be an anti-Semite.[96] In his 1998 book Russia in Collapse, Solzhenitsyn criticized the Russian far-right's obsession with anti-Semitic and anti-Masonic conspiracy theories.[97]

In 2001, Solzhenitsyn published a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (Two Hundred Years Together 2001, 2002).[98] The book triggered renewed accusations of anti-Semitism.[99][100][101][102] In the book, he repeated his call for Russian Gentiles and Jews to share responsibility for everything that happened in the Soviet Union.[103] He also downplayed the number of victims of an 1882 pogrom despite current evidence, and failed to mention the Beilis affair, a 1911 trial in Kiev where a Jew was accused of ritually murdering Christian children.[104] He was also criticized for relying on outdated scholarship, ignoring current western scholarship, and for selectively quoting to strengthen his preconceptions, such as that the Soviet Union often treated Jews better than non-Jewish Russians.[104][105] Similarities between Two Hundred Years Together and an anti-Semitic essay titled "Jews in the USSR and in the Future Russia", attributed to Solzhenitsyn, have led to the inference that he stands behind the anti-Semitic passages. Solzhenitsyn himself explained that the essay consists of manuscripts stolen from him by the KGB, and then carefully edited to appear anti-Semitic, before being published, 40 years before, without his consent.[102][106] According to the historian Semyon Reznik, textological analyses have proven Solzhenitsyn's authorship.[107]

Criticism of communism

 
Monument to Alexander Solzhenitsyn in Moscow
 
A monument dedicated to Solzhenitsyn in Brodnica in Poland

Solzhenitsyn emphasized the significantly more oppressive character of the Soviet police state, in comparison to the Russian Empire of the House of Romanov. He asserted that Imperial Russia did not censor literature or the media to the extreme style of the Soviet Glavlit,[108] that political prisoners typically were not forced into labor camps,[109] and that the number of political prisoners and exiles was only one ten-thousandth of the numbers of prisoners and Exiles following the Bolshevik Revolution. He noted that the Tsar's secret police, the Okhrana, was only present in the three largest cities, and not at all in the Imperial Russian Army.[citation needed]

 
A commemorative Russian coin of 2 rubles with the image of Alexander Solzhenitsyn

Shortly before his return to Russia, Solzhenitsyn delivered a speech in Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Vendée Uprising. During his speech, Solzhenitsyn compared Lenin's Bolsheviks with the Jacobin Club during the French Revolution. He also compared the Vendean rebels with the Russian, Ukrainian, and Cossack peasants who rebelled against the Bolsheviks, saying that both were destroyed mercilessly by revolutionary despotism. He commented that, while the French Reign of Terror ended with the Thermidorian reaction and the toppling of the Jacobins and the execution of Maximilien Robespierre, its Soviet equivalent continued to accelerate until the Khrushchev thaw of the 1950s.[110]

According to Solzhenitsyn, Russians were not the ruling nation in the Soviet Union. He believed that all the traditional culture of all ethnic groups were equally oppressed in favor of atheism and Marxist–Leninism. Russian culture was even more repressed than any other culture in the Soviet Union, since the regime was more afraid of ethnic uprisings among Russian Christians than among any other ethnicity. Therefore, Solzhenitsyn argued, Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox Church should not be regarded as a threat by the West but rather as allies.[111]

Solzhenitsyn made a speaking tour after Francisco Franco's death, and "told liberals not to push too hard for changes because Spain had more freedoms now than the Soviet Union had ever known." As reported by The New York Times, he "blamed Communism for the death of 110 million Russians and derided those in Spain who complained of dictatorship."[112] Solzhenitsyn recalled: "I had to explain to the people of Spain in the most concise possible terms what it meant to have been subjugated by an ideology as we in the Soviet Union had been, and give the Spanish to understand what a terrible fate they escaped in 1939", a reference to the Spanish Civil War between the Nationalists and the Republicans, which was not a common view at that time among American diplomats. For Winston Lord, a protégé of the then United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Solzhenitsyn was "just about a fascist."[113] According to Elisa Kriza, Solzhenitsyn held "benevolent views" on Franco's dictatorship and Francoist Spain because it was a Christian one, and his Christian worldview operated ideologically.[114] In The Little Grain Managed to Land Between Two Millstones, Franco's Spain is "held up as a model of a proper Christian response to the evil of Bolshevism." According to Peter Brooke, Solzhenitsyn approached the position argued by Christian Dmitri Panin, with whom he had a fall out in exile, namely that evil "must be confronted by force, and the centralised, spiritually independent Roman Catholic Church is better placed to do it than Orthodoxy with its otherworldliness and tradition of subservience to the state."[115]

In "Rebuilding Russia", an essay first published in 1990 in Komsomolskaya Pravda, Solzhenitsyn urged the Soviet Union to grant independence to all the non-Slav republics, which he claimed were sapping the Russian nation and he called for the creation of a new Slavic state bringing together Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of Kazakhstan that he considered to be Russified.[116]

On post-Soviet Russia

 
Solzhenitsyn with Vladimir Putin in 2007

In some of his later political writings, such as Rebuilding Russia (1990) and Russia in Collapse (1998), Solzhenitsyn criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian democracy, while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet Communism. He defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to extreme nationalism). He also urged for local self-government similar to what he had seen in New England town meetings and in the cantons of Switzerland. He also expressed concern for the fate of the 25 million ethnic Russians in the "near abroad" of the former Soviet Union.

In an interview with Joseph Pearce, Solzhenitsyn was asked whether he felt that the socioeconomic theories of E.F. Schumacher were, "the key to society rediscovering its sanity". He replied, "I do believe that it would be the key, but I don't think this will happen, because people succumb to fashion, and they suffer from inertia and it is hard to them to come round to a different point of view."[91]

Solzhenitsyn refused to accept Russia's highest honor, the Order of St. Andrew, in 1998. Solzhenitsyn later said: "In 1998, it was the country's low point, with people in misery; ... Yeltsin decreed I be honored the highest state order. I replied that I was unable to receive an award from a government that had led Russia into such dire straits."[117] In a 2003 interview with Joseph Pearce, Solzhenitsyn said: "We are exiting from communism in a most unfortunate and awkward way. It would have been difficult to design a path out of communism worse than the one that has been followed."[118]

In a 2007 interview with Der Spiegel, Solzhenitsyn expressed disappointment that the "conflation of 'Soviet' and 'Russian'", against which he spoke so often in the 1970s, had not passed away in the West, in the ex-socialist countries, or in the former Soviet republics. He commented, "The elder political generation in communist countries is not ready for repentance, while the new generation is only too happy to voice grievances and level accusations, with present-day Moscow [as] a convenient target. They behave as if they heroically liberated themselves and lead a new life now, while Moscow has remained communist. Nevertheless, I dare [to] hope that this unhealthy phase will soon be over, that all the peoples who have lived through communism will understand that communism is to blame for the bitter pages of their history."[117]

In 2008, Solzhenitsyn praised Putin, saying Russia was rediscovering what it meant to be Russian. Solzhenitsyn also praised the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev as a "nice young man" who was capable of taking on the challenges Russia was facing.[119]

Criticism of the West

Once in the United States, Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized the West.[120]

Solzhenitsyn criticized the Allies for not opening a new front against Nazi Germany in the west earlier in World War II. This resulted in Soviet domination and control of the nations of Eastern Europe. Solzhenitsyn claimed the Western democracies apparently cared little about how many died in the East, as long as they could end the war quickly and painlessly for themselves in the West.

Delivering the commencement address at Harvard University in 1978, he called the United States "Dechristianized" and mired in boorish consumerism. The American people, he said, speaking in Russian through a translator, were also suffering from a "decline in courage" and a "lack of manliness." Few were willing to die for their ideals, he said. He also condemned the 1960s counterculture for forcing the United States federal government to accept a "hasty" capitulation in the Vietnam War.

In a reference to the Communist governments in Southeast Asia's use of re-education camps, politicide, human rights abuses, and genocide following the Fall of Saigon, Solzhenitsyn said: "But members of the U.S. antiwar movement wound up being involved in the betrayal of Far Eastern nations, in a genocide and in the suffering today imposed on 30 million people there. Do those convinced pacifists hear the moans coming from there?"[121]

He also accused the Western news media of left-wing bias, of violating the privacy of celebrities, and of filling up the "immortal souls" of their readers with celebrity gossip and other "vain talk". He also said that the West erred in thinking that the whole world should embrace this as model. While faulting Soviet society for rejecting basic human rights and the rule of law, he also critiqued the West for being too legalistic: "A society which is based on the letter of the law and never reaches any higher is taking very scarce advantage of the high level of human possibilities." Solzhenitsyn also argued that the West erred in "denying [Russian culture's] autonomous character and therefore never understood it".[66]

Solzhenitsyn criticized the 2003 invasion of Iraq and accused the United States of the "occupation" of Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq.[122]

Solzhenitsyn was critical of NATO's eastward expansion towards Russia's borders.[123] In 2006, Solzhenitsyn accused NATO of trying to bring Russia under its control; he claimed this was visible because of its "ideological support for the 'colour revolutions' and the paradoxical forcing of North Atlantic interests on Central Asia".[123] In a 2006 interview with Der Spiegel he stated "This was especially painful in the case of Ukraine, a country whose closeness to Russia is defined by literally millions of family ties among our peoples, relatives living on different sides of the national border. At one fell stroke, these families could be torn apart by a new dividing line, the border of a military bloc."[117]

On the Holodomor

Solzhenitsyn gave a speech to AFL–CIO in Washington, D.C., on 30 June 1975 in which he mentioned how the system created by the Bolsheviks in 1917 caused dozens of problems in the Soviet Union.[124] He described how this system was responsible for the Holodomor: "It was a system which, in time of peace, artificially created a famine, causing 6 million people to die in the Ukraine in 1932 and 1933." Solzhenitsyn added, "they died on the very edge of Europe. And Europe didn't even notice it. The world didn't even notice it—6 million people!"[124]

Shortly before his death, Solzhenitsyn opined in an interview published 2 April 2008 in Izvestia that, while the famine in Ukraine was both artificial and caused by the state, it was no different than the Russian famine of 1921. Solzhenitsyn expressed the belief that both famines were caused by systematic armed robbery of the harvests from both Russian and Ukrainian peasants by Bolshevik units, which were under orders from the Politburo to bring back food for the starving urban population centers while refusing for ideological reasons to permit any private sale of food supplies in the cities or to give any payment to the peasants in return for the food that was seized.[125] Solzhenitsyn further alleged that the theory that the Holodomor was a genocide which only victimized the Ukrainian people was created decades later by believers in an anti-Russian form of extreme Ukrainian nationalism. Solzhenitsyn also cautioned that the ultranationalists' claims risked being accepted without question in the West due to widespread ignorance and misunderstanding there of both Russian and Ukrainian history.[125]

Legacy

The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center in Worcester, Massachusetts promotes the author and hosts the official English-language website dedicated to him.[126]

Television documentaries on Solzhenitsyn

In October 1983, French literary journalist Bernard Pivot made an hour-long television interview with Solzhenitsyn at his rural home in Vermont, US. Solzhenitsyn discussed his writing, the evolution of his language and style, his family and his outlook on the future—and stated his wish to return to Russia in his lifetime, not just to see his books eventually printed there.[127][128] Earlier the same year, Solzhenitsyn was interviewed on separate occasions by two British journalists, Bernard Levin and Malcolm Muggeridge.[127]

In 1998, Russian filmmaker Alexander Sokurov made a four-part television documentary, Besedy s Solzhenitsynym (The Dialogues with Solzhenitsyn). The documentary was shot in Solzhenitsyn's home depicting his everyday life and his reflections on Russian history and literature.[129]

In December 2009, the Russian channel Rossiya K broadcast the French television documentary L'Histoire Secrète de l'Archipel du Goulag (The Secret History of the Gulag Archipelago)[130] made by Jean Crépu and Nicolas Miletitch[131] and translated into Russian under the title Taynaya Istoriya "Arkhipelaga Gulag" (Тайная история "Архипелага ГУЛАГ"). The documentary covers events related to creation and publication of The Gulag Archipelago.[130][132][133]

