fbpx
Wikipedia

Ronald Reagan

January 18, 2023

"Reagan" redirects here. For other uses, see Reagan (disambiguation) and Ronald Reagan (disambiguation).

Ronald Wilson Reagan (/ˈreɪɡən/ RAY-gən; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician, union leader, and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Before ascending to the presidency, he previously served as the 33rd governor of California from 1967 to 1975 and was the president of the Screen Actors Guild from 1947 to 1952 and 1959 to 1960.

Ronald Reagan
Official portrait, 1981
40th President of the United States
In office
January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989
Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush
Preceded byJimmy Carter
Succeeded byGeorge H. W. Bush
33rd Governor of California
In office
January 2, 1967 – January 6, 1975[1]
Lieutenant
Preceded byPat Brown
Succeeded byJerry Brown
9th and 13th President of the
Screen Actors Guild
In office
November 16, 1959[5] – June 12, 1960[6]
Preceded byHoward Keel
Succeeded byGeorge Chandler
In office
March 10, 1947 – November 10, 1952
Preceded byRobert Montgomery
Succeeded byWalter Pidgeon
Personal details
Born
Ronald Wilson Reagan

(1911-02-06)February 6, 1911
Tampico, Illinois, U.S.
DiedJune 5, 2004(2004-06-05) (aged 93)
Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Resting placeRonald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum
Political partyRepublican (from 1962)
Other political
affiliations		Democratic (until 1962)
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1940; div. 1949)​
​
(m. 1952)​
Children
Parents
RelativesNeil Reagan (brother)
Alma materEureka College (BA)
Occupation
  • Politician
  • union leader
  • actor
  • sports announcer
AwardsList of awards and honors
Signature
Military service
Service
Years of service
RankCaptain
Unit
Wars
Other offices

Reagan was born in Tampico, Illinois. He graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports announcer in Iowa. In 1937, Reagan moved to California, where he found work as a film actor. From 1947 to 1952, Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild. In the 1950s, he worked in television and became a spokesman for General Electric. From 1959 to 1960, he again served as the Screen Actors Guild's president. In 1964, Reagan's speech "A Time for Choosing" earned him attention as a new conservative figure. He was elected governor of California in 1966. During his governorship, he raised taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus, and cracked down on student protests at the University of California campuses in Berkeley and in Santa Barbara.

After challenging and nearly defeating sitting president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination in the 1980 presidential election and went on to defeat incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter. Early in his presidency, Reagan implemented "Reaganomics", which promoted economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation. He escalated an arms race with the Soviet Union and transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback. He also survived an assassination attempt, fought public sector labor unions, spurred the war on drugs, and ordered an invasion of Grenada. In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in a landslide victory.

Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the bombing of Libya, the Iran–Iraq War, the Iran–Contra affair, and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. The talks culminated in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Throughout Reagan's presidency, the American economy saw a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate fell, and the United States entered its then-longest peacetime expansion. After leaving the presidency in 1989, Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan's physical and mental capacities. He died at his home in Los Angeles in 2004. His tenure constituted the Reagan era, and he is often considered a prominent conservative figure in the United States. Evaluations of his presidency among historians and the general public place him among the upper tier of American presidents.

Early life

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico, Illinois, as the younger son of Nelle Clyde Wilson and Jack Reagan.[7] Nelle was committed to the Disciples of Christ,[8] leading prayer meetings, running mid-week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town,[8] and supporting the Social Gospel.[9] Reagan credited her spiritual influence[10] and he became a Christian.[11] According to Stephen Vaughn, Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan."[12] Jack was focused on making money so that he could take care of the family.[13] Neil was Reagan's older brother.[14]

Jack's alcoholism complicated his ability to make money.[15] The family briefly lived in Chicago, Galesburg, and Monmouth before returning to Tampico. In 1920, Reagan and his family settled in the city of Dixon, which he called "his hometown".[16] They lived in a house near the H. C. Pitney Variety Store Building.[17] In Dixon, Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in drama and football.[18] His first job involved working as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park.[19] In 1928, Reagan attended Eureka College[20] with Nelle's approval on religious grounds.[21] He was as an "indifferent student" who studied economics and maintained a "C average" grade.[22] He was involved in sports, drama, and campus politics.[20] He was also elected student body president and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation.[23]

Reagan's parents stance on "racial questions" were seemingly unusual[24] when racial segregation was common in many Midwestern communities.[25] His father strongly opposed the Ku Klux Klan and their anti-black racism.[9] When his college football team was staying at a hotel that would not allow two black teammates to stay there, he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon[24] and his parents welcomed them.[26] Reagan would later express his opposition to racism as a sports announcer[25] and in Hollywood.[27]

Entertainment career

Further information: Ronald Reagan filmography

Radio and film

 
Dark Victory (1939)
 
The Bad Man (1941)[28]

After obtaining a bachelor of arts degree from Eureka in 1932,[29] Reagan took a job in Davenport, Iowa as a sports announcer for four football games in the Big Ten Conference.[30] He then worked for WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball. His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress.[31] In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with the Warner Bros. studio.[32]

Reagan arrived at Hollywood in 1937 and debuted in the B film Love Is on the Air (1937).[33] After that film, he made numerous films before serving in the military in April 1942[34] such as Dark Victory (1939) with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart,[35] Santa Fe Trail (1940), Knute Rockne, All American (1940),[28] and Desperate Journey (1942) with co-star Errol Flynn.[36] In Kings Row (1942), Reagan's character gets his legs amputated and asks, "Where's the rest of me?", which became the title of his 1965 autobiography.[37] His performance was considered his best by many critics[28] although the film was condemned by Bosley Crowther.[38] Reagan became a star, and the studio tripled his weekly pay[39] as he kept a warm relationship with Jack L. Warner. From 1941 to 1942, Gallup polls placed Reagan "in the top 100 stars".[40]

World War II interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again.[39] Warner Bros. became uncertain about Reagan's ability to generate ticket sales, though he was dissatisfied with the roles he received. As a result, Lew Wasserman, renegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films with Universal Pictures and Paramount Pictures as a freelancer. With this, Reagan appeared in Louisa (1950) and Bedtime for Bonzo (1951).[41] He also appeared in multiple western films including Cattle Queen of Montana (1954).[42] He ended his relationship with Warner Bros. in 1952,[43] but would appear in a total of 53 films.[34] Reagan's last appearance was in The Killers (1964).[44]

Military service

 
Reagan at Fort Roach, between 1943 and 1944

When Reagan was working in Iowa, a United States Army Reserve member pitched him to join a local cavalry regiment that still used horses during the branch's decline. Reagan was interested in riding a horse at a young age and, without "a burning desire to be an army officer", he enlisted[45] in April 1937. He was assigned as a private in Des Moines' 322nd Cavalry Regiment and reassigned to second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps.[46] He later became a part of the 323rd Cavalry Regiment in California.[47] As relations between the United States and Japan worsened, Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filming Kings Row. Reagan's agent Wasserman[48] and Warner Bros. lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941. However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being a draft dodger, the studio let him go in April 1942.[49]

As Reagan reported for duty, the army was using machines as opposed to horses,[48] and he had severe near-sightedness. His first assignment was at Fort Mason as a liaison officer, a role that allowed him to transfer to the United States Army Air Forces (AAF). He became an AAF public relations officer and was subsequently assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit in Culver City[50] where he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker"; J. David Woodard suggests that "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" annoyed Reagan.[51] Despite this, Reagan participated Provisional Task Force Show Unit in Burbank[52] and continued to make films such as This Is the Army (1943).[53] He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the sixth War Loan Drive before being reassigned to Fort MacArthur until his discharge on December 9, 1945, as a captain. Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400 training films.[52]

Screen Actors Guild presidency

When Robert Montgomery resigned as SAG president on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position, in a special election.[54] Reagan's first tenure saw various labor-management disputes,[55] the Hollywood blacklist,[56] and the Taft–Hartley Act's implementation.[57] On April 10, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers.[58] During a House Un-American Activities Committee hearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with the Communist Party[59] and that he was well-informed on a "jurisdictional strike".[60] When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the Screen Writers Guild, he called the efforts "hearsay".[61] Reagan would remain SAG president until he resigned on November 10, 1952;[62] Walter Pidgeon succeeded him, but Reagan stayed on the board.[63]

In 1958, MCA Inc. purchased the rights to air certain Paramount-produced films on television, resulting in significant profits that actors were not entitled to receive.[64] The SAG would fight with film producers over residual payments and in November 1959,[65] the board and Wasserman convinced Reagan to replace the resigning Howard Keel as SAG president. In his second stint, Reagan managed to secure the payments for actors whose theatrical films were released from 1948 to 1959 were televised. The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled for pensions instead. However, they were still required to pay residuals for films after 1959. Reagan resigned from the presidency on June 7, 1960[66] and George Chandler succeeded him.[67] Reagan also left the board.[68]

Marriages and children

 
Reagan and Jane Wyman, 1942
 
Ronald and Nancy Reagan, 1952

Reagan married Brother Rat (1938) co-star Jane Wyman[69] on January 26, 1940.[70] Together, they had two biological daughters, Maureen in 1941,[71] and Christine,[72] born prematurely and dead the next day in 1947.[73] They adopted one son, Michael, in 1945.[51] In 1948, Wyman filed to divorce Reagan, citing "mental cruelty".[70] Wyman was uninterested in politics, and she would occasionally separate and reconcile with Reagan. Although Reagan was unprepared,[73] they split amicably,[70] and the divorce was finalized in July 1949. Reagan would also remain close to his children.[74] Later that year, Reagan met Nancy Davis after she contacted him in his capacity as the guild's president about her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood; she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis.[75] They married on March 4, 1952[76] and had two children, Patti in 1952, and Ron in 1958.[77]

Television

Reagan initially refused to work in television and on Broadway theatre, but after receiving offers to work in nightclubs in 1954,[78] he became the host of MCA television production General Electric Theater[43] at his agent's recommendation. It featured multiple guest stars,[79] and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes.[80] Television was a new medium, and when asked how Reagan was able to recruit the stars to appear on the show, he said, "Good stories, top direction, production quality."[81] However, the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962.[82] In 1965, Reagan became the host[83] of another MCA production, Death Valley Days.[84]

Early political activities

 
Reagan campaigning with Barry Goldwater, 1964
 
Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrating his gubernatorial election victory, 1966

Reagan began as a Democrat, viewing Franklin D. Roosevelt as "a true hero".[85] He joined the American Veterans Committee and Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (HICCASP), and worked with the AFL–CIO to fight right-to-work laws.[86] In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros. prevented him from going.[87] Regardless, he continued his support for the abolition of nuclear weapons[88] when he was the president of the United States.[89] Reagan also supported Harry S. Truman in the 1948 presidential election[90] and Helen Gahagan Douglas for the United States Senate in 1950. It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them.[86]

Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and Richard Nixon in 1960.[91] When Reagan was contracted by General Electric (GE), he began giving speeches to their employees.[92] His speeches had a positive take on businesses, but a negative take on government.[93] Under anti-communist[94] Lemuel Boulware, the employees were encouraged to vote for business-friendly officials.[95] In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches into another speech to criticize Medicare.[96] In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end of individual freedom in the United States".[97] In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE,[68] and he formally registered as a Republican.[91] He said, "I didn't leave the Democratic Party. The party left me."[93]

In 1964, Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender Barry Goldwater[98] that was eventually referred to as "A Time for Choosing".[99] Reagan argued that the Founding Fathers "knew that governments don't control things. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose"[100] and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right."[101] Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign, it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives. David S. Broder and Stephen H. Hess called it "the most successful national political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his famous 'Cross of Gold' address".[98]

1966 California gubernatorial election

Further information: 1966 California gubernatorial election

Pat Brown's reelection over Nixon in 1962 and Goldwater's loss in 1964 left the Republicans without a clear pathway to victory.[102] In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy,[103] repeating his stances on individual freedom and big government.[104] In a March meeting with black Republicans,[105] he was accused of appealing to white racial resentment and backlash against the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Certain in his own lack of prejudice, Reagan responded resentfully that bigotry was not in his nature before walking out.[106] He returned to the meeting and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed on a citizens' right to private property.[107] After the Supreme Court of California struck down the Rumford Act in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal,[108] but later preferred amending it.[109] In the primary, Reagan defeated George Christopher,[110] a moderate[111] who William F. Buckley Jr. thought had framed Reagan as extreme.[110]

Christopher promised to help Reagan unseat Brown,[112] who attacked Reagan for being extreme while touting his own accomplishments.[113] Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider,[114] and charged Brown as responsible for the Watts riots and lenient on crime.[113] Cannon notes that the Free Speech Movement, high taxes, unrestrained spending, and lack of accountability were often considered issues in Reagan's campaign speeches.[115] He also notes that Reagan benefited on television in comparison to the seemingly unpleasant governor.[116] Meanwhile, the press continued to perceive Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues".[117] Ultimately, Reagan won the general election in a landslide.[118]

California governorship (1967–1975)

Main article: Governorship of Ronald Reagan
 
The Reagans in 1972

Brown spent much of California's funds on new projects, prompting them to use accrual accounting to avoid raising taxes. Consequently, it generated a larger deficit,[119] and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes to balance the budget.[120] He left his fiscal responsibility principles behind[121] to work with Jesse M. Unruh[122] on securing tax increases and property tax cuts. As a result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped. Kevin Starr states, Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it."[123] In the 1970 gubernatorial election, Unruh used the property tax cuts and Reagan's tax relief requests against him for benefiting the wealthy. The strategy worked as Reagan would raise taxes once more.[124] By 1973, the budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred using "to give back to the people".[125]

Reagan reacted to the Black Panther Party's strategy of copwatching by signing the Mulford Act in 1967.[126] The act prohibited the public carrying of loaded firearms. On May 2, before the act was passed, 26 Panthers were arrested after interrupting a debate on the bill in the California State Capitol. The act was California's most aggressive piece of gun control legislation, with critics saying that it was "overreaching the political activism of organizations". Hopeful that future handgun buyers would reconsider their own actions in the wake of the protest, Reagan approved additional legislation to establish a waiting period of fifteen days.[127] Although the Panthers gained national attention, their membership barely grew.[128] The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and public attitude studies on gun control.[126]

After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the 1968 Republican presidential primaries.[129] The continuing Vietnam War was a campaign issue, and the candidates' views on the war contrasted from each other.[130] Reagan presented himself as a war hawk in an attempt to slow down communism's spread.[131] He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a brokered convention. He won California's delegates,[132] but Nixon secured enough delegates for the nomination.[133] Reagan then campaigned for Nixon in the general election,[91] and supported Nixon's withdrawal of troops from Vietnam in Nixon's presidency.[134] In December 1968, Reagan was elected chair of the Republican Governors Association, succeeding John Chafee.[135] He remained in the role until he was succeeded by Raymond P. Shafer in December 1969.[136]

Reagan was critical of administrators tolerating student demonstrations at the University of California, Berkeley.[116] In May 1969, he sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the People's Park protests.[137] This led to one student being shot and killed, and the injuries of numerous police officers and two reporters in the conflict. Reagan then commanded the state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely.[138] One year after the incident, Reagan responded to questions about the protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement."[139] He regretted his statement the same year violent protests broke out at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he once again commanded the National Guard. When further violence erupted, one student was inadvertently killed by a policeman, leaving Reagan shaken.[140]

During his victorious reelection campaign, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritize welfare reform.[141] He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972.[142] At the same time, the Federal Reserve increased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy in a mild recession. Reagan worked with Bob Moretti to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments. This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon's Family Assistance Plan. Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment.[143] In 1975, the Employment Development Department released a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful.[144]

Reagan did not run for the governorship in 1974, and it was won by Pat Brown's son, Jerry.[145] Reagan's governorship, as Gary K. Clabaugh wrote, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding.[146] As for higher education, William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research.[147] Additionally, Cannon writes that both the homicide and armed robbery rates increased after 1974, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system.[148] Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by People v. Anderson in 1972.[149] However, according to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that granted no-fault divorces.[150] Unaware of the mental health provision,[151] Reagan expressed regret over signing the Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest.[152]

Seeking the presidency (1975–1981)

1976 Republican primaries

Main articles: Ronald Reagan 1976 presidential campaign and 1976 Republican Party presidential primaries
 
Reagan and Ford shaking hands on the podium after Reagan narrowly lost the nomination at the 1976 Republican National Convention

As president, Gerald Ford suffered from public criticism of his pardon of Nixon, the high unemployment, and the inability to pass energy legislation.[153] Conservatives felt that the fall of Saigon had weakened the United States,[154] and they were turned away by the Ford administration's bailout of the indebted New York City. In 1975, Reagan called for a revitalization of the Republican Party.[155] He repeated his anti-government "Time for Choosing" speech around the country,[156] and on November 20, he announced his presidential campaign.[157] To the contrary, Ford, who spent over 25 years in the United States Congress,[158] never expected him to run.[159] In a phone call with Reagan, Ford disagreed with Reagan's opinion that challenging him would not be divisive or hurt their party.[160] Ford had never been elected president,[157] and he ran to be elected in his own right.[161]

Reagan lost the first five primaries. When he finally defeated Ford in North Carolina, the party's delegates were convinced that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed.[162] Reagan went on to win more primaries, but by the end, nobody had the necessary 1,130 delegates to secure the nomination.[163] Throughout the primaries, Reagan often gave an anecdote of a black woman named Linda Taylor living in Chicago, saying that she used multiple names, addresses and Social Security numbers, and fraudulently collected veterans' benefits. In 1977, she was convicted of welfare fraud and perjury.[164] Although he never mentioned her name or overtly mentioned her race, the Chicago Tribune labeled her a "welfare queen",[165] a term critics deem derogatory towards welfare recipients and in specific cases, racist.[166][167][26] In Florida, Reagan accused Ford for handing the Panama Canal to Panama's government while Ford implied that Reagan would end Social Security.[168]

Ahead of the convention in Kansas City, Reagan chose liberal Richard Schweiker as his running mate to distract Ford. Instead, conservatives were left alienated.[169] Ford would pick up the uncommitted delegates and prevail, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070. Before Ford gave his acceptance speech, he invited Reagan to address the convention. In his speech, Reagan emphasized individual freedom[170] and the dangers of nuclear weapons. Reagan later campaigned for Ford in twenty states against the Democratic nominee, Jimmy Carter, who would win the general election.[171] However, in Washington state, a faithless elector gave Reagan one electoral vote instead of Ford.[172] In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge played a role in his own narrow loss to Carter.[173]

1980 election

Main articles: Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign and 1980 United States presidential election
 
1980 electoral vote results

In 1978, the United States signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, and in the following year, an oil crisis began. Inflation, interest rates and unemployment were soaring as well. This set Carter up as a vulnerable candidate in the upcoming presidential election.[174] On November 13, Reagan announced his candidacy[175] with an indictment of the federal government.[176] He and many of his Republican primary opponents stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both a small government and strong national defense.[177] Heading into 1980, Reagan's age became an issue among the press, and the United States was in a severe recession.[178] In the primaries, Reagan lost Iowa to George H. W. Bush, but rebounded in New Hampshire. Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including John B. Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate. Reagan captured the presidential nomination with ease and chose Bush as his running mate at the convention in Detroit.[179]

The general election pitted Reagan against Carter and was conducted amid the multitude of domestic concerns, as well as the ongoing Iran hostage crisis.[180] Carter portrayed Reagan as an extremist,[181] and Anderson had support from Rockefeller Republicans.[182] During a debate on October 28, Reagan used the phrase "There you go again" after Carter said that Reagan's political career started with an attack on Medicare.[183] He later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years earlier.[184] On November 4, Reagan won a decisive victory in the Electoral College over Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and the District of Columbia. He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent.[185] Republicans also won a majority of seats in the Senate.[186] Reagan's win was fueled by evangelical support, including those who were disappointed with Carter's support for abortion.[187]

Woodard writes that the election of Reagan signaled a new political era as liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats changed their party affiliations.[188] Reagan's campaign has also been used as an example of dog whistle politics. In his speech at the Neshoba County Fair, Reagan used the term "states' rights", and referred to "Cadillac-driving welfare queens" and "strapping young bucks buying T-bone steaks with food stamps".[189][190] Some also saw these actions as an extension of the Southern strategy to garner white support for Republican candidates.[191] According to Joseph Crespino, Reagan's speech and visit to the fair was designed to reach out to the voters inclined toward segregationist George Wallace.[192] Reagan's supporters have stated that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent.[193]

