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Neo-Stalinism

Neo-Stalinism is the promotion of positive views of Joseph Stalin's role in history, the partial re-establishing of Stalin's policies on certain or all issues, and nostalgia for the Stalinist period. Neo-Stalinism overlaps significantly with neo-Sovietism and Soviet nostalgia. Various definitions of the term have been given over the years.

Neo-Stalinism is being actively promoted by Eurasianist currents in various post-Soviet states and official rehabilitation of Stalin has occurred in Russia under Vladimir Putin.[1][2] Eurasianist philosopher Aleksandr Dugin, an influential neo-Stalinist ideologue in Russian elite circles, has praised Stalin as the “greatest personality in Russian history”, comparing him to Ivan the Terrible who established the Tsardom of Russia.[3]

Definitions edit

 
May Day procession with Joseph Stalin's portrait in London, 2010

The American Trotskyist Hal Draper used "neo-Stalinism" in 1948 to refer to a new political ideology—new development in Soviet policy, which he defined as a reactionary trend whose beginning was associated with the Popular front period of the mid-1930s, writing: "The ideologists of neo-Stalinism are merely the tendrils shot ahead by the phenomena – fascism and Stalinism – which outline the social and political form of a neo-barbarism".[4]

During the 1960s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) distinguished between Stalinism and neo-Stalinism in that "[t]he Soviet leaders have not reverted to two extremes of Stalin's rule – one-man dictatorship and mass terror. For this reason, their policy deserves the label "neo-Stalinist" rather than "Stalinist".[5]

Katerina Clark, describing an anti-Khrushchev, pro-Stalin current in Soviet literary world during the 1960s, described the work of "neo-Stalinist" writers as harking back to "the Stalin era and its leaders ... as a time of unity, strong rule and national honor".[6] According to historian Roy Medvedev, writing in 1975, the term describes the rehabilitation of Joseph Stalin, identification with him and the associated political system, nostalgia for the Stalinist period in Russia's history, restoration of Stalinist policies and a return to the administrative terror of the Stalinist period while avoiding some of the worst excesses.[7] Academic Katerina Clark defines Neo-Stalinism as praising "the Stalin era and its leaders ... as a time of unity, strong rule and national honor".[8]

Political geographer Denis J. B. Shaw, writing in 1999, considered the Soviet Union as neo-Stalinist until the post-1985 period of transition to capitalism. He identified neo-Stalinism as a political system with planned economy and highly developed military–industrial complex.[9]

Philosopher Frederick Copleston, writing in 2003, portrays neo-Stalinism as a "Slavophile emphasis on Russia and her history", saying that "what is called neo-Stalinism is not exclusively an expression of a desire to control, dominate, repress and dragoon; it is also the expression of a desire that Russia, while making use of western science and technology, should avoid contamination by western 'degenerate' attitudes and pursue her own path".[10]

According to former General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev, using the term in 2006, it more broadly refers to a moderated Stalinist state without large-scale repressions, but with persecution of political opponents and total control of all political activities in the country.[11]

Stalinism and anti-Stalinism edit

In his monograph Reconsidering Stalinism, historian Henry Reichman discusses differing and evolving perspectives on the use of the term Stalinism, saying that "in scholarly usage 'Stalinism' describes here a movement, there an economic, political, or social system, elsewhere a type of political practice or belief-system". He references historian Stephen Cohen's work reassessing Soviet history after Stalin as a "continuing tension between anti-Stalinist reformism and neo-Stalinist conservatism", observing that such a characterization requires a "coherent" definition of Stalinism—whose essential features Cohen leaves undefined.[12]

Alleged neo-Stalinist regimes edit

Some historians and political scientists have classified the régime of Romania under Nicolae Ceaușescu (1965–1989) as "neo-Stalinist".[13] Albanian leader Enver Hoxha (in power 1943 to 1985) described himself as neo-Stalinist, and his ideology – Hoxhaism – features some Stalinist elements.[14][need quotation to verify] After Stalin's death (1953), Hoxha denounced Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev and accused him of revisionism in the mid-1950s – the differences eventually caused Albania to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact in 1968.

The Khalq regime in Afghanistan (April 1978 – December 1979) has been described as neo-Stalinist with its leader Hafizullah Amin, who kept a portrait of Joseph Stalin on his desk. When Soviet officials criticized him for his brutality, Amin replied "Comrade Stalin showed us how to build socialism in a backward country."[15] Its policies shocked the country and contributed to starting the Soviet–Afghan War of 1979–1989 and subsequent Afghan Civil War.[16]

Some Western sources have characterised North Korea as a neo-Stalinist state;[17] North Korea adopted a modified Marxism–Leninism into Juche as its official ideology in the 1970s, with references to Marxism–Leninism altogether scrapped from the revised state constitution in 1992, following by references to communism in 2009.[18]

Ba'athist Syria has long been considered to be a neo-Stalinist state; when Hafez al-Assad established a police state modelled after Stalin's rule during 1970s. Assad's military dictatorship borrowed many features of Stalinism; such as a brutal security apparatus operating extrajudicially, mass-surveillance in the society through an invasive secret police and a pervasive state-sponsored personality cult centred around the ruling family.[19][20] Assad dynasty ruled Syria by vicious methods of violence throughout its reign, characterized by state terror, massacres, aerial bombing of cities, military clampdowns, etc.; which has resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths.[21][20]