Published works and speeches

  • Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isaevich. A Storm in the Mountains.
  • ——— (1962). One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (novella).
  • ——— (1963). An Incident at Krechetovka Station (novella).
  • ——— (1963). Matryona's Place (novella).
  • ——— (1963). For the Good of the Cause (novella).
  • ——— (1968). The First Circle (novel). Henry Carlisle, Olga Carlisle (translators).
  • ——— (1968). Cancer Ward (novel).
  • ——— (1969). The Love-Girl and the Innocent (play). Also known as The Prisoner and the Camp Hooker or The Tenderfoot and the Tart.
  • ——— (1970). "Laureate lecture" (delivered in writing and not actually given as a lecture). Nobel prize. Swedish academy. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
  • ——— (1971). August 1914 (historical novel). The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR. Centers on the disastrous loss in the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914, and the ineptitude of the military leadership. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story: see The Red Wheel (overall title).
  • ——— (1973–1978). The Gulag Archipelago. Henry Carlisle, Olga Carlisle (tr.). (3 vols.), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a police state in the Soviet Union.
  • ——— (1951). Prussian Nights (poetry) (published 1974)..
  • ——— (10 December 1974), Nobel Banquet (speech), City Hall, Stockholm.[134]
  • ——— (1974). A Letter to the Soviet leaders. Collins: Harvill Press. ISBN 978-0-06-013913-1.
  • ——— (1975). The Oak and the Calf.
  • ——— (1975). Solzhenitsyn: The Voice of Freedom (Translation of 2 speeches, the first given in Washington, D.C., on 30 June 1975, the second in New York City on 9 July 1975 to the AFL–CIO). Washington: American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations.
  • ——— (1976a). Lenin in Zürich.; separate publication of chapters on Vladimir Lenin, none of them published before this point, from The Red Wheel. The first of them was later incorporated into the 1984 edition of the expanded August 1914 (though it had been written at the same time as the original version of the novel)[135] and the rest in November 1916 and March 1917.
  • ——— (1976b). Warning to the West (5 speeches; 3 to the Americans in 1975 and 2 to the British in 1976).
  • ——— (8 June 1978). "Harvard Commencement Address". Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center → Articles, Essays, and Speeches. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  • ——— (1983). Pluralists (political pamphlet).
  • ——— (1980). The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America.
  • ——— (1983b). November 1916 (novel). The Red Wheel.
  • ——— (1983c). Victory Celebration.
  • ——— (1983d). Prisoners.
  • ——— (10 May 1983). Godlessness, the First Step to the Gulag (address). London: Templeton Prize.
  • ——— (1984). August 1914 (novel) (much-expanded ed.).
  • ——— (1990). Rebuilding Russia.
  • ——— (1990). March 1917.
  • ——— (c. 1991). April 1917.
  • ——— (1995). The Russian Question.
  • ——— (1997). Invisible Allies. Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-887178-42-6.
  • ——— (1998). [Russia under Avalanche] (political pamphlet) (in Russian). Yahoo. Archived from the original (Geo cities) on 28 August 2009.
  • ——— (2003). Two Hundred Years Together. on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response.[136][137]
  • ——— (2011). Apricot Jam: and Other Stories. Kenneth Lantz, Stephan Solzhenitsyn (tr.). Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Often romanized to Alexandr or Alexander. His father's given name was Isaakiy, which would normally result in the patronymic Isaakievich; however, the forms Isaakovich and Isayevich both appeared in official documents, the latter becoming the accepted version.
  2. ^ UK: /ˌsɒlʒəˈnɪtsɪn/ SOL-zhə-NIT-sin,[2][3][4] US: /ˌsl-, -ˈnt-/ SOHL-, -⁠NEET-;[3][4][5] Russian: Александр Исаевич Солженицын, IPA: [ɐlʲɪkˈsandr ɪˈsajɪvʲɪtɕ səlʐɨˈnʲitsɨn].
  3. ^ KGB gave Solzhenitsyn the code name Pauk, which means "spider" in Russian.

References

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  2. ^ . Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022.
  3. ^ a b "Solzhenitsyn". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  4. ^ a b "Solzhenitsyn, Alexander". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  5. ^ "Solzhenitsyn". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  6. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970". NobelPrize.org.
  7. ^ Christopher Hitchens (4 August 2008). "Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 1918–2008". Slate Magazine.
  8. ^ "Nobel Prize in Literature 1970". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
  9. ^ Scammell, Michael (11 December 2018). "The Writer Who Destroyed an Empire". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. In 1973, still in the Soviet Union, he sent abroad his literary and polemical masterpiece, 'The Gulag Archipelago.' The nonfiction account exposed the enormous crimes that had led to the wholesale incarceration and slaughter of millions of innocent victims, demonstrating that its dimensions were on a par with the Holocaust. Solzhenitsyn's gesture amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state, calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change.
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  11. ^ Scammell, p. 30
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  33. ^ Pearce, Joseph (2011). Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-58617-496-5. they were being exiled "in perpetuity" to the district of Kok-Terek
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  46. ^ Benno, Peter (1965), "The Political Aspect", in Hayward, Max; Crowley, Edward L (eds.), Soviet Literature in the 1960s, London, p. 191
  47. ^ a b Wachtel, Andrew (2013). "One Day—Fifty years later". Slavic Review. 72 (1): 102–117. doi:10.5612/slavicreview.72.1.0102. JSTOR 10.5612/slavicreview.72.1.0102. S2CID 164632244. 
  48. ^ The Oak and the Calf
  49. ^ Rosenfeld, Alla; Dodge, Norton T (2001). Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 1945–1991. Rutgers University Press. pp. 55, 134. ISBN 978-0-8135-3042-0.
  50. ^ Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I (1995). "The Estonians". Invisible Allies. Basic Books. pp. 46–64. ISBN 978-1-887178-42-6.
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Sources

External video
  Presentation by D. M. Thomas on Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in His Life. C-SPAN. 19 February 1998
  • Ericson, Edward E. Jr.; Klimoff, Alexis (2008). The Soul and Barbed Wire: An Introduction to Solzhenitsyn. ISI books. ISBN 978-1-933859-57-6.
  • Ericson, Edward E, Jr; Mahoney, Daniel J, eds. (2009). The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005. ISI Books.
  • Kriza, Elisa (2014) Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist? A Study of the Western Reception of his Literary Writings, Historical Interpretations, and Political Ideas. Stuttgart: Ibidem Press. ISBN 978-3-8382-0589-2
  • Moody, Christopher (1973). Solzhenitsyn. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. ISBN 978-0-05-002600-7.
  • Scammell, Michael (1986). Solzhenitsyn: A Biography. London: Paladin. ISBN 978-0-586-08538-7.
  • Thomas, D.M. (1998). Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in his Life. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-18036-2.

Further reading

Biographies

  • Burg, David; Feifer, George (1972). Solzhenitsyn: A Biography. New York: Stein & Day.
  • Glottser, Vladimir; Chukovskaia, Elena (1998). Слово пробивает себе дорогу: Сборник статей и документов об А. И. Солженицыне (Slovo probivaet sebe dorogu: Sbornik statei i dokumentov ob A. I. Solzhenitsyne), 1962–1974 [The word finds its way: Collection of articles and documents on AI Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Moscow: Russkii put'.
  • Korotkov, AV; Melchin, SA; Stepanov, AS (1994). Кремлевский самосуд: Секретные документы Политбюро о писателе А. Солженицыне (Kremlevskii samosud: Sekretnye dokumenty Politburo o pisatele A. Solzhenitsyne) [Kremlin lynching: Secret documents of the Politburo of the writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Moscow: Rodina.
  • ———; Melchin, SA; Stepanov, AS (1995). Scammell, Michael (ed.). The Solzhenitsyn Files. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (tr.). Chicago: Edition q.
  • Labedz, Leopold, ed. (1973). Solzhenitsyn: A Documentary Record. Bloomington: Indiana University. ISBN 9780253201645.
  • Ledovskikh, Nikolai (2003). Возвращение в Матренин дом, или Один день' Александра Исаевича (Vozvrashchenie v Matrenin dom, ili Odin den' Aleksandra Isaevicha) [Return to Matrenin house, or One Day' Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Riazan': Poverennyi.
  • Ostrovsky Alexander (2004). Солженицын: прощание с мифом (Solzhenitsyn: Farewell to the myth) – Moscow: «Yauza», Presscom. ISBN 978-5-98083-023-6
  • Pearce, Joseph (2001). Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.
  • Reshetovskaia, Natal'ia Alekseevna (1975). В споре со временем (V spore so vremenem) [In a dispute over time] (in Russian). Moscow: Agentsvo pechati Novosti.
  • ——— (1975). Sanya: My Husband Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Elena Ivanoff transl. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.

Reference works

  • Askol'dov, Sergei Alekseevich; Struve, Petr Berngardovich; et al. (1918). Из глубины: Сборник статей о русской революции (Iz glubiny: Sbornik statei o russkoi revoliutsii) [From the depths: Collection of articles on the Russian Revolution] (in Russian). Moscow: Russkaia mysl'.
  • ———; Struve, Petr Berngardovich (1986). Woehrlin, William F (ed.). De Profundis [Out of the Depths]. William F. Woehrlin (tr.). Irvine, CA: C Schlacks, Jr.
  • Barker, Francis (1977). Solzhenitsyn: Politics and Form. New York: Holmes & Meier.
  • Berdiaev, Nikolai A; Bulgakov, SN; Gershenzon, MO; et al. (1909). Вехи: Сборник статей о русской интеллигенции (Vekhi: Sbornik statei o russkoi intelligentsii) [Milestones: Collection of articles on the Russian intelligentsia] (in Russian). Moscow: Kushnerev.
  • ———; Bulgakov, SN; Gershenzon, MO; et al. (1977). Shragin, Boris; Todd, Albert (eds.). Landmarks: A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia. Marian Schwartz transl. New York: Karz Howard.
  • Bloom, Harold, ed. (2001). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Modern Critical Views. Philadelphia: Chelsea House.
  • Brown, Edward J (1982), "Solzhenitsyn and the Epic of the Camps", Russian Literature Since the Revolution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, pp. 251–91.
  • Daprà, Veronika (1991), AI Solzhenitsyn: The Political Writings, Università degli Studi di Venezia; Prof. Vittorio Strada, Dott. Julija Dobrovol'skaja.
  • Ericson, Edward E jr (1980). Solzhenitsyn: The Moral Vision. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802835277.
  • ——— (1993). Solzhenitsyn and the Modern World. Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway.
  • Feuer, Kathryn, ed. (1976). Solzhenitsyn: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 9780138226275.
  • Golubkov, MM (1999). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Moscow: MGU.
  • Klimoff, Alexis (1997). One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich: A Critical Companion. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
  • Kodjak, Andrej (1978). Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 9780805763201.
  • Krasnov, Vladislav (1979). Solzhenitsyn and Dostoevsky: A Study in the Polyphonic Novel. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820304724.
  • Kopelev, Lev (1983). Ease My Sorrows: A Memoir. Antonina W. Bouis transl. New York: Random House. ISBN 9780394527840.
  • Anatoly Livry, « Soljénitsyne et la République régicide », Les Lettres et Les Arts, Cahiers suisses de critique littéraire et artistiques, Association de la revue Les Lettres et les Arts, Suisse, Vicques, 2011, pp. 70–72. http://anatoly-livry.e-monsite.com/medias/files/soljenitsine-livry-1.pdf
  • Lydon, Michael (2001), "Alexander Solzhenitsyn", Real Writing: Word Models of the Modern World, New York: Patrick Press, pp. 183–251.
  • Mahoney, Daniel J (2001), Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Ascent From Ideology, Rowman & Littlefield.
  • ——— (November–December 2002), "Solzhenitsyn on Russia's 'Jewish Question", Society, pp. 104–09.
  • Mathewson, Rufus W jr (1975), "Solzhenitsyn", The Positive Hero in Russian Literature, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 279–340
  • McCarthy, Mary (16 September 1972), "The Tolstoy Connection", Saturday Review, pp. 79–96
  • "Special Solzhenitsyn issue", Modern Fiction Studies, vol. 23, Spring 1977.
  • Nivat, Georges (1980). Soljénitsyne [Solzhenitsyn] (in French). Paris: Seuil.
  • ——— (2009), Le phénomène Soljénitsyne [The Solzhenitsyn phenomenon] (in French), Fayard
  • Nivat; Aucouturier, Michel, eds. (1971). Soljénitsyne [Solzhenitsyn] (in French). Paris: L'Herne.
  • Panin, Dimitri (1976). The Notebooks of Sologdin. John Moore transl. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 9780151669950.
  • Pogadaev, Victor A (October–December 2008), "Solzhenitsyn: Tanpa Karyanya Sejarah Abad 20 Tak Terbayangkan" [Solzhenitsyn: Without History of the 20th Century His work Unimaginable], Pentas (in Indonesian), Kuala Lumpur, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 60–63.
  • Pontuso, James F (1990). Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
  • ——— (2004), Assault on Ideology: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought (2nd ed.), Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, ISBN 978-0-7391-0594-8.
  • Porter, Robert (1997). Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. London: Bristol Classical.
  • Remnick, David (14 February 1994). "The Exile Returns". The New Yorker. Vol. 69, no. 50. pp. 64–83.
  • Rothberg, Abraham (1971). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Major Novels. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. ISBN 9780801406683.
  • Shneerson, Mariia (1984). Александр Солженицын: Очерки творчества (Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: Ocherki tvorchestva) [Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Essays on Art] (in Russian). Frankfurt & Moscow: Posev.
  • Shturman, Dora (1988). Городу и миру: О публицистике АИ Солженицына (Gorodu i miru: O publitsistike AI Solzhenitsyna) [Urbi et Orbi: About journalism. AI Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Paris & New York: Tret'ia volna.
  • Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr; et al. (1980). Berman, Ronald (ed.). Solzhenitsyn at Harvard: The Address, Twelve Early Responses, and Six Later Reflections. Washington, DC: Ethics & Public Policy Center.
  • ——— (1975). Dunlop, John B; Haugh, Richard; Klimoff, Alexis (eds.). Critical Essays and Documentary Materials. New York & London: Collier Macmillan.
  • ——— (1985). Dunlop, John B; Haugh, Richard; Nicholson, Michael (eds.). In Exile: Critical Essays and Documentary Materials. Stanford: Hoover Institution. ISBN 9780817980511.
  • Toker, Leona (2000), "The Gulag Archipelago and The Gulag Fiction of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn", Return from the Archipelago: Narrative of Gulag Survivors, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 101–21, 188–209
  • Tolczyk, Dariusz (1999), "A Sliver in the Throat of Power", See No Evil: Literary Cover-Ups and Discoveries of the Soviet Camp Experience, New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, pp. 253–310
  • Transactions, vol. 29, The Association of Russian-American Scholars in the USA, 1998.
  • Urmanov, AV (2003). Творчество Александра Солженицына: Учебное пособие (Tvorchestvo Aleksandra Solzhenitsyna: Uchebnoe posobie) [Creativity Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Tutorial] (in Russian). Moscow: Flinta/Nauka.
  • Urmanov, AV, ed. (2003), Один деньь Ивана Денисовича АИ Солженицына. Художественный мир. Поэтика. Культурный контекст (Odin den' Ivana Denisovicha. AI Solzhenitsyna: Khudozhestvennyy mir. Poetika. Kul'turnyy kontekst) [One den of Ivan Denisovich. AI Solzhenitsyn: Art world. Poetics. Cultural context] (in Russian), Blagoveshchensk: BGPU.
  • Tretyakov, Vitaly (2 May 2006). . The Moscow News. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006.