Presidency (1981–1989)

Main article: Presidency of Ronald Reagan
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency.
Further information: Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration and Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration

First inauguration

Main article: First inauguration of Ronald Reagan
 
The Reagans at the 1981 inauguration parade

The 40th president of the United States,[194] Reagan was 69 years, 349 days of age when he was sworn into office for his first term on January 20, 1981, making him the oldest first-term president, a distinction he held until 2017 when Donald Trump was inaugurated at the age of 70 years, 220 days.[195] In his inaugural address, he addressed the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem."[196] In a final insult to President Carter, Iran waited until Reagan had been sworn in before sending the hostages home.[197]

Assassination attempt

Main article: Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan

On March 30, 1981, Reagan, James Brady, Thomas Delahanty, and Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from John Hinckley Jr. outside the Washington Hilton. Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital, Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly. The attempt had a significant influence on Reagan's popularity as his approval rating reached 73 percent.[198] Religiously, Paul Kengor attributes the attempt to Reagan scaling down his church attendance,[199] and Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to defeat "communism in the Soviet bloc".[200]

Public sector labor union fights

Early in August 1981, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) went on strike, violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking.[201] On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return. On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order.[202] He used military controllers[203] and supervisors to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained.[204] The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s.[203] With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector.[205] During Reagan's presidency, the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce.[206]

"Reaganomics" and the economy

Main article: Reaganomics
 
The inflation rate compared to the federal funds rate
 
The unemployment rate compared to the federal funds rate
 
Annual percent change in real gross domestic product

Taxation

Reagan advocated a laissez-faire philosophy,[207] and promoted a set of neoliberal reforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which included monetarism and supply-side economics.[208][209] In 1981, he lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls[210] and signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981[211] to dramatically lower federal income tax rates and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985.[212] The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the number of tax brackets and increased personal exemptions.[213] Conversely, Reagan raised taxes eleven times,[214] including the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 amid growing concerns about the mounting federal debt.[215] The bill doubled the federal cigarette tax and rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill. By 1983, the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy.[216]

Reagan proposed that the tax cuts would not increase the deficit as long as there was enough to offset the increase in revenue as part of the Laffer curve.[217] His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spur investments, which would result in more spending and consumption.[218] Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics", the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor.[219] Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell argued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s.[220] As for the 1982 tax increase, many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates.[221] According to Paul Krugman, "Over all, the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut; as a share of GDP, the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton's 1993 tax increase."[222]

Inflation and unemployment

Reagan took office in the midst of stagflation.[208] The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981.[223] Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker fought inflation by pursuing a tight money policy of high interest rates,[224] which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth.[225] In December 1982, unemployment was nearly 11 percent.[226] Around the same time, economic activity began to rise until its end in 1990, setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion.[227] In 1983, the recession ended[228] and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery.[229]

Reagan appointed Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker in 1987. Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off the Black Monday although the markets eventually recovered.[230] By 1989, the Bureau of Labor Statistics measured the unemployment rate at 5.3 percent.[231] The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989. Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent.[232] Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and both economic inequality[233] and the number of homeless individuals increased during the 1980s.[234] Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage.[235]

Government spending

In 1981, in a effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security. He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash.[236] He then created the Greenspan Commission to keep Social Security financially secure and in 1983, he signed amendments to raise both the program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits.[237] In his diaries, Reagan wrote his desire to reverse the effects of the Great Society and war on poverty.[238] He had signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 to cut funding for federal assistance such as food stamps, unemployment benefits, subsidized housing and the Aid to Families with Dependent Children,[239] and would discontinue the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act.[240] On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985.[241] To discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness, the Reagan administration initiated Project Socrates. According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country outperform Soviet missile defense technology.[242] However, the incoming Bush administration strangled the program's philosophy.[243]

Deregulation

Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda. William Leuchtenburg writes that by 1986, the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981.[244] The 1982 Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate.[245] After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds. The administration's inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis and costly bailouts.[246]

Deficits

The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue.[247] The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989. During his time in office, Reagan never submitted a balanced budget. The United States borrowed heavily in order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits.[248] Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency".[249] Jeffrey Frankel opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged on his campaign promise by raising taxes through the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990.[250]

Civil rights

Despite Reagan having opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965,[25] the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982.[251] He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr. Day,[252] but signed a veto-proof bill to create the holiday in 1983, and also alluded to claims that King was associated with communists during his career.[253] In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for fair housing discrimination offenses.[254] In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, but Congress overrode his veto. He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners.[255] Later in September, legislation was passed[256] to correct loopholes in the Fair Housing Act of 1968.[257]

Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. as chair of the United States Commission on Civil Rights to criticism for politicizing the agency. Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees steered the commission in line with Reagan's views on civil rights, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates.[258] In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfully nominated Robert Bork to the Supreme Court of the United States as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposed affirmative action, particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment,[259] but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies.[260] In housing, Reagan's administration saw a considerably fewer amount of fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations.[261] Reagan's recasting of civil rights has been regarded as the largest since Lyndon B. Johnson's presidency.[262][263]

Supreme Court appointments

Main article: Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates

Reagan appointed three associate justices to the Supreme Court: Sandra Day O'Connor in 1981, Antonin Scalia in 1986, and Anthony Kennedy in 1988. He also appointed William Rehnquist as the chief justice in 1986.[264] The direction of the Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative.[265][266][267]

War on drugs

Main article: War on drugs

In response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic, Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982.[268] While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then, the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration and the United States Department of Defense all increased their anti-drug funding immensely.[269] Reagan's administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985.[270] Reagan signed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and 1988 to specify penalties for drug offenses.[271] Both bills were criticized for promoting racial disparities.[272] Additionally, Nancy Reagan founded the "Just Say No" campaign to discourage others from engaging in recreational drug use and raise awareness about the dangers of drugs.[273] A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980,[274] but Scott Lilienfeld and Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns have not been found to be affirmatively proven.[275]

Escalation of the Cold War

Further information: Cold War (1979–1985)
 
Reagan speaking before the British Parliament, 1982

Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup[276] and deployed the MX missile.[277] In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, he oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in Western Europe.[278] In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue; he retreated on this issue.[279] In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to protect the United States from an attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. He believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible.[280] There was much disbelief surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub the SDI "Star Wars",[281] though Soviet leader Yuri Andropov said it would lead to "an extremely dangerous path".[282]

In a 1982 address to the British Parliament,[283] Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy ... will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history."[284] In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals in March 1983, he called the Soviet Union an "evil empire".[245] After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September, which included Larry McDonald and 61 other Americans, Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union.[285] The following day, reports suggested that the Soviets had fired the plane by mistake.[286]

Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan in 1982,[287] Reagan rejected his predecessors' policies of détente.[288] His covert aid to Afghan mujahideen forces against the Soviets[289] has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.[290] However, some of the American-funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to American troops in the 2001–2021 war in Afghanistan.[291] In his 1985 State of the Union Address, Reagan proclaimed, "Support for freedom fighters is self-defense."[292] Through the Reagan Doctrine, his administration supported anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to rollback Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.[293] Critics have felt that the administration ignored the human rights violations in the countries they backed,[294][295] including genocide and mass killings.[296][297]

Invasion of Grenada

Main article: United States invasion of Grenada
 
Reagan discussing the Grenada situation with a group of bipartisan members of Congress, 1983

On October 19, 1983, Grenadan leader Maurice Bishop was overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues. Several days later, Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada. Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean nation and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. Two days of fighting commenced, resulting in an American victory.[298] While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States, it was criticized internationally, with the United Nations General Assembly voting to censure the American government.[299] Regardless, Cannon notes that the invasion overshadowed the Beirut barracks bombings throughout Reagan's 1984 presidential campaign.[300]

1984 election

Main articles: Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign and 1984 United States presidential election
 
1984 electoral vote results

Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29, 1984, declaring, "America is back and standing tall."[301] In February, his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send the United States Marine Corps to Lebanon, thus eliminating a political liability for him. Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries,[302] and accepted the nomination at the convention in Dallas. In the general election, his campaign ran the commercial, "Morning in America".[303] At a time when the American economy was already recovering,[228] former vice president Walter Mondale[304] was attacked by Reagan's campaign as a "tax-and-spend Democrat", while Mondale criticized the deficit, the SDI, and Reagan's civil rights policy. However, Reagan's age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances. Mondale's campaign believed that Reagan's age and mental health were issues before the presidential debates in October.[305]

Following Reagan's performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics, his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion, and some respondents reconsidered voting for him. Reagan's campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience." This remark generated applause and laughter,[306] even from Mondale. At that point, Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan,[307] and Mondale's campaign felt that "the election was over".[308] Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes. Mondale won 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota.[309]

Response to the AIDS epidemic

The AIDS epidemic began to unfold in 1981,[310] and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public.[311] As the epidemic advanced, according to physician John Hutton, Reagan thought of AIDS as though "it was the measles and would go away". However, the October 1985 death of his friend Rock Hudson changed Reagan's view; Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease. In 1986, Reagan asked C. Everett Koop to draw up a report on the AIDS issue. Koop angered many evangelical conservatives, both in and out of the Reagan administration, by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools.[312] A year later, Reagan, who reportedly had not read the report,[313] gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it.[314]

Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis.[315][316][317] Randy Shilts and Michael Bronski said that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were routinely denied.[318][319] In a September 1985 press conference, after Hudson announced his AIDS diagnosis, Reagan called a government AIDS research program a "top priority", but also cited budgetary constraints.[320] In 2002, Deroy Murdock responded to the charge of the underfunding of AIDS by saying that AIDS spending under President Reagan rose from $8 million in 1982 to $2.3 billion by 1989.[321]

Addressing apartheid

From the late 1960s onward, the American public grew increasingly vocal in its opposition to the apartheid policy of the white-minority government of South Africa, and in its insistence that the United States impose economic and diplomatic sanctions on South Africa.[322] The strength of the anti-apartheid opposition surged during Reagan's first term in office as its component disinvestment from South Africa movement, which had been in existence for quite some years, gained critical mass following in the United States, particularly on college campuses and among mainline Protestant denominations.[323][324] President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because, as he wrote in a letter to Sammy Davis Jr., it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government". He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs".[325]

The Reagan administration developed constructive engagement with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to move away from apartheid gradually. It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa.[322] This policy, however, engendered much public criticism, and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions.[326] In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including an arms embargo in late 1985.[327] These sanctions were seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress.[326] In 1986, Congress approved the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, which included tougher sanctions; Reagan's veto was overridden by Congress. He remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of "how best to oppose it". Several European countries, as well as Japan, also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after.[328]

Libya bombing

Main article: 1986 United States bombing of Libya
 
Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, 1986

Relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious, beginning with the 1981 Gulf of Sidra incident; by 1982, Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the Central Intelligence Agency to be, along with Leonid Brezhnev and Fidel Castro, part of a group known as the "unholy trinity" and was also labeled as "our international public enemy number one" by a CIA official.[329] These tensions were later revived in early April 1986 when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque, injuring 63 American military personnel and killing one serviceman. Stating that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed the "terrorist bombing", Reagan authorized the use of force against the country. In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the United States launched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya.[330]

British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the United States Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations.[330] The attack was, according to Reagan, designed to halt Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior".[331] After the attacks began, Reagan addressed the nation, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office."[330] The attack was condemned by many countries; by an overwhelming vote, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law.[332]

Iran–Contra affair

Main article: Iran–Contra affair
 
Reagan receiving the Tower Commission Report on the Iran–Contra affair, February 1987

Reagan authorized William J. Casey to arm the Contras, fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of the Sandinistas. Congress passed the 1982 Boland Amendment, prohibiting the CIA and United States Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras. Still, the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments.[333] When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placed naval mines in Nicaraguan harbors, Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras.[334] In reaction to the role Israel and the United States played in the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah began to take American hostages, holding eight Americans by the middle of 1985.[335]

Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran, then engaged in the Iran–Iraq War, in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages.[336] The Reagan administration sold over 2,000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress; Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans. On Oliver North's initiative, the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras.[336] The transactions were exposed by Lebanese neswpaper Ash-Shiraa in early November 1986. Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing, but on November 25, he announced that John Poindexter and North had left the administration and that he would form the Tower Commission to investigate the transactions. A few weeks later, Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appoint a special prosecutor who would conduct a separate investigation.[337]

The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras. The report laid most of the blame on North, Poindexter, and Robert McFarlane, but it was also critical of Donald Regan and other White House staffers.[338] Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras, but the report noted that Reagan had "created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others" and had "knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal."[339] The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan's competency and the wisdom of conservative policies.[340] The administration's credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran.[341]

Soviet decline and thaw in relations

Further information: Cold War (1985–1991)
 
Gorbachev and Reagan signing the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, December 1987

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985.[342] Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan's military buildup,[343] their enormous military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, the prices of oil, the primary source of Soviet export revenues, fell to one third of the previous level in 1985. These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during Gorbachev's tenure.[344]

Reagan's foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered between brinkmanship and cooperation.[345] Reagan appreciated Gorbachev's revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements.[346] They held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988.[347] Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of communism.[348] The critical summit was in Reykjavík in 1986, where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons. However, Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten-year period when disarmament would take place. Reagan refused, stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets, thus failing to reach a deal.[349]

In June 1987, Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at the Berlin Wall, demanding that he "tear down this wall". The remark was ignored at the time, but after the wall fell in 1989, it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement.[350][351][352] In December 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev met again at the Washington Summit[353] to sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, committing to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles.[354] The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement.[355] In May 1988, the U.S. Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty,[356] providing a major boost to Reagan's popularity in the aftermath of the Iran–Contra affair. A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced, and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran–Iraq War.[357]

Post-presidency (1989–2004)

 
Ronald and Nancy Reagan with a model of USS Ronald Reagan, 1996

After leaving office on January 20, 1989,[358] the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, in addition to Rancho del Cielo in Santa Barbara. They regularly attended Bel Air Church[359][360] and made public appearances including at the dedication and opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in 1991.[361] On April 13, 1992, Reagan was assaulted by Richard Springer, an anti-nuclear protester, while accepting an award from the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas,[362] though Reagan was not injured.[363] Reagan later spoke at the 1992 Republican National Convention.[364] He continued to speak publicly in favor of the Brady Bill,[365] a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget, and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment.[366] His final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C.;[367] his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.[368]

In August 1994, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. In November of that year, he announced the diagnosis through a handwritten letter.[369] There was speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration,[370] but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been widely refuted by medical experts;[371][372][373] his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992[374] or 1993.[373] As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed Reagan's mental capacity. He was able to recognize only a few people including his wife, Nancy Reagan. Still, he continued to walk through parks and on beaches, playing golf, and until 1999, often going to his office in nearby Century City.[373] Eventually, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife,[375] who became a stem-cell research advocate, asserting that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's.[376]

Reagan died of pneumonia, complicated by Alzheimer's disease,[377] at his home in Los Angeles, in the afternoon of June 5, 2004.[378] President George W. Bush called Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America".[379] Three days later, a brief family funeral was held at Reagan's his presidential library.[380] On June 9, his body was flown to Washington, D.C. to lie in state in the Capitol rotunda[381] with a state funeral conducted in the Washington National Cathedral on June 11.[382] Eulogies were given by Thatcher,[383] Brian Mulroney, George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush. Many other world leaders attended, including Gorbachev and Prince Charles, representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II.[384] Reagan, then the longest-lived American president at 93 years and 120 days,[385][386] was interred at his library.[387]

Legacy

Reagan's legacy is the subject of substantial debate among scholars, historians, and the general public.[388] Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of his economic policies,[389] and a restoration of American pride and morale.[390] Proponents say that Reagan's unabated and passionate love for the United States restored faith in the American Dream[391] after a decline in American confidence and self-respect under Carter's perceived weak leadership.[392] They also believe that his foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War[393] and that Reagan's defense policies, economic policies, military policies and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism—together with his summits with General Secretary Gorbachev—played a significant part in ending the Cold War.[394][346] He was the first president to reject containment and détente and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with, a post-détente strategy.[346]

Gorbachev said Reagan "was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War",[395] and deemed him "a great president".[395] Gorbachev did not acknowledge a win or loss in the war, but rather a peaceful end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric.[396] Thatcher said that Reagan, who noticed what he considered the Soviet Union's "systemic failures",[397] "had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired."[398] Mulroney said that Reagan "enters history as a strong and dramatic player".[399] Former Polish President Lech Wałęsa said "Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism's collapse."[400]

Critics point out that Reagan's economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits[401] and the national debt,[402] a wider gap in wealth, and an increase in homelessness,[403] and that the Iran–Contra affair lowered American credibility.[404] Professor Jeffrey Knopf has argued that Reagan's leadership was only one of several causes of the end of the Cold War and that his aggressive rhetoric toward the Soviet Union had mixed effects; being labeled "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East-European citizens opposed to communism.[346] President Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.[405] At the time of his death, Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest".[406]

Despite the debate, many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising.[407] As summarized by British historian M. J. Heale, since Reagan left office, historians have reached a broad consensus that he rehabilitated conservatism, turned the nation to the right, practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics, revived faith in the presidency and American exceptionalism, and contributed to victory in the Cold War.[408][409]

Political influence

Further information: Political positions of Ronald Reagan and Reagan coalition
 
Reagan in 1982

Reagan reshaped the Republican Party and led a new conservative movement, altering the political dynamic of the United States.[410] Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans, displacing the party's liberals and moderates.[411] More men voted Republican and Reagan tapped into religious voters, resulting in Reagan Democrats.[410] He often emphasized family values, despite being the first president to have been divorced.[412] Furthermore, Reagan, the oldest president at the time, was supported by young voters, an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party.[413] He also attempted to appeal to black voters in 1980,[414] but would receive the lowest black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time.[415]

Since 1988, Republican presidential candidates have invoked Reagan's policies and beliefs,[416] especially the 2008 candidates who aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates, even imitating his campaign strategies;[417] John McCain frequently said that he came to office as "a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution".[418] Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada noted Trump's praising of Reagan in a book he published during his 2016 campaign.[419]

The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies that concerned taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary, and the Cold War is known as the Reagan era, which emphasized that the Reagan Revolution had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy. The Bill Clinton administration is often treated as an extension of the era, as is the George W. Bush administration.[420] Eric Foner noted that Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign "aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism".[421]

Public image

Further information: Opinion polling on the Ronald Reagan administration
 
Reagan in 1976

Shortly before Reagan left the presidency, polls indicated that he held an approval rating of 70 percent, setting the record as the highest for a departing president.[422] Retrospective Gallup polls continued to show a majority of Americans approving Reagan's performance in 2010[423] and 2018.[424] Similarly, their 2001, 2005, and 2011 surveys considered Reagan the "greatest president" in American history.[425] C-SPAN's surveys of scholars ranked Reagan tenth place in 2000 and ninth in 2009,[426] 2017,[427] and 2021.[428]

Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker "The Great Communicator".[429][430][431] Of it, he said, "I won the nickname the great communicator. But I never thought it was my style that made a difference—it was the content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great things."[432] He also earned the nickname "Teflon President" in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by the multitude of controversies that arose during his administration.[433]

Reagan's age and soft-spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image.[434][435][436] He was known for storytelling[437] and humor[438] in which many of his jokes and one-liners have been labeled "classic quips" and "legendary".[439] In preparation for a radio address in 1984, Reagan joked about outlawing and bombing Russia.[440] During the celebration of the 750th anniversary of Berlin in 1987, a balloon popped. Without missing a beat, he quipped, "missed me" in reference to his assassination attempt.[441] Reagan also had the ability to offer comfort and hope at times of tragedy as demonstrated in aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.[442] The combination of Reagan's speaking style, unabashed patriotism, negotiation skills, and savvy use of the media, played an important role in defining the 1980s and his legacy.[443]

Recognition

Further information: List of awards and honors received by Ronald Reagan and List of things named after Ronald Reagan