In the Soviet Union after Stalin's death, Georgi Malenkov, one of the new leadership group (Premier of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1955), also headlined new ideologies. He publicly began to advocate for peace and wanted to reduce tensions by negotiating Cold-War issues, and expressing a desire to get along with the West. He called for meetings between the East and West in hopes of reducing forces in Europe, while also advocating for a settlement of the Korean situation and for German reunification.[22]

Some socialist groups like the Trotskyist Alliance for Workers' Liberty characterise modern China as "neo-Stalinist".[23] By the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, Turkmenistan's Saparmurat Niyazov non-communist regime was sometimes considered a neo-Stalinist one,[24][25] especially in respect of Niyazov's cult of personality.[26] Islam Karimov's non-communist authoritarian regime in Uzbekistan from 1989 to 2016 has also been described as "neo-Stalinist".[27][28]

Soviet Union edit

In February 1956, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality surrounding his predecessor Joseph Stalin and condemned crimes committed during the Great Purge. Khrushchev gave his four-hour speech, "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", condemning the Stalin regime. Historian Robert V. Daniels holds that "neo-Stalinism prevailed politically for more than a quarter of a century after Stalin himself left the scene".[29] Following the Trotskyist comprehension of Stalin's policies as a deviation from the path of Marxism–Leninism, George Novack described Khrushchev's politics as guided by a "neo-Stalinist line", its principle being that "the socialist forces can conquer all opposition even in the imperialist centers, not by the example of internal class power, but by the external power of Soviet example",[30] explaining as such: "Khrushchev's innovations at the Twentieth Congress ... made official doctrine of Stalin's revisionist practices [as] the new program discards the Leninist conception of imperialism and its corresponding revolutionary class struggle policies."[31] American broadcasts into Europe during the late 1950s described a political struggle between the "old Stalinists" and "the neo-Stalinist Khrushchev".[32][33][34]

In October 1964, Khrushchev was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev, who remained in office until his death in November 1982. During his reign, Stalin's controversies were de-emphasized. Andres Laiapea connects this with "the exile of many dissidents, especially Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn",[35] though whereas Laiapea writes that "[t]he rehabilitation of Stalin went hand in hand with the establishment of a personality cult around Brezhnev",[35] political sociologist Viktor Zaslavsky characterizes Brezhnev's period as one of "neo-Stalinist compromise" as the essentials of the political atmosphere associated with Stalin were retained without a personality cult.[36] According to Alexander Dubček, "[t]he advent of Brezhnev’s regime heralded the advent of neo-Stalinism, and the measures taken against Czechoslovakia in 1968 were the final consolidation of the neo-Stalinist forces in the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary, and other countries".[37] American political scientist Seweryn Bialer has described Soviet policy as turning towards neo-Stalinism after Brezhnev's death.[38]

After Mikhail Gorbachev took over in March 1985, he introduced the policy of glasnost in public discussions to liberalize the Soviet system. Within six years, the Soviet Union fell apart. Still, Gorbachev admitted in 2000 that "[e]ven now in Russia we have the same problem. It isn't so easy to give up the inheritance we received from Stalinism and Neo-Stalinism, when people were turned into cogs in the wheel, and those in power made all the decisions for them".[39] Gorbachev's domestic policies have been described as neo-Stalinist by some Western sources.[40][41][42]

Post-Soviet Russia edit

The most fervent proponents of neo-Stalinism and rehabilitation of Stalin in post-Soviet Russia include the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF). With the approval of Putin government, CPRF has installed hundreds of monuments glorifying Stalin all across Russia since the 2000s. CPRF has been organizing annual ceremonies at the grave of Stalin in Kremlin Wall Necropolis to commemorate his birthday.[43][44]

 
Vladimir Putin with CPRF chief Gennady Zyuganov in the Kremlin. Both have been influential proponents of Neo-Stalinism in post-Soviet Russia.

Formed in 1992 by anti-Gorbachev hardliners of the CPSU, CPRF became a vehement opponent of 1990s privatization policies and has denounced the current boundaries of Russian Federation as "unnatural". Blaming Russia's decline on Western capitalism, CPRF leader Gennady Zyuganov proposes the revival of Soviet Union to restore Russian prestige. The party advocates communist Eurasianism, which believes in the construction of a new "socialist Eurasian homeland" through re-incorporation of post-Soviet countries; imagining the new state as the harbinger "for remaking history" and lead the Socialist Bloc once again. Through its embracal of Russian nationalism, the party portrays communism as an organic expression or communal soul ("sobornost") of "the age-old Russian traditions of community and collectivism" which distinguishes Russian World from the Western world and its "bourgeois values and market individualism". CPRF believes that the revival of Russia's "Derzhava" (super-power status) is dependent on instilling Russians with Soviet patriotism and neo-Stalinism; marked by glorification of Bolshevik Revolution and technological prowess of Soviet Union, promotion of myths around "Great Patriotic War" and adulation of the Stalinist era.[45][46]

Russia under Vladimir Putin underwent an extensive state-backed programme of Re-Stalinization; through mass media, cinema, academia, educational institutions, military propaganda and historiography. Sociologist Dina Khapaeva asserts that a "social consensus" has emerged amongst the majority of Russian citizens, academics and authorities in rehabilitating Stalin.[44][47] In 2014, Russian Duma passed a controversial "memory law" criminalizing discussions of atrocities committed during the Stalinist era or making comparisons between Nazism and Stalinism, under the pretexts of combating Neo-Nazism and defending the "historical memory of events which took place during the Second World War". Despite strong condemnation from international historical societies across the world, the bill was passed and inserted as an article into the Russian Criminal Code. The bill was supported by the ruling United Russia Party and allied Communist Party.[44][47]