External links

  • (in Russian) Official website
  • The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970
  • Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn on Nobelprize.org  
  • by the Stalin Society
  • Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I (1978), (commencement address to the graduating class), Harvard University: OrthodoxyToday.org, archived from the original on 7 August 2008, retrieved 9 August 2014.
  • Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
  • Der Spiegel interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn: 'I Am Not Afraid of Death', 23 July 2007
  • As delivered text and video of Harvard Commencement Address at AmericanRhetoric.com
  • at the Internet Book List

aleksandr, solzhenitsyn, this, name, that, follows, eastern, slavic, naming, conventions, patronymic, isayevich, family, name, solzhenitsyn, aleksandr, isayevich, solzhenitsyn, december, 1918, august, 2008, russian, novelist, prominent, soviet, dissident, solz. In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming conventions the patronymic is Isayevich and the family name is Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn a b 11 December 1918 3 August 2008 6 7 was a Russian novelist A prominent Soviet dissident Solzhenitsyn was an outspoken critic of communism and helped to raise global awareness of political repression in the Soviet Union in particular the Gulag system Aleksandr SolzhenitsynSolzhenitsyn in February 1974Native nameAleksandr Isaevich SolzhenicynBorn 1918 12 11 11 December 1918Kislovodsk Soviet RussiaDied3 August 2008 2008 08 03 aged 89 Moscow RussiaOccupationNovelistessayisthistorianCitizenshipSoviet Russia 1918 1922 Soviet Union 1922 1974 Stateless 1974 1990 1 Soviet Union 1990 1991 Russia 1991 2008 Alma materRostov State UniversityNotable worksOne Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 1962 Cancer Ward 1966 In the First Circle 1968 The Red Wheel 1971 1991 The Gulag Archipelago 1973 Two Hundred Years Together 2001 2002 Notable awardsNobel Prize in Literature 1970 Templeton Prize 1983 Lomonosov Gold Medal 1998 State Prize of the Russian Federation 2007 International Botev Prize 2008 Order of St Andrew Refused the reward SpousesNatalia Alekseyevna Reshetovskaya m 1940 div 1952 wbr m 1957 div 1972 wbr Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova m 1973 wbr ChildrenYermolaiIgnatStepanSignatureWebsitesolzhenitsyn wbr ruSolzhenitsyn was born into a family that defied the Soviet anti religious campaign in the 1920s and remained devout members of the Russian Orthodox Church However Solzhenitsyn lost his faith in Christianity became an atheist and embraced Marxism Leninism While serving as a captain in the Red Army during World War II Solzhenitsyn was arrested by the SMERSH and sentenced to eight years in the Gulag and then internal exile for criticizing Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in a private letter As a result of his experience in prison and the camps he gradually became a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian As a result of the Khrushchev Thaw Solzhenitsyn was released and exonerated He pursued writing novels about repression in the Soviet Union and his experiences He published his first novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich in 1962 with approval from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev which was an account of Stalinist repressions Solzhenitsyn s last work to be published in the Soviet Union was Matryona s Place in 1963 Following the removal of Khrushchev from power the Soviet authorities attempted to discourage Solzhenitsyn from continuing to write He continued to work on further novels and their publication in other countries including Cancer Ward in 1966 In the First Circle in 1968 August 1914 in 1971 and The Gulag Archipelago in 1973 the publication of which outraged the Soviet authorities In 1974 Solzhenitsyn lost his Soviet citizenship and was flown to West Germany In 1976 he moved with his family to the United States where he continued to write In 1990 shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union his citizenship was restored and four years later he returned to Russia where he remained until his death in 2008 He was awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize in Literature for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature 8 and The Gulag Archipelago was a highly influential work that amounted to a head on challenge to the Soviet state and sold tens of millions of copies 9 Contents 1 Biography 1 1 Early years 1 2 World War II 1 3 Imprisonment 1 4 Marriages and children 1 5 After prison 1 6 Later years in the Soviet Union 1 7 Expulsion from the Soviet Union 1 8 In the West 1 9 Return to Russia 1 10 Death 2 Views on history and politics 2 1 On Christianity Tsarism and Russian nationalism 2 2 On Russia and the Jews 2 3 Criticism of communism 2 4 On post Soviet Russia 2 5 Criticism of the West 2 6 On the Holodomor 3 Legacy 3 1 Television documentaries on Solzhenitsyn 4 Published works and speeches 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 Further reading 9 1 Biographies 9 2 Reference works 10 External linksBiography EditEarly years Edit Solzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk now in Stavropol Krai Russia His father Isaakiy Semyonovich Solzhenitsyn was of Russian descent and his mother Taisiya Zakharovna nee Shcherbak was of Ukrainian descent 10 Taisiya s father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner acquiring a large estate in the Kuban region in the northern foothills of the Caucasus 11 and during World War I Taisiya had gone to Moscow to study While there she met and married Isaakiy a young officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origin and fellow native of the Caucasus region The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of August 1914 and in the later Red Wheel novels 12 In 1918 Taisiya became pregnant with Aleksandr On 15 June shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident Aleksandr was raised by his widowed mother and his aunt in lowly circumstances His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War By 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm Later Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father s background in the old Imperial Army a secret His educated mother encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith 13 14 she died in 1944 having never remarried 15 As early as 1936 Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for planned epic work on World War I and the Russian Revolution This eventually led to the novel August 1914 some of the chapters he wrote then still survive citation needed Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics and physics at Rostov State University At the same time he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy Literature and History which by this time were heavily ideological in scope As he himself makes clear he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he spent time in the camps 16 World War II Edit During the war Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a sound ranging battery in the Red Army 17 was involved in major action at the front and was twice decorated He was awarded the Order of the Red Star on 8 July 1944 for sound ranging two German artillery batteries and adjusting counterbattery fire onto them resulting in their destruction 18 A series of writings published late in his life including the early uncompleted novel Love the Revolution chronicle his wartime experience and growing doubts about the moral foundations of the Soviet regime 19 While serving as an artillery officer in East Prussia Solzhenitsyn witnessed war crimes against local German civilians by Soviet military personnel Of the atrocities Solzhenitsyn wrote You know very well that we ve come to Germany to take our revenge for Nazi atrocities committed in the Soviet Union 20 The noncombatants and the elderly were robbed of their meager possessions and women and girls were gang raped A few years later in the forced labor camp he memorized a poem titled Prussian Nights about a woman raped to death in East Prussia In this poem which describes the gang rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers mistakenly thought to be a German 21 the first person narrator comments on the events with sarcasm and refers to the responsibility of official Soviet writers like Ilya Ehrenburg In The Gulag Archipelago Solzhenitsyn wrote There is nothing that so assists the awakening of omniscience within us as insistent thoughts about one s own transgressions errors mistakes After the difficult cycles of such ponderings over many years whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest ranking bureaucrats the cruelty of our executioners I remember myself in my Captain s shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia enshrouded in fire and I say So were we any better 22 Imprisonment Edit In February 1945 while serving in East Prussia Solzhenitsyn was arrested by SMERSH for writing derogatory comments in private letters to a friend Nikolai Vitkevich 23 about the conduct of the war by Joseph Stalin whom he called Khozyain the boss and Balabos Yiddish rendering of Hebrew baal ha bayit for master of the house 24 He also had talks with the same friend about the need for a new organization to replace the Soviet regime 25 clarification needed Solzhenitsyn was accused of anti Soviet propaganda under Article 58 paragraph 10 of the Soviet criminal code and of founding a hostile organization under paragraph 11 26 27 Solzhenitsyn was taken to the Lubyanka prison in Moscow where he was interrogated On 9 May 1945 it was announced that Germany had surrendered and all of Moscow broke out in celebrations with fireworks and searchlights illuminating the sky to celebrate the victory in the Great Patriotic War From his cell in the Lubyanka Solzhenitsyn remembered Above the muzzle of our window and from all the other cells of the Lubyanka and from all the windows of the Moscow prisons we too former prisoners of war and former front line soldiers watched the Moscow heavens patterned with fireworks and crisscrossed with beams of searchlights There was no rejoicing in our cells and no hugs and no kisses for us That victory was not ours 28 On 7 July 1945 he was sentenced in his absence by Special Council of the NKVD to an eight year term in a labour camp This was the normal sentence for most crimes under Article 58 at the time 29 The first part of Solzhenitsyn s sentence was served in several work camps the middle phase as he later referred to it was spent in a sharashka a special scientific research facility run by Ministry of State Security where he met Lev Kopelev upon whom he based the character of Lev Rubin in his book The First Circle published in a self censored or distorted version in the West in 1968 an English translation of the full version was eventually published by Harper Perennial in October 2009 30 In 1950 Solzhenitsyn was sent to a Special Camp for political prisoners During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of Ekibastuz in Kazakhstan he worked as a miner bricklayer and foundry foreman His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the book One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich One of his fellow political prisoners Ion Moraru remembers that Solzhenitsyn spent some of his time at Ekibastuz writing 31 While there Solzhenitsyn had a tumor removed His cancer was not diagnosed at the time In March 1953 after his sentence ended Solzhenitsyn was sent to internal exile for life at Birlik 32 a village in Baidibek District of South Kazakhstan 33 His undiagnosed cancer spread until by the end of the year he was close to death In 1954 Solzhenitsyn was permitted to be treated in a hospital in Tashkent where his tumor went into remission His experiences there became the basis of his novel Cancer Ward and also found an echo in the short story The Right Hand It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn developed the philosophical and religious positions of his later life gradually becoming a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of his experience in prison and the camps 34 35 36 He repented for some of his actions as a Red Army captain and in prison compared himself to the perpetrators of the Gulag His transformation is described at some length in the fourth part of The Gulag Archipelago The Soul and Barbed Wire The narrative poem The Trail written without benefit of pen or paper in prison and camps between 1947 and 1952 and the 28 poems composed in prison forced labour camp and exile also provide crucial material for understanding Solzhenitsyn s intellectual and spiritual odyssey during this period These early works largely unknown in the West were published for the first time in Russian in 1999 and excerpted in English in 2006 37 38 Marriages and children Edit On 7 April 1940 while at the university Solzhenitsyn married Natalia Alekseevna Reshetovskaya 39 They had just over a year of married life before he went into the army then to the Gulag They divorced in 1952 a year before his release because the wives of Gulag prisoners faced the loss of work or residence permits After the end of his internal exile they remarried in 1957 40 divorcing a second time in 1972 Reshetovskaya wrote negatively of Solzhenitsyn in her memoirs accusing him of having affairs and said of the