Since leaving office, Reagan received numerous awards and honors such as the honorary knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath,[444] Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum,[445] and Presidential Medal of Freedom.[446] On his 87th birthday in 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.[447][448] In 2001, USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy and the U.S. Navy.[449] In 2002, Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home.[450] In 2009, Nancy unveiled a statue of her late husband in the National Statuary Hall Collection.[451]

Depictions

Further information: Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan and Ronald Reagan in music

Reagan is depicted in television films such as The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001), The Reagans (2003)[452] and Killing Reagan (2016),[453] and in a feature film named The Butler (2013).[452] In 2018, feature film Reagan, based on two biographies by Kengor,[454] is scheduled for release in 2023.[455] He is also depicted in the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War.[456] In music, he is the subject of many rock and pop songs.[457]

References

  1. ^ Holmes 2020, p. 210.
  2. ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 11, 1995). . Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
  3. ^ Chang, Cindy (December 25, 2016). . Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
  4. ^ South, Garry (May 21, 2018). . San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
  5. ^ "Reagan New Head of Screen Actors". The Daily Times. New Philadelphia, OH. United Press International. November 17, 1959. p. 17. Retrieved January 16, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
  6. ^ "To Screen Actors Job: New President of Guild is George Chandler". Kansas City Times. Kansas City, MO. Associated Press. June 13, 1960. p. 6. Retrieved January 16, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
  7. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 5.
  8. ^ a b Kengor 2004, p. 12.
  9. ^ a b Rubin, Lyle (March 16, 2019). . Jacobin. Archived from the original on December 21, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2019.
  10. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 48.
  11. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 10.
  12. ^ Vaughn 1995, p. 109.
  13. ^ Kengor 2004, pp. 4–5.
  14. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 4.
  15. ^ Brands 2015, p. 10.
  16. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 5.
  17. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 4.
  18. ^ Brands 2015, p. 14.
  19. ^ Brands 2015, p. 16.
  20. ^ a b Pemberton 1997, p. 10.
  21. ^ Brands 2015, p. 17.
  22. ^ Brands 2015, p. 20.
  23. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 11.
  24. ^ a b Longley et al. 2015, p. 73.
  25. ^ a b c Cannon 2000, p. 458.
  26. ^ a b Cannon 2000, p. 457.
  27. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 139.
  28. ^ a b c Vaughn 1994, p. 37.
  29. ^ Murray 1999, p. 207.
  30. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 24–26.
  31. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 29–30.
  32. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 18–19.
  33. ^ Brands 2015, p. 39–40.
  34. ^ a b Vaughn 1994, p. 30.
  35. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 29.
  36. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 38.
  37. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 25–26.
  38. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 70.
  39. ^ a b Friedrich 1997, p. 89.
  40. ^ Vaughn 1994, pp. 36–37.
  41. ^ Vaughn 1994, pp. 231–232.
  42. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 59.
  43. ^ a b Vaughn 1994, p. 236.
  44. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 312.
  45. ^ Brands 2015, p. 54.
  46. ^ Oliver & Marion 2010, p. 148.
  47. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 96.
  48. ^ a b Woodard 2012, p. 26.
  49. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 54–55.
  50. ^ Oliver & Marion 2010, pp. 148–149.
  51. ^ a b Woodard 2012, p. 27.
  52. ^ a b Oliver & Marion 2010, p. 149.
  53. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 57.
  54. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 86.
  55. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 133.
  56. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 146.
  57. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 154.
  58. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 32.
  59. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 97.
  60. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 98.
  61. ^ Brands 2015, p. 89.
  62. ^ Eliot 2008, p. 266.
  63. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 179.
  64. ^ Spitz 2018, p. 296.
  65. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 35–36.
  66. ^ Cannon 2003, pp. 111–112.
  67. ^ Landesman 2015, p. 173.
  68. ^ a b Cannon 2003, p. 112.
  69. ^ Brands 2015, p. 43.
  70. ^ a b c Woodard 2012, p. 23.
  71. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 25.
  72. ^ Dick 2014, p. 88.
  73. ^ a b Woodard 2012, p. 29.
  74. ^ Cannon 2003, pp. 73–74.
  75. ^ Brands 2015, p. 109.
  76. ^ Brands 2015, p. 113.
  77. ^ Brands 2015, p. 199.
  78. ^ Vaughn 1994, p. 232.
  79. ^ Brands 2015, p. 120.
  80. ^ Metzger 1989, p. 26.
  81. ^ Brands 2015, p. 122.
  82. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 131–132.
  83. ^ Brands 2015, p. 145.
  84. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 36.
  85. ^ Yager 2006, pp. 12–13.
  86. ^ a b Woodard 2012, p. 28.
  87. ^ Lettow 2006, pp. 4–5.
  88. ^ Lettow 2006, p. 4.
  89. ^ Lettow 2006, p. 192.
  90. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 49.
  91. ^ a b c Cannon 2000, p. 53.
  92. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 108.
  93. ^ a b Gormley 2016, p. 540.
  94. ^ Evans 2006, p. 21.
  95. ^ Evans 2006, p. 4.
  96. ^ Skidmore 2008, p. 103.
  97. ^ Onge 2017, p. 240.
  98. ^ a b Woodard 2012, p. 55.
  99. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 132.
  100. ^ Reagan 1989, p. 27.
  101. ^ Reagan 1989, pp. 99–100.
  102. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 56.
  103. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 141.
  104. ^ Brands 2015, p. 148.
  105. ^ Brands 2015, p. 149.
  106. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 142.
  107. ^ Brands 2015, p. 150.
  108. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 147.
  109. ^ Putnam 2006, p. 27.
  110. ^ a b Cannon 2003, pp. 147–148.
  111. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 137.
  112. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 148.
  113. ^ a b Pemberton 1997, p. 69.
  114. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 149.
  115. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 59.
  116. ^ a b Cannon 2003, p. 159.
  117. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 158.
  118. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 160.
  119. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 5.
  120. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 64.
  121. ^ Brands 2015, p. 159.
  122. ^ Brands 2015, p. 157.
  123. ^ Putnam 2006, p. 26.
  124. ^ Johns 2015, pp. 47–48.
  125. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 370.
  126. ^ a b Hayes, Fortunato & Hibbing 2020, p. 819.
  127. ^ Carter 2002, p. 493.
  128. ^ Garrow 2007, p. 652.
  129. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 76.
  130. ^ Sieg 1996, p. 1062.
  131. ^ Hunt & Miles 2021, p. 176.
  132. ^ Gould 2010, pp. 92–93.
  133. ^ Gould 2010, pp. 96–97.
  134. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 77.
  135. ^ The Chairman's Report - 1968: To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan. 16-17, 1969. Republican National Committee. January 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
  136. ^ Synergy, Volumes 13-30. Bay Area Reference Center. 1969. p. 41. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association.
  137. ^ Cannon 2003, pp. 291–292.
  138. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 292.
  139. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 295.
  140. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 175–176.
  141. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 73, 75.
  142. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 75.
  143. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 179–181.
  144. ^ Rich, Spencer (March 30, 1981). . The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 24, 2022. Retrieved December 24, 2022.
  145. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 755.
  146. ^ Clabaugh 2004, p. 257.
  147. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 296.
  148. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 388.
  149. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 224.
  150. ^ Reagan 2011, p. 67.
  151. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 213.
  152. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 209.
  153. ^ Cannon 2013, p. 407.
  154. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 418.
  155. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 86.
  156. ^ Brands 2015, p. 193.
  157. ^ a b Cannon 2003, p. 409.
  158. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 403.
  159. ^ Cannon 2013, p. 388.
  160. ^ Cannon 2013, p. 402.
  161. ^ Cannon 2003, p. 405.
  162. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 90–91.
  163. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 92–93.
  164. ^ Cannon 2000, pp. 456–457.
  165. ^ Borrelli, Christopher (June 10, 2019). . Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
  166. ^ Foster 2008, p. 163.
  167. ^ Haney López 2014, p. 58.
  168. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 89.
  169. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 93.
  170. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 93–94.
  171. ^ Cannon 2003, pp. 432–434.
  172. ^ Agrawal, Nina (December 8, 2016). . Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 27, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2022.
  173. ^ Cannon 2003, pp. 433–434.
  174. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 100–101.
  175. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 86.
  176. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 102.
  177. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 86–87.
  178. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 102–103.
  179. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 87–89.
  180. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 89–90.
  181. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 110–111.
  182. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 110.
  183. ^ Cannon 2000, pp. 114.
  184. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 91.
  185. ^ Brands 2015, p. 237.
  186. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 112.
  187. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 105–106.
  188. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 112–113.
  189. ^ Haney López 2014, p. 4.
  190. ^ Alexander 2010, pp. 48–49.
  191. ^ Herbert, Bob (October 6, 2005). . The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 29, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
  192. ^ Crespino 2021, p. 1.
  193. ^ Murdock, Deroy (November 20, 2007). . National Review. Archived from the original on December 29, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
  194. ^ Woodard 2012, p. xiv.
  195. ^ Massie, Graeme (April 24, 2022). . The Independent. Archived from the original on December 21, 2022. Retrieved December 21, 2022.
  196. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 117.
  197. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 126.
  198. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 120–123.
  199. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 161.
  200. ^ Kengor 2004, p. 210.
  201. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 85–86.
  202. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 107.
  203. ^ a b Patterson 2005, p. 158.
  204. ^ Rossinow 2015, p. 86.
  205. ^ Rossinow 2015, p. 88.
  206. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 170.
  207. ^ Karaagac 2002, p. 113.
  208. ^ a b Li 2013, p. 221.
  209. ^ Gerstle 2022, p. 107.
  210. ^ Graetz 2012, p. 34.
  211. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 103.
  212. ^ Steuerle 1992, p. 42.
  213. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 145.
  214. ^ Bartlett 2012, p. 44.
  215. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 127.
  216. ^ Rossinow 2015, p. 62–63.
  217. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 96.
  218. ^ Woodard 2012, p. 119.
  219. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 222.
  220. ^ . Bloomberg Businessweek. June 21, 2004. Archived from the original on November 14, 2021. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  221. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 128.
  222. ^ Krugman, Paul (June 8, 2004). . The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 20, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2011.
  223. ^ Rossinow 2015, p. 90.
  224. ^ Brands 2015, p. 318.
  225. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 89–90.
  226. ^ Brands 2015, p. 451.
  227. ^ Sinai 1992, p. 1.
  228. ^ a b Brands 2015, p. 452.
  229. ^ Brands 2015, p. 668.
  230. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 669–671.
  231. ^ Li 2013, p. 219.
  232. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 206.
  233. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 166–167.
  234. ^ Rossinow 2015, pp. 144–145.
  235. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 207.
  236. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 300–303.
  237. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 163–164.
  238. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 208.
  239. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 102–103.
  240. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 157.
  241. ^ Bowman, Tom (June 8, 2004). . The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2023.
  242. ^ Shinal, John (July 1, 2017). . CNBC. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
  243. ^ Fialka 1999, p. 8.
  244. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 602–604.
  245. ^ a b Pemberton 1997, p. 130.
  246. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 175.
  247. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 605–606.
  248. ^ Patterson 2005, pp. 158–159.
  249. ^ Cannon 2001, p. 128.
  250. ^ Frankel, Jeffrey (December 11, 2018). . The Guardian. Archived from the original on December 31, 2022. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
  251. ^ Keyssar 2009, p. 213.
  252. ^ Glass, Andrew (November 2, 2017). . Politico. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  253. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 461.
  254. ^ Shull 1993, pp. 56–57.
  255. ^ Cannon 2000, pp. 462–463.
  256. ^ Eckman 1989, p. 1409.
  257. ^ Shull 1993, p. 14.
  258. ^ Shull 1993, pp. 114–116.
  259. ^ Amaker 1988, pp. 157–159.
  260. ^ Patterson 2005, p. 171.
  261. ^ Amaker 1988, pp. 92–95.
  262. ^ Shull 1993, p. 4.
  263. ^ Reimler 1999, p. 38.
  264. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 147–148.
  265. ^ Shull 1993, p. 44.
  266. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 148.
  267. ^ Mears, Bill (October 28, 2012). . CNN. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  268. ^ Alexander 2010, p. 5.
  269. ^ Alexander 2010, p. 49.
  270. ^ Alexander 2010, p. 52.
  271. ^ Alexander 2010, p. 53.
  272. ^ Sirin 2011, p. 94.
  273. ^ Woodard 2012, pp. 163–164.
  274. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 10.
  275. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott; Arkowitz, Hal (January 1, 2014). . Scientific American. Archived from the original on January 4, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  276. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 4.
  277. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 37.
  278. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 260.
  279. ^ Graebner, Burns & Siracusa 2008, pp. 29–31.
  280. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 131.
  281. ^ Brands 2015, p. 418.
  282. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 132.
  283. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 153.
  284. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 272.
  285. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 420–421.
  286. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 133.
  287. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 270.
  288. ^ Pach 2006, p. 80.
  289. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 158.
  290. ^ Pach 2006, p. 87.
  291. ^ Harnden, Toby (September 26, 2001). . The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 3, 2022. Retrieved September 17, 2010.
  292. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 320.
  293. ^ Pach 2006, p. 78.
  294. ^ Wawro 2010, p. 381.
  295. ^ Søndergaard 2020, p. 262.
  296. ^ Gunson, Phil (April 2, 2018). . The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 4, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  297. ^ Maclean, Ruth; Camara, Mady (August 24, 2021). . The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 4, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
  298. ^ Cannon 2001, pp. 187–188.
  299. ^ Brands 2015, p. 403.
  300. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 393.
  301. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 141.
  302. ^ Cannon 2001, pp. 188–191.
  303. ^ Cannon 2000, p. 452.
  304. ^ Brands 2015, p. 186.
  305. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 141–142.
  306. ^ Pemberton 1997, pp. 142–143.
  307. ^ Cannon 2001, p. 196.
  308. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 144.
  309. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, p. 624.
  310. ^ Gellin 1992, p. 24.
  311. ^ Kazanjian 2014, p. 353.
  312. ^ Cannon 2000, pp. 731–733.
  313. ^ Koop 1991, p. 224.
  314. ^ Shilts 2000, pp. 593, 596.
  315. ^ Lucas 2009, pp. 478–479.
  316. ^ Francis 2012, p. 290.
  317. ^ Kim & Shin 2017, pp. 518–519.
  318. ^ Shilts 2000, p. xxii.
  319. ^ Bronski, Michael (November 14, 2003). . The Forward. Archived from the original on January 16, 2023. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  320. ^ Brands 2015, pp. 654, 656.
  321. ^ Murdock, Deroy (June 8, 2004). . National Review. Archived from the original on January 16, 2023. Retrieved December 19, 2022.
  322. ^ a b Thomson, Alex (2008). U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Apartheid South Africa 1948–1994: Conflict of Interests. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 106–123. ISBN 978-1-4039-7227-9.
  323. ^ Counte, Cecelie (January 27, 2013). "Divestment Was Just One Weapon in Battle Against Apartheid". The New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  324. ^ Berger, Joseph (June 10, 1986). "Protestants Seek More Divestment". The New York Times. New York, New York. Retrieved August 13, 2019 – via The Times's print archive.
  325. ^ Skinner, Kiron K.; Anderson, Annelise; Anderson, Martin, eds. (2004). Reagan: A Life In Letters. New York, New York: Free Press. pp. 520–521. ISBN 978-0743219679.
  326. ^ a b Ungar, Sanford J.; Vale, Peter (Winter 1985–86). "South Africa: Why Constructive Engagement Failed". Foreign Affairs. 64 (2): 234–258. doi:10.2307/20042571. JSTOR 20042571.
  327. ^ Smith, William E. (September 16, 1985). "South Africa Reagan's Abrupt Reversal". Time. Vol. 126, no. 11. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  328. ^ Glass, Andrew (September 27, 2017). "House overrides Reagan apartheid veto, Sept. 29, 1986". Politico. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  329. ^ . Time. August 23, 1982. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
  330. ^ a b c "1986:US Launches air-strike on Libya". BBC News. April 15, 2008. Retrieved April 19, 2008.
  331. ^ Piszkiewicz, Dennis (2003), Terrorism's War with America: A History, Praeger Security International, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 66, ISBN 978-0-275-97952-2
  332. ^ "A/RES/41/38 November 20, 1986". United Nations. Retrieved April 14, 2014.
  333. ^ Weisberg, pp. 128–129
  334. ^ Patterson, pp. 208–209
  335. ^ Brands, pp. 488–491
  336. ^ a b Weisberg, pp. 129–134
  337. ^ Patterson, pp. 210–211
  338. ^ Brands, pp. 646–649
  339. ^ Patterson, pp. 211–212
  340. ^ Rossinow, pp. 202–204
  341. ^ Brands, pp. 653, 674
  342. ^ Herring, p. 894
  343. ^ Lebow, Richard Ned & Stein, Janice Gross (February 1994). "Reagan and the Russians". The Atlantic. Retrieved May 28, 2010.
  344. ^ Gaidar, Yegor (2007). Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 190–205.
  345. ^ Miles, Simon (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), "Peace Through Strength and Quiet Diplomacy", Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, pp. 62–77, doi:10.1017/9781108910194.005, ISBN 978-1-108-90677-7, S2CID 244861159
  346. ^ a b c d Knopf, Jeffery W. (2004). "Did Reagan Win the Cold War?". Strategic Insights. III (8). Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  347. ^ Lawrence, Mark Atwood (2008). "The Era of Epic Summitry". Reviews in American History. 36 (4): 616–623. doi:10.1353/rah.0.0047. ISSN 1080-6628. S2CID 144382902.
  348. ^ "Modern History Sourcebook: Ronald Reagan: Evil Empire Speech, June 8, 1982". Fordham University. May 1998. Retrieved November 15, 2007.
  349. ^ John Lewis Gaddis (2006). The Cold War: A New History. p. 31. ISBN 9781440684500.
  350. ^ Fisher, Marc (June 2017). "'Tear down this wall': How Reagan's forgotten line became a defining moment". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 7, 2022.
  351. ^ Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin (2008), pp. 207‒13.
  352. ^ "Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall". Chicago Tribune. October 31, 2014. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
  353. ^ Rossinow, pp. 234–235
  354. ^ Patterson, p. 215
  355. ^ Rossinow, p. 236
  356. ^ Patterson, p. 216
  357. ^ Herring, pp. 897–898
  358. ^ Ritter, Dan (August 31, 2013). . USA Today. Archived from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
  359. ^ Smith (2006), p. 332
  360. ^ Netburn, Deborah (December 24, 2006). "Agenting for God". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  361. ^ Reinhold, Robert (November 5, 1991). "Four Presidents Join Reagan in Dedicating His Library". The New York Times.
  362. ^ Tolchin, Martin (April 16, 1992). "Protester at Reagan Speech Had Press Credentials". The New York Times. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
  363. ^ "Man Who Disrupted Reagan Speech Flees 4-Month Jail Term". Los Angeles Times. July 16, 1993. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
  364. ^ . The Heritage Foundation. August 17, 1992. Archived from the original on March 11, 2007. Retrieved March 29, 2007.
  365. ^ Reagan, Ronald (March 29, 1991). "Why I'm for the Brady Bill". The New York Times. Retrieved June 22, 2010.
  366. ^ Reagan (1990), p. 726.
  367. ^ Clift, Eleanor; Thomas, Evan (March 7, 2016). "How Nancy Reagan coped with Ronald Reagan's Alzheimer's Disease". Newsweek. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  368. ^ Glass, Andrew (April 22, 2019). . Politico. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  369. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (November 6, 1994). "In Poignant Public Letter, Reagan Reveals That He Has Alzheimer's". The New York Times. Retrieved December 30, 2007.
  370. ^ "President Ronald Reagan's Alzheimer's Disease". Radio National. June 7, 2004. Retrieved January 7, 2008.
  371. ^ "Reagan's doctors deny covering up Alzheimer's His mental status in office never in doubt, they say". The New York Times. October 5, 1997. Retrieved April 20, 2021 – via The Baltimore Sun.
  372. ^ Altman, Lawrence K. (February 21, 2011). "When Alzheimer's Waited Outside the Oval Office". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved May 1, 2021.
  373. ^ a b c Altman, Lawrence K (October 5, 1997). "Reagan's Twilight – A special report; A President Fades Into a World Apart". The New York Times. from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved May 1, 2021.
  374. ^ Altman, Lawrence K. (June 15, 2004). "The Doctors World; A Recollection of Early Questions About Reagan's Health". The New York Times. from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved May 1, 2021.
  375. ^ . CNN. March 4, 2001. Archived from the original on October 23, 2012. Retrieved April 6, 2007.
  376. ^ "Nancy Reagan plea on stem cells". BBC News. May 10, 2004. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
  377. ^ Neuman, Johanna (June 6, 2004). "Former President Reagan Dies at 93". Los Angeles Times. from the original on October 27, 2013. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
  378. ^ Von Drehle, David (June 6, 2004). "Ronald Reagan Dies: 40th President Reshaped American Politics". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  379. ^ Neuman, Johanna (June 5, 2004). . Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  380. ^ "100,000 file past Reagan's casket". CNN. June 9, 2004. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  381. ^ "Lying in State or in Honor". US Architect of the Capitol (AOC). Retrieved September 1, 2018.
  382. ^ "Announcing the Death of Ronald Reagan" (Press release). The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. June 6, 2004. Retrieved January 23, 2008.
  383. ^ "Thatcher's eulogy can be viewed online". Margaretthatcher.org. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
  384. ^ "BBC NEWS – Americas – Reagan funeral guest list". BBC.
  385. ^ Bowden, John (November 25, 2017). . The Hill. Archived from the original on December 17, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
  386. ^ Leubsdorf, Carl (June 6, 2004). . Cape Cod Times. Archived from the original on December 17, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
  387. ^ "A Nation Bids Reagan Farewell: Prayer And Recollections At National Funeral For 40th President". CBS. Associated Press. June 11, 2004. Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  388. ^ Andrew L. Johns, ed., A Companion to Ronald Reagan (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015).
  389. ^ Hayward, pp. 635–638
  390. ^ Cannon (1991, 2000), p. 746.
  391. ^ "Ronald Reagan restored faith in America". Retrieved October 7, 2014.
  392. ^ Lipset, Seymour Martin; Schneider, William. (PDF). Political Science Quarterly. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 22, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
  393. ^ Beschloss, p. 324.
  394. ^ Meacham, John; Murr, Andrew; Clift, Eleanor; Lipper, Tamara; Breslau, Karen; Ordonez, Jennifer (June 14, 2004). "American Dreamer". Newsweek. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  395. ^ a b Heintz, Jim (June 7, 2004). . The Standard-Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  396. ^ Kaiser, Robert G (June 11, 2004). "Gorbachev: 'We All Lost Cold War'". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
  397. ^ "Full Text: Thatcher Eulogy to Reagan". BBC News. June 11, 2004. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
  398. ^ "Reagan and Thatcher; political soul mates". NBC News. June 5, 2004. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
  399. ^ Clayton, Ian (June 5, 2004). . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
  400. ^ "Ronald Reagan: Tributes". BBC News. June 6, 2004. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
  401. ^ Cannon & Beschloss (2001), p. 128.
  402. ^ Peter B. Levy (1996). Encyclopedia of the Reagan-Bush Years. ABC-CLIO. pp. 305–306. ISBN 9780313290183.
  403. ^ Dreier, Peter (April 3, 2011). "Don't add Reagan's Face to Mount Rushmore". The Nation.
  404. ^ Gilman, Larry. "Iran-Contra Affair". Advameg. Retrieved August 23, 2007.
  405. ^ Chapman, Roger (June 14, 2004). "Reagan's Role in Ending the Cold War Is Being Exaggerated". George Mason University. Retrieved January 6, 2008.
  406. ^ Kurtz, Howard (June 7, 2004). "Reagan: The Retake". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 25, 2005.
  407. ^ . Archived from the original on October 11, 2014. Retrieved October 7, 2014.
  408. ^ Henry, David (December 2009). "Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, Legacies. Ed. by Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. xiv, 268 pp. $84.95, ISBN 978-0-230-60302-8.)". The Journal of American History. 96 (3): 933–934. doi:10.1093/jahist/96.3.933. JSTOR 25622627.
  409. ^ Heale, M. J., in Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies, eds. Ronald Reagan and the 1980s: Perceptions, Policies, Legacies (2008) Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 0-230-60302-5 p. 250.
  410. ^ a b Loughlin, Sean (July 6, 2004). "Reagan cast a wide shadow in politics". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2008.
  411. ^ Smith, Robert C. (March 1, 2021). "Ronald Reagan, Donald Trump, and the Future of the Republican Party and Conservatism in America". American Political Thought. 10 (2): 283–289. doi:10.1086/713662. ISSN 2161-1580. S2CID 233401184.
  412. ^ Hendrix, Anastasia (June 6, 2004). "Trouble at home for family values advocate". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
  413. ^ Dionne, E.J. (October 31, 1988). "Political Memo; G.O.P. Makes Reagan Lure Of Young a Long-Term Asset". The New York Times. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
  414. ^ . The Michigan Daily. August 6, 1980. Archived from the original on August 6, 1980. Retrieved May 25, 2021.
  415. ^ Shull 1993, p. 40.
  416. ^ Cannon, Lou (June 6, 2004). "Actor, Governor, President, Icon". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
  417. ^ Broder, John M. (January 20, 2008). "The Gipper Gap: In Search of Reagan". The New York Times. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
  418. ^ Issenberg, Sasha (February 8, 2008). "McCain touts conservative record". The Boston Globe. Retrieved June 19, 2008.
  419. ^ "I just binge-read eight books by Donald Trump. Here's what I learned". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  420. ^ Jack Godwin, Clintonomics: How Bill Clinton Reengineered the Reagan Revolution (2009).
  421. ^ "Eric Foner: Obama the Professional | History News Network". hnn.us. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  422. ^ Pemberton 1997, p. 198.
  423. ^ Hudson, John (December 6, 2010). . The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 18, 2022.
  424. ^ Salvanto, Anthony; De Pinto, Jennifer (December 3, 2018). . CBS News. Archived from the original on December 16, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
  425. ^ Standora, Leo (February 22, 2011). . New York Daily News. Archived from the original on December 18, 2022. Retrieved December 18, 2022.
  426. ^ Johns 2015, pp. 1–2.
  427. ^ Carpenter, Tim (July 6, 2021). . Missouri Independent. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  428. ^ Updegrove, Mark (July 1, 2021). . The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 18, 2022. Retrieved December 18, 2022.
  429. ^ "'The Great Communicator' strikes chord with public". CNN. 2001. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
  430. ^ Cann0n, Lou (June 6, 2004). "Why Reagan was the 'great communicator'". USA Today. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  431. ^ "Ronald Reagan: The 'Great Communicator'". CNN. June 8, 2004. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  432. ^ "Reagan: The great communicator". BBC News. June 5, 2004. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
  433. ^ Kurtz, Howard (June 7, 2004). "15 Years Later, the Remaking of a President". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
  434. ^ . Fox News. June 5, 2004. Archived from the original on June 4, 2010. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
  435. ^ "The Reagan Diaries". The High Hat. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
  436. ^ . theseminal. Archived from the original on February 12, 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2009.
  437. ^ "Ronald Reagan, Master Storyteller". CBS. June 6, 2004. Retrieved March 4, 2008.
  438. ^ Marinucci, Carla & Carolyn Lochhead (June 12, 2004). "Last Goodbye: Ex-president eulogized in D.C. before final ride into California sunset; Laid to Rest: Ceremony ends weeklong outpouring of grief". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 15, 2009.
  439. ^ McCuddy, Bill (June 6, 2004). . Fox News. Archived from the original on April 14, 2008. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
  440. ^ "Remembering President Reagan For His Humor-A Classic Radio Gaffe". About. Retrieved January 22, 2007.
  441. ^ "Reagan to popped balloon: 'Missed me'". United Press International. June 12, 1987. Retrieved August 20, 2020.
  442. ^ Loughlin, Sean (February 6, 2003). "A presidential role: Comforting a nation". -CNN. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  443. ^ Troy, Gil (2005). Morning in America: how Ronald . Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09645-2. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
  444. ^ . The Official website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on April 26, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
  445. ^ Weisman, Steven R (October 24, 1989). "Reagan Given Top Award by Japanese". The New York Times. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
  446. ^ . The White House: Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents. January 18, 1993. Archived from the original on July 1, 2015. Retrieved June 29, 2015.
  447. ^ "Public Law No. 105-154, "To rename the Washington National Airport located in the District of Columbia and Virginia as the 'Ronald Reagan National Airport'"". January 27, 1998. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012.
  448. ^ "It's Reagan Airport now". McCook Daily Gazette. Associated Press. February 7, 1998. from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved November 26, 2015.
  449. ^ . CNN. July 12, 2003. Archived from the original on October 25, 2008. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
  450. ^ "Public Law 107-137" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. February 6, 2002. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
  451. ^ "Reagan statue unveiled in Capitol Rotunda". NBC News. Associated Press. June 3, 2009. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
  452. ^ a b Shanahan, Mark (April 27, 2016). . The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on April 30, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  453. ^ Hipes, Patrick (August 2, 2016). . Deadline. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  454. ^ Bond, Paul (November 5, 2018). "'Reagan' Movie Starring Dennis Quaid Finds Major Funding". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
  455. ^ Johnson, Ted (December 9, 2022). "Dan Lauria To Play Tip O'Neill In Ronald Reagan Biopic". Deadline. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  456. ^ Schorr, Isaac (August 28, 2020). . National Review. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  457. ^ Segal, David (June 13, 2004). . The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 14, 2022. Retrieved December 14, 2022.