With the outbreak of Russo-Ukrainian war in 2014, neo-Stalinism underwent an explosive growth across the Russian society with the firm backing of the state. Vladimir Putin has personally endorsed the re-emergence of the Stalin cult, portraying the Soviet dictator as a visionary who saved the world from European fascism and led Russians to victory during the Second World War.[48][49] Various busts and portraits of Stalin have been installed in territories controlled by Russian-backed separatists in Eastern Ukraine.[50]

Russian Communist Party has been one of the biggest backers of invasion of Ukraine ordered by Putin in 2022, viewing the invasion as being aligned with their neo-Stalinist world-view.[43]

Public views edit

 
A Saint Petersburg bus with Stalin's portrait which was included in a montage that commemorated the Soviet Union's victory in the Second World War

Levada Center has found that public perception of the Stalinist era has become increasingly favourable of the Stalinist era over recent decades. This has increased from 18% in 1996 to 40% in 2016 which has coincided with his rehabilitation by the Putin government for the purpose of social patriotism and militarisation efforts.[51]

As of 2008, more than half of Russians view Stalin positively and many support restoration of his monuments either dismantled by leaders or destroyed by rioting Russians during the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union.[52][53] According to the Levada polling centre, Stalin's popularity marks have tripled among Russians in the last twenty years and the trend had accelerated since Vladimir Putin came to power.[54] From 1999 to 2023, 95 monuments to Stalin have been erected. Their total number reached 110, including 22 full-scale statues.[55]

In April 2019, a Levada center poll revealed that 70% of Russians approve of Stalin's role in Russian history, the highest ever recorded, and that 51% viewed Stalin in a positive light.[56]

According to Andrew Osborn, statues of Stalin "have begun to reappear" and a museum in his honor has been opened in Volgograd (former Stalingrad).[54] Steve Gutterman from the Associated Press quoted Vladimir Lavrov (deputy director of Moscow's Institute of Russian History) as saying that about ten Stalin statues have been restored or erected in Russia in recent years.[57] In December 2013, Putin described Stalin as no worse than the "cunning" English 17th-century military dictator Oliver Cromwell.[58]

School education edit

 
Marxist–Leninist activists laying wreaths at Stalin's grave in 2009

In June 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin organized a conference for history teachers to promote a high school teachers manual called A Modern History of Russia: 1945–2006: A Manual for History Teachers, which according to Irina Flige (office director of human rights organization Memorial) portrays Stalin as a cruel yet successful leader who "acted rationally". She claims it justifies Stalin's terror as an "instrument of development".[59][60] Putin said at the conference that the new manual will "help instill young people with a sense of pride in Russia", and he posited that Stalin's purges pale in comparison to the United States' atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At a memorial for Stalin's victims, Putin said that while Russians should "keep alive the memory of tragedies of the past, we should focus on all that is best in the country".[61]

The official policy of the Russian Federation is that teachers and schools are free to choose history textbooks from the list of the admitted ones, which includes a total of forty-eight history text books for grade school and twenty-four history textbooks by various authors for high school.[62][63]

In September 2009, the Education Ministry of Russia announced that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago, a book once banned in the Soviet Union for the detailed account on the system of prison camps, became required reading for Russian high-school students. Prior to that, Russian students studied Solzhenitsyn's short story Matryonin dvor and his novella One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, an account of a single day in the life of a gulag prisoner.[64][65]

History studies edit

In 2009, it was reported that the Russian government was drawing up plans to criminalize statements and acts that deny the Soviet Union's victory over fascism in World War II or its role in liberating Eastern Europe.[66] In May 2009, President Dmitry Medvedev described the Soviet Union during the war as "our country" and set up the Historical Truth Commission to act against what the Kremlin terms falsifications of Russian history.[66][67][68]

On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegation at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe's (OSCE) annual parliamentary meeting stormed out after a resolution was passed equating the roles of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in starting World War II, drafted by delegates from Lithuania and Slovenia.[citation needed] The resolution called for a day of remembrance for victims of both Stalinism and Nazism to be marked every 23 August, the date in 1939 when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of neutrality with a secret protocol that divided parts of Central and Eastern Europe between their spheres of influence.

Konstantin Kosachev, head of the foreign relations committee of Russia's lower house of parliament, called the resolution "nothing but an attempt to rewrite the history of World War II". Alexander Kozlovsky, the head of the Russian delegation, called the resolution an "insulting anti-Russian attack" and added that "[t]hose who place Nazism and Stalinism on the same level forget that it is the Stalin-era Soviet Union that made the biggest sacrifices and the biggest contribution to liberating Europe from fascism".[69][70] Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.[71]

Kurskaya station controversy edit

At the end of August 2009 a gilded slogan, a fragment of the Soviet national anthem was re-inscribed at the Moscow Metro's Kursky station beneath eight socialist realist statues, reading: "Stalin reared us on loyalty to the people. He inspired us to labour and heroism". The slogan had been removed in the 1950s during Nikita Khrushchev's period of de-Stalinization. Another restored slogan reads: "For the Motherland! For Stalin!".