relationship that Solzhenitsyn s despotism would crush my independence and would not permit my personality to develop 41 In her 1974 memoir Sanya My Life with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn she wrote that she was perplexed that the West had accepted The Gulag Archipelago as the solemn ultimate truth saying its significance had been overestimated and wrongly appraised Pointing out that the book s subtitle is An Experiment in Literary Investigation she said that her husband did not regard the work as historical research or scientific research She contended that it was rather a collection of camp folklore containing raw material which her husband was planning to use in his future productions In 1973 Solzhenitsyn married his second wife Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova a mathematician who had a son Dmitri Turin from a brief prior marriage 42 He and Svetlova born 1939 had three sons Yermolai 1970 Ignat 1972 and Stepan 1973 43 Dmitri Turin died on 18 March 1994 aged 32 at his home in New York City 44 After prison Edit After Khrushchev s Secret Speech in 1956 Solzhenitsyn was freed from exile and exonerated Following his return from exile Solzhenitsyn was while teaching at a secondary school during the day spending his nights secretly engaged in writing In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech he wrote that during all the years until 1961 not only was I convinced I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime but also I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared this would become known 45 In 1960 aged 42 Solzhenitsyn approached Aleksandr Tvardovsky a poet and the chief editor of the Novy Mir magazine with the manuscript of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich It was published in edited form in 1962 with the explicit approval of Nikita Khrushchev who defended it at the presidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publication and added There s a Stalinist in each of you there s even a Stalinist in me We must root out this evil 46 The book quickly sold out and became an instant hit 47 In the 1960s while Solzhenitsyn was publicly known to be writing Cancer Ward he was simultaneously writing The Gulag Archipelago During Khrushchev s tenure One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was studied in schools in the Soviet Union as were three more short works of Solzhenitsyn s including his short story Matryona s Home published in 1963 These would be the last of his works published in the Soviet Union until 1990 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich brought the Soviet system of prison labour to the attention of the West It caused as much of a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did in the West not only by its striking realism and candour but also because it was the first major piece of Soviet literature since the 1920s on a politically charged theme written by a non party member indeed a man who had been to Siberia for libelous speech about the leaders and yet its publication had been officially permitted In this sense the publication of Solzhenitsyn s story was almost unheard of instance of free unrestrained discussion of politics through literature However after Khrushchev had been ousted from power in 1964 the time for such raw exposing works came to an end 47 Later years in the Soviet Union Edit Every time when we speak about Solzhenitsyn as the enemy of the Soviet regime this just happens to coincide with some important international events and we postpone the decision Andrei Kirilenko a Politburo member Solzhenitsyn made an unsuccessful attempt with the help of Tvardovsky to have his novel Cancer Ward legally published in the Soviet Union This required the approval of the Union of Writers Though some there appreciated it the work was ultimately denied publication unless it was to be revised and cleaned of suspect statements and anti Soviet insinuations 48 After Khrushchev s removal in 1964 the cultural climate again became more repressive Publishing of Solzhenitsyn s work quickly stopped as a writer he became a non person and by 1965 the KGB had seized some of his papers including the manuscript of The First Circle Meanwhile Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work on the most well known of his writings The Gulag Archipelago The seizing of his novel manuscript first made him desperate and frightened but gradually he realized that it had set him free from the pretenses and trappings of being an officially acclaimed writer a status which had become familiar but which was becoming increasingly irrelevant After the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn s materials in Moscow in the years 1965 to 1967 the preparatory drafts of The Gulag Archipelago were turned into finished typescript in hiding at his friends homes in Soviet Estonia Solzhenitsyn had befriended Arnold Susi a lawyer and former Minister of Education of Estonia in a Lubyanka Building prison cell After completion Solzhenitsyn s original handwritten script was kept hidden from the KGB in Estonia by Arnold Susi s daughter Heli Susi until the collapse of the Soviet Union 49 50 In 1969 Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Union of Writers In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature He could not receive the prize personally in Stockholm at that time since he was afraid he would not be let back into the Soviet Union Instead it was suggested he should receive the prize in a special ceremony at the Swedish embassy in Moscow The Swedish government refused to accept this solution because such a ceremony and the ensuing media coverage might upset the Soviet Union and damage Swedish Soviet relations Instead Solzhenitsyn received his prize at the 1974 ceremony after he had been expelled from the Soviet Union In 1973 another manuscript written by Solzhenitsyn was confiscated by the KGB after his friend Elizaveta Voronyanskaya was questioned non stop for five days until she revealed its location according to a statement by Solzhenitsyn to Western reporters on September 6 1973 According to Solzhenitsyn When she returned home she hanged herself 51 The Gulag Archipelago was composed from 1958 to 1967 and has sold over thirty million copies in thirty five languages It was a three volume seven part work on the Soviet prison camp system which drew from Solzhenitsyn s experiences and the testimony of 256 52 former prisoners and Solzhenitsyn s own research into the history of the Russian penal system It discusses the system s origins from the founding of the Communist regime with Vladimir Lenin having responsibility detailing interrogation procedures prisoner transports prison camp culture prisoner uprisings and revolts such as the Kengir uprising and the practice of internal exile Soviet and Communist studies historian and archival researcher Stephen G Wheatcroft wrote that the book was essentially a literary and political work and never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social scientific quantitative perspective but that in the case of qualitative estimates Solzhenitsyn gave his high estimate as he wanted to challenge the Soviet authorities to show that the scale of the camps was less than this 53 Historian J Arch Getty wrote of Solzhenitsyn s methodology that such documentation is methodically unacceptable in other fields of history 54 which gives priority to vague hearsay and leads towards selective bias 55 According to journalist Anne Applebaum who has made extensive research on the Gulag The Gulag Archipelago s rich and varied authorial voice its unique weaving together of personal testimony philosophical analysis and historical investigation and its unrelenting indictment of Communist ideology made it one of the most influential books of the 20th century 56 Solzhenitsyn right and his long time friend Mstislav Rostropovich left at the celebration of Solzhenitsyn s 80th birthday On 8 August 1971 the KGB allegedly attempted to assassinate Solzhenitsyn using an unknown chemical agent most likely ricin with an experimental gel based delivery method 57 58 The attempt left him seriously ill but he survived 59 60 Although The Gulag Archipelago was not published in the Soviet Union it was extensively criticized by the Party controlled Soviet press An editorial in Pravda on 14 January 1974 accused Solzhenitsyn of supporting Hitlerites and making excuses for the crimes of the Vlasovites and Bandera gangs According to the editorial Solzhenitsyn was choking with pathological hatred for the country where he was born and grew up for the socialist system and for Soviet people 61 During this period he was sheltered by the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich who suffered considerably for his support of Solzhenitsyn and was eventually forced into exile himself 62 Expulsion from the Soviet Union Edit In a discussion of its options in dealing with Solzhenitsyn the members of the Politburo considered his arrest and imprisonment and his expulsion to a capitalist country willing to take him 63 Guided by KGB chief Yuri Andropov and following a statement from West German Chancellor Willy Brandt that Solzhenitsyn could live and work freely in West Germany it was decided to deport the writer directly to that country 64 In the West Edit Solzhenitsyn with Heinrich Boll in Langenbroich de West Germany 1974 On 12 February 1974 Solzhenitsyn was arrested and deported the next day from the Soviet Union to Frankfurt West Germany and stripped of his Soviet citizenship 65 The KGB had found the manuscript for the first part of The Gulag Archipelago U S military attache William Odom managed to smuggle out a large portion of Solzhenitsyn s archive including the author s membership card for the Writers Union and his Second World War military citations Solzhenitsyn paid tribute to Odom s role in his memoir Invisible Allies 1995 In West Germany Solzhenitsyn lived in Heinrich Boll s house in Langenbroich de He then moved to Zurich Switzerland before Stanford University invited him to stay in the United States to facilitate your work and to accommodate you and your family He stayed at the Hoover Tower part of the Hoover Institution before moving to Cavendish Vermont in 1976 He was given an honorary literary degree from Harvard University in 1978 and on 8 June 1978 he gave a commencement address condemning among other things the press the lack of spirituality and traditional values and the anthropocentrism of Western culture 66 On 19 September 1974 Yuri Andropov approved a large scale operation to discredit Solzhenitsyn and his family and cut his communications with Soviet dissidents The plan was jointly approved by Vladimir Kryuchkov Philipp Bobkov and Grigorenko heads of First Second and Fifth KGB Directorates 67 The residencies in Geneva London Paris Rome and other European cities participated in the operation Among other active measures at least three StB agents became translators and secretaries of Solzhenitsyn one of them translated the poem Prussian Nights keeping the KGB informed regarding all contacts by Solzhenitsyn 67 The KGB also sponsored a series of hostile books about Solzhenitsyn most notably a memoir published under the name of his first wife Natalia Reshetovskaya but probably mostly composed by Service A according to historian Christopher Andrew 67 Andropov also gave an order to create an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between Pauk c and the people around him by feeding him rumors that the people around him were KGB agents and deceiving him at every opportunity Among other things he continually received envelopes with photographs of car crashes brain surgery and other disturbing imagery After the KGB harassment in Zurich Solzhenitsyn settled in Cavendish Vermont reduced communications with others His influence and moral authority for the West diminished as he became increasingly isolated and critical of Western individualism KGB and CPSU experts finally concluded that he alienated American listeners by his reactionary views and intransigent criticism of the US way of life so no further active measures would be required 67 Over the next 17 years Solzhenitsyn worked on his dramatized history of the Russian Revolution of 1917 The Red Wheel By 1992 four sections had been completed and he had also written several shorter works Solzhenitsyn s warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in Western conservative circles e g Ford administration staffers Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld advocated on Solzhenitsyn s behalf for him to speak directly to President Gerald Ford about the Soviet threat 68 prior to and alongside the tougher foreign policy pursued by US President Ronald Reagan At the same time liberals and secularists became increasingly critical of what they perceived as his reactionary preference for Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox religion Solzhenitsyn also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant pop culture of the modern West including television and much of popular music the human soul longs for things higher warmer and purer than those offered by today s mass living habits by TV stupor and by intolerable music Despite his criticism of the weakness of the West Solzhenitsyn always made clear that he admired the political liberty which was one of the enduring strengths of Western democratic societies In a major speech delivered to the