Bibliography

Further information: Bibliography of Ronald Reagan

Books

Journal articles

  • Clabaugh, Gary (2004). "The Educational Legacy of Ronald Reagan". Educational Horizons. 82 (4): 256–259. JSTOR 42926508.
  • Eckman, Richard (1989). "Recent Developments in Credit Discrimination". The Business Lawyer. 44 (4): 1409–1418. JSTOR 40687524.
  • Foster, Carly (2008). "The Welfare Queen: Race, Gender, Class, and Public Opinion". Race, Gender & Class. 15 (3/4): 162–179. JSTOR 41674659.
  • Francis, Donald (2012). "Commentary: Deadly AIDS policy failure by the highest levels of the US government: A personal look back 30 years later for lessons to respond better to future epidemics". Journal of Public Health Policy. 33 (3): 290–300. doi:10.1057/jphp.2012.14. ISSN 1745-655X. JSTOR 23253449. PMID 22895498. S2CID 205127920.
  • Garrow, David (2007). "Review: Picking up the Books: The New Historiography of the Black Panther Party". Reviews in American History. 35 (4): 650–670. doi:10.1353/rah.2007.0068. JSTOR 30031608. S2CID 145069539.
  • Gellin, Bruce (1992). "The Stalled Response to AIDS". Issues in Science and Technology. 9 (1): 24–28. JSTOR 43311244.
  • Graetz, Michael (2012). "Energy Policy: Past or Prologue?". Daedalus. 141 (2): 31–44. JSTOR 23240277.
  • Hayes, Matthew; Fortunato, David; Hibbing, Matthew (2020). "Race–gender bias in white Americans' preferences for gun availability". Journal of Public Policy. 41 (4): 818–834. doi:10.1017/S0143814X20000288. S2CID 234615039.
  • Kazanjian, Powel (2014). "The AIDS Pandemic in Historic Perspective". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 69 (3): 351–382. JSTOR 24631705.
  • Kim, Young Soo; Shin, Joongbum (2017). "Variance in Global Response to HIV/AIDS between the United States and Japan: Perception, Media, and Civil Society". Japanese Journal of Political Science. 18 (4): 514–535. doi:10.1017/S1468109917000159.
  • Li, Jinhua (2013). "Analysis of the High Unemployment Rate in the USA". World Review of Political Economy. 4 (2): 218–229. doi:10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218. JSTOR 10.13169/worlrevipoliecon.4.2.0218.
  • Lucas, Richert (2009). "Reagan, Regulation, and the FDA: The US Food and Drug Administration's Response to HIV/AIDS, 1980-90". Canadian Journal of History. 44 (3): 467–487.
  • Onge, Jeffrey (2017). "Operation Coffeecup: Ronald Reagan, Rugged Individualism, and the Debate over "Socialized Medicine"". Rhetoric and Public Affairs. 20 (2): 223–252. doi:10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223. JSTOR 10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.2.0223. S2CID 149379808.
  • Pach, Chester (2006). "The Reagan Doctrine: Principle, Pragmatism, and Policy". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 75–88. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00288.x. JSTOR 27552748.
  • Putnam, Jackson (2006). "Governor Reagan: A Reappraisal". California History. 83 (4): 24–45. doi:10.2307/25161839. JSTOR 25161839.
  • Reimler, John (1999). "The Rebirth of Racism in Education: The Real Legacy of the Reagan Revolution". Journal of Thought. 34 (2): 31–40. JSTOR 42589574.
  • Sieg, Kent (1996). "The 1968 Presidential Election and Peace in Vietnam". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 26 (4): 1062–1080. JSTOR 27551671.
  • Sinai, Allen (1992). "Financial and Real Business Cycles". Eastern Economic Journal. 18 (1): 1–54. JSTOR 40325363.
  • Sirin, Cigdem (2011). "From Nixon's War on Drugs to Obama's Drug Policies Today: Presidential Progress in Addressing Racial Injustices and Disparities". Race, Gender & Class. 18 (3/4): 82–99. JSTOR 43496834.
  • Vaughn, Stephen (1995). "The Moral Inheritance of a President: Reagan and the Dixon Disciples of Christ". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 25 (1): 109–127. JSTOR 27551378.

External links

Official sites

  • Ronald Reagan Foundation and Presidential Library
  • Ronald Reagan on whitehouse.gov
  • The Ronald W. Reagan Society of Eureka College

