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Sociality

February 16, 2024

"Social animal" redirects here. For other uses, see Social animal (disambiguation).

Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups (gregariousness) and form cooperative societies.

Herd of American bison at Genesee Park

Sociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures.[1] For example, when a mother wasp stays near her larvae in the nest, parasites are less likely to eat the larvae.[2] Biologists suspect that pressures from parasites and other predators selected this behavior in wasps of the family Vespidae.

This wasp behaviour evidences the most fundamental characteristic of animal sociality: parental investment. Parental investment is any expenditure of resources (time, energy, social capital) to benefit one's offspring. Parental investment detracts from a parent's capacity to invest in future reproduction and aid to kin (including other offspring). An animal that cares for its young but shows no other sociality traits is said to be subsocial.

An animal that exhibits a high degree of sociality is called a social animal. The highest degree of sociality recognized by sociobiologists is eusociality. A eusocial taxon is one that exhibits overlapping adult generations, reproductive division of labor, cooperative care of young, and—in the most refined cases—a biological caste system.

Presociality edit

Solitary animals such as the jaguar do not associate except for courtship and mating.[3] If an animal taxon shows a degree of sociality beyond courtship and mating, but lacks any of the characteristics of eusociality, it is said to be presocial.[4] Although presocial species are much more common than eusocial species, eusocial species have disproportionately large populations.[5]

The entomologist Charles D. Michener published a classification system for presociality in 1969, building on the earlier work of Suzanne Batra (who coined the words eusocial and quasisocial in 1966).[6][7] Michener used these terms in his study of bees, but also saw a need for additional classifications: subsocial, communal, and semisocial. In his use of these words, he did not generalize beyond insects. E. O. Wilson later refined Batra's definition of quasisocial.[8][9]

Subsociality edit

Subsociality is common in the animal kingdom. In subsocial taxa, parents care for their young for some length of time. Even if the period of care is very short, the animal is still described as subsocial. If adult animals associate with other adults, they are not called subsocial, but are ranked in some other classification according to their social behaviours. If occasionally associating or nesting with other adults is a taxon's most social behaviour, then members of those populations are said to be solitary but social. See Wilson (1971)[8] for definitions and further sub-classes of varieties of subsociality. Choe & Crespi (1997)[10] and Costa (2006)[11] give readable overviews.

Subsociality is widely distributed among the winged insects, and has evolved independently many times. Insect groups that contain at least some subsocial species are shown in bold italics on a phylogenetic tree of the Neoptera (note that many non-subsocial groups are omitted):[12]

Neoptera
Idioprothoraca

Embioptera (webspinners)[13][14]

Rhipineoptera
Dictyoptera

Blattodea (cockroaches, inc. eusocial termites)[15]

Mantodea (mantises)

Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets)[16]

Dermaptera (earwigs)[17][18][19]

Eumetabola
Parametabola

Zoraptera (angel insects)[20]

Paraneoptera
Condylognatha

Thysanoptera (thrips)[21]

Hemiptera (bugs)

Membracidae (treehoppers, thorn bugs)[22][23]

Pentatomidae (shield bugs)[24]

Reduviidae (predatory bugs)[25][26][27]

Tingidae (lace bugs)[28][29]

many families[30][31]

Psocoptera (bark lice)[32]

Endopterygota
Coleoptera[59]

Tenebrionidae (leaf/flower beetles)[47][48]

Erotylidae (pleasing fungus beetles)[49]

Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles)[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]

Neuropteroidea

Raphidioptera (snakeflies)

Neuroptera (lacewings, alderflies, and allies)

Antliophora (true flies, scorpionflies, fleas)

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)[60]

Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants, bees)[61] (apart from eusocial species)

Solitary but social edit

 
The mouse lemur is a nocturnal, solitary-but-social lemur native to Madagascar.

Solitary-but-social animals forage separately, but some individuals sleep in the same location or share nests. The home ranges of females usually overlap, whereas those of males do not. Males usually do not associate with other males, and male offspring are usually evicted upon maturity. However, this is opposite among cassowaries, for example. Among primates, this form of social organization is most common among the nocturnal strepsirrhine species and tarsiers. Solitary-but-social species include mouse lemurs, lorises, and orangutans.[62]

Some individual cetaceans adopt a solitary but social behavior, that is, they live apart from their own species but interact with humans. This behavior has been observed in species including bottlenose dolphin, common dolphin, striped dolphin, beluga, Risso's dolphin, and orca. Notable individuals include Pelorus Jack (1888–1912), Tião (1994–1995), and Fungie (1983–2020). At least 32 solitary-sociable dolphins were recorded between 2008 and 2019.[63]

Parasociality edit

Not to be confused with parasocial interaction.