International Academy of Philosophy in Liechtenstein on 14 September 1993 Solzhenitsyn implored the West not to lose sight of its own values its historically unique stability of civic life under the rule of law a hard won stability which grants independence and space to every private citizen 69 In a series of writings speeches and interviews after his return to his native Russia in 1994 Solzhenitsyn spoke about his admiration for the local self government he had witnessed first hand in Switzerland and New England 70 71 He praised the sensible and sure process of grassroots democracy in which the local population solves most of its problems on its own not waiting for the decisions of higher authorities 72 Solzhenitsyn s patriotism was inward looking He called for Russia to renounce all mad fantasies of foreign conquest and begin the peaceful long long long period of recuperation as he put it in a 1979 BBC interview with Latvian born BBC journalist Janis Sapiets 73 Return to Russia Edit Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn looks out from a train in Vladivostok summer 1994 before departing on a journey across Russia Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia after nearly 20 years in exile In 1990 his Soviet citizenship was restored and in 1994 he returned to Russia with his wife Natalia who had become a United States citizen Their sons stayed behind in the United States later his eldest son Yermolai returned to Russia From then until his death he lived with his wife in a dacha in Troitse Lykovo in west Moscow between the dachas once occupied by Soviet leaders Mikhail Suslov and Konstantin Chernenko A staunch believer in traditional Russian culture Solzhenitsyn expressed his disillusionment with post Soviet Russia in works such as Rebuilding Russia and called for the establishment of a strong presidential republic balanced by vigorous institutions of local self government The latter would remain his major political theme 74 Solzhenitsyn also published eight two part short stories a series of contemplative miniatures or prose poems and a literary memoir on his years in the West The Grain Between the Millstones translated and released as two works by the University of Notre Dame as part of the Kennan Institute s Solzhenitsyn Initiative 75 The first Between Two Millstones Book 1 Sketches of Exile 1974 1978 was translated by Peter Constantine and published in October 2018 the second Book 2 Exile in America 1978 1994 translated by Clare Kitson and Melanie Moore and published in October 2020 76 Once back in Russia Solzhenitsyn hosted a television talk show program 77 Its eventual format was Solzhenitsyn delivering a 15 minute monologue twice a month it was discontinued in 1995 78 Solzhenitsyn became a supporter of Vladimir Putin who said he shared Solzhenitsyn s critical view towards the Russian Revolution 79 All of Solzhenitsyn s sons became U S citizens 80 One Ignat is a pianist and conductor 81 Another Solzhenitsyn son Yermolai works for the Moscow office of McKinsey amp Company a management consultancy firm where he is a senior partner 82 Death Edit Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and many Russian public figures attended Solzhenitsyn s funeral ceremony 6 August 2008 Solzhenitsyn died of heart failure near Moscow on 3 August 2008 at the age of 89 65 83 A burial service was held at Donskoy Monastery Moscow on 6 August 2008 citation needed He was buried the same day in the monastery in a spot he had chosen 84 Russian and world leaders paid tribute to Solzhenitsyn following his death citation needed Views on history and politics EditOn Christianity Tsarism and Russian nationalism Edit According to William Harrison Solzhenitsyn was an arch reactionary who argued that the Soviet State suppressed traditional Russian and Ukrainian culture called for the creation of a united Slavic state encompassing Russia Ukraine and Belarus and who was a fierce opponent of Ukrainian independence It is well documented that his negative views on Ukrainian independence became more radical over the years 85 Harrison also alleged that Solzhenitsyn held Pan Slavist and monarchist views According to Harrison His historical writing is imbued with a hankering after an idealized Tsarist era when seemingly everything was rosy He sought refuge in a dreamy past where he believed a united Slavic state the Russian empire built on Orthodox foundations had provided an ideological alternative to western individualistic liberalism 86 In his writings and speeches Solzhenitsyn however sharply criticized the policies of every Tsar from the House of Romanov A persistent theme in his criticism is that the Romanovs preferred like Nicholas I during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 to intervene in the internal affairs of foreign countries while governing poorly at home Solzhenitsyn also repeatedly denounced Tsar Alexis of Russia and Patriarch Nikon of Moscow for causing the Great Schism of 1666 which Solzhenitsyn said both divided and weakened the Russian Orthodox Church at a time when unity was desperately needed Solzhenitsyn also attacked both the Tsar and the Patriarch for using excommunication Siberian exile imprisonment torture and even burning at the stake against the Old Believers who rejected the liturgical changes which caused the Schism Solzhenitsyn also argued that the Dechristianization of Russian culture which he considered most responsible for the Bolshevik Revolution began in 1666 became much worse during the Reign of Tsar Peter the Great and accelerated into an epidemic during The Enlightenment the Romantic era and the Silver Age Expanding upon this theme Solzhenitsyn once declared Over a half century ago while I was still a child I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia Men have forgotten God that s why all this has happened Since then I have spent well nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution in the process I have read hundreds of books collected hundreds of personal testimonies and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people I could not put it more accurately than to repeat Men have forgotten God that s why all this has happened 87 In an interview with Joseph Pearce however Solzhenitsyn commented The Old Believers were treated amazingly unjustly because some very insignificant trifling differences in ritual which were promoted with poor judgment and without much sound basis Because of these small differences they were persecuted in very many cruel ways they were suppressed they were exiled From the perspective of historical justice I sympathise with them and I am on their side but this in no way ties in with what I have just said about the fact that religion in order to keep up with mankind must adapt its forms toward modern culture In other words do I agree with the Old Believers that religion should freeze and not move at all Not at all 88 When asked by Pearce for his opinions about the division within the Roman Catholic Church over the Second Vatican Council and the Mass of Paul VI Solzhenitsyn replied A question peculiar to the Russian Orthodox Church is should we continue to use Old Church Slavonic or should we start to introduce more of the contemporary Russian language into the service I understand the fears of both those in the Orthodox and in the Catholic Church the wariness the hesitation and the fear that this is lowering the Church to the modern condition the modern surroundings I understand this but alas I fear that if religion does not allow itself to change it will be impossible to return the world to religion because the world is incapable on its own of rising as high as the old demands of religion Religion needs to come and meet it somewhat 89 Surprised to hear Solzhenitsyn so often perceived as an arch traditionalist apparently coming down on the side of the reformers Pearce then asked Solzhenitsyn what he thought of the division caused within the Anglican Communion by the decision to ordain female priests 90 Solzhenitsyn replied Certainly there are many firm boundaries that should not be changed When I speak of some sort of correlation between the cultural norms of the present it is really only a small part of the whole thing Solzhenitsyn then added Certainly I do not believe that women priests is the way to go 91 On Russia and the Jews Edit Naftaly Frenkel far right and head of Gulag Matvei Berman center at the White Sea Baltic Canal works July 1932 This claim is discredited 92 clarification needed by whom In his 1974 essay Repentance and Self Limitation in the Life of Nations Solzhenitsyn urged Russian Gentiles and Jews alike to take moral responsibility for the renegades from both communities who enthusiastically embraced atheism and Marxism Leninism and participated in the Red Terror and many other acts of torture and mass murder following the October Revolution Solzhenitsyn argued that both Russian Gentiles and Jews should be prepared to treat the atrocities committed by Jewish and Gentile Bolsheviks as though they were the acts of their own family members before their consciences and before God Solzhenitsyn said that if we deny all responsibility for the crimes of our national kin the very concept of a people loses all meaning 93 In a review of Solzhenitsyn s novel August 1914 in The New York Times on 13 November 1985 Jewish American historian Richard Pipes wrote Every culture has its own brand of anti Semitism In Solzhenitsyn s case it s not racial It has nothing to do with blood He s certainly not a racist the question is fundamentally religious and cultural He bears some resemblance to Fyodor Dostoyevsky who was a fervent Christian and patriot and a rabid anti Semite Solzhenitsyn is unquestionably in the grip of the Russian extreme right s view of the Revolution which is that it was the doing of the Jews 94 95 Award winning Jewish novelist and the Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel disagreed and wrote that Solzhenitsyn was too intelligent too honest too courageous too great a writer to be an anti Semite 96 In his 1998 book Russia in Collapse Solzhenitsyn criticized the Russian far right s obsession with anti Semitic and anti Masonic conspiracy theories 97 In 2001 Solzhenitsyn published a two volume work on the history of Russian Jewish relations Two Hundred Years Together 2001 2002 98 The book triggered renewed accusations of anti Semitism 99 100 101 102 In the book he repeated his call for Russian Gentiles and Jews to share responsibility for everything that happened in the Soviet Union 103 He also downplayed the number of victims of an 1882 pogrom despite current evidence and failed to mention the Beilis affair a 1911 trial in Kiev where a Jew was accused of ritually murdering Christian children 104 He was also criticized for relying on outdated scholarship ignoring current western scholarship and for selectively quoting to strengthen his preconceptions such as that the Soviet Union often treated Jews better than non Jewish Russians 104 105 Similarities between Two Hundred Years Together and an anti Semitic essay titled Jews in the USSR and in the Future Russia attributed to Solzhenitsyn have led to the inference that he stands behind the anti Semitic passages Solzhenitsyn himself explained that the essay consists of manuscripts stolen from him by the KGB and then carefully edited to appear anti Semitic before being published 40 years before without his consent 102 106 According to the historian Semyon Reznik textological analyses have proven Solzhenitsyn s authorship 107 Criticism of communism Edit Monument to Alexander Solzhenitsyn in Moscow A monument dedicated to Solzhenitsyn in Brodnica in Poland Solzhenitsyn emphasized the significantly more oppressive character of the Soviet police state in comparison to the Russian Empire of the House of Romanov He asserted that Imperial Russia did not censor literature or the media to the extreme style of the Soviet Glavlit 108 that political prisoners typically were not forced into labor camps 109 and that the number of political prisoners and exiles was only one ten thousandth of the numbers of prisoners and Exiles following the Bolshevik Revolution He noted that the Tsar s secret police the Okhrana was only present in the three largest cities and not at all in the Imperial Russian Army citation needed A commemorative Russian coin of 2 rubles with the image of Alexander Solzhenitsyn Shortly before his return to Russia Solzhenitsyn delivered a speech in Les Lucs sur Boulogne to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Vendee Uprising During his speech Solzhenitsyn compared Lenin s Bolsheviks with the Jacobin Club during the French Revolution He also compared the Vendean rebels with the Russian Ukrainian and Cossack peasants who rebelled against the Bolsheviks saying that both were destroyed mercilessly by revolutionary despotism He commented that while the French Reign of Terror ended with the Thermidorian reaction and the toppling of the Jacobins and the execution of Maximilien Robespierre its Soviet equivalent continued to accelerate until the Khrushchev thaw of the 1950s 110 According to Solzhenitsyn Russians were not the ruling nation in the Soviet Union He believed that all the traditional culture of all ethnic groups were equally oppressed in favor of atheism and Marxist Leninism Russian culture was even more repressed than any other culture in the Soviet Union since the regime was more afraid of ethnic uprisings among