Media

News coverage

Other

  • Ronald Reagan at IMDb 
January 18, 2023
ronald, reagan, reagan, redirects, here, other, uses, reagan, disambiguation, disambiguation, neutrality, this, article, disputed, relevant, discussion, found, talk, page, please, remove, this, message, until, conditions, january, 2023, learn, when, remove, th. Reagan redirects here For other uses see Reagan disambiguation and Ronald Reagan disambiguation The neutrality of this article is disputed Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met January 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Ronald Wilson Reagan ˈ r eɪ ɡ en RAY gen February 6 1911 June 5 2004 was an American politician union leader and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989 Before ascending to the presidency he previously served as the 33rd governor of California from 1967 to 1975 and was the president of the Screen Actors Guild from 1947 to 1952 and 1959 to 1960 Ronald ReaganOfficial portrait 198140th President of the United StatesIn office January 20 1981 January 20 1989Vice PresidentGeorge H W BushPreceded byJimmy CarterSucceeded byGeorge H W Bush33rd Governor of CaliforniaIn office January 2 1967 January 6 1975 1 LieutenantRobert Finch 1967 1969 2 Edwin Reinecke 1969 1974 3 John L Harmer 1974 1975 4 Preceded byPat BrownSucceeded byJerry Brown9th and 13th President of theScreen Actors GuildIn office November 16 1959 5 June 12 1960 6 Preceded byHoward KeelSucceeded byGeorge ChandlerIn office March 10 1947 November 10 1952Preceded byRobert MontgomerySucceeded byWalter PidgeonPersonal detailsBornRonald Wilson Reagan 1911 02 06 February 6 1911Tampico Illinois U S DiedJune 5 2004 2004 06 05 aged 93 Los Angeles California U S Resting placeRonald Reagan Presidential Library and MuseumPolitical partyRepublican from 1962 Other politicalaffiliationsDemocratic until 1962 SpousesJane Wyman m 1940 div 1949 wbr Nancy Davis m 1952 wbr ChildrenMaureen Christine Michael Patti RonParentsJack Reagan Nelle WilsonRelativesNeil Reagan brother Alma materEureka College BA OccupationPoliticianunion leaderactorsports announcerAwardsList of awards and honorsSignatureMilitary serviceServiceUnited States Army Reserve United States Air ForcesYears of service1937 1942 reserve 1942 1945 regular RankCaptainUnit322nd Cavalry Regiment 323rd Cavalry Regiment 18th AAF Base UnitWarsWorld War II American TheaterOther offices 1968 1969 Chair of the Republican Governors AssociationReagan was born in Tampico Illinois He graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and began to work as a sports announcer in Iowa In 1937 Reagan moved to California where he found work as a film actor From 1947 to 1952 Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild In the 1950s he worked in television and became a spokesman for General Electric From 1959 to 1960 he again served as the Screen Actors Guild s president In 1964 Reagan s speech A Time for Choosing earned him attention as a new conservative figure He was elected governor of California in 1966 During his governorship he raised taxes turned the state budget deficit into a surplus and cracked down on student protests at the University of California campuses in Berkeley and in Santa Barbara After challenging and nearly defeating sitting president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries Reagan won the Republican nomination in the 1980 presidential election and went on to defeat incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter Early in his presidency Reagan implemented Reaganomics which promoted economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation He escalated an arms race with the Soviet Union and transitioned Cold War policy from detente to rollback He also survived an assassination attempt fought public sector labor unions spurred the war on drugs and ordered an invasion of Grenada In the 1984 presidential election Reagan defeated former vice president Walter Mondale in a landslide victory Foreign affairs dominated Reagan s second term including the bombing of Libya the Iran Iraq War the Iran Contra affair and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev The talks culminated in the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Throughout Reagan s presidency the American economy saw a significant reduction of inflation the unemployment rate fell and the United States entered its then longest peacetime expansion After leaving the presidency in 1989 Alzheimer s disease hindered Reagan s physical and mental capacities He died at his home in Los Angeles in 2004 His tenure constituted the Reagan era and he is often considered a prominent conservative figure in the United States Evaluations of his presidency among historians and the general public place him among the upper tier of American presidents Contents 1 Early life 2 Entertainment career 2 1 Radio and film 2 2 Military service 2 3 Screen Actors Guild presidency 2 4 Marriages and children 2 5 Television 3 Early political activities 3 1 1966 California gubernatorial election 4 California governorship 1967 1975 5 Seeking the presidency 1975 1981 5 1 1976 Republican primaries 5 2 1980 election 6 Presidency 1981 1989 6 1 First inauguration 6 2 Assassination attempt 6 3 Public sector labor union fights 6 4 Reaganomics and the economy 6 4 1 Taxation 6 4 2 Inflation and unemployment 6 4 3 Government spending 6 4 4 Deregulation 6 4 5 Deficits 6 5 Civil rights 6 6 Supreme Court appointments 6 7 War on drugs 6 8 Escalation of the Cold War 6 9 Invasion of Grenada 6 10 1984 election 6 11 Response to the AIDS epidemic 6 12 Addressing apartheid 6 13 Libya bombing 6 14 Iran Contra affair 6 15 Soviet decline and thaw in relations 7 Post presidency 1989 2004 8 Legacy 8 1 Political influence 8 2 Public image 8 3 Recognition 8 4 Depictions 9 References 10 Bibliography 10 1 Books 10 2 Journal articles 11 External links 11 1 Official sites 11 2 Media 11 3 News coverage 11 4 OtherEarly lifeRonald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6 1911 in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico Illinois as the younger son of Nelle Clyde Wilson and Jack Reagan 7 Nelle was committed to the Disciples of Christ 8 leading prayer meetings running mid week prayers at her church when the pastor was out of town 8 and supporting the Social Gospel 9 Reagan credited her spiritual influence 10 and he became a Christian 11 According to Stephen Vaughn Reagan s values came from his pastor and the First Christian Church s religious economic and social positions coincided with the words if not the beliefs of the latter day Reagan 12 Jack was focused on making money so that he could take care of the family 13 Neil was Reagan s older brother 14 Jack s alcoholism complicated his ability to make money 15 The family briefly lived in Chicago Galesburg and Monmouth before returning to Tampico In 1920 Reagan and his family settled in the city of Dixon which he called his hometown 16 They lived in a house near the H C Pitney Variety Store Building 17 In Dixon Reagan attended Dixon High School where he developed interests in drama and football 18 His first job involved working as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park 19 In 1928 Reagan attended Eureka College 20 with Nelle s approval on religious grounds 21 He was as an indifferent student who studied economics and maintained a C average grade 22 He was involved in sports drama and campus politics 20 He was also elected student body president and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president s resignation 23 Reagan s parents stance on racial questions were seemingly unusual 24 when racial segregation was common in many Midwestern communities 25 His father strongly opposed the Ku Klux Klan and their anti black racism 9 When his college football team was staying at a hotel that would not allow two black teammates to stay there he invited them to his parents home nearby in Dixon 24 and his parents welcomed them 26 Reagan would later express his opposition to racism as a sports announcer 25 and in Hollywood 27 Entertainment careerFurther information Ronald Reagan filmography Radio and film Dark Victory 1939 The Bad Man 1941 28 After obtaining a bachelor of arts degree from Eureka in 1932 29 Reagan took a job in Davenport Iowa as a sports announcer for four football games in the Big Ten Conference 30 He then worked for WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball His specialty was creating play by play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress 31 In 1936 while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven year contract with the Warner Bros studio 32 Reagan arrived at Hollywood in 1937 and debuted in the B film Love Is on the Air 1937 33 After that film he made numerous films before serving in the military in April 1942 34 such as Dark Victory 1939 with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart 35 Santa Fe Trail 1940 Knute Rockne All American 1940 28 and Desperate Journey 1942 with co star Errol Flynn 36 In Kings Row 1942 Reagan s character gets his legs amputated and asks Where s the rest of me which became the title of his 1965 autobiography 37 His performance was considered his best by many critics 28 although the film was condemned by Bosley Crowther 38 Reagan became a star and the studio tripled his weekly pay 39 as he kept a warm relationship with Jack L Warner From 1941 to 1942 Gallup polls placed Reagan in the top 100 stars 40 World War II interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again 39 Warner Bros became uncertain about Reagan s ability to generate ticket sales though he was dissatisfied with the roles he received As a result Lew Wasserman renegotiated his contract with his studio allowing him to also make films with Universal Pictures and Paramount Pictures as a freelancer With this Reagan appeared in Louisa 1950 and Bedtime for Bonzo 1951 41 He also appeared in multiple western films including Cattle Queen of Montana 1954 42 He ended his relationship with Warner Bros in 1952 43 but would appear in a total of 53 films 34 Reagan s last appearance was in The Killers 1964 44 Military service Reagan at Fort Roach between 1943 and 1944 When Reagan was working in Iowa a United States Army Reserve member pitched him to join a local cavalry regiment that still used horses during the branch s decline Reagan was interested in riding a horse at a young age and without a burning desire to be an army officer he enlisted 45 in April 1937 He was assigned as a private in Des Moines 322nd Cavalry Regiment and reassigned to second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps 46 He later became a part of the 323rd Cavalry Regiment in California 47 As relations between the United States and Japan worsened Reagan was ordered for active duty while he was filming Kings Row Reagan s agent Wasserman 48 and Warner Bros lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941 However to avoid accusations of Reagan being a draft dodger the studio let him go in April 1942 49 As Reagan reported for duty the army was using machines as opposed to horses 48 and he had severe near sightedness His first assignment was at Fort Mason as a liaison officer a role that allowed him to transfer to the United States Army Air Forces AAF He became an AAF public relations officer and was subsequently assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit in Culver City 50 where he felt that it was impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker J David Woodard suggests that the incompetence the delays and inefficiencies annoyed Reagan 51 Despite this Reagan participated Provisional Task Force Show Unit in Burbank 52 and continued to make films such as This Is the Army 1943 53 He was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the sixth War Loan Drive before being reassigned to Fort MacArthur until his discharge on December 9 1945 as a captain Throughout his military service Reagan produced over 400 training films 52 Screen Actors Guild presidency When Robert Montgomery resigned as SAG president on March 10 1947 Reagan was elected to that position in a special election 54 Reagan s first tenure saw various labor management disputes 55 the Hollywood blacklist 56 and the Taft Hartley Act s implementation 57 On April 10 the Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers 58 During a House Un American Activities Committee hearing Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with the Communist Party 59 and that he was well informed on a jurisdictional strike 60 When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the Screen Writers Guild he called the efforts hearsay 61 Reagan would remain SAG president until he resigned on November 10 1952 62 Walter Pidgeon succeeded him but Reagan stayed on the board 63 In 1958 MCA Inc purchased the rights to air certain Paramount produced films on television resulting in significant profits that actors were not entitled to receive 64 The SAG would fight with film producers over residual payments and in November 1959 65 the board and Wasserman convinced Reagan to replace the resigning Howard Keel as SAG president In his second stint Reagan managed to secure the payments for actors whose theatrical films were released from 1948 to 1959 were televised The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees but they ultimately settled for pensions instead However they were still required to pay residuals for films after 1959 Reagan resigned from the presidency on June 7 1960 66 and George Chandler succeeded him 67 Reagan also left the board 68 Marriages and children Reagan and Jane Wyman 1942 Ronald and Nancy Reagan 1952 Reagan married Brother Rat 1938 co star Jane Wyman 69 on January 26 1940 70 Together they had two biological daughters Maureen in 1941 71 and Christine 72 born prematurely and dead the next day in 1947 73 They adopted one son Michael in 1945 51 In 1948 Wyman filed to divorce Reagan citing mental cruelty 70 Wyman was uninterested in politics and she would occasionally separate and reconcile with Reagan Although Reagan was unprepared 73 they split amicably 70 and the divorce was finalized in July 1949 Reagan would also remain close to his children 74 Later that year Reagan met Nancy Davis after she contacted him in his capacity as the guild s president about her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis 75 They married on March 4 1952 76 and had two children Patti in 1952 and Ron in 1958 77 Television Reagan initially refused to work in television and on Broadway theatre but after receiving offers to work in nightclubs in 1954 78 he became the host of MCA television production General Electric Theater 43 at his agent s recommendation It featured multiple guest stars 79 and Ronald and Nancy Reagan continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis acted together in three episodes 80 Television was a new medium and when asked how Reagan was able to recruit the stars to appear on the show he said Good stories top direction production quality 81 However the viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962 82 In 1965 Reagan became the host 83 of another MCA production Death Valley Days 84 Early political activities Reagan campaigning with Barry Goldwater 1964 Ronald and Nancy Reagan celebrating his gubernatorial election victory 1966 Reagan began as a Democrat viewing Franklin D Roosevelt as a true hero 85 He joined the American Veterans Committee and Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts Sciences and Professions HICCASP and worked with the AFL CIO to fight right to work laws 86 In 1945 Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti nuclear rally but Warner Bros prevented him from going 87 Regardless he continued his support for the abolition of nuclear weapons 88 when he was the president of the United States 89 Reagan also supported Harry S Truman in the 1948 presidential election 90 and Helen Gahagan Douglas for the United States Senate in 1950 It was Reagan s belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them 86 Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of Dwight D Eisenhower in 1952 and Richard Nixon in 1960 91 When Reagan was contracted by General Electric GE he began giving speeches to their employees 92 His speeches had a positive take on businesses but a negative take on government 93 Under anti communist 94 Lemuel Boulware the employees were encouraged to vote for business friendly officials 95 In 1961 Reagan adapted his speeches into another speech to criticize Medicare 96 In his view its legislation would have meant the end of individual freedom in the United States 97 In 1962 Reagan was dropped by GE 68 and he formally registered as a Republican 91 He said I didn t leave the Democratic Party The party left me 93 In 1964 Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender Barry Goldwater 98 that was eventually referred to as A Time for Choosing 99 Reagan argued that the Founding Fathers knew that governments don t control things And they knew when a government sets out to do that it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose 100 and that We ve been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right 101 Even though the speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign it increased Reagan s profile among conservatives David S Broder and Stephen H Hess called it the most successful national political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his famous Cross of Gold address 98 1966 California gubernatorial election Further information 1966 California gubernatorial election Pat Brown s reelection over Nixon in 1962 and Goldwater s loss in 1964 left the Republicans without a clear pathway to victory 102 In January 1966 Reagan announced his candidacy 103 repeating his stances on individual freedom and big government 104 In a March meeting with black Republicans 105 he was accused of appealing to white racial resentment and backlash against the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Certain in his own lack of prejudice Reagan responded resentfully that bigotry was not in his nature before walking out 106 He returned to the meeting and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed on a citizens right to private property 107 After the Supreme Court of California struck down the Rumford Act in May he voiced his support for the act s repeal 108 but later preferred amending it 109 In the primary Reagan defeated George Christopher 110 a moderate 111 who William F Buckley Jr thought had framed Reagan as extreme 110 Christopher promised to help Reagan unseat Brown 112 who attacked Reagan for being extreme while touting his own accomplishments 113 Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider 114 and charged Brown as responsible for the Watts riots and lenient on crime 113 Cannon notes that the Free Speech Movement high taxes unrestrained spending and lack of accountability were often considered issues in Reagan s campaign speeches 115 He also notes that Reagan benefited on television in comparison to the seemingly unpleasant governor 116 Meanwhile the press continued to perceive Reagan as monumentally ignorant of state issues 117 Ultimately Reagan won the general election in a landslide 118 California governorship 1967 1975 Main article Governorship of Ronald Reagan The Reagans in 1972 Brown spent much of California s funds on new projects prompting them to use accrual accounting to avoid raising taxes Consequently it generated a larger deficit 119 and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes to balance the budget 120 He left his fiscal responsibility principles behind 121 to work with Jesse M Unruh 122 on securing tax increases and property tax cuts As a result taxes on sales banks corporate profits inheritances liquor and cigarettes jumped Kevin Starr states Reagan gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history and got away with it 123 In the 1970 gubernatorial election Unruh used the property tax cuts and Reagan s tax relief requests against him for benefiting the wealthy The strategy worked as Reagan would raise taxes once more 124 By 1973 the budget had a surplus which Reagan preferred using to give back to the people 125 Reagan reacted to the Black Panther Party s strategy of copwatching by signing the Mulford Act in 1967 126 The act prohibited the public carrying of loaded firearms On May 2 before the act was passed 26 Panthers were arrested after interrupting a debate on the bill in the California State Capitol The act was California s most aggressive piece of gun control legislation with critics saying that it was overreaching the political activism of organizations Hopeful that future handgun buyers would reconsider their own actions in the wake of the protest Reagan approved additional legislation to establish a waiting period of fifteen days 127 Although the Panthers gained national attention their membership barely grew 128 The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and public attitude studies on gun control 126 After Reagan won the 1966 election he and his advisors planned a run in the 1968 Republican presidential primaries 129 The continuing Vietnam War was a campaign issue and the candidates views on the war contrasted from each other 130 Reagan presented himself as a war hawk in an attempt to slow down communism s spread 131 He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon s southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a brokered convention He won California s delegates 132 but Nixon secured enough delegates for the nomination 133 Reagan then campaigned for Nixon in the general election 91 and supported Nixon s withdrawal of troops from Vietnam in Nixon s presidency 134 In December 1968 Reagan was elected chair of the Republican Governors Association succeeding John Chafee 135 He remained in the role until he was succeeded by Raymond P Shafer in December 1969 136 Reagan was critical of administrators tolerating student demonstrations at the University of California Berkeley 116 In May 1969 he sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the People s Park protests 137 This led to one student being shot and killed and the injuries of numerous police officers and two reporters in the conflict Reagan then commanded the state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters allowing other students to attend class safely 138 One year after the incident Reagan responded to questions about the protests saying If it takes a bloodbath let s get it over with No more appeasement 139 He regretted his statement the same year violent protests broke out at the University of California Santa Barbara where he once again commanded the National Guard When further violence erupted one student was inadvertently killed by a policeman leaving Reagan shaken 140 During his victorious reelection campaign Reagan remaining critical of government promised to prioritize welfare reform 141 He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972 142 At the same time the Federal Reserve increased interest rates to combat inflation putting the American economy in a mild recession Reagan worked with Bob Moretti to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon s Family Assistance Plan Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California s experiment 143 In 1975 the Employment Development Department released a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful 144 Reagan did not run for the governorship in 1974 and it was won by Pat Brown s son Jerry 145 Reagan s governorship as Gary K Clabaugh wrote saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding 146 As for higher education William Trombley believed that the budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley s student faculty ratio and research 147 Additionally Cannon writes that both the homicide and armed robbery rates increased after 1974 even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system 148 Reagan strongly supported capital punishment but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by People v Anderson in 1972 149 However according to his son Michael Reagan said that he regretted signing the Family Law Act that granted no fault divorces 150 Unaware of the mental health provision 151 Reagan expressed regret over signing the Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest 152 Seeking the presidency 1975 1981 1976 Republican primaries Main articles Ronald Reagan 1976 presidential campaign and 1976 Republican Party presidential primaries Reagan and Ford shaking hands on the podium after Reagan narrowly lost the nomination at the 1976 Republican National Convention As president Gerald Ford suffered from public criticism of his pardon of Nixon the high unemployment and the inability to pass energy legislation 153 Conservatives felt that the fall of Saigon had weakened the United States 154 and they were turned away by the Ford administration s bailout of the indebted New York City In 1975 Reagan called for a revitalization of the Republican Party 155 He repeated his anti government Time for Choosing speech around the country 156 and on November 20 he announced his presidential campaign 157 To the contrary Ford who spent over 25 years in the United States Congress 158 never expected him to run 159 In a phone call with Reagan Ford disagreed with Reagan s opinion that challenging him would not be divisive or hurt their party 160 Ford had never been elected president 157 and he ran to be elected in his own right 161 Reagan lost the first five primaries When he finally defeated Ford in North Carolina the party s delegates were convinced that Ford s nomination was no longer guaranteed 162 Reagan went on to win more primaries but by the end nobody had the necessary 1 130 delegates to secure the nomination 163 Throughout the primaries Reagan often gave an anecdote of a black woman named Linda Taylor living in Chicago saying that she used multiple names addresses and Social Security numbers and fraudulently collected veterans benefits In 1977 she was convicted of welfare fraud and perjury 164 Although he never mentioned her name or overtly mentioned her race the Chicago Tribune labeled