Restoring the slogans was ordered by the head of the metro Dmitry Gayev. He explained his decision with restoring the historic view of the station: "My attitude towards this story is simple: this inscription was at the station Kurskaya since its foundation, and it will stay there".[72]

The chairman of a human rights group Memorial Arseny Roginsky stated: "This is the fruit of creeping re-Stalinization and ... they [the authorities] want to use his name as a symbol of a powerful authoritarian state which the whole world is afraid of". Other human rights organizations and survivors of Stalin's repressions called for the decorations to be removed in a letter to Moscow Mayor Yury Luzhkov.[54][72]

Mikhail Shvydkoy, the special representative of the President of Russia for the international cultural exchange, responded to the controversy: "In my opinion, the question whether such inscriptions should exist in the Moscow underground is not the question in the competence of neither the Mayor of Moscow, nor even the head of the Moscow underground. One can't take decisions that may break the society that's heated up and politicized even without that. It seems to me, that the presence of the lines about Stalin in the hall of the metro station Kurskaya is the question that should become the matter of discussion for the city denizens."[72] Shvydkoy commented that what Stalin did in respect of the Soviet and in particular Russian people cannot be justified and he does not even deserve a neutral attitude, much less praise. However, he said "it's necessary to remember your own butchers" and without that memory they can "grow among us again". Shvydkoy said that the question is that the society must remember that "Stalin is a tyrant". While the inscription in the Metro should merely be read correctly, "read with the certain attitude to Stalin's personality".[72] Shvydkoy also said that if the hall of the station Kurskaya is a monument of architecture and culture, the inscription must be left because "to knock down inscriptions is vandalism".[72]

Opinions edit

Scholar Dmitri Furman, director of the Commonwealth of Independent States Research Center at the Russian Academy's of Sciences Institute of Europe, sees the Russian regime's neo-Stalinism as a "non-ideological Stalinism" that "seeks control for the sake of control, not for the sake of world revolution".[73]

In 2005, Communist politician Gennady Zyuganov said that Russia "should once again render honor to Stalin for his role in building socialism and saving human civilization from the Nazi plague".[74] Zyuganov has said "Great Stalin does not need rehabilitation" and has proposed changing the name of Volgograd back to Stalingrad.[75] In 2010, the Communist leader stated: "Today ... the greatness of Stalin's era is self-evident even to his most furious haters ... We liberated the whole world!".[76]

In 2008, Dmitry Puchkov accused the authorities of raising a wave of anti-Stalin propaganda to distract the attention of the population from topical troubles. In a December 2008 interview, he was asked a question: "Dmitry Yurievich, what do you think, is the new wave of 'unveiling the horrors of Stalinism' on the TV related to the approaching consequences of the crisis or is it merely another [mental] exacerbation?". He replied: "The wave is being raised to distract opinion of the population from the up-to-date troubles. You don't have to think of your pension, you don't have to think of the education, what matters are the horrors of Stalinism".[77]

Russian writer Sergey Kara-Murza believes that there is a trend to demonize Russia that is common not only in Poland, Ukraine and the Czech Republic, but in Russia as well. He contends that it is a good business and that it was a good business previously to demonize the Soviet Union: "Why do we need to take offense against Poles, if we in our country have the same (and for us – sufficiently more dangerous and hazardous) cohort of pundits, philosophers, historians who enjoy the maximal favourable regime set by the state and do the same things as Poles do?"[78]

In 2016, political scientist Thomas Sherlock claimed that Russia has pulled back somewhat on its neo-Stalinist policies, commenting: "The Kremlin is unwilling to develop and impose on society historical narratives which promote chauvinism, hypernationalism, and re-Stalinization. Although such an agenda has some support among incumbent elites and in society, it remains subordinate. ... Instead, the regime is now extending support to ... a critical assessment of the Soviet era, including Stalinism. This emerging criticism of the Soviet past serves a number of important goals of the leadership, including re-engagement with the West. To this end, the Kremlin recently approved new history textbooks critical of the Soviet past as well as a significant program that memorializes the victims of Soviet repressions."[79]

United States edit

Sameera Khan, a former Miss New Jersey and reporter for RT, made a series of tweets glorifying Stalin and the gulag system and calling for his return. Khan was harshly criticized for expressing these views, including by RT itself, and the controversy led to her apologizing and being suspended from the network.[80][81]

Star Wars Andor series showrunner Tony Gilroy based his storytelling about the character Cassian Andor on Joseph Stalin. Of the star of the series, Diego Luna, Gilroy remarked to Rolling Stone, "If you look at a picture of Young Stalin, isn't he glamorous? He looks like Diego!" [82]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Khapaeva, Dina. "Triumphant memory of the perpetrators: Putin's politics of re-Stalinization." Communist & Post-Communist Studies (March 2016), pp 61–73. celebrations of Stalin's memory in Russia today. online
  • Khapaeva, Dina. "Historical memory in post-Soviet Gothic society." Social Research (2009): 359–394. online
  • Sherlock, Thomas. "Russian politics and the Soviet past: Reassessing Stalin and Stalinism under Vladimir Putin." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 49.1 (2016): 45–59. online
  • Torbakov, Igor. "History, Memory and National Identity: Understanding the politics of history and memory wars in post-Soviet lands." Demokratizatsiya 19.3 (2011): 209+ online 10 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  • Tumarkin, Maria M. "The Long Life of Stalinism: Reflections on the Aftermath of Totalitarianism and Social Memory." Journal of social history 44.4 (2011): 1047–1061.