Russian Christians than among any other ethnicity Therefore Solzhenitsyn argued Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox Church should not be regarded as a threat by the West but rather as allies 111 Solzhenitsyn made a speaking tour after Francisco Franco s death and told liberals not to push too hard for changes because Spain had more freedoms now than the Soviet Union had ever known As reported by The New York Times he blamed Communism for the death of 110 million Russians and derided those in Spain who complained of dictatorship 112 Solzhenitsyn recalled I had to explain to the people of Spain in the most concise possible terms what it meant to have been subjugated by an ideology as we in the Soviet Union had been and give the Spanish to understand what a terrible fate they escaped in 1939 a reference to the Spanish Civil War between the Nationalists and the Republicans which was not a common view at that time among American diplomats For Winston Lord a protege of the then United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger Solzhenitsyn was just about a fascist 113 According to Elisa Kriza Solzhenitsyn held benevolent views on Franco s dictatorship and Francoist Spain because it was a Christian one and his Christian worldview operated ideologically 114 In The Little Grain Managed to Land Between Two Millstones Franco s Spain is held up as a model of a proper Christian response to the evil of Bolshevism According to Peter Brooke Solzhenitsyn approached the position argued by Christian Dmitri Panin with whom he had a fall out in exile namely that evil must be confronted by force and the centralised spiritually independent Roman Catholic Church is better placed to do it than Orthodoxy with its otherworldliness and tradition of subservience to the state 115 In Rebuilding Russia an essay first published in 1990 in Komsomolskaya Pravda Solzhenitsyn urged the Soviet Union to grant independence to all the non Slav republics which he claimed were sapping the Russian nation and he called for the creation of a new Slavic state bringing together Russia Ukraine Belarus and parts of Kazakhstan that he considered to be Russified 116 On post Soviet Russia Edit Solzhenitsyn with Vladimir Putin in 2007 In some of his later political writings such as Rebuilding Russia 1990 and Russia in Collapse 1998 Solzhenitsyn criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian democracy while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet Communism He defended moderate and self critical patriotism as opposed to extreme nationalism He also urged for local self government similar to what he had seen in New England town meetings and in the cantons of Switzerland He also expressed concern for the fate of the 25 million ethnic Russians in the near abroad of the former Soviet Union In an interview with Joseph Pearce Solzhenitsyn was asked whether he felt that the socioeconomic theories of E F Schumacher were the key to society rediscovering its sanity He replied I do believe that it would be the key but I don t think this will happen because people succumb to fashion and they suffer from inertia and it is hard to them to come round to a different point of view 91 Solzhenitsyn refused to accept Russia s highest honor the Order of St Andrew in 1998 Solzhenitsyn later said In 1998 it was the country s low point with people in misery Yeltsin decreed I be honored the highest state order I replied that I was unable to receive an award from a government that had led Russia into such dire straits 117 In a 2003 interview with Joseph Pearce Solzhenitsyn said We are exiting from communism in a most unfortunate and awkward way It would have been difficult to design a path out of communism worse than the one that has been followed 118 In a 2007 interview with Der Spiegel Solzhenitsyn expressed disappointment that the conflation of Soviet and Russian against which he spoke so often in the 1970s had not passed away in the West in the ex socialist countries or in the former Soviet republics He commented The elder political generation in communist countries is not ready for repentance while the new generation is only too happy to voice grievances and level accusations with present day Moscow as a convenient target They behave as if they heroically liberated themselves and lead a new life now while Moscow has remained communist Nevertheless I dare to hope that this unhealthy phase will soon be over that all the peoples who have lived through communism will understand that communism is to blame for the bitter pages of their history 117 In 2008 Solzhenitsyn praised Putin saying Russia was rediscovering what it meant to be Russian Solzhenitsyn also praised the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev as a nice young man who was capable of taking on the challenges Russia was facing 119 Criticism of the West Edit Once in the United States Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized the West 120 Solzhenitsyn criticized the Allies for not opening a new front against Nazi Germany in the west earlier in World War II This resulted in Soviet domination and control of the nations of Eastern Europe Solzhenitsyn claimed the Western democracies apparently cared little about how many died in the East as long as they could end the war quickly and painlessly for themselves in the West Delivering the commencement address at Harvard University in 1978 he called the United States Dechristianized and mired in boorish consumerism The American people he said speaking in Russian through a translator were also suffering from a decline in courage and a lack of manliness Few were willing to die for their ideals he said He also condemned the 1960s counterculture for forcing the United States federal government to accept a hasty capitulation in the Vietnam War In a reference to the Communist governments in Southeast Asia s use of re education camps politicide human rights abuses and genocide following the Fall of Saigon Solzhenitsyn said But members of the U S antiwar movement wound up being involved in the betrayal of Far Eastern nations in a genocide and in the suffering today imposed on 30 million people there Do those convinced pacifists hear the moans coming from there 121 He also accused the Western news media of left wing bias of violating the privacy of celebrities and of filling up the immortal souls of their readers with celebrity gossip and other vain talk He also said that the West erred in thinking that the whole world should embrace this as model While faulting Soviet society for rejecting basic human rights and the rule of law he also critiqued the West for being too legalistic A society which is based on the letter of the law and never reaches any higher is taking very scarce advantage of the high level of human possibilities Solzhenitsyn also argued that the West erred in denying Russian culture s autonomous character and therefore never understood it 66 Solzhenitsyn criticized the 2003 invasion of Iraq and accused the United States of the occupation of Kosovo Afghanistan and Iraq 122 Solzhenitsyn was critical of NATO s eastward expansion towards Russia s borders 123 In 2006 Solzhenitsyn accused NATO of trying to bring Russia under its control he claimed this was visible because of its ideological support for the colour revolutions and the paradoxical forcing of North Atlantic interests on Central Asia 123 In a 2006 interview with Der Spiegel he stated This was especially painful in the case of Ukraine a country whose closeness to Russia is defined by literally millions of family ties among our peoples relatives living on different sides of the national border At one fell stroke these families could be torn apart by a new dividing line the border of a military bloc 117 On the Holodomor Edit Solzhenitsyn gave a speech to AFL CIO in Washington D C on 30 June 1975 in which he mentioned how the system created by the Bolsheviks in 1917 caused dozens of problems in the Soviet Union 124 He described how this system was responsible for the Holodomor It was a system which in time of peace artificially created a famine causing 6 million people to die in the Ukraine in 1932 and 1933 Solzhenitsyn added they died on the very edge of Europe And Europe didn t even notice it The world didn t even notice it 6 million people 124 Shortly before his death Solzhenitsyn opined in an interview published 2 April 2008 in Izvestia that while the famine in Ukraine was both artificial and caused by the state it was no different than the Russian famine of 1921 Solzhenitsyn expressed the belief that both famines were caused by systematic armed robbery of the harvests from both Russian and Ukrainian peasants by Bolshevik units which were under orders from the Politburo to bring back food for the starving urban population centers while refusing for ideological reasons to permit any private sale of food supplies in the cities or to give any payment to the peasants in return for the food that was seized 125 Solzhenitsyn further alleged that the theory that the Holodomor was a genocide which only victimized the Ukrainian people was created decades later by believers in an anti Russian form of extreme Ukrainian nationalism Solzhenitsyn also cautioned that the ultranationalists claims risked being accepted without question in the West due to widespread ignorance and misunderstanding there of both Russian and Ukrainian history 125 Legacy EditThe Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center in Worcester Massachusetts promotes the author and hosts the official English language website dedicated to him 126 Television documentaries on Solzhenitsyn Edit In October 1983 French literary journalist Bernard Pivot made an hour long television interview with Solzhenitsyn at his rural home in Vermont US Solzhenitsyn discussed his writing the evolution of his language and style his family and his outlook on the future and stated his wish to return to Russia in his lifetime not just to see his books eventually printed there 127 128 Earlier the same year Solzhenitsyn was interviewed on separate occasions by two British journalists Bernard Levin and Malcolm Muggeridge 127 In 1998 Russian filmmaker Alexander Sokurov made a four part television documentary Besedy s Solzhenitsynym The Dialogues with Solzhenitsyn The documentary was shot in Solzhenitsyn s home depicting his everyday life and his reflections on Russian history and literature 129 In December 2009 the Russian channel Rossiya K broadcast the French television documentary L Histoire Secrete de l Archipel du Goulag The Secret History of the Gulag Archipelago 130 made by Jean Crepu and Nicolas Miletitch 131 and translated into Russian under the title Taynaya Istoriya Arkhipelaga Gulag Tajnaya istoriya Arhipelaga GULAG The documentary covers events related to creation and publication of The Gulag Archipelago 130 132 133 Published works and speeches EditMain article Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn bibliography Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isaevich A Storm in the Mountains 1962 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich novella 1963 An Incident at Krechetovka Station novella 1963 Matryona s Place novella 1963 For the Good of the Cause novella 1968 The First Circle novel Henry Carlisle Olga Carlisle translators 1968 Cancer Ward novel 1969 The Love Girl and the Innocent play Also known as The Prisoner and the Camp Hooker or The Tenderfoot and the Tart 1970 Laureate lecture delivered in writing and not actually given as a lecture Nobel prize Swedish academy Retrieved 19 March 2019 1971 August 1914 historical novel The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR Centers on the disastrous loss in the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 and the ineptitude of the military leadership Other works similarly titled follow the story see The Red Wheel overall title 1973 1978 The Gulag Archipelago Henry Carlisle Olga Carlisle tr 3 vols not a memoir but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a police state in the Soviet Union 1951 Prussian Nights poetry published 1974 10 December 1974 Nobel Banquet speech City Hall Stockholm 134 1974 A Letter to the Soviet leaders Collins Harvill Press ISBN 978 0 06 013913 1 1975 The Oak and the Calf 1975 Solzhenitsyn The Voice of Freedom Translation of 2 speeches the first given in Washington D C on 30 June 1975 the second in New York City on 9 July 1975 to the AFL CIO Washington American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations 1976a Lenin in Zurich separate publication of chapters on Vladimir Lenin none of them published before this point from The Red Wheel The first of them was later incorporated into the 1984 edition of the expanded August 1914 though it had been written at the same time as the original version of the novel 135 and the rest in November 1916 and March 1917 1976b Warning to the West 5 speeches 3 to the Americans in 1975 and 2 to the British in 1976 8 June 1978 Harvard Commencement Address Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center Articles Essays and Speeches Retrieved 18 June 2021 1983 Pluralists political pamphlet 1980 The Mortal Danger Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America 1983b November 1916 novel The Red Wheel 1983c Victory Celebration 1983d Prisoners 10 May 1983 Godlessness the First Step to the Gulag address London Templeton Prize 1984 August 1914 novel much expanded ed 1990 Rebuilding