her a welfare queen 165 a term critics deem derogatory towards welfare recipients and in specific cases racist 166 167 26 In Florida Reagan accused Ford for handing the Panama Canal to Panama s government while Ford implied that Reagan would end Social Security 168 Ahead of the convention in Kansas City Reagan chose liberal Richard Schweiker as his running mate to distract Ford Instead conservatives were left alienated 169 Ford would pick up the uncommitted delegates and prevail earning 1 187 to Reagan s 1 070 Before Ford gave his acceptance speech he invited Reagan to address the convention In his speech Reagan emphasized individual freedom 170 and the dangers of nuclear weapons Reagan later campaigned for Ford in twenty states against the Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter who would win the general election 171 However in Washington state a faithless elector gave Reagan one electoral vote instead of Ford 172 In 1977 Ford told Cannon that Reagan s primary challenge played a role in his own narrow loss to Carter 173 1980 election Main articles Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign and 1980 United States presidential election 1980 electoral vote results In 1978 the United States signed the Torrijos Carter Treaties and in the following year an oil crisis began Inflation interest rates and unemployment were soaring as well This set Carter up as a vulnerable candidate in the upcoming presidential election 174 On November 13 Reagan announced his candidacy 175 with an indictment of the federal government 176 He and many of his Republican primary opponents stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both a small government and strong national defense 177 Heading into 1980 Reagan s age became an issue among the press and the United States was in a severe recession 178 In the primaries Reagan lost Iowa to George H W Bush but rebounded in New Hampshire Soon thereafter Reagan s opponents began dropping out of the primaries including John B Anderson who left the party to become an independent candidate Reagan captured the presidential nomination with ease and chose Bush as his running mate at the convention in Detroit 179 The general election pitted Reagan against Carter and was conducted amid the multitude of domestic concerns as well as the ongoing Iran hostage crisis 180 Carter portrayed Reagan as an extremist 181 and Anderson had support from Rockefeller Republicans 182 During a debate on October 28 Reagan used the phrase There you go again after Carter said that Reagan s political career started with an attack on Medicare 183 He later asked the audience if they were better off than they were four years earlier 184 On November 4 Reagan won a decisive victory in the Electoral College over Carter carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter s 49 in six states and the District of Columbia He won the popular vote by a narrower margin receiving 51 percent to Carter s 41 percent and Anderson s 7 percent 185 Republicans also won a majority of seats in the Senate 186 Reagan s win was fueled by evangelical support including those who were disappointed with Carter s support for abortion 187 Woodard writes that the election of Reagan signaled a new political era as liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats changed their party affiliations 188 Reagan s campaign has also been used as an example of dog whistle politics In his speech at the Neshoba County Fair Reagan used the term states rights and referred to Cadillac driving welfare queens and strapping young bucks buying T bone steaks with food stamps 189 190 Some also saw these actions as an extension of the Southern strategy to garner white support for Republican candidates 191 According to Joseph Crespino Reagan s speech and visit to the fair was designed to reach out to the voters inclined toward segregationist George Wallace 192 Reagan s supporters have stated that this was his typical anti big government rhetoric without racial context or intent 193 Presidency 1981 1989 Main article Presidency of Ronald Reagan For a chronological guide see Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency Further information Domestic policy of the Ronald Reagan administration and Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration First inauguration Main article First inauguration of Ronald Reagan The Reagans at the 1981 inauguration parade The 40th president of the United States 194 Reagan was 69 years 349 days of age when he was sworn into office for his first term on January 20 1981 making him the oldest first term president a distinction he held until 2017 when Donald Trump was inaugurated at the age of 70 years 220 days 195 In his inaugural address he addressed the country s economic malaise arguing In this present crisis government is not the solution to our problem government is the problem 196 In a final insult to President Carter Iran waited until Reagan had been sworn in before sending the hostages home 197 Assassination attempt Main article Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan On March 30 1981 Reagan James Brady Thomas Delahanty and Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from John Hinckley Jr outside the Washington Hilton Although right on the margin of death upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly The attempt had a significant influence on Reagan s popularity as his approval rating reached 73 percent 198 Religiously Paul Kengor attributes the attempt to Reagan scaling down his church attendance 199 and Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to defeat communism in the Soviet bloc 200 Public sector labor union fights Early in August 1981 the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization PATCO went on strike violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking 201 On August 3 Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours according to him 38 percent did not return On August 13 Reagan fired roughly 12 000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order 202 He used military controllers 203 and supervisors to handle the nation s commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained 204 The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s 203 With the assent of Reagan s sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions especially in the manufacturing sector 205 During Reagan s presidency the share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one fourth of the total workforce to approximately one sixth of the total workforce 206 Reaganomics and the economy Main article Reaganomics The inflation rate compared to the federal funds rate The unemployment rate compared to the federal funds rate Annual percent change in real gross domestic product Taxation Reagan advocated a laissez faire philosophy 207 and promoted a set of neoliberal reforms dubbed Reaganomics which included monetarism and supply side economics 208 209 In 1981 he lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls 210 and signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 211 to dramatically lower federal income tax rates and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985 212 The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the number of tax brackets and increased personal exemptions 213 Conversely Reagan raised taxes eleven times 214 including the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 amid growing concerns about the mounting federal debt 215 The bill doubled the federal cigarette tax and rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill By 1983 the amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers but most strongly affected the wealthy 216 Reagan proposed that the tax cuts would not increase the deficit as long as there was enough to offset the increase in revenue as part of the Laffer curve 217 His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when the tax cuts spur investments which would result in more spending and consumption 218 Critics labeled this trickle down economics the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor 219 Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell argued that these policies invigorated America s economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s 220 As for the 1982 tax increase many of his supporters condemned the bill but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates 221 According to Paul Krugman Over all the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut as a share of GDP the increase was substantially larger than Mr Clinton s 1993 tax increase 222 Inflation and unemployment Reagan took office in the midst of stagflation 208 The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981 223 Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker fought inflation by pursuing a tight money policy of high interest rates 224 which restricted lending and investment raised unemployment and temporarily reduced economic growth 225 In December 1982 unemployment was nearly 11 percent 226 Around the same time economic activity began to rise until its end in 1990 setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion 227 In 1983 the recession ended 228 and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery 229 Reagan appointed Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker in 1987 Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation setting off the Black Monday although the markets eventually recovered 230 By 1989 the Bureau of Labor Statistics measured the unemployment rate at 5 3 percent 231 The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989 Likewise the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent 232 Yet not all shared equally in the economic recovery and both economic inequality 233 and the number of homeless individuals increased during the 1980s 234 Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage 235 Government spending In 1981 in a effort to keep it solvent Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash 236 He then created the Greenspan Commission to keep Social Security financially secure and in 1983 he signed amendments to raise both the program s payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits 237 In his diaries Reagan wrote his desire to reverse the effects of the Great Society and war on poverty 238 He had signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 to cut funding for federal assistance such as food stamps unemployment benefits subsidized housing and the Aid to Families with Dependent Children 239 and would discontinue the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act 240 On the other side defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985 241 To discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness the Reagan administration initiated Project Socrates According to program director Michael Sekora their findings helped the country outperform Soviet missile defense technology 242 However the incoming Bush administration strangled the program s philosophy 243 Deregulation Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda William Leuchtenburg writes that by 1986 the Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981 244 The 1982 Garn St Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate 245 After the bill s passage savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds The administration s inattentiveness toward the industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis and costly bailouts 246 Deficits The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession which cut into federal revenue 247 The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989 and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989 During his time in office Reagan never submitted a balanced budget The United States borrowed heavily in order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits 248 Reagan described the tripled debt the greatest disappointment of his presidency 249 Jeffrey Frankel opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan s successor Bush reneged on his campaign promise by raising taxes through the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 250 Civil rights Despite Reagan having opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 25 the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982 251 He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr Day 252 but signed a veto proof bill to create the holiday in 1983 and also alluded to claims that King was associated with communists during his career 253 In 1984 he signed legislation intended to impose fines for fair housing discrimination offenses 254 In March 1988 Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 but Congress overrode his veto He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government s power and undermined the rights of churches and business owners 255 Later in September legislation was passed 256 to correct loopholes in the Fair Housing Act of 1968 257 Early in his presidency Reagan appointed Clarence M Pendleton Jr as chair of the United States Commission on Civil Rights to criticism for politicizing the agency Pendleton and Reagan s subsequent appointees steered the commission in line with Reagan s views on civil rights arousing the ire of civil rights advocates 258 In 1987 Reagan unsuccessfully nominated Robert Bork to the Supreme Court of the United States as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency his administration had opposed affirmative action particularly in education federal assistance programs housing and employment 259 but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies 260 In housing Reagan s administration saw a considerably fewer amount of fair housing cases filed than the three previous administrations 261 Reagan s recasting of civil rights has been regarded as the largest since Lyndon B Johnson s presidency 262 263 Supreme Court appointments Main article Ronald Reagan Supreme Court candidates Reagan appointed three associate justices to the Supreme Court Sandra Day O Connor in 1981 Antonin Scalia in 1986 and Anthony Kennedy in 1988 He also appointed William Rehnquist as the chief justice in 1986 264 The direction of the Supreme Court s reshaping has been described as conservative 265 266 267 War on drugs Main article War on drugs In response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic Reagan intensified the war on drugs in 1982 268 While the American public did not see drugs as an important issue then the FBI Drug Enforcement Administration and the United States Department of Defense all increased their anti drug funding immensely 269 Reagan s administration publicized the campaign to gain support after crack became widespread in 1985 270 Reagan signed the Anti Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and 1988 to specify penalties for drug offenses 271 Both bills were criticized for promoting racial disparities 272 Additionally Nancy Reagan founded the Just Say No campaign to discourage others from engaging in recreational drug use and raise awareness about the dangers of drugs 273 A 1988 study showed 39 percent of high school seniors using illegal drugs compared to 53 percent in 1980 274 but Scott Lilienfeld and Hal Arkowitz say that the success of these types of campaigns have not been found to be affirmatively proven 275 Escalation of the Cold War Further information Cold War 1979 1985 Reagan speaking before the British Parliament 1982 Reagan ordered a massive defense buildup 276 and deployed the MX missile 277 In response to Soviet deployment of the SS 20 he oversaw NATO s deployment of the Pershing missile in Western Europe 278 In 1982 Reagan tried to cut off the Soviet Union s access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe It hurt the Soviet economy but it also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue he retreated on this issue 279 In March 1983 Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative SDI to protect the United States from an attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles He believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible 280 There was much disbelief surrounding the program s scientific feasibility leading opponents to dub the SDI Star Wars 281 though Soviet leader Yuri Andropov said it would lead to an extremely dangerous path 282 In a 1982 address to the British Parliament 283 Reagan said the march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism Leninism on the ash heap of history 284 In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals in March 1983 he called the Soviet Union an evil empire 245 After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in September which included Larry McDonald and 61 other Americans Reagan expressed outrage towards the Soviet Union 285 The following day reports suggested that the Soviets had fired the plane by mistake 286 Although the Reagan administration agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan in 1982 287 Reagan rejected his predecessors policies of detente 288 His covert aid to Afghan mujahideen forces against the Soviets 289 has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan 290 However some of the American funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to American troops in the 2001 2021 war in Afghanistan 291 In his 1985 State of the Union Address Reagan proclaimed Support for freedom fighters is self defense 292 Through the Reagan Doctrine his administration supported anti communist resistance movements in an effort to rollback Soviet backed communist governments in Africa Asia and Latin America 293 Critics have felt that the administration ignored the human rights violations in the countries they backed 294 295 including genocide and mass killings 296 297 Invasion of Grenada Main article United States invasion of Grenada Reagan discussing the Grenada situation with a group of bipartisan members of Congress 1983 On October 19 1983 Grenadan leader Maurice Bishop was overthrown and murdered by one of his colleagues Several days later Reagan ordered American forces to invade Grenada Reagan cited a regional threat posed by a Soviet Cuban military build up in the Caribbean nation and concern for the safety of hundreds of American medical students at St George s University as adequate reasons to invade Two days of fighting commenced resulting in an American victory 298 While the invasion enjoyed public support in the United States it was criticized internationally with the United Nations General Assembly voting to censure the American government 299 Regardless Cannon notes that the invasion overshadowed the Beirut barracks bombings throughout Reagan s 1984 presidential campaign 300 1984 election Main articles Ronald Reagan 1984 presidential campaign and 1984 United States presidential election 1984 electoral vote results Reagan announced his reelection campaign on January 29 1984 declaring America is back and standing tall 301 In February his administration reversed the unpopular decision to send the United States Marine Corps to Lebanon thus eliminating a political liability for him Reagan faced minimal opposition in the Republican primaries 302 and accepted the nomination at the convention in Dallas In the general election his campaign ran the commercial Morning in America 303 At a time when the American economy was already recovering 228 former vice president Walter Mondale 304 was attacked by Reagan s campaign as a tax and spend Democrat while Mondale criticized the deficit the SDI and Reagan s civil rights policy However Reagan s age induced his campaign managers to minimize his public appearances Mondale s campaign believed that Reagan s age and mental health were issues before the presidential debates in October 305 Following Reagan s performance in the first debate where he struggled to recall statistics his age was brought up by the media in negative fashion and some respondents reconsidered voting for him Reagan s campaign changed his tactics for the second debate where he quipped I will not make age an issue of this campaign I am not going to exploit for political purposes my opponent s youth and inexperience This remark generated applause and laughter 306 even from Mondale At that point Broder suggested that age was no longer a liability for Reagan 307 and Mondale s campaign felt that the election was over 308 Reagan won a landslide reelection victory with 59 percent of the popular vote and 525 electoral votes Mondale won 13 electoral votes from the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota 309 Response to the AIDS epidemic The AIDS epidemic began to unfold in 1981 310 and AIDS was initially difficult to understand for physicians and the public 311 As the epidemic advanced according to physician John Hutton Reagan thought of AIDS as though it was the measles and would go away However the October 1985 death of his friend Rock Hudson changed Reagan s view Reagan approached Hutton for more information on the disease In 1986 Reagan asked C Everett Koop to draw up a report on the AIDS issue Koop angered many evangelical conservatives both in and out of the Reagan administration by stressing the importance of sex education including condom usage in schools 312 A year later Reagan who reportedly had not read the report 313 gave his first speech on the epidemic when 36 058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS and 20 849 had died of it 314 Scholars and AIDS activists have argued that the Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis 315 316 317 Randy Shilts and Michael Bronski said that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan s administration and Bronski added that requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were routinely denied 318 319 In a September 1985 press conference after Hudson announced his AIDS diagnosis Reagan called a government AIDS research program a top priority but also cited budgetary constraints 320 In 2002 Deroy Murdock responded to the charge of the underfunding of AIDS by saying that AIDS spending under President Reagan rose from 8 million in 1982 to 2 3 billion by 1989 321 Addressing apartheid From the late 1960s onward the American public grew increasingly vocal in its opposition to the apartheid policy of the white minority government of South Africa and in its insistence that the United States impose economic and diplomatic sanctions on South Africa 322 The strength of the anti apartheid opposition surged during Reagan s first term in office as its component disinvestment from South Africa movement which had been in existence for quite some years gained critical mass following in the United States particularly on college campuses and among mainline Protestant denominations 323 324 President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because as he wrote in a letter to Sammy Davis Jr it would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government He also noted the fact that the American owned industries there employ more than 80 000 blacks and that their employment practices were very different from the normal South African customs 325 The Reagan administration developed constructive engagement with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to move away from apartheid gradually It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa 322 This policy however engendered much public criticism and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions 326 In response Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government including an arms embargo in late 1985 327 These sanctions were seen as weak by anti apartheid activists and as insufficient by the president s opponents in Congress 326 In 1986 Congress approved the Comprehensive Anti Apartheid Act which included tougher sanctions Reagan s veto was overridden by Congress He remained opposed to apartheid and unsure of how best to oppose it Several European countries as well as Japan also imposed their sanctions on South Africa soon after 328 Libya bombing Main article 1986 United States bombing of Libya Reagan and Margaret Thatcher 1986 Relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious beginning with the 1981 Gulf of Sidra incident by 1982 Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the Central Intelligence Agency to be along with Leonid Brezhnev and Fidel Castro part of a group known as the unholy trinity and was also labeled as our international public enemy number one by a CIA official 329 These tensions were later revived in early April 1986 when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discotheque injuring 63 American military personnel and killing one serviceman Stating that there was irrefutable proof that Libya had directed the terrorist bombing Reagan authorized the use of force against the country In the late evening of April 15 1986 the United States launched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya 330 British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the United States Air Force to use Britain s air bases to launch the attack on the justification that the United Kingdom was supporting America s right to self defense under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations 330 The attack was according to Reagan designed to halt Gaddafi s ability to export terrorism offering him incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior 331 After the attacks began Reagan addressed the nation stating When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes we will respond so long as I m in this office 330 The attack was condemned by many countries by an overwhelming vote the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to condemn the attack and deem it a violation of the Charter and international law 332 Iran Contra affair Main article Iran Contra affair Reagan receiving the Tower Commission Report on the Iran Contra affair February 1987 Reagan authorized William J Casey to arm the Contras fearing that Communists would take over Nicaragua if it remained under the leadership of the Sandinistas Congress passed the 1982 Boland Amendment prohibiting the CIA and United States Department of Defense from