External links edit

  • Agence France-Presse, 2015. Stalin portraits emerge in heart of Ukraine's rebel-held territory. 19 October The Guardian.
  • Russian history in the classroom 30 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  • Time Magazine, 1970
  • Moscow: Stalin 2.0 – video report by Global Post
  • The rehabilitation of Stalin  – an ideological cornerstone of the new Kremlin politics World Socialist Web Site, 2000
  • Eurasia Daily Monitor, 2005
  • By Victor Yasmann, RFE/RL, 21 December 2006
  • Outrage at revision of Stalin's legacy 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, by Andrew Osborn, 21 February 2006
  • Russia: Gorbachev Speaks About Democracy, Authoritarianism, RFE/RL, 1 March 2006

stalinism, promotion, positive, views, joseph, stalin, role, history, partial, establishing, stalin, policies, certain, issues, nostalgia, stalinist, period, overlaps, significantly, with, sovietism, soviet, nostalgia, various, definitions, term, have, been, g. Neo Stalinism is the promotion of positive views of Joseph Stalin s role in history the partial re establishing of Stalin s policies on certain or all issues and nostalgia for the Stalinist period Neo Stalinism overlaps significantly with neo Sovietism and Soviet nostalgia Various definitions of the term have been given over the years Neo Stalinism is being actively promoted by Eurasianist currents in various post Soviet states and official rehabilitation of Stalin has occurred in Russia under Vladimir Putin 1 2 Eurasianist philosopher Aleksandr Dugin an influential neo Stalinist ideologue in Russian elite circles has praised Stalin as the greatest personality in Russian history comparing him to Ivan the Terrible who established the Tsardom of Russia 3 Contents 1 Definitions 1 1 Stalinism and anti Stalinism 2 Alleged neo Stalinist regimes 3 Soviet Union 4 Post Soviet Russia 4 1 Public views 4 2 School education 4 3 History studies 4 4 Kurskaya station controversy 4 5 Opinions 5 United States 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksDefinitions edit nbsp May Day procession with Joseph Stalin s portrait in London 2010 The American Trotskyist Hal Draper used neo Stalinism in 1948 to refer to a new political ideology new development in Soviet policy which he defined as a reactionary trend whose beginning was associated with the Popular front period of the mid 1930s writing The ideologists of neo Stalinism are merely the tendrils shot ahead by the phenomena fascism and Stalinism which outline the social and political form of a neo barbarism 4 During the 1960s the Central Intelligence Agency CIA distinguished between Stalinism and neo Stalinism in that t he Soviet leaders have not reverted to two extremes of Stalin s rule one man dictatorship and mass terror For this reason their policy deserves the label neo Stalinist rather than Stalinist 5 Katerina Clark describing an anti Khrushchev pro Stalin current in Soviet literary world during the 1960s described the work of neo Stalinist writers as harking back to the Stalin era and its leaders as a time of unity strong rule and national honor 6 According to historian Roy Medvedev writing in 1975 the term describes the rehabilitation of Joseph Stalin identification with him and the associated political system nostalgia for the Stalinist period in Russia s history restoration of Stalinist policies and a return to the administrative terror of the Stalinist period while avoiding some of the worst excesses 7 Academic Katerina Clark defines Neo Stalinism as praising the Stalin era and its leaders as a time of unity strong rule and national honor 8 Political geographer Denis J B Shaw writing in 1999 considered the Soviet Union as neo Stalinist until the post 1985 period of transition to capitalism He identified neo Stalinism as a political system with planned economy and highly developed military industrial complex 9 Philosopher Frederick Copleston writing in 2003 portrays neo Stalinism as a Slavophile emphasis on Russia and her history saying that what is called neo Stalinism is not exclusively an expression of a desire to control dominate repress and dragoon it is also the expression of a desire that Russia while making use of western science and technology should avoid contamination by western degenerate attitudes and pursue her own path 10 According to former General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev using the term in 2006 it more broadly refers to a moderated Stalinist state without large scale repressions but with persecution of political opponents and total control of all political activities in the country 11 Stalinism and anti Stalinism edit In his monograph Reconsidering Stalinism historian Henry Reichman discusses differing and evolving perspectives on the use of the term Stalinism saying that in scholarly usage Stalinism describes here a movement there an economic political or social system elsewhere a type of political practice or belief system He references historian Stephen Cohen s work reassessing Soviet history after Stalin as a continuing tension between anti Stalinist reformism and neo Stalinist conservatism observing that such a characterization requires a coherent definition of Stalinism whose essential features Cohen leaves undefined 12 Alleged neo Stalinist regimes editSome historians and political scientists have classified the regime of Romania under Nicolae Ceaușescu 1965 1989 as neo Stalinist 13 Albanian leader Enver Hoxha in power 1943 to 1985 described himself as neo Stalinist and his ideology Hoxhaism features some Stalinist elements 14 need quotation to verify After Stalin s death 1953 Hoxha denounced Stalin s successor Nikita Khrushchev and accused him of revisionism in the mid 1950s the differences eventually caused Albania to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 The Khalq regime in Afghanistan April 1978 December 1979 has been described as neo Stalinist with its leader Hafizullah Amin who kept a portrait of Joseph Stalin on his desk When Soviet officials criticized him for his brutality Amin replied Comrade Stalin showed us how to build socialism in a backward country 15 Its policies shocked the country and contributed to starting the Soviet Afghan War of 1979 1989 and subsequent Afghan Civil War 16 Some Western sources have characterised North Korea as a neo Stalinist state 17 North Korea adopted a modified Marxism Leninism into Juche as its official ideology in the 1970s with references to Marxism Leninism altogether scrapped from the revised state constitution in 1992 following by references to communism in 2009 18 Ba athist Syria has long been considered to be a neo Stalinist state when Hafez al Assad established a police state modelled after Stalin s rule during 1970s Assad s military dictatorship borrowed many features of Stalinism such as a brutal security apparatus operating extrajudicially mass surveillance in the society through an invasive secret police and a pervasive state