Russia 1990 March 1917 c 1991 April 1917 1995 The Russian Question 1997 Invisible Allies Basic Books ISBN 978 1 887178 42 6 1998 Rossiya v obvale Russia under Avalanche political pamphlet in Russian Yahoo Archived from the original Geo cities on 28 August 2009 2003 Two Hundred Years Together on Russian Jewish relations since 1772 aroused ambiguous public response 136 137 2011 Apricot Jam and Other Stories Kenneth Lantz Stephan Solzhenitsyn tr Berkeley CA Counterpoint See also EditLiterature covering the Gulag system List of refugees Ivan Bunin Czeslaw Milosz Đoan Văn Toại Wei Jingsheng Yevgeny ZamyatinNotes Edit Often romanized to Alexandr or Alexander His father s given name was Isaakiy which would normally result in the patronymic Isaakievich however the forms Isaakovich and Isayevich both appeared in official documents the latter becoming the accepted version UK ˌ s ɒ l ʒ e ˈ n ɪ t s ɪ n SOL zhe NIT sin 2 3 4 US ˌ s oʊ l ˈ n iː t SOHL NEET 3 4 5 Russian Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenicyn IPA ɐlʲɪkˈsandr ɪˈsajɪvʲɪtɕ selʐɨˈnʲitsɨn KGB gave Solzhenitsyn the code name Pauk which means spider in Russian References Edit Solzhenitsyn Flies Home Vowing Moral Involvement The New York Times 27 May 1994 Retrieved 29 May 2014 Solzhenitsyn Alexander Lexico UK English Dictionary Oxford University Press Archived from the original on 11 April 2022 a b Solzhenitsyn Collins English Dictionary HarperCollins Retrieved 27 August 2019 a b Solzhenitsyn Alexander Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Longman Retrieved 27 August 2019 Solzhenitsyn The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 5th ed HarperCollins Retrieved 27 August 2019 The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970 NobelPrize org Christopher Hitchens 4 August 2008 Alexander Solzhenitsyn 1918 2008 Slate Magazine Nobel Prize in Literature 1970 Nobel Foundation Retrieved 17 October 2008 Scammell Michael 11 December 2018 The Writer Who Destroyed an Empire The New York Times Archived from the original on 1 January 2022 In 1973 still in the Soviet Union he sent abroad his literary and polemical masterpiece The Gulag Archipelago The nonfiction account exposed the enormous crimes that had led to the wholesale incarceration and slaughter of millions of innocent victims demonstrating that its dimensions were on a par with the Holocaust Solzhenitsyn s gesture amounted to a head on challenge to the Soviet state calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change Aleksandr Solzhenicyn chelovek i arhipelag Alexander Solzhenitsyn A man and Archipelago in Russian UA Segodnya 4 August 2008 Retrieved 14 February 2010 Scammell p 30 Scammell pp 26 30 O Neil Patrick M 2004 Great world writers 20th century p 1400 Marshall Cavendish ISBN 978 0 7614 7478 4 Scammell pp 25 59 Scammell p 129 Part II Chapter 4 The Gulag Archipelago Scammell p 119 Dokument o nagrade Solzhenicyn Aleksandr Isaevich Orden Krasnoj Zvezdy Award document Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isayevich Order of the Red Star pamyat naroda ru in Russian Retrieved 28 April 2016 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isaevich 1999 Proterevshi glaza sbornik Proterevshi glaza sbornik Proterevshi eyes compilation in Russian Moscow Nash dom L Age d Homme Hartmann Christian 2013 Operation Barbarossa Nazi Germany s War in the East 1941 1945 OUP Oxford pp 127 128 ISBN 978 0 19 163653 0 De Zayas Alfred M January 2017 Review Prussian Nights The Review of Politics 40 1 154 156 JSTOR 1407101 Ericson p 266 Ericson 2008 p 10 Moody p 6 Solzhenitsyn in Confession SFU s Summit http summit sfu ca system files iritems1 8379 etd3261 pdf page 26 Scammell pp 152 54 Bjorkegren Hans Eneberg Kaarina 1973 Introduction Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn A Biography Henley on Thames Aiden Ellis ISBN 978 0 85628 005 4 Pearce 2011 p 87 Moody p 7 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 13 October 2009 In the First Circle Harper Collins ISBN 978 0 06 147901 4 archived from the original on 22 February 2014 retrieved 14 February 2010 Organizatia anti sovietica Sabia Dreptatii Anti Soviet organization Sword of Justice in Romanian Romanism archived from the original on 9 August 2011 According to 9th MGB order of 27 December 1952 9 2 41731 Pearce Joseph 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Ignatius Press ISBN 978 1 58617 496 5 they were being exiled in perpetuity to the district of Kok Terek Part IV The Gulag Archipelago Mahoney Daniel J 1 September 2008 Hero of a Dark Century National Review pp 47 50 Beliefs in Ericson 2008 pp 177 205 Solzhenitsyn 1999 Proterevshi glaza sbornik Proterevshi glaza sbornik Proterevshi eyes compilation Moscow Nash dom L age d Homme Ericson 2009 Terras Victor 1985 Handbook of Russian Literature Yale University Press p 436 ISBN 978 0 300 04868 1 Scammell p 366 Rourke Mary 6 June 2003 Natalya Reshetovskaya 84 Twice Married to Alexander Solzhenitsyn Los Angeles Times Retrieved 13 August 2021 Cook Bernard A 2001 Europe Since 1945 An Encyclopedia Taylor amp Francis p 1161 ISBN 978 0 8153 4058 4 Aikman David Great Souls Six Who Changed a Century pp 172 73 Lexington Books 2003 ISBN 978 0 7391 0438 5 Solzhenitsyn s Stepson Dmitri Turin Dies at Age 32 AP News Associated Press 23 March 1994 Retrieved 28 November 2021 Laureates Literature Nobel prize 1970 Archived from the original on 4 December 2004 Retrieved 14 February 2010 Benno Peter 1965 The Political Aspect in Hayward Max Crowley Edward L eds Soviet Literature in the 1960s London p 191 a b Wachtel Andrew 2013 One Day Fifty years later Slavic Review 72 1 102 117 doi 10 5612 slavicreview 72 1 0102 JSTOR 10 5612 slavicreview 72 1 0102 S2CID 164632244 The Oak and the Calf Rosenfeld Alla Dodge Norton T 2001 Art of the Baltics The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets 1945 1991 Rutgers University Press pp 55 134 ISBN 978 0 8135 3042 0 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 1995 The Estonians Invisible Allies Basic Books pp 46 64 ISBN 978 1 887178 42 6 Woman Kills Self After Telling Police of Solzhenitsyn s Script Los Angeles Times by Murray Seeger September 6 1973 p I 1 Ekaterinburg U Faktoriia The Gulag Archipelago Wheatcroft Stephen 1996 The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings 1930 45 PDF Europe Asia Studies 48 8 1330 doi 10 1080 09668139608412415 JSTOR 152781 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 When Solzhenitsyn wrote and distributed his Gulag Archipelago it had enormous political significance and greatly increased popular understanding of part of the repression system But this was a literary and political work it never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social scientific quantitative perspective Solzhenitsyn cited a figure of 12 15 million in the camps But this was a figure that he hurled at the authorities as a challenge for them to show that the scale of the camps was less than this Getty A Origins of the Great Purges Cambridge N Y Cambridge Univ Press 1985 p 211 Getty J Arch 1981 Origins of the Great Purges Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 211 Applebaum Anne 2007 Foreword The Gulag Archipelago Perennial Modern Classics Harper Kalugin Oleg 1994 The First Directorate Diane p 180 ISBN 978 0 312 11426 8 Carus Seth 1998 Bioterrorism and Biocrimes PDF Technical report Federation of American Scientists p 84 Vaksberg Arkadiĭ 2011 Toxic Politics The Secret History of the Kremlin s Poison Laboratory from the Special Cabinet to the Death of Litvinenko Santa Barbara Calif Praeger pp 130 131 ISBN 978 0 313 38747 0 Pearce Joseph 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Rev and updated ed San Francisco Ignatius Press p 57 ISBN 978 1 58617 496 5 Current Digest of the Soviet Press vol 26 1974 p 2 Morrison S 1 February 2010 Rostropovich s Recollections Music and Letters 91 1 83 90 doi 10 1093 ml gcp066 ISSN 0027 4224 S2CID 191621525 The Bukovsky Archives 7 January 1974 Archived from the original on 4 October 2016 Retrieved 6 July 2016 The Bukovsky Archives 7 February 1974 350 A ov Archived from the original on 4 October 2016 Retrieved 6 July 2016 a b Kaufman Michael T Barnard Anne 4 August 2008 Solzhenitsyn Literary Giant Who Defied Soviets Dies at 89 The New York Times p 1 Retrieved 11 February 2013 a b A World Split Apart Harvard Class Day Exercises 8 June 1978 archived from the original on 8 June 2003 a b c d Andrew Christopher Mitrokhin Vasili 2000 The Mitrokhin Archive The KGB in Europe and the West Gardners Books pp 416 19 ISBN 978 0 14 028487 4 Mann James Mann Jim 2004 Rise of the Vulcans The History of Bush s War Cabinet Penguin pp 64 66 ISBN 978 0 14 303489 6 Ericson 2009 p 599 Russia in Collapse in Ericson 2009 pp 480 1 The Cavendish Farewell in Ericson 2009 pp 606 07 Kauffman William Bill 19 December 2005 Free Vermont The American Conservative archived from the original on 26 October 2010 retrieved 26 January 2011 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 1980 East and West Perennial Library New York Harper p 182 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Isaevich 1991 Rebuilding Russia New York Farrar Straus amp Giroux Large Works amp Novels gt Between Two Millstones SolzhenitsynCenter org The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center Retrieved 3 October 2020 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn s Journey from Oppression to Independence The Wall Street Journal No 3 October 2020 Now on Moscow TV Heeere s Aleksandr The New York Times 14 April 1995 Russian TV Pulls the Plug on Solzhenitsyn s Biting Talk Show Los Angeles Times 26 September 1995 Kriza Elisa 1 October 2014 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Cold War Icon Gulag Author Russian Nationalist A Study of His Western Reception Columbia University Press pp 205 210 ISBN 978 3 8382 6689 3 Jin Ha 2008 The Writer as Migrant University of Chicago Press p 10 ISBN 978 0 226 39988 1 Ignat Solzhenitsyn to Appear With Princeton University Orchestra The Trustees of Princeton University 8 May 2013 Yermolai Solzhenitzin mckinsey com Retrieved 11 April 2018 Alexander Solzhenitsyn dies at 89 News BBC 3 August 2008 Retrieved 3 August 2008 Solzhenitsyn is buried in Moscow News BBC 6 August 2008 Archived from the original on 15 January 2009 Retrieved 6 August 2008 Kriza Elisa 2014 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Cold War Icon Gulag Author Russian Nationalist Stuttgart ibidem Press pp 200 201 ISBN 9783838205892 Harrison William 4 August 2008 William Harrison Solzhenitsyn was an arch reactionary The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 8 July 2020 Ericson Edward E Jr October 1985 Solzhenitsyn Voice from the Gulag Joseph Pearce 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Ignatius Press Page 329 330 Joseph Pearce 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Ignatius Press Page 330 Joseph Pearce 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Ignatius Press Pages 330 331 a b Joseph Pearce 2011 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Ignatius Press Page 331 Kriza Elisa 2016 Der Antisemitismus im Werk von Alexander Solschenizyn und seine Rezeption Jahrbuch fur Antisemitismusforschung 25 199 Ericson 2009 pp 527 55 Thomas p 490 Grenier Richard 13 November 1985 Solzhenitsyn and anti Semitism a new debate The New York Times New York Retrieved 6 October 2019 Thomas p 491 Ericson 2009 p 496 Walsh Nick Paton 25 January 2003 Solzhenitsyn breaks last taboo of the revolution The Guardian Gimpelevich Zinaida 2 June 2009 Dimensional Spaces in Alexander Solzhenitsyn s Two Hundred Years Together Canadian Slavonic Papers Archived from the original on 5 August 2010 Retrieved 14 February 2010 V Ostrovskij V Ostrovsky In Ostrovsky in Russian Berkovich zametki Retrieved 14 February 2010 Khanan Vladimir 22 I v Izraile s Naklonom And in Israel with Naklonom in Russian Sun round Retrieved 14 February 2010 a b Young Cathy May 2004 Traditional Prejudices The anti Semitism of Alexander Solzhenitsyn Archived from the original on 18 December 2008 Traditional Prejudices The anti Semitism of Alexander Solzhenitsyn Reason Magazine May 2004 Lustiger Arno 7 October 2003 Alexander Solschenizyn versucht sich an der Geschichte der Juden in der Sowjetunion Reue ware der sauberste Weg Alexander Solzhenitsyn attempts a history of the Jews in the Soviet Union Repentance would be the simplest way Berliner Zeitung in German Archived from the original on 26 September 2020 Retrieved 9 November 2021 a b Schmid Ulrich M 11 August 2001 Solschenizyn uber das Verhaltnis zwischen Russen und Juden Schwierige Nachbarschaft Solzhenitsyn on Russian Jewish Relations Troubled Neighbors Neue Zurcher Zeitung Archived from the original on 7 January 2016 Retrieved 9 November 2021 Siegl Elfie 12 May 2003 Alexander Solschenizyn Zweihundert Jahre zusammen Die russisch judische Geschichte Alexander Solzhenitsyn Two Hundred Years Together Russian Jewish History Deutschlandfunk in German Retrieved 9 November 2021 Cathy Young Reply to Daniel J Mahoney in Reason Magazine August September 2004 Semyon Reznik Lebed Belaya I Shest Pudov Evrejskogo Zhira Win Vestnik com Retrieved 14 February 2010 A brief history of censorship in Russia in 19th and 20th century Beacon for Freedom Archived 16 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine Gentes Andrew 2005 Katorga Penal Labor and Tsarist Siberia PDF in Stolberg Eva Maria ed The Siberian Saga A History of Russia s Wild East Frankfurt am Main Peter Lang