using their budgets to provide aid to the Contras Still the Reagan administration raised funds for the Contras from private donors and foreign governments 333 When Congress learned that the CIA had secretly placed naval mines in Nicaraguan harbors Congress passed a second Boland Amendment that barred granting any assistance to the Contras 334 In reaction to the role Israel and the United States played in the Lebanese Civil War Hezbollah began to take American hostages holding eight Americans by the middle of 1985 335 Reagan procured the release of seven American hostages held by Hezbollah by selling American arms to Iran then engaged in the Iran Iraq War in hopes that Iran would pressure Hezbollah to release the hostages 336 The Reagan administration sold over 2 000 missiles to Iran without informing Congress Hezbollah released four hostages but captured an additional six Americans On Oliver North s initiative the administration redirected the proceeds from the missile sales to the Contras 336 The transactions were exposed by Lebanese neswpaper Ash Shiraa in early November 1986 Reagan initially denied any wrongdoing but on November 25 he announced that John Poindexter and North had left the administration and that he would form the Tower Commission to investigate the transactions A few weeks later Reagan asked a panel of federal judges to appoint a special prosecutor who would conduct a separate investigation 337 The Tower Commission released a report in February 1987 confirming that the administration had traded arms for hostages and sent the proceeds of the weapons sales to the Contras The report laid most of the blame on North Poindexter and Robert McFarlane but it was also critical of Donald Regan and other White House staffers 338 Investigators did not find conclusive proof that Reagan had known about the aid provided to the Contras but the report noted that Reagan had created the conditions which made possible the crimes committed by others and had knowingly participated or acquiesced in covering up the scandal 339 The affair damaged the administration and raised questions about Reagan s competency and the wisdom of conservative policies 340 The administration s credibility was also badly damaged on the international stage as it had violated its own arms embargo on Iran 341 Soviet decline and thaw in relations Further information Cold War 1985 1991 Gorbachev and Reagan signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty December 1987 Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985 342 Although the Soviets did not accelerate military spending in response to Reagan s military buildup 343 their enormous military expenses in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy At the same time the prices of oil the primary source of Soviet export revenues fell to one third of the previous level in 1985 These factors contributed to a stagnant economy during Gorbachev s tenure 344 Reagan s foreign policy towards the Soviets wavered between brinkmanship and cooperation 345 Reagan appreciated Gorbachev s revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy and shifted to diplomacy intending to encourage him to pursue substantial arms agreements 346 They held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988 347 Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech this would lead to reform and the end of communism 348 The critical summit was in Reykjavik in 1986 where they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons However Gorbachev added the condition that SDI research must be confined to laboratories during the ten year period when disarmament would take place Reagan refused stating that it was defensive only and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets thus failing to reach a deal 349 In June 1987 Reagan addressed Gorbachev during a speech at the Berlin Wall demanding that he tear down this wall The remark was ignored at the time but after the wall fell in 1989 it was retroactively recast as a soaring achievement 350 351 352 In December 1987 Reagan and Gorbachev met again at the Washington Summit 353 to sign the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty committing to the total abolition of their respective short range and medium range missile stockpiles 354 The treaty established an inspections regime designed to ensure that both parties honored the agreement 355 In May 1988 the U S Senate overwhelmingly voted in favor of ratifying the treaty 356 providing a major boost to Reagan s popularity in the aftermath of the Iran Contra affair A new era of trade and openness between the two powers commenced and the United States and Soviet Union cooperated on international issues such as the Iran Iraq War 357 Post presidency 1989 2004 Ronald and Nancy Reagan with a model of USS Ronald Reagan 1996 After leaving office on January 20 1989 358 the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air Los Angeles in addition to Rancho del Cielo in Santa Barbara They regularly attended Bel Air Church 359 360 and made public appearances including at the dedication and opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in 1991 361 On April 13 1992 Reagan was assaulted by Richard Springer an anti nuclear protester while accepting an award from the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas 362 though Reagan was not injured 363 Reagan later spoke at the 1992 Republican National Convention 364 He continued to speak publicly in favor of the Brady Bill 365 a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment 366 His final public speech occurred on February 3 1994 during a tribute to him in Washington D C 367 his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27 1994 368 In August 1994 Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer s disease In November of that year he announced the diagnosis through a handwritten letter 369 There was speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration 370 but lay observations that he suffered from Alzheimer s while still in office have been widely refuted by medical experts 371 372 373 his doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 374 or 1993 373 As the years went on the disease slowly destroyed Reagan s mental capacity He was able to recognize only a few people including his wife Nancy Reagan Still he continued to walk through parks and on beaches playing golf and until 1999 often going to his office in nearby Century City 373 Eventually his family decided that he would live in quiet semi isolation with his wife 375 who became a stem cell research advocate asserting that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer s 376 Reagan died of pneumonia complicated by Alzheimer s disease 377 at his home in Los Angeles in the afternoon of June 5 2004 378 President George W Bush called Reagan s death a sad hour in the life of America 379 Three days later a brief family funeral was held at Reagan s his presidential library 380 On June 9 his body was flown to Washington D C to lie in state in the Capitol rotunda 381 with a state funeral conducted in the Washington National Cathedral on June 11 382 Eulogies were given by Thatcher 383 Brian Mulroney George H W Bush and George W Bush Many other world leaders attended including Gorbachev and Prince Charles representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II 384 Reagan then the longest lived American president at 93 years and 120 days 385 386 was interred at his library 387 LegacyThis section contains wording that promotes the subject in a subjective manner without imparting real information Please remove or replace such wording and instead of making proclamations about a subject s importance use facts and attribution to demonstrate that importance January 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Ronald Reagan in the National Statuary Hall Collection Reagan s legacy is the subject of substantial debate among scholars historians and the general public 388 Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of his economic policies 389 and a restoration of American pride and morale 390 Proponents say that Reagan s unabated and passionate love for the United States restored faith in the American Dream 391 after a decline in American confidence and self respect under Carter s perceived weak leadership 392 They also believe that his foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War 393 and that Reagan s defense policies economic policies military policies and hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and communism together with his summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the Cold War 394 346 He was the first president to reject containment and detente and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with a post detente strategy 346 Gorbachev said Reagan was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War 395 and deemed him a great president 395 Gorbachev did not acknowledge a win or loss in the war but rather a peaceful end he said he was not intimidated by Reagan s harsh rhetoric 396 Thatcher said that Reagan who noticed what he considered the Soviet Union s systemic failures 397 had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired 398 Mulroney said that Reagan enters history as a strong and dramatic player 399 Former Polish President Lech Walesa said Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism s collapse 400 Critics point out that Reagan s economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits 401 and the national debt 402 a wider gap in wealth and an increase in homelessness 403 and that the Iran Contra affair lowered American credibility 404 Professor Jeffrey Knopf has argued that Reagan s leadership was only one of several causes of the end of the Cold War and that his aggressive rhetoric toward the Soviet Union had mixed effects being labeled evil probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East European citizens opposed to communism 346 President Truman s policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the Soviet Union and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself 405 At the time of his death Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest 406 Despite the debate many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Roosevelt leaving his imprint on American politics diplomacy culture and economics through his effective communication of his conservative agenda and pragmatic compromising 407 As summarized by British historian M J Heale since Reagan left office historians have reached a broad consensus that he rehabilitated conservatism turned the nation to the right practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics revived faith in the presidency and American exceptionalism and contributed to victory in the Cold War 408 409 Political influence Further information Political positions of Ronald Reagan and Reagan coalition Reagan in 1982 Reagan reshaped the Republican Party and led a new conservative movement altering the political dynamic of the United States 410 Conservatism became the dominant ideology for Republicans displacing the party s liberals and moderates 411 More men voted Republican and Reagan tapped into religious voters resulting in Reagan Democrats 410 He often emphasized family values despite being the first president to have been divorced 412 Furthermore Reagan the oldest president at the time was supported by young voters an allegiance that shifted many of them to the party 413 He also attempted to appeal to black voters in 1980 414 but would receive the lowest black vote for a Republican presidential candidate at the time 415 Since 1988 Republican presidential candidates have invoked Reagan s policies and beliefs 416 especially the 2008 candidates who aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates even imitating his campaign strategies 417 John McCain frequently said that he came to office as a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution 418 Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada noted Trump s praising of Reagan in a book he published during his 2016 campaign 419 The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies that concerned taxes welfare defense the federal judiciary and the Cold War is known as the Reagan era which emphasized that the Reagan Revolution had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy The Bill Clinton administration is often treated as an extension of the era as is the George W Bush administration 420 Eric Foner noted that Barack Obama s 2008 presidential campaign aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism 421 Public image Further information Opinion polling on the Ronald Reagan administration This section contains wording that promotes the subject in a subjective manner without imparting real information Please remove or replace such wording and instead of making proclamations about a subject s importance use facts and attribution to demonstrate that importance January 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message Reagan in 1976 Shortly before Reagan left the presidency polls indicated that he held an approval rating of 70 percent setting the record as the highest for a departing president 422 Retrospective Gallup polls continued to show a majority of Americans approving Reagan s performance in 2010 423 and 2018 424 Similarly their 2001 2005 and 2011 surveys considered Reagan the greatest president in American history 425 C SPAN s surveys of scholars ranked Reagan tenth place in 2000 and ninth in 2009 426 2017 427 and 2021 428 Reagan s ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker The Great Communicator 429 430 431 Of it he said I won the nickname the great communicator But I never thought it was my style that made a difference it was the content I wasn t a great communicator but I communicated great things 432 He also earned the nickname Teflon President in that public perceptions of him were not substantially tarnished by the multitude of controversies that arose during his administration 433 Reagan s age and soft spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image 434 435 436 He was known for storytelling 437 and humor 438 in which many of his jokes and one liners have been labeled classic quips and legendary 439 In preparation for a radio address in 1984 Reagan joked about outlawing and bombing Russia 440 During the celebration of the 750th anniversary of Berlin in 1987 a balloon popped Without missing a beat he quipped missed me in reference to his assassination attempt 441 Reagan also had the ability to offer comfort and hope at times of tragedy as demonstrated in aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster 442 The combination of Reagan s speaking style unabashed patriotism negotiation skills and savvy use of the media played an important role in defining the 1980s and his legacy 443 Recognition Further information List of awards and honors received by Ronald Reagan and List of things named after Ronald Reagan Since leaving office Reagan received numerous awards and honors such as the honorary knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath 444 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum 445 and Presidential Medal of Freedom 446 On his 87th birthday in 1998 Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport 447 448 In 2001 USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy and the U S Navy 449 In 2002 Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home 450 In 2009 Nancy unveiled a statue of her late husband in the National Statuary Hall Collection 451 Depictions Further information Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan and Ronald Reagan in music Reagan is depicted in television films such as The Day Reagan Was Shot 2001 The Reagans 2003 452 and Killing Reagan 2016 453 and in a feature film named The Butler 2013 452 In 2018 feature film Reagan based on two biographies by Kengor 454 is scheduled for release in 2023 455 He is also depicted in the video game Call of Duty Black Ops Cold War 456 In music he is the subject of many rock and pop songs 457 References Holmes 2020 p 210 Oliver Myrna October 11 1995 Robert H Finch Lt Gov Under Reagan Dies Politics Leader in California GOP was 70 He also served in Nixon s Cabinet and as President s special counselor and campaign manager Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on December 26 2022 Retrieved April 4 2020 Chang Cindy December 25 2016 Ed Reinecke who resigned as California s lieutenant governor after a perjury conviction dies at 92 Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on December 26 2022 Retrieved April 4 2020 South Garry May 21 2018 California s lieutenant governors rarely move up to the top job San Francisco Chronicle Archived from the original on December 26 2022 Retrieved April 4 2020 Reagan New Head of Screen Actors The Daily Times New Philadelphia OH United Press International November 17 1959 p 17 Retrieved January 16 2023 via Newspapers com To Screen Actors Job New President of Guild is George Chandler Kansas City Times Kansas City MO Associated Press June 13 1960 p 6 Retrieved January 16 2023 via Newspapers com Kengor 2004 p 5 a b Kengor 2004 p 12 a b Rubin Lyle March 16 2019 The Paranoid Reactionary Dreams of Ronald Reagan Jacobin Archived from the original on December 21 2022 Retrieved March 17 2019 Kengor 2004 p 48 Kengor 2004 p 10 Vaughn 1995 p 109 Kengor 2004 pp 4 5 Kengor 2004 p 4 Brands 2015 p 10 Pemberton 1997 p 5 Woodard 2012 p 4 Brands 2015 p 14 Brands 2015 p 16 a b Pemberton 1997 p 10 Brands 2015 p 17 Brands 2015 p 20 Pemberton 1997 p 11 a b Longley et al 2015 p 73 a b c Cannon 2000 p 458 a b Cannon 2000 p 457 Pemberton 1997 p 139 a b c Vaughn 1994 p 37 Murray 1999 p 207 Brands 2015 pp 24 26 Brands 2015 pp 29 30 Woodard 2012 pp 18 19 Brands 2015 p 39 40 a b Vaughn 1994 p 30 Vaughn 1994 p 29 Vaughn 1994 p 38 Woodard 2012 pp 25 26 Vaughn 1994 p 70 a b Friedrich 1997 p 89 Vaughn 1994 pp 36 37 Vaughn 1994 pp 231 232 Cannon 2003 p 59 a b Vaughn 1994 p 236 Vaughn 1994 p 312 Brands 2015 p 54 Oliver amp Marion 2010 p 148 Vaughn 1994 p 96 a b Woodard 2012 p 26 Brands 2015 pp 54 55 Oliver amp Marion 2010 pp 148 149 a b Woodard 2012 p 27 a b Oliver amp Marion 2010 p 149 Brands 2015 pp 57 Cannon 2003 p 86 Vaughn 1994 p 133 Vaughn 1994 p 146 Vaughn 1994 p 154 Pemberton 1997 p 32 Cannon 2003 p 97 Cannon 2003 p 98 Brands 2015 p 89 Eliot 2008 p 266 Vaughn 1994 p 179 Spitz 2018 p 296 Pemberton 1997 pp 35 36 Cannon 2003 pp 111 112 Landesman 2015 p 173 a b Cannon 2003 p 112 Brands 2015 p 43 a b c Woodard 2012 p 23 Woodard 2012 p 25 Dick 2014 p 88 a b Woodard 2012 p 29 Cannon 2003 pp 73 74 Brands 2015 p 109 Brands 2015 p 113 Brands 2015 p 199 Vaughn 1994 p 232 Brands 2015 p 120 Metzger 1989 p 26 Brands 2015 p 122 Brands 2015 pp 131 132 Brands 2015 p 145 Pemberton 1997 p 36 Yager 2006 pp 12 13 a b Woodard 2012 p 28 Lettow 2006 pp 4 5 Lettow 2006 p 4 Lettow 2006 p 192 Woodard 2012 p 49 a b c Cannon 2000 p 53 Cannon 2003 p 108 a b Gormley 2016 p 540 Evans 2006 p 21 Evans 2006 p 4 Skidmore 2008 p 103 Onge 2017 p 240 a b Woodard 2012 p 55 Cannon 2003 p 132 Reagan 1989 p 27 Reagan 1989 pp 99 100 Woodard 2012 p 56 Cannon 2003 p 141 Brands 2015 p 148 Brands 2015 p 149 Cannon 2003 p 142 Brands 2015 p 150 Cannon 2003 p 147 Putnam 2006 p 27 a b Cannon 2003 pp 147 148 Cannon 2003 p 137 Cannon 2003 p 148 a b Pemberton 1997 p 69 Cannon 2003 p 149 Woodard 2012 p 59 a b Cannon 2003 p 159 Cannon 2003 p 158 Cannon 2003 p 160 Cannon 2003 p 5 Woodard 2012 p 64 Brands 2015 p 159 Brands 2015 p 157 Putnam 2006 p 26 Johns 2015 pp 47 48 Cannon 2003 p 370 a b Hayes Fortunato amp Hibbing 2020 p 819 Carter 2002 p 493 Garrow 2007 p 652 Pemberton 1997 p 76 Sieg 1996 p 1062 Hunt amp Miles 2021 p 176 Gould 2010 pp 92 93 Gould 2010 pp 96 97 Pemberton 1997 p 77 The Chairman s Report 1968 To the Members of the Republican National Committee Jan 16 17 1969 Republican National Committee January 1969 p 41 Retrieved January 16 2023 Synergy Volumes 13 30 Bay Area Reference Center 1969 p 41 Retrieved January 16 2023 Governor Raymond Shafer of Pennsylvania was elected on December 13 to succeed Governor Ronald Reagan as Chairman of the Republican Governors Association Cannon 2003 pp 291 292 Cannon 2003 p 292 Cannon 2003 p 295 Brands 2015 pp 175 176 Woodard 2012 pp 73 75 Woodard 2012 p 75 Brands 2015 pp 179 181 Rich Spencer March 30 1981 Reagan s Workfare Program Failed in California Report Reveals The Washington Post Archived from the original on December 24 2022 Retrieved December 24 2022 Cannon 2003 p 755 Clabaugh 2004 p 257 Cannon 2003 p 296 Cannon 2003 p 388 Cannon 2003 p 224 Reagan 2011 p 67 Cannon 2003 p 213 Cannon 2003 p 209 Cannon 2013 p 407 Cannon 2003 p 418 Woodard 2012 p 86 Brands 2015 p 193 a b Cannon 2003 p 409 Cannon 2003 p 403 Cannon 2013 p 388 Cannon 2013 p 402 Cannon 2003 p 405 Woodard 2012 pp 90 91 Woodard 2012 pp 92 93 Cannon 2000 pp 456 457 Borrelli Christopher June 10 2019 Reagan used her the country hated her Decades later the Welfare Queen of Chicago refuses to go away Chicago Tribune Archived from the original on December 27 2022 Retrieved December 27 2022 Foster 2008 p 163 Haney Lopez 2014 p 58 Woodard 2012 p 89 Woodard 2012 p 93 Woodard 2012 pp 93 94 Cannon 2003 pp 432 434 Agrawal Nina December 8 2016 All the times in U S history that members of the electoral college voted their own way Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on December 27 2022 Retrieved December 27 2022 Cannon 2003 pp 433 434 Woodard 2012 pp 100 101 Pemberton 1997 p 86 Woodard 2012 p 102 Pemberton 1997 pp 86 87 Woodard 2012 pp 102 103 Pemberton 1997 pp 87 89 Pemberton 1997 pp 89 90 Woodard 2012 pp 110 111 Woodard 2012 pp 110 Cannon 2000 pp 114 Pemberton 1997 p 91 Brands 2015 p 237 Woodard 2012 p 112 Woodard 2012 pp 105 106 Woodard 2012 pp 112 113 Haney Lopez 2014 p 4 Alexander 2010 pp 48 49 Herbert Bob October 6 2005 Impossible Ridiculous Repugnant The New York Times Archived from the original on December 29 2022 Retrieved December 29 2022 Crespino 2021 p 1 Murdock Deroy November 20 2007 Reagan No Racist National Review Archived from the original on December 29 2022 Retrieved December 29 2022 Woodard 2012 p xiv Massie Graeme April 24 2022 How old is Donald Trump and how does his age compare to other US presidents The Independent Archived from the original on December 21 2022 Retrieved December 21 2022 Woodard 2012 p 117 Patterson 2005 p 126 Woodard 2012 pp 120 123 Kengor 2004 p 161 Kengor 2004 p 210 Rossinow 2015 pp 85 86 Pemberton 1997 p 107 a b Patterson 2005 p 158 Rossinow 2015 p 86 Rossinow 2015 p 88 Patterson 2005 p 170 Karaagac 2002 p 113 a b Li 2013 p 221 Gerstle 2022 p 107 Graetz 2012 p 34 Pemberton 1997 p 103 Steuerle 1992 p 42 Pemberton 1997 p 145 Bartlett 2012 p 44 Pemberton 1997 p 127 Rossinow 2015 p 62 63 Pemberton 1997 p 96 Woodard 2012 p 119 Cannon 2000 p 222 Reagan s Economic Legacy Bloomberg Businessweek June 21 2004 Archived from the original on November 14 2021 Retrieved December 30 2022 Pemberton 1997 p 128 Krugman Paul June 8 2004 The Great Taxer The New York Times Archived from the original on December 20 2022 Retrieved August 30 2011 Rossinow 2015 p 90 Brands 2015 p 318 Rossinow 2015 pp 89 90 Brands 2015 p 451 Sinai 1992 p 1 a b Brands 2015 p 452 Brands 2015 p 668 Brands 2015 pp 669 671 Li 2013 p 219 Pemberton 1997 p 206 Patterson 2005 pp 166 167 Rossinow 2015 pp 144 145 Pemberton 1997 p 207 Brands 2015 pp 300 303 Patterson 2005 pp 163 164 Pemberton 1997 p 208 Pemberton 1997 pp 102 103 Patterson 2005 p 157 Bowman Tom June 8 2004 Reagan guided huge buildup in arms race The Baltimore Sun Archived from the original on January 1 2023 Retrieved January 1 2023 Shinal John July 1 2017 Trump taking wrong approach to China says Reagan official who helped Star Wars beat the Soviets CNBC Archived from the original on January 17 2023 Retrieved January 17 2023 Fialka 1999 p 8 Leuchtenburg 2015 pp 602 604 a b Pemberton 1997 p 130 Patterson 2005 p 175 Leuchtenburg 2015 pp 605 606 Patterson 2005 pp 158 159 Cannon 2001 p 128 Frankel Jeffrey December 11 2018 George HW Bush was fiscally responsible unlike Donald Trump The Guardian Archived from the original on December 31 2022 Retrieved December 31 2022 Keyssar 2009 p 213 Glass Andrew November 2 2017 Reagan establishes national holiday for MLK Nov 2 1983 Politico Archived from the original on January 5 2023 Retrieved January 5 2023 Cannon 2000 p 461 Shull 1993 pp 56 57 Cannon 2000 pp 462 463 Eckman 1989 p 1409 Shull 1993 p 14 Shull 1993 pp 114 116 Amaker 1988 pp 157 159 Patterson 2005 p 171 Amaker 1988 pp 92 95 Shull 1993 p 4 Reimler 1999 p 38 Pemberton 1997 pp 147 148 Shull 1993 p 44 Pemberton 1997 p 148 Mears Bill October 28 2012 New biography details Rehnquist s complex legacy CNN Archived from the original on January 5 2023 Retrieved January 5 2023 Alexander 2010 p 5 Alexander 2010 p 49 Alexander 2010 p 52 Alexander 2010 p 53 Sirin 2011 p 94 Woodard 2012 pp 163 164 Cannon 2000 p 10 Lilienfeld Scott Arkowitz Hal January 1 2014 Why Just Say No Doesn t Work Scientific American Archived from the original on January 4 2023 Retrieved January 4 2023 Pemberton 1997 p 4 Cannon 2000 p 37 Cannon 2000 p 260 Graebner Burns amp Siracusa 2008 pp 29 31 Pemberton 1997 p 131 Brands 2015 p 418 Pemberton 1997 p 132 Pemberton 1997 p 153 Cannon 2000 p 272 Brands 2015 pp 420 421 Pemberton 1997 p 133 Cannon 2000 p 270 Pach 2006 p 80 Pemberton 1997 p 158 Pach 2006 p 87 Harnden Toby September 26 2001 Taliban still have Reagan s Stingers The Telegraph Archived from the original on January 3 2022 Retrieved September 17 2010 Cannon 2000 p 320 Pach 2006 p 78 Wawro 2010 p 381 Sondergaard 2020 p 262 Gunson Phil April 2 2018 Gen Efrain Rios Montt obituary The Guardian Archived from the original on January 4 2023 Retrieved January 4 2023 Maclean Ruth Camara Mady August 24 2021 Hissene Habre Ex President of Chad Jailed for War Crimes Dies at 79 The New York Times Archived from the original on January 4 2023 Retrieved January 4 2023 Cannon 2001 pp 187 188 Brands 2015 p 403 Cannon 2000 p 393 Pemberton 1997 p 141 Cannon 2001 pp 188 191 Cannon 2000 p 452 Brands 2015 p 186 Pemberton 1997 pp 141 142 Pemberton 1997 pp 142 143 Cannon 2001 p 196 Pemberton 