Sociobiologists place communal, quasisocial, and semisocial animals into a meta-class: the parasocial. The two commonalities of parasocial taxa are the exhibition of parental investment, and socialization in a single, cooperative dwelling.[4]

Communal, quasisocial, and semisocial groups differ in a few ways. In a communal group, adults cohabit in a single nest site, but they each care for their own young. Quasisocial animals cohabit, but they also share the responsibilities of brood care. (This has been observed in some Hymenoptera and spider taxa,[64] as well as in some other invertebrates.)[4] A semisocial population has the features of communal and quasisocial populations, but they also have a biological caste system that delegates labor according to whether or not an individual is able to reproduce.

Beyond parasociality is eusociality. Eusocial insect societies have all the characteristics of a semisocial one, except overlapping generations of adults cohabit and share in the care of young. This means that more than one adult generation is alive at the same time, and that the older generations also care for the newest offspring.

Eusociality edit

Main articles: Eusociality and Evolution of eusociality
 
Giant honey bees cover the honeycomb of their nest.

Eusocial societies have overlapping adult generations, cooperative care of young, and division of reproductive labor. When organisms in a species are born with physical characteristics specific to a caste which never changes throughout their lives, this exemplifies the highest acknowledged degree of sociality. Eusociality has evolved in several orders of insects. Common examples of eusociality are from Hymenoptera (ants, bees, sawflies, and wasps) and Blattodea (infraorder Isoptera, termites), but some Coleoptera (such as the beetle Austroplatypus incompertus), Hemiptera (bugs such as Pemphigus spyrothecae), and Thysanoptera (thrips) are described as eusocial. Eusocial species that lack this criterion of morphological caste differentiation are said to be primitively eusocial.[4]

Two potential examples of primitively eusocial mammals are the naked mole-rat and the Damaraland mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis, respectively).[65] Both species are diploid and highly inbred, and they aid in raising their siblings and relatives, all of whom are born from a single reproductive queen; they usually live in harsh or limiting environments. A study conducted by O'Riain and Faulkes in 2008 suggests that, due to regular inbreeding avoidance, mole rats sometimes outbreed and establish new colonies when resources are sufficient.[66]

Eusociality has arisen among some crustaceans that live in groups in a restricted area. Synalpheus regalis are snapping shrimp that rely on fortress defense. They live in groups of closely related individuals, amidst tropical reefs and sponges.[67] Each group has one breeding female; she is protected by a large number of male defenders who are armed with enlarged snapping claws. As with other eusocial societies, there is a single shared living space for the colony members, and the non-breeding members act to defend it.[68]

Human eusociality edit

E. O. Wilson and Bert Hölldobler controversially[69] claimed in 2005 that humans exhibit sufficient sociality to be counted as a eusocial species, and that this enabled them to enjoy spectacular ecological success and dominance over ecological competitors.[70]

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ Ross, Kenneth G.; Matthews, Robert W. (1991). The Social Biology of Wasps. Ithaca: Comstock Publishing Associates. ISBN 9780801420351. OCLC 22184337.
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  4. ^ a b c d Gadagkar, Raghavendra (September 1987). (PDF). IUSSI Indian Chapter Newsletter. 1 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-05. Retrieved 2013-12-12.
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February 16, 2024
sociality, social, animal, redirects, here, other, uses, social, animal, disambiguation, degree, which, individuals, animal, population, tend, associate, social, groups, gregariousness, form, cooperative, societies, herd, american, bison, genesee, park, surviv. Social animal redirects here For other uses see Social animal disambiguation Sociality is the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups gregariousness and form cooperative societies Herd of American bison at Genesee ParkSociality is a survival response to evolutionary pressures 1 For example when a mother wasp stays near her larvae in the nest parasites are less likely to eat the larvae 2 Biologists suspect that pressures from parasites and other predators selected this behavior in wasps of the family Vespidae This wasp behaviour evidences the most fundamental characteristic of animal sociality parental investment Parental investment is any expenditure of resources time energy social capital to benefit one s offspring Parental investment detracts from a parent s capacity to invest in future reproduction and aid to kin including other offspring An animal that cares for its young but shows no other sociality traits is said to be subsocial An animal that exhibits a high degree of sociality is called a social animal The highest degree of sociality recognized by sociobiologists is eusociality A eusocial taxon is one that exhibits overlapping adult generations reproductive division of labor cooperative care of young and in the most refined cases a biological caste system Contents 1 Presociality 1 1 Subsociality 1 2 Solitary but social 1 3 Parasociality 2 Eusociality 2 1 Human eusociality 3 See also 4 ReferencesPresociality editSolitary animals such as the jaguar do not associate except for courtship and mating 3 If an animal taxon shows a degree of sociality beyond courtship and mating but lacks any of the characteristics of eusociality it is said to be presocial 4 Although presocial species are much more common than eusocial species eusocial species have disproportionately large populations 5 The entomologist Charles D Michener published a classification system for presociality in 1969 building on the earlier work of Suzanne Batra who coined the words eusocial and quasisocial in 1966 6 7 Michener used these terms in his study of bees but also saw a need for additional classifications subsocial communal and semisocial In his use of these words he did not generalize beyond insects E O Wilson later refined Batra s definition of quasisocial 8 9 Subsociality edit Subsociality is common in the animal kingdom In subsocial taxa parents care for their young for some length of time Even if the period of care is very short the animal is still described as subsocial If adult animals associate with other adults they are not called subsocial but are ranked in some other classification according to their social behaviours If occasionally associating or nesting with other adults is a taxon s most social behaviour then members of those populations are said to be solitary but social See Wilson 1971 8 for definitions and further sub classes of varieties of subsociality Choe amp Crespi 1997 10 and Costa 2006 11 give readable overviews Subsociality is widely distributed among the winged insects and has evolved independently many times Insect groups that contain at least some subsocial species are shown in bold italics on a phylogenetic tree of the Neoptera note that many non subsocial groups are omitted 12 Neoptera Idioprothoraca Embioptera webspinners 13 14 Rhipineoptera Dictyoptera Blattodea cockroaches inc eusocial termites 15 Mantodea mantises Orthoptera grasshoppers crickets 16 Dermaptera earwigs 17 18 19 Eumetabola Parametabola Zoraptera angel insects 20 Paraneoptera Condylognatha Thysanoptera thrips 21 Hemiptera bugs Membracidae treehoppers thorn bugs 22 23 Pentatomidae shield bugs 24 Reduviidae predatory bugs 25 26 27 Tingidae lace bugs 28 29 many families 30 31 Psocoptera bark lice 32 Endopterygota Coleoptera 59 Staphylinidae rove beetles 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Silphidae carrion beetles 40 Passalidae bessbugs 41 42 43 44 Scarabaeidae scarabs 45 46 Tenebrionidae leaf flower beetles 47 48 Erotylidae pleasing fungus beetles 49 Chrysomelidae leaf beetles 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Neuropteroidea Raphidioptera snakeflies Neuroptera lacewings alderflies and allies Antliophora true flies scorpionflies fleas Trichoptera caddisflies Lepidoptera butterflies and moths 60 Hymenoptera sawflies wasps ants bees 61 apart from eusocial species Solitary but social edit nbsp The mouse lemur is a nocturnal solitary but social lemur native to Madagascar Solitary but social animals forage separately but some individuals sleep in the same location or share nests The home ranges of females usually overlap whereas those of males do not Males usually do not associate with other males and male offspring are usually evicted upon maturity However this is opposite among cassowaries for example Among primates this form of social organization is most common among the nocturnal strepsirrhine species and tarsiers Solitary but social species include mouse lemurs lorises and orangutans 62 Some individual cetaceans adopt a solitary but social behavior that is they live apart from their own species but interact with humans This behavior has been observed in species including bottlenose dolphin common dolphin striped dolphin beluga Risso s dolphin and orca Notable individuals include Pelorus Jack 1888 1912 Tiao 1994 1995 and Fungie 1983 2020 At least 32 solitary sociable dolphins were recorded between 2008 and 2019 63 Parasociality edit Not to be confused with parasocial interaction Sociobiologists place communal quasisocial and semisocial animals into a meta class the parasocial The two commonalities of parasocial taxa are the exhibition of parental investment and socialization in a single cooperative dwelling 4 Communal quasisocial and semisocial groups differ in a few ways In a communal group adults cohabit in a single nest site but they each care for their own young Quasisocial animals cohabit but they also share the responsibilities of brood care This has been observed in some Hymenoptera and spider taxa 64 as well as in some other invertebrates 4 A semisocial population has the features of communal and quasisocial populations but they also have a biological caste system that delegates labor according to whether or not an individual is able to reproduce Beyond parasociality is eusociality Eusocial insect societies have all the characteristics of a semisocial one except overlapping generations of adults cohabit and share in the care of young This means that more than one adult generation is alive at the same time and that the older generations also care for the newest offspring Eusociality editMain articles Eusociality and Evolution of eusociality nbsp Giant honey bees cover the honeycomb of their nest Eusocial societies have overlapping adult generations cooperative care of young and division of reproductive labor When organisms in a species are born with physical characteristics specific to a caste which never changes throughout their lives this exemplifies the highest acknowledged degree of sociality Eusociality has evolved in several orders of insects Common examples of eusociality are from Hymenoptera ants bees sawflies and wasps and Blattodea infraorder Isoptera termites but some Coleoptera such as the beetle Austroplatypus incompertus Hemiptera bugs such as Pemphigus spyrothecae and Thysanoptera thrips are described as eusocial Eusocial species that lack this criterion of morphological caste differentiation are said to be primitively eusocial 4 Two potential examples of primitively eusocial mammals are the naked mole rat and the Damaraland mole rat Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis respectively 65 Both species are diploid and highly inbred and they aid in raising their siblings and relatives all of whom are born from a single reproductive queen they usually live in harsh or limiting environments A study conducted by O Riain and Faulkes in 2008 suggests that due to regular inbreeding avoidance mole rats sometimes outbreed and establish new colonies when resources are sufficient 66 Eusociality has arisen among some crustaceans that live in groups in a restricted area Synalpheus regalis are snapping shrimp that rely on fortress defense They live in groups of closely related individuals amidst tropical reefs and sponges 67 Each group has one breeding female she is protected by a large number of male defenders who are armed with enlarged snapping claws As with other eusocial societies there is a single shared living space for the colony members and the non breeding members act to defend it 68 Human eusociality edit E O Wilson and Bert Holldobler controversially 69 claimed in 2005 that humans exhibit sufficient sociality to be counted as a eusocial species and that this enabled them to enjoy spectacular ecological success and dominance over ecological competitors 70 See also edit nbsp Animals portal nbsp Biology portal nbsp Evolutionary biology portalAggregation ethology Collectivism and individualism Dominance hierarchy Group cohesiveness Group selection Individualism Interdependence Nesting instinct Prosocial behavior Reciprocal altruism Social behavior Social Spirit StigmergyReferences edit Smelser Neil J Baltes Paul B eds 2001 Evolution of Sociality International Encyclopedia of the Social amp Behavioral Sciences New York Elsevier p 14506 ISBN 9780080430768 OCLC 47869490 Ross Kenneth G Matthews Robert W 1991 The Social Biology of Wasps Ithaca Comstock Publishing Associates ISBN 9780801420351 OCLC 22184337 Cavalcanti Sandra M C Gese Eric M 14 August 2009 Spatial Ecology and Social Interactions of Jaguars Panthera Onca in the Southern Pantanal Brazil Journal of Mammalogy Oxford University Press OUP 90 4 935 945 doi 10 1644 08 mamm a 188 1 a b c d Gadagkar Raghavendra September 1987 What are social insects PDF IUSSI Indian Chapter Newsletter 1 2 Archived from the original PDF on 2012 01 05 Retrieved 2013 12 12 Nowak Martin A Tamita Corina E Wilson Edward O 2010 The Evolution of Eusociality Nature 466 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PMID 9515053 S2CID 11129821 Burda H Honeycutt Begall S Locker Grutjen O Scharff A 2000 Are naked and common mole rats eusocial and if so why Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 47 5 293 303 doi 10 1007 s002650050669 S2CID 35627708 O Riain M J Faulkes C G 2008 African Mole Rats Eusociality Relatedness and Ecological Constraints Ecology of Social Evolution Springer pp 207 223 doi 10 1007 978 3 540 75957 7 10 ISBN 978 3 540 75956 0 Duffy J Emmett Cheryl L Morrison Ruben Rios 2000 Multiple origins of eusociality among sponge dwelling shrimps Synalpheus Evolution 54 2 503 516 doi 10 1111 j 0014 3820 2000 tb00053 x PMID 10937227 S2CID 1088840 J Emmett Duffy 1998 On the frequency of eusociality in snapping shrimps Decapoda Alpheidae with description of a second eusocial species Bulletin of Marine Science 63 2 387 400 Angier Natalie 2012 Edward O Wilson s New Take on Human Nature Smithsonian Magazine April 2012 Retrieved 19 December 2016 Wilson E O Holldobler Bert 2005 Eusociality Origin and consequences PNAS 102 38 13367 13371 Bibcode 2005PNAS 10213367W doi 10 1073 pnas 0505858102 PMC 1224642 PMID 16157878 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sociality amp oldid 1202228970, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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