The Solzhenitsyn Reader New and Essential Writings 1947 2005 2008 ISI Books pp 602 05 Rowley David G 1997 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Russian Nationalism Journal of Contemporary History 32 3 321 37 doi 10 1177 002200949703200303 JSTOR 260964 S2CID 161761611 Solzhenitsyn Bids Spain Use Caution The New York Times 22 March 1976 ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 13 August 2021 Caldwell Chrsitopher 10 January 2019 Solzhenitsyn in Exile National Review Retrieved 13 August 2021 Kriza Elisa 2014 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Cold War Icon Gulag Author Russian Nationalist A Study of His Western Reception Columbia University Press p 235 ISBN 978 3 8382 6689 3 MacNeice Louis Summer 2010 What Came Up Was Goosegrass Dublin Review of Books Retrieved 13 August 2021 Solzhenitsyn Leaves Troubled Legacy Across Former Soviet Union Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty 6 August 2008 a b c Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 2007 I Am Not Afraid of Death Der Spiegel interview no 30 Interview published in St Austin Review 2 no 2 February 2003 Harding Luke 2 December 2010 WikiLeaks cables Solzhenitsyn praise for Vladimir Putin via www theguardian com Solzhenitsyn Says West Is Failing as Model for World by Lee Lescaze 9 June 1978 The Washington Post The Editorial Notebook The Decline of the West The New York Times 13 June 1978 Solzhenitsyn a life of dissent The Independent 4 August 2008 a b Solzhenitsyn warns of Nato plot BBC News 28 April 2006 a b Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 30 June 1975 Solzhenitsyn The Voice of Freedom AFL CIO Retrieved 22 June 2016 a b Solzhenitsyn Alexander 2 April 2008 Possorit rodnye narody Izvestia in Russian Archived from the original on 5 April 2008 Retrieved 27 November 2011 The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center www solzhenitsyncenter org a b Pearce Joseph 2000 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile HarperCollins p 79 ISBN 978 1 58617 496 5 Apostrophes Alexandre Soljenitsyne repond a Bernard Pivot Archive INA Ina Talk Shows Savelev Dmitrij 2006 Uzlovaya elegiya In Arkus L ed Sokurov Chasti rechi Sbornik Sokurov Part of Speech Collection Vol 2 Sankt Peterburg Seans ISBN 978 5 901586 10 5 Archived from the original on 4 October 2011 a b Tajnaya istoriya Arhipelaga GULAG Premera filma The Secret History of The Gulag Archipelago Movie Premiere in Russian Rossiya K 12 December 2009 Retrieved 23 June 2013 Nicolaev Marina 10 October 2009 Ultimul interviu Aleksandr Soljeniţin L histoire secrete de L Archipel du Gulag Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn s last interview The Secret History of the Goulag Archipel Poezie in Romanian Retrieved 23 August 2011 Tajnaya istoriya Arhipelaga GULAG The Secret History of The Gulag Archipelago in Russian UR Yandex Archived from the original on 7 October 2011 Retrieved 23 August 2012 Video Secret History The Gulag Archipelago Blinkx Archived from the original on 5 June 2012 Retrieved 23 August 2012 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 10 December 1974 Banquet Speech Nobel prize Retrieved 23 August 2012 Solzhenitsyn 1976a preface Solzhenitsyn breaks last taboo of the revolution The Guardian London 25 January 2003 Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 1 7 January 2003 Chukovskaya Lydia ed 200 Years Together Orthodoxy Today interview archived from the original on 5 March 2005 retrieved 13 March 2004Sources EditExternal video Presentation by D M Thomas on Alexander Solzhenitsyn A Century in His Life C SPAN 19 February 1998Ericson Edward E Jr Klimoff Alexis 2008 The Soul and Barbed Wire An Introduction to Solzhenitsyn ISI books ISBN 978 1 933859 57 6 Ericson Edward E Jr Mahoney Daniel J eds 2009 The Solzhenitsyn Reader New and Essential Writings 1947 2005 ISI Books Kriza Elisa 2014 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Cold War Icon Gulag Author Russian Nationalist A Study of the Western Reception of his Literary Writings Historical Interpretations and Political Ideas Stuttgart Ibidem Press ISBN 978 3 8382 0589 2 Moody Christopher 1973 Solzhenitsyn Edinburgh Oliver amp Boyd ISBN 978 0 05 002600 7 Scammell Michael 1986 Solzhenitsyn A Biography London Paladin ISBN 978 0 586 08538 7 Thomas D M 1998 Alexander Solzhenitsyn A Century in his Life New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 18036 2 Further reading EditBiographies Edit Burg David Feifer George 1972 Solzhenitsyn A Biography New York Stein amp Day Glottser Vladimir Chukovskaia Elena 1998 Slovo probivaet sebe dorogu Sbornik statej i dokumentov ob A I Solzhenicyne Slovo probivaet sebe dorogu Sbornik statei i dokumentov ob A I Solzhenitsyne 1962 1974 The word finds its way Collection of articles and documents on AI Solzhenitsyn in Russian Moscow Russkii put Korotkov AV Melchin SA Stepanov AS 1994 Kremlevskij samosud Sekretnye dokumenty Politbyuro o pisatele A Solzhenicyne Kremlevskii samosud Sekretnye dokumenty Politburo o pisatele A Solzhenitsyne Kremlin lynching Secret documents of the Politburo of the writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn in Russian Moscow Rodina Melchin SA Stepanov AS 1995 Scammell Michael ed The Solzhenitsyn Files Catherine A Fitzpatrick tr Chicago Edition q Labedz Leopold ed 1973 Solzhenitsyn A Documentary Record Bloomington Indiana University ISBN 9780253201645 Ledovskikh Nikolai 2003 Vozvrashenie v Matrenin dom ili Odin den Aleksandra Isaevicha Vozvrashchenie v Matrenin dom ili Odin den Aleksandra Isaevicha Return to Matrenin house or One Day Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in Russian Riazan Poverennyi Ostrovsky Alexander 2004 Solzhenicyn proshanie s mifom Solzhenitsyn Farewell to the myth Moscow Yauza Presscom ISBN 978 5 98083 023 6 Pearce Joseph 2001 Solzhenitsyn A Soul in Exile Grand Rapids MI Baker Books Reshetovskaia Natal ia Alekseevna 1975 V spore so vremenem V spore so vremenem In a dispute over time in Russian Moscow Agentsvo pechati Novosti 1975 Sanya My Husband Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Elena Ivanoff transl Indianapolis Bobbs Merrill Reference works Edit Askol dov Sergei Alekseevich Struve Petr Berngardovich et al 1918 Iz glubiny Sbornik statej o russkoj revolyucii Iz glubiny Sbornik statei o russkoi revoliutsii From the depths Collection of articles on the Russian Revolution in Russian Moscow Russkaia mysl Struve Petr Berngardovich 1986 Woehrlin William F ed De Profundis Out of the Depths William F Woehrlin tr Irvine CA C Schlacks Jr Barker Francis 1977 Solzhenitsyn Politics and Form New York Holmes amp Meier Berdiaev Nikolai A Bulgakov SN Gershenzon MO et al 1909 Vehi Sbornik statej o russkoj intelligencii Vekhi Sbornik statei o russkoi intelligentsii Milestones Collection of articles on the Russian intelligentsia in Russian Moscow Kushnerev Bulgakov SN Gershenzon MO et al 1977 Shragin Boris Todd Albert eds Landmarks A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia Marian Schwartz transl New York Karz Howard Bloom Harold ed 2001 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Modern Critical Views Philadelphia Chelsea House Brown Edward J 1982 Solzhenitsyn and the Epic of the Camps Russian Literature Since the Revolution Cambridge MA Harvard University pp 251 91 Dapra Veronika 1991 AI Solzhenitsyn The Political Writings Universita degli Studi di Venezia Prof Vittorio Strada Dott Julija Dobrovol skaja Ericson Edward E jr 1980 Solzhenitsyn The Moral Vision Grand Rapids MI Eerdmans ISBN 9780802835277 1993 Solzhenitsyn and the Modern World Washington DC Regnery Gateway Feuer Kathryn ed 1976 Solzhenitsyn A Collection of Critical Essays Englewood Cliffs NJ Prentice Hall ISBN 9780138226275 Golubkov MM 1999 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Moscow MGU Klimoff Alexis 1997 One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich A Critical Companion Evanston IL Northwestern University Press Kodjak Andrej 1978 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Boston Twayne ISBN 9780805763201 Krasnov Vladislav 1979 Solzhenitsyn and Dostoevsky A Study in the Polyphonic Novel Athens GA University of Georgia Press ISBN 9780820304724 Kopelev Lev 1983 Ease My Sorrows A Memoir Antonina W Bouis transl New York Random House ISBN 9780394527840 Anatoly Livry Soljenitsyne et la Republique regicide Les Lettres et Les Arts Cahiers suisses de critique litteraire et artistiques Association de la revue Les Lettres et les Arts Suisse Vicques 2011 pp 70 72 http anatoly livry e monsite com medias files soljenitsine livry 1 pdf Lydon Michael 2001 Alexander Solzhenitsyn Real Writing Word Models of the Modern World New York Patrick Press pp 183 251 Mahoney Daniel J 2001 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn The Ascent From Ideology Rowman amp Littlefield November December 2002 Solzhenitsyn on Russia s Jewish Question Society pp 104 09 Mathewson Rufus W jr 1975 Solzhenitsyn The Positive Hero in Russian Literature Stanford CA Stanford University Press pp 279 340 McCarthy Mary 16 September 1972 The Tolstoy Connection Saturday Review pp 79 96 Special Solzhenitsyn issue Modern Fiction Studies vol 23 Spring 1977 Nivat Georges 1980 Soljenitsyne Solzhenitsyn in French Paris Seuil 2009 Le phenomene Soljenitsyne The Solzhenitsyn phenomenon in French Fayard Nivat Aucouturier Michel eds 1971 Soljenitsyne Solzhenitsyn in French Paris L Herne Panin Dimitri 1976 The Notebooks of Sologdin John Moore transl New York Harcourt Brace Jovanovich ISBN 9780151669950 Pogadaev Victor A October December 2008 Solzhenitsyn Tanpa Karyanya Sejarah Abad 20 Tak Terbayangkan Solzhenitsyn Without History of the 20th Century His work Unimaginable Pentas in Indonesian Kuala Lumpur vol 3 no 4 pp 60 63 Pontuso James F 1990 Solzhenitsyn s Political Thought Charlottesville University of Virginia Press 2004 Assault on Ideology Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn s Political Thought 2nd ed Lanham MD Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0594 8 Porter Robert 1997 Solzhenitsyn s One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich London Bristol Classical Remnick David 14 February 1994 The Exile Returns The New Yorker Vol 69 no 50 pp 64 83 Rothberg Abraham 1971 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn The Major Novels Ithaca NY Cornell University ISBN 9780801406683 Shneerson Mariia 1984 Aleksandr Solzhenicyn Ocherki tvorchestva Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Ocherki tvorchestva Alexander Solzhenitsyn Essays on Art in Russian Frankfurt amp Moscow Posev Shturman Dora 1988 Gorodu i miru O publicistike AI Solzhenicyna Gorodu i miru O publitsistike AI Solzhenitsyna Urbi et Orbi About journalism AI Solzhenitsyn in Russian Paris amp New York Tret ia volna Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr et al 1980 Berman Ronald ed Solzhenitsyn at Harvard The Address Twelve Early Responses and Six Later Reflections Washington DC Ethics amp Public Policy Center 1975 Dunlop John B Haugh Richard Klimoff Alexis eds Critical Essays and Documentary Materials New York amp London Collier Macmillan 1985 Dunlop John B Haugh Richard Nicholson Michael eds In Exile Critical Essays and Documentary Materials Stanford Hoover Institution ISBN 9780817980511 Toker Leona 2000 The Gulag Archipelago and The Gulag Fiction of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Return from the Archipelago Narrative of Gulag Survivors Bloomington Indiana University Press pp 101 21 188 209 Tolczyk Dariusz 1999 A Sliver in the Throat of Power See No Evil Literary Cover Ups and Discoveries of the Soviet Camp Experience New Haven CT amp London Yale University Press pp 253 310 Transactions vol 29 The Association of Russian American Scholars in the USA 1998 Urmanov AV 2003 Tvorchestvo Aleksandra Solzhenicyna Uchebnoe posobie Tvorchestvo Aleksandra Solzhenitsyna Uchebnoe posobie Creativity Alexander Solzhenitsyn A Tutorial in Russian Moscow Flinta Nauka Urmanov AV ed 2003 Odin den Ivana Denisovicha AI Solzhenicyna Hudozhestvennyj mir Poetika Kulturnyj kontekst Odin den Ivana Denisovicha AI Solzhenitsyna Khudozhestvennyy mir Poetika Kul turnyy kontekst One den of Ivan Denisovich AI Solzhenitsyn Art world Poetics Cultural context in Russian Blagoveshchensk BGPU Tretyakov Vitaly 2 May 2006 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Saving the Nation Is the Utmost Priority for the State The Moscow News Archived from the original on 27 May 2006 External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in Russian Official website The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn on Nobelprize org Negative Analysis of Alexander Solzhenitsyn by the Stalin Society Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr I 1978 A World Split Apart commencement address to the graduating class Harvard University OrthodoxyToday org archived from the original on 7 August 2008 retrieved 9 August 2014 Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Der Spiegel interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn I Am Not Afraid of Death 23 July 2007 As delivered text and video of Harvard Commencement Address at AmericanRhetoric com The Solzhenitsyn Reader New and Essential Writings 1947 2005 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn at the Internet Book List Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn amp oldid 1143073154, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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