sponsored personality cult centred around the ruling family 19 20 Assad dynasty ruled Syria by vicious methods of violence throughout its reign characterized by state terror massacres aerial bombing of cities military clampdowns etc which has resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths 21 20 In the Soviet Union after Stalin s death Georgi Malenkov one of the new leadership group Premier of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1955 also headlined new ideologies He publicly began to advocate for peace and wanted to reduce tensions by negotiating Cold War issues and expressing a desire to get along with the West He called for meetings between the East and West in hopes of reducing forces in Europe while also advocating for a settlement of the Korean situation and for German reunification 22 Some socialist groups like the Trotskyist Alliance for Workers Liberty characterise modern China as neo Stalinist 23 By the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century Turkmenistan s Saparmurat Niyazov non communist regime was sometimes considered a neo Stalinist one 24 25 especially in respect of Niyazov s cult of personality 26 Islam Karimov s non communist authoritarian regime in Uzbekistan from 1989 to 2016 has also been described as neo Stalinist 27 28 Soviet Union editIn February 1956 Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality surrounding his predecessor Joseph Stalin and condemned crimes committed during the Great Purge Khrushchev gave his four hour speech On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences condemning the Stalin regime Historian Robert V Daniels holds that neo Stalinism prevailed politically for more than a quarter of a century after Stalin himself left the scene 29 Following the Trotskyist comprehension of Stalin s policies as a deviation from the path of Marxism Leninism George Novack described Khrushchev s politics as guided by a neo Stalinist line its principle being that the socialist forces can conquer all opposition even in the imperialist centers not by the example of internal class power but by the external power of Soviet example 30 explaining as such Khrushchev s innovations at the Twentieth Congress made official doctrine of Stalin s revisionist practices as the new program discards the Leninist conception of imperialism and its corresponding revolutionary class struggle policies 31 American broadcasts into Europe during the late 1950s described a political struggle between the old Stalinists and the neo Stalinist Khrushchev 32 33 34 In October 1964 Khrushchev was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev who remained in office until his death in November 1982 During his reign Stalin s controversies were de emphasized Andres Laiapea connects this with the exile of many dissidents especially Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 35 though whereas Laiapea writes that t he rehabilitation of Stalin went hand in hand with the establishment of a personality cult around Brezhnev 35 political sociologist Viktor Zaslavsky characterizes Brezhnev s period as one of neo Stalinist compromise as the essentials of the political atmosphere associated with Stalin were retained without a personality cult 36 According to Alexander Dubcek t he advent of Brezhnev s regime heralded the advent of neo Stalinism and the measures taken against Czechoslovakia in 1968 were the final consolidation of the neo Stalinist forces in the Soviet Union Poland Hungary and other countries 37 American political scientist Seweryn Bialer has described Soviet policy as turning towards neo Stalinism after Brezhnev s death 38 After Mikhail Gorbachev took over in March 1985 he introduced the policy of glasnost in public discussions to liberalize the Soviet system Within six years the Soviet Union fell apart Still Gorbachev admitted in 2000 that e ven now in Russia we have the same problem It isn t so easy to give up the inheritance we received from Stalinism and Neo Stalinism when people were turned into cogs in the wheel and those in power made all the decisions for them 39 Gorbachev s domestic policies have been described as neo Stalinist by some Western sources 40 41 42 Post Soviet Russia editThe most fervent proponents of neo Stalinism and rehabilitation of Stalin in post Soviet Russia include the Communist Party of the Russian Federation CPRF With the approval of Putin government CPRF has installed hundreds of monuments glorifying Stalin all across Russia since the 2000s CPRF has been organizing annual ceremonies at the grave of Stalin in Kremlin Wall Necropolis to commemorate his birthday 43 44 nbsp Vladimir Putin with CPRF chief Gennady Zyuganov in the Kremlin Both have been influential proponents of Neo Stalinism in post Soviet Russia Formed in 1992 by anti Gorbachev hardliners of the CPSU CPRF became a vehement opponent of 1990s privatization policies and has denounced the current boundaries of Russian Federation as unnatural Blaming Russia s decline on Western capitalism CPRF leader Gennady Zyuganov proposes the revival of Soviet Union to restore Russian prestige The party advocates communist Eurasianism which believes in the construction of a new socialist Eurasian homeland through re incorporation of post Soviet countries imagining the new state as the harbinger for remaking history and lead the Socialist Bloc once again Through its embracal of Russian nationalism the party portrays communism as an organic expression or communal soul sobornost of the age old Russian traditions of community and collectivism which distinguishes Russian World from the Western world and its bourgeois values and market individualism CPRF believes that the revival of Russia s Derzhava super power status is dependent on instilling Russians with Soviet patriotism and neo Stalinism marked by glorification of Bolshevik Revolution and technological prowess of Soviet Union promotion of myths around Great Patriotic War and adulation of the Stalinist era 45 46 Russia under Vladimir Putin underwent an extensive state backed programme of Re Stalinization through mass media cinema academia educational institutions military propaganda and historiography Sociologist Dina Khapaeva asserts that a social consensus has emerged amongst the majority of Russian citizens academics and authorities in rehabilitating Stalin 44 47 In 2014 Russian Duma passed a controversial memory law criminalizing discussions of atrocities committed during the Stalinist era or making comparisons between Nazism and Stalinism under the pretexts of combating Neo Nazism and defending the historical memory of events which took place during the Second World War Despite strong condemnation from international historical societies across the world the bill was passed and inserted as an article into the Russian Criminal Code The bill was supported by the ruling United Russia Party and allied Communist Party 44 47 With the outbreak of Russo Ukrainian war in 2014 neo