1997 p 144 Leuchtenburg 2015 p 624 Gellin 1992 p 24 Kazanjian 2014 p 353 Cannon 2000 pp 731 733 Koop 1991 p 224 Shilts 2000 pp 593 596 Lucas 2009 pp 478 479 Francis 2012 p 290 Kim amp Shin 2017 pp 518 519 Shilts 2000 p xxii Bronski Michael November 14 2003 Rewriting the Script on Reagan Why the President Ignored AIDS The Forward Archived from the original on January 16 2023 Retrieved March 13 2016 Brands 2015 pp 654 656 Murdock Deroy June 8 2004 Anti Gay Gipper National Review Archived from the original on January 16 2023 Retrieved December 19 2022 a b Thomson Alex 2008 U S Foreign Policy Towards Apartheid South Africa 1948 1994 Conflict of Interests New York New York Palgrave Macmillan pp 106 123 ISBN 978 1 4039 7227 9 Counte Cecelie January 27 2013 Divestment Was Just One Weapon in Battle Against Apartheid The New York Times Retrieved August 13 2019 Berger Joseph June 10 1986 Protestants Seek More Divestment The New York Times New York New York Retrieved August 13 2019 via The Times s print archive Skinner Kiron K Anderson Annelise Anderson Martin eds 2004 Reagan A Life In Letters New York New York Free Press pp 520 521 ISBN 978 0743219679 a b Ungar Sanford J Vale Peter Winter 1985 86 South Africa Why Constructive Engagement Failed Foreign Affairs 64 2 234 258 doi 10 2307 20042571 JSTOR 20042571 Smith William E September 16 1985 South Africa Reagan s Abrupt Reversal Time Vol 126 no 11 Retrieved August 13 2019 Glass Andrew September 27 2017 House overrides Reagan apartheid veto Sept 29 1986 Politico Retrieved August 13 2019 Libya Fury in the Isolation Ward Time August 23 1982 Archived from the original on November 7 2012 Retrieved August 12 2011 a b c 1986 US Launches air strike on Libya BBC News April 15 2008 Retrieved April 19 2008 Piszkiewicz Dennis 2003 Terrorism s War with America A History Praeger Security International Greenwood Publishing Group p 66 ISBN 978 0 275 97952 2 A RES 41 38 November 20 1986 United Nations Retrieved April 14 2014 Weisberg pp 128 129 Patterson pp 208 209 Brands pp 488 491 a b Weisberg pp 129 134 Patterson pp 210 211 Brands pp 646 649 Patterson pp 211 212 Rossinow pp 202 204 Brands pp 653 674 Herring p 894 Lebow Richard Ned amp Stein Janice Gross February 1994 Reagan and the Russians The Atlantic Retrieved May 28 2010 Gaidar Yegor 2007 Collapse of an Empire Lessons for Modern Russia Brookings Institution Press pp 190 205 Miles Simon 2021 Bartel Fritz Monteiro Nuno P eds Peace Through Strength and Quiet Diplomacy Before and After the Fall World Politics and the End of the Cold War Cambridge University Press pp 62 77 doi 10 1017 9781108910194 005 ISBN 978 1 108 90677 7 S2CID 244861159 a b c d Knopf Jeffery W 2004 Did Reagan Win the Cold War Strategic Insights III 8 Retrieved August 10 2019 Lawrence Mark Atwood 2008 The Era of Epic Summitry Reviews in American History 36 4 616 623 doi 10 1353 rah 0 0047 ISSN 1080 6628 S2CID 144382902 Modern History Sourcebook Ronald Reagan Evil Empire Speech June 8 1982 Fordham University May 1998 Retrieved November 15 2007 John Lewis Gaddis 2006 The Cold War A New History p 31 ISBN 9781440684500 Fisher Marc June 2017 Tear down this wall How Reagan s forgotten line became a defining moment The Washington Post Retrieved November 7 2022 Andreas Daum Kennedy in Berlin 2008 pp 207 13 Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall Chicago Tribune October 31 2014 Retrieved January 2 2022 Rossinow pp 234 235 Patterson p 215 Rossinow p 236 Patterson p 216 Herring pp 897 898 Ritter Dan August 31 2013 Presidential market scoreboard Reagan to Obama USA Today Archived from the original on December 16 2022 Retrieved December 16 2022 Smith 2006 p 332 Netburn Deborah December 24 2006 Agenting for God Los Angeles Times Retrieved August 15 2007 Reinhold Robert November 5 1991 Four Presidents Join Reagan in Dedicating His Library The New York Times Tolchin Martin April 16 1992 Protester at Reagan Speech Had Press Credentials The New York Times Retrieved July 27 2016 Man Who Disrupted Reagan Speech Flees 4 Month Jail Term Los Angeles Times July 16 1993 Retrieved July 28 2016 1992 Republican National Convention Houston The Heritage Foundation August 17 1992 Archived from the original on March 11 2007 Retrieved March 29 2007 Reagan Ronald March 29 1991 Why I m for the Brady Bill The New York Times Retrieved June 22 2010 Reagan 1990 p 726 Clift Eleanor Thomas Evan March 7 2016 How Nancy Reagan coped with Ronald Reagan s Alzheimer s Disease Newsweek Retrieved December 14 2022 Glass Andrew April 22 2019 Richard M Nixon dies at age 81 April 22 1994 Politico Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 Gordon Michael R November 6 1994 In Poignant Public Letter Reagan Reveals That He Has Alzheimer s The New York Times Retrieved December 30 2007 President Ronald Reagan s Alzheimer s Disease Radio National June 7 2004 Retrieved January 7 2008 Reagan s doctors deny covering up Alzheimer s His mental status in office never in doubt they say The New York Times October 5 1997 Retrieved April 20 2021 via The Baltimore Sun Altman Lawrence K February 21 2011 When Alzheimer s Waited Outside the Oval Office The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on May 1 2021 Retrieved May 1 2021 a b c Altman Lawrence K October 5 1997 Reagan s Twilight A special report A President Fades Into a World Apart The New York Times Archived from the original on May 1 2021 Retrieved May 1 2021 Altman Lawrence K June 15 2004 The Doctors World A Recollection of Early Questions About Reagan s Health The New York Times Archived from the original on May 1 2021 Retrieved May 1 2021 Nancy Reagan Reflects on Ronald CNN March 4 2001 Archived from the original on October 23 2012 Retrieved April 6 2007 Nancy Reagan plea on stem cells BBC News May 10 2004 Retrieved June 6 2007 Neuman Johanna June 6 2004 Former President Reagan Dies at 93 Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on October 27 2013 Retrieved July 9 2013 Von Drehle David June 6 2004 Ronald Reagan Dies 40th President Reshaped American Politics The Washington Post Retrieved December 21 2007 Neuman Johanna June 5 2004 Former President Reagan Dies at 93 Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 100 000 file past Reagan s casket CNN June 9 2004 Retrieved August 15 2007 Lying in State or in Honor US Architect of the Capitol AOC Retrieved September 1 2018 Announcing the Death of Ronald Reagan Press release The White House Office of the Press Secretary June 6 2004 Retrieved January 23 2008 Thatcher s eulogy can be viewed online Margaretthatcher org Retrieved March 8 2010 BBC NEWS Americas Reagan funeral guest list BBC Bowden John November 25 2017 Bush 41 becomes longest living president in US history The Hill Archived from the original on December 17 2022 Retrieved December 17 2022 Leubsdorf Carl June 6 2004 Reagan dies at 93 Cape Cod Times Archived from the original on December 17 2022 Retrieved December 17 2022 A Nation Bids Reagan Farewell Prayer And Recollections At National Funeral For 40th President CBS Associated Press June 11 2004 Retrieved December 21 2007 Andrew L Johns ed A Companion to Ronald Reagan Wiley Blackwell 2015 Hayward pp 635 638 Cannon 1991 2000 p 746 Ronald Reagan restored faith in America Retrieved October 7 2014 Lipset Seymour Martin Schneider William The Decline of Confidence in American Institutions PDF Political Science Quarterly Archived from the original PDF on August 22 2016 Retrieved July 18 2016 Beschloss p 324 Meacham John Murr Andrew Clift Eleanor Lipper Tamara Breslau Karen Ordonez Jennifer June 14 2004 American Dreamer Newsweek Retrieved June 3 2008 a b Heintz Jim June 7 2004 Gorbachev reflects warmly on sincere man The Standard Times Associated Press Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 Kaiser Robert G June 11 2004 Gorbachev We All Lost Cold War The Washington Post p A01 Retrieved January 6 2008 Full Text Thatcher Eulogy to Reagan BBC News June 11 2004 Retrieved January 6 2008 Reagan and Thatcher political soul mates NBC News June 5 2004 Retrieved January 8 2008 Clayton Ian June 5 2004 America s Movie Star President Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archived from the original on December 27 2007 Retrieved January 6 2008 Ronald Reagan Tributes BBC News June 6 2004 Retrieved February 10 2008 Cannon amp Beschloss 2001 p 128 Peter B Levy 1996 Encyclopedia of the Reagan Bush Years ABC CLIO pp 305 306 ISBN 9780313290183 Dreier Peter April 3 2011 Don t add Reagan s Face to Mount Rushmore The Nation Gilman Larry Iran Contra Affair Advameg Retrieved August 23 2007 Chapman Roger June 14 2004 Reagan s Role in Ending the Cold War Is Being Exaggerated George Mason University Retrieved January 6 2008 Kurtz Howard June 7 2004 Reagan The Retake The Washington Post Retrieved August 25 2005 American President Archived from the original on October 11 2014 Retrieved October 7 2014 Henry David December 2009 Ronald Reagan and the 1980s Perceptions Policies Legacies Ed by Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies New York Palgrave Macmillan 2008 xiv 268 pp 84 95 ISBN 978 0 230 60302 8 The Journal of American History 96 3 933 934 doi 10 1093 jahist 96 3 933 JSTOR 25622627 Heale M J in Cheryl Hudson and Gareth Davies eds Ronald Reagan and the 1980s Perceptions Policies Legacies 2008 Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 0 230 60302 5 p 250 a b Loughlin Sean July 6 2004 Reagan cast a wide shadow in politics CNN Retrieved June 19 2008 Smith Robert C March 1 2021 Ronald Reagan Donald Trump and the Future of the Republican Party and Conservatism in America American Political Thought 10 2 283 289 doi 10 1086 713662 ISSN 2161 1580 S2CID 233401184 Hendrix Anastasia June 6 2004 Trouble at home for family values advocate San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved March 4 2008 Dionne E J October 31 1988 Political Memo G O P Makes Reagan Lure Of Young a Long Term Asset The New York Times Retrieved July 2 2008 Reagan talks to lukewarm Urban League in New York The Michigan Daily August 6 1980 Archived from the original on August 6 1980 Retrieved May 25 2021 Shull 1993 p 40 Cannon Lou June 6 2004 Actor Governor President Icon The Washington Post p A01 Retrieved January 26 2008 Broder John M January 20 2008 The Gipper Gap In Search of Reagan The New York Times Retrieved January 26 2008 Issenberg Sasha February 8 2008 McCain touts conservative record The Boston Globe Retrieved June 19 2008 I just binge read eight books by Donald Trump Here s what I learned The Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved January 5 2022 Jack Godwin Clintonomics How Bill Clinton Reengineered the Reagan Revolution 2009 Eric Foner Obama the Professional History News Network hnn us Retrieved January 5 2022 Pemberton 1997 p 198 Hudson John December 6 2010 Who s the Most Popular Modern President The Atlantic Archived from the original on December 16 2022 Retrieved December 18 2022 Salvanto Anthony De Pinto Jennifer December 3 2018 George H W Bush The public s view of him during his presidency CBS News Archived from the original on December 16 2022 Retrieved December 16 2022 Standora Leo February 22 2011 Move over Obama Ronald Reagan voted nation s greatest President in latest Gallup poll New York Daily News Archived from the original on December 18 2022 Retrieved December 18 2022 Johns 2015 pp 1 2 Carpenter Tim July 6 2021 C SPAN survey of presidential leadership adds sparkle to Eisenhower Truman Missouri Independent Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 Updegrove Mark July 1 2021 Maybe Trump Wasn t the Worst President Ever The New York Times Archived from the original on December 18 2022 Retrieved December 18 2022 The Great Communicator strikes chord with public CNN 2001 Retrieved January 8 2008 Cann0n Lou June 6 2004 Why Reagan was the great communicator USA Today Retrieved August 13 2019 Ronald Reagan The Great Communicator CNN June 8 2004 Retrieved August 13 2019 Reagan The great communicator BBC News June 5 2004 Retrieved January 26 2008 Kurtz Howard June 7 2004 15 Years Later the Remaking of a President The Washington Post Retrieved January 25 2008 Mourning in America Ronald Reagan Dies at 93 Fox News June 5 2004 Archived from the original on June 4 2010 Retrieved December 4 2009 The Reagan Diaries The High Hat Retrieved December 4 2009 Sunday Culture Charlie Wilson s War theseminal Archived from the original on February 12 2008 Retrieved December 4 2009 Ronald Reagan Master Storyteller CBS June 6 2004 Retrieved March 4 2008 Marinucci Carla amp Carolyn Lochhead June 12 2004 Last Goodbye Ex president eulogized in D C before final ride into California sunset Laid to Rest Ceremony ends weeklong outpouring of grief San Francisco Chronicle Retrieved October 15 2009 McCuddy Bill June 6 2004 Remembering Reagan s Humor Fox News Archived from the original on April 14 2008 Retrieved July 2 2008 Remembering President Reagan For His Humor A Classic Radio Gaffe About Retrieved January 22 2007 Reagan to popped balloon Missed me United Press International June 12 1987 Retrieved August 20 2020 Loughlin Sean February 6 2003 A presidential role Comforting a nation CNN Retrieved August 13 2019 Troy Gil 2005 Morning in America how Ronald Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 09645 2 Retrieved March 8 2010 Order of the Bath The Official website of the British Monarchy Archived from the original on April 26 2007 Retrieved March 22 2007 Weisman Steven R October 24 1989 Reagan Given Top Award by Japanese The New York Times Retrieved March 21 2008 Remarks on presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom to President Ronald Reagan President George Bush Transcript The White House Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents January 18 1993 Archived from the original on July 1 2015 Retrieved June 29 2015 Public Law No 105 154 To rename the Washington National Airport located in the District of Columbia and Virginia as the Ronald Reagan National Airport January 27 1998 Archived from the original on July 20 2012 It s Reagan Airport now McCook Daily Gazette Associated Press February 7 1998 Archived from the original on December 8 2015 Retrieved November 26 2015 USS Ronald Reagan Commemorates Former President s 90th Birthday CNN July 12 2003 Archived from the original on October 25 2008 Retrieved January 25 2008 Public Law 107 137 PDF United States Government Printing Office February 6 2002 Retrieved December 31 2007 Reagan statue unveiled in Capitol Rotunda NBC News Associated Press June 3 2009 Retrieved February 8 2011 a b Shanahan Mark April 27 2016 Will Ferrell to play Ronald Reagan The Boston Globe Archived from the original on April 30 2016 Retrieved December 14 2022 Hipes Patrick August 2 2016 Killing Reagan Movie Gets Premiere Date On Nat Geo Deadline Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 Bond Paul November 5 2018 Reagan Movie Starring Dennis Quaid Finds Major Funding The Hollywood Reporter Retrieved June 6 2020 Johnson Ted December 9 2022 Dan Lauria To Play Tip O Neill In Ronald Reagan Biopic Deadline Retrieved December 14 2022 Schorr Isaac August 28 2020 Reagan Makes an Call of Duty Cameo Appearance National Review Archived from the original on January 5 2023 Retrieved January 5 2023 Segal David June 13 2004 Pop s Reagan Record Sound amp Fury The Washington Post Archived from the original on December 14 2022 Retrieved December 14 2022 BibliographyFurther information Bibliography of Ronald Reagan Books Alexander Michelle 2010 The New Jim Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness The New Press ISBN 978 1 59558 103 7 Amaker Norman 1988 Civil Rights and the Reagan Administration Urban Institute ISBN 978 0 87766 452 9 Bartlett Bruce 2012 The Benefit and The Burden Tax Reform Why We Need It and What It Will Take Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 1 4516 4619 1 Beschloss Michael 2008 Presidential Courage Brave Leaders and How they Changed America 1789 1989 Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 5744 2 Brands H W 2015 Reagan The Life Anchor Books ISBN 978 0 385 53639 4 Cannon Lou 2000 1991 President Reagan The Role of a Lifetime PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1 891620 91 1 2001 Ronald Reagan The Presidential Portfolio A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1 891620 84 3 2003 Governor Reagan His Rise to Power PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1 58648 284 8 Cannon James 2013 Gerald R Ford An Honorable Life University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 02946 4 Carter Gregg 2002 Guns in American Society An Encyclopedia of History Politics Culture and the Law Volume 1 ABC Clio ISBN 978 1 57607 268 4 Crespino Joseph 2021 In Search of Another Country Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 3271 2 Dick Bernard 2014 The President s Ladies Jane Wyman and Nancy Davis University Press of Mississippi ISBN 978 1 62674 108 9 Eliot Marc 2008 Reagan The Hollywood Years Crown Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 307 44996 2 Evans Thomas 2006 The Education of Ronald Reagan The General Electric Years and the Untold Story of His Conversion to Conservatism Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 51107 0 Fialka John 1999 War by Other Means Economic Espionage in America W W Norton amp Company ISBN 978 0 393 31821 0 Friedrich Otto 1997 City of Nets A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940 s University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 20949 7 Gerstle Gary 2022 The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order America and the World in the Free Market Era Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 751964 6 Gormley Ken 2016 The Presidents and the Constitution A Living History New York University Press ISBN 978 1 4798 7207 7 Gould Lewis 2010 1968 The Election That Changed America Government Institutes ISBN 978 1 56663 910 1 Graebner Norman Burns Richard Siracusa Joseph 2008 Reagan Bush Gorbachev Revisiting the End of the Cold War Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 35241 6 Haney Lopez Ian 2014 Dog Whistle Politics How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 996427 7 Herring George 2008 From Colony to Superpower U S Foreign Relations Since 1776 Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 507822 0 Holmes Alison 2020 Multi Layered Diplomacy in a Global State The International Relations of California Springer Science Business Media ISBN 978 3 030 54132 3 Hunt Jonathan Miles Simon 2021 The Reagan Moment America and the World in the 1980s Cornell University Press ISBN 978 1 5017 6070 9 Johns Andrew 2015 A Companion to Ronald Reagan Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 118 60782 4 Karaagac John 2002 Between Promise and Policy Ronald Reagan and Conservative Reformism Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 0296 1 Kengor Paul 2004 God and Ronald Reagan A Spiritual Life HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 057141 2 Keyssar Alexander 2009 The Right to Vote The Contested History of Democracy in the United States Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 01014 1 Koop C Everett 1991 Koop The Memoirs of America s Family Doctor Random House ISBN 978 0 394 57626 8 Landesman Fred 2015 The John Wayne Filmography McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 1 4766 0922 5 Lettow Paul 2006 Ronald Reagan and His Quest to Abolish Nuclear Weapons Random House ISBN 978 0 8129 7326 6 Leuchtenburg William 2015 The American President From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517616 2 Longley Kyle Mayer Jeremy Schaller Michael Sloan John 2015 Deconstructing Reagan Conservative Mythology And America s Fortieth President Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 47324 4 Metzger Robert 1989 Reagan American Icon University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 1302 7 Murray Michael 1999 Encyclopedia of Television News Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 1 57356 108 2 Oliver Willard Marion Nancy 2010 Killing the President Assassinations Attempts and Rumored Attempts on U S Commanders in chief ABC Clio ISBN 978 0 313 36474 7 Patterson James 2005 Restless Giant The United States from Watergate to Bush V Gore Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 512216 9 Pemberton William 1997 Exit With Honor The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 0096 7 Reagan Ronald 1989 Speaking My Mind Selected Speeches Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 671 68857 8 Reagan Michael 2011 Denney Jim ed The New Reagan Revolution How Ronald Reagan s Principles Can Restore America s Greatness Macmillan Publishers ISBN 978 1 4299 8996 1 Rossinow Douglas 2015 The Reagan Era A History of the 1980s Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 53865 7 Shilts Randy 2000 1987 And the Band Played On Politics People and the AIDS Epidemic St Martin s Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 312 24135 3 Shull Steven 1993 A Kinder Gentler Racism The Reagan Bush Civil Rights Legacy M E Sharpe ISBN 978 1 56324 240 3 Skidmore Max 2008 Securing America s Future A Bold Plan to Preserve and Expand Social Security Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 6243 1 Smith Gary Scott 2006 Faith and the Presidency From George Washington to George W Bush Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 804115 3 Sondergaard Rasmus 2020 Reagan Congress and Human Rights Contesting Morality in US Foreign Policy Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 49563 9 Spitz Bob 2018 Reagan An American Journey Penguin Press ISBN 978 0 525 56027 2 Steuerle C Eugene 1992 The Tax Decade How Taxes Came to Dominate the Public Agenda Urban Institute ISBN 978 0 87766 523 6 Vaughn Stephen 1994 Ronald Reagan in Hollywood Movies and Politics Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 44080 6 Wawro Geoffrey 2010 Quicksand America s Pursuit of Power in the Middle East Penguin Books ISBN 978 1 101 19768 4 Weisberg Jacob 2016 Ronald Reagan The American Presidents Series The 40th President 1981 1989 Times Books ISBN 978 0 8050 9728 3 Woodard J 2012 Ronald Reagan A Biography ABC Clio ISBN 978 0 313 39639 7 Yager Edward 2006 Ronald Reagan s Journey Democrat to Republican Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 4421 5 Journal articles Clabaugh Gary 2004 The Educational Legacy of Ronald Reagan Educational Horizons 82 4 256 259 JSTOR 42926508 Eckman Richard 1989 Recent Developments in Credit Discrimination The Business Lawyer 44 4 1409 1418 JSTOR 40687524 Foster Carly 2008 The Welfare Queen Race Gender Class and Public Opinion Race Gender amp Class 15 3 4 162 179 JSTOR 41674659 Francis Donald 2012 Commentary Deadly AIDS policy failure by the highest levels of the US government A personal look back 30 years later for lessons to respond better to future epidemics Journal of Public Health Policy 33 3 290 300 doi 10 1057 jphp 2012 14 ISSN 1745 655X JSTOR 23253449 PMID 22895498 S2CID 205127920 Garrow David 2007 Review Picking up the Books The New Historiography of the Black Panther Party Reviews in American History 35 4 650 670 doi 10 1353 rah 2007 0068 JSTOR 30031608 S2CID 145069539 Gellin Bruce 1992 The Stalled Response to AIDS Issues in Science and Technology 9 1 24 28 JSTOR 43311244 Graetz Michael 2012 Energy Policy Past or Prologue Daedalus 141 2 31 44 JSTOR 23240277 Hayes Matthew Fortunato David Hibbing Matthew 2020 Race gender bias in white Americans preferences for gun availability Journal of Public Policy 41 4 818 834 doi 10 1017 S0143814X20000288 S2CID 234615039 Kazanjian Powel 2014 The AIDS Pandemic in Historic Perspective Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 69 3 351 382 JSTOR 24631705 Kim Young Soo Shin Joongbum 2017 Variance in Global Response to HIV AIDS between the United States and Japan Perception Media and Civil Society Japanese Journal of Political Science 18 4 514 535 doi 10 1017 S1468109917000159 Li Jinhua 2013 Analysis of the High Unemployment Rate in the USA World Review of Political Economy 4 2 218 229 doi 10 13169 worlrevipoliecon 4 2 0218 JSTOR 10 13169 worlrevipoliecon 4 2 0218 Lucas Richert 2009 Reagan Regulation and the FDA The US Food and Drug Administration s Response to HIV AIDS 1980 90 Canadian Journal of History 44 3 467 487 Onge Jeffrey 2017 Operation Coffeecup Ronald Reagan Rugged Individualism and the Debate over Socialized Medicine Rhetoric and Public Affairs 20 2 223 252 doi 10 14321 rhetpublaffa 20 2 0223 JSTOR 10 14321 rhetpublaffa 20 2 0223 S2CID 149379808 Pach Chester 2006 The Reagan Doctrine Principle Pragmatism and Policy Presidential Studies Quarterly 36 1 75 88 doi 10 1111 j 1741 5705 2006 00288 x JSTOR 27552748 Putnam Jackson 2006 Governor Reagan A Reappraisal California History 83 4 24 45 doi 10 2307 25161839 JSTOR 25161839 Reimler John 1999 The Rebirth of Racism in Education The Real Legacy of the Reagan Revolution Journal of Thought 34 2 31 40 JSTOR 42589574 Sieg Kent 1996 The 1968 Presidential Election and Peace in Vietnam Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 4 1062 1080 JSTOR 27551671 Sinai Allen 1992 Financial and Real Business Cycles Eastern Economic Journal 18 1 1 54 JSTOR 40325363 Sirin Cigdem 2011 From Nixon s War on Drugs to Obama s Drug Policies Today Presidential Progress in Addressing Racial Injustices and Disparities Race Gender amp Class 18 3 4 82 99 JSTOR 43496834 Vaughn Stephen 1995 The Moral Inheritance of a President Reagan and the Dixon Disciples of Christ Presidential Studies Quarterly 25 1 109 127 JSTOR 27551378 External linksRonald Reagan at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Official sites Ronald Reagan Foundation and Presidential Library Ronald Reagan on whitehouse gov The Ronald W Reagan Society of Eureka CollegeMedia Appearances on C SPAN Life Portrait of Ronald Reagan from American Presidents Life Portraits December 6 1999 Ronald Reagan Oral Histories at Miller Center Ronald Reagan s timeline at PBS Reagan Library s channel on YouTubeNews coverage Ronald Reagan collected news and commentary at The New York Times Ronald Reagan from The Washington Post Ronald Reagan at CNN Ronald Reagan collected news and commentary at The GuardianOther Ronald Reagan at IMDb a h, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.