Stalinism underwent an explosive growth across the Russian society with the firm backing of the state Vladimir Putin has personally endorsed the re emergence of the Stalin cult portraying the Soviet dictator as a visionary who saved the world from European fascism and led Russians to victory during the Second World War 48 49 Various busts and portraits of Stalin have been installed in territories controlled by Russian backed separatists in Eastern Ukraine 50 Russian Communist Party has been one of the biggest backers of invasion of Ukraine ordered by Putin in 2022 viewing the invasion as being aligned with their neo Stalinist world view 43 Public views edit nbsp A Saint Petersburg bus with Stalin s portrait which was included in a montage that commemorated the Soviet Union s victory in the Second World War Levada Center has found that public perception of the Stalinist era has become increasingly favourable of the Stalinist era over recent decades This has increased from 18 in 1996 to 40 in 2016 which has coincided with his rehabilitation by the Putin government for the purpose of social patriotism and militarisation efforts 51 As of 2008 more than half of Russians view Stalin positively and many support restoration of his monuments either dismantled by leaders or destroyed by rioting Russians during the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union 52 53 According to the Levada polling centre Stalin s popularity marks have tripled among Russians in the last twenty years and the trend had accelerated since Vladimir Putin came to power 54 From 1999 to 2023 95 monuments to Stalin have been erected Their total number reached 110 including 22 full scale statues 55 In April 2019 a Levada center poll revealed that 70 of Russians approve of Stalin s role in Russian history the highest ever recorded and that 51 viewed Stalin in a positive light 56 According to Andrew Osborn statues of Stalin have begun to reappear and a museum in his honor has been opened in Volgograd former Stalingrad 54 Steve Gutterman from the Associated Press quoted Vladimir Lavrov deputy director of Moscow s Institute of Russian History as saying that about ten Stalin statues have been restored or erected in Russia in recent years 57 In December 2013 Putin described Stalin as no worse than the cunning English 17th century military dictator Oliver Cromwell 58 School education edit nbsp Marxist Leninist activists laying wreaths at Stalin s grave in 2009 In June 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin organized a conference for history teachers to promote a high school teachers manual called A Modern History of Russia 1945 2006 A Manual for History Teachers which according to Irina Flige office director of human rights organization Memorial portrays Stalin as a cruel yet successful leader who acted rationally She claims it justifies Stalin s terror as an instrument of development 59 60 Putin said at the conference that the new manual will help instill young people with a sense of pride in Russia and he posited that Stalin s purges pale in comparison to the United States atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki At a memorial for Stalin s victims Putin said that while Russians should keep alive the memory of tragedies of the past we should focus on all that is best in the country 61 The official policy of the Russian Federation is that teachers and schools are free to choose history textbooks from the list of the admitted ones which includes a total of forty eight history text books for grade school and twenty four history textbooks by various authors for high school 62 63 In September 2009 the Education Ministry of Russia announced that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn s The Gulag Archipelago a book once banned in the Soviet Union for the detailed account on the system of prison camps became required reading for Russian high school students Prior to that Russian students studied Solzhenitsyn s short story Matryonin dvor and his novella One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich an account of a single day in the life of a gulag prisoner 64 65 History studies edit In 2009 it was reported that the Russian government was drawing up plans to criminalize statements and acts that deny the Soviet Union s victory over fascism in World War II or its role in liberating Eastern Europe 66 In May 2009 President Dmitry Medvedev described the Soviet Union during the war as our country and set up the Historical Truth Commission to act against what the Kremlin terms falsifications of Russian history 66 67 68 On 3 July 2009 Russia s delegation at the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe s OSCE annual parliamentary meeting stormed out after a resolution was passed equating the roles of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in starting World War II drafted by delegates from Lithuania and Slovenia citation needed The resolution called for a day of remembrance for victims of both Stalinism and Nazism to be marked every 23 August the date in 1939 when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov Ribbentrop Pact of neutrality with a secret protocol that divided parts of Central and Eastern Europe between their spheres of influence Konstantin Kosachev head of the foreign relations committee of Russia s lower house of parliament called the resolution nothing but an attempt to rewrite the history of World War II Alexander Kozlovsky the head of the Russian delegation called the resolution an insulting anti Russian attack and added that t hose who place Nazism and Stalinism on the same level forget that it is the Stalin era Soviet Union that made the biggest sacrifices and the biggest contribution to liberating Europe from fascism 69 70 Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution 71 Kurskaya station controversy edit At the end of August 2009 a gilded slogan a fragment of the Soviet national anthem was re inscribed at the Moscow Metro s Kursky station beneath eight socialist realist statues reading Stalin reared us on loyalty to the people He inspired us to labour and heroism The slogan had been removed in the 1950s during Nikita Khrushchev s period of de Stalinization Another restored slogan reads For the Motherland For Stalin Restoring the slogans was ordered by the head of the metro Dmitry Gayev He explained his decision with restoring the historic view of the station My attitude towards this story is simple this inscription was at the station Kurskaya since its foundation and it will stay there 72 The chairman of a human rights group Memorial Arseny Roginsky stated This is the fruit of creeping re Stalinization and they the authorities want to use his name as a symbol of a powerful authoritarian state which the whole world is afraid of Other human rights organizations and survivors of Stalin s repressions called for the decorations to be removed in a letter to Moscow Mayor Yury Luzhkov 54 72 Mikhail Shvydkoy the special representative of the President of Russia for the international cultural exchange responded to the controversy In my opinion the question whether such inscriptions should exist in the Moscow underground is not the question in the competence of neither the Mayor of Moscow nor even the head of the Moscow underground One can t take decisions that may break the society that s heated up and politicized even without that It seems to me that the presence of the lines about Stalin in the hall of the metro station Kurskaya is the question that should become the matter of discussion for the city denizens 72 Shvydkoy commented that what Stalin did in respect of the Soviet and in particular Russian people cannot be justified and he does not even deserve a neutral attitude much less praise However he said it s necessary to remember your own butchers and without that memory they can grow among us again Shvydkoy said that the question is that the society must remember that Stalin is a tyrant While the inscription in the Metro should merely be read correctly read with the certain attitude to Stalin s personality 72 Shvydkoy also said that if the hall of the station Kurskaya is a monument of architecture and culture the inscription must be left because to knock down inscriptions is vandalism 72 Opinions edit Scholar Dmitri Furman director of the Commonwealth of Independent States Research Center at the Russian Academy s of Sciences Institute of Europe sees the Russian regime s neo Stalinism as a non ideological Stalinism that seeks control for the sake of control not for the sake of world revolution 73 In 2005 Communist politician Gennady Zyuganov said that Russia should once again render honor to Stalin for his role in building socialism and saving human civilization from the Nazi plague 74 Zyuganov has said Great Stalin does not need rehabilitation and has proposed changing the name of Volgograd back to Stalingrad 75 In 2010 the Communist leader stated Today the greatness of Stalin s era is self evident even to his most furious haters We liberated the whole world 76 In 2008 Dmitry Puchkov accused the authorities of raising a wave of anti Stalin propaganda to distract the attention of the population from topical troubles In a December 2008 interview he was asked a question Dmitry Yurievich what do you think is the new wave of unveiling the horrors of Stalinism on the TV related to the approaching consequences of the crisis or is it merely another mental exacerbation He replied The wave is being raised to distract opinion of the population from the up to date troubles You don t have to think of your pension you don t have to think of the education what matters are the horrors of Stalinism 77 Russian writer Sergey Kara Murza believes that there is a trend to demonize Russia that is common not only in Poland Ukraine and the Czech Republic but in Russia as well He contends that it is a good business and that it was a good business previously to demonize the Soviet Union Why do we need to take offense against Poles if we in our country have the same and for us sufficiently more dangerous and hazardous cohort of pundits philosophers historians who enjoy the maximal favourable regime set by the state and do the same things as Poles do 78 In 2016 political scientist Thomas Sherlock claimed that Russia has pulled back somewhat on its neo Stalinist policies commenting The Kremlin is unwilling to develop and impose on society historical narratives which promote chauvinism hypernationalism and re Stalinization Although such an agenda has some support among incumbent elites and in society it remains subordinate Instead the regime is now extending support to a critical assessment of the Soviet era including Stalinism This emerging criticism of the Soviet past serves a number of important goals of the leadership including re engagement with the West To this end the Kremlin recently approved new history textbooks critical of the Soviet past as well as a significant program that memorializes the victims of Soviet repressions 79 United States editSameera Khan a former Miss New Jersey and reporter for RT made a series of tweets glorifying Stalin and the gulag system and calling for his return Khan was harshly criticized for expressing these views including by RT itself and the controversy led to her apologizing and being suspended from the network 80 81 Star Wars Andor series showrunner Tony Gilroy based his storytelling about the character Cassian Andor on Joseph Stalin Of the star of the series Diego Luna Gilroy remarked to Rolling Stone If you look at a picture of Young Stalin isn t he glamorous He looks like Diego 82 See also editAnti Stalinist left De Stalinization Grover Furr Ludo Martens Neo Sovietism Nostalgia for the Soviet Union On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences Soviet patriotism Stalin Society The Stalinist Legacy Tankie a pejorative term for pro Soviet communistsReferences edit Garman Liam 26 May 2022 Neo Eurasianism placing Russia on a path of collision with the West Defence Connect Archived from the original on 6 July 2022 Khapaeva Dina 4 February 2016 Triumphant memory of the perpetrators Putin s politics of re Stalinization Communist and Post Communist Studies 49 1 69 doi 10 1016 j postcomstud 2015 12 007 Archived from the original on 8 March 2022 via University of California Press Khapaeva Dina 4 February 2016 Triumphant memory of the perpetrators Putin s politics of re Stalinization Communist and Post Communist Studies 49 1 61 73 doi 10 1016 j postcomstud 2015 12 007 Archived from the original on 8 March 2022 via University of California Press Draper Hal Hal Draper The Neo Stalinist Type 1948 www marxists org Retrieved 16 February 2018 NEO STALINISM WRITING HISTORY AND MAKING POLICY CIA document www faqs org Clark Katerina The Soviet Novel History as Ritual Indiana University Press 2000 ISBN 0 253 33703 8 ISBN 978 0 253 33703 0 page 236 1 Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge Samizdat and political dissent in the Soviet Union Brill 1975 pg 30 2 see The Soviet Novel History as Ritual By Katerina Clark Indiana University Press 2000 ISBN 0 253 33703 8 ISBN 978 0 253 33703 0 page 236 3 Shaw identifies as features of the political geography of neo Stalinism the following criteria 1 A well developed core periphery structure reflecting marked differences in levels of economic development and living standards This is in part the product of a tendency towards incrementalism seeking to gain economies by allocating a considerable proportion of resources to those regions which have benefited most from previous investment 2 The inbuilt conservatism of the system and the bias towards heavy industry ensuring the continuing importance of traditional industrial regions with smokestack industries such as the Donetsk Dnepr region of eastern Ukraine and the Urals 3 Extensive ie resource demanding rather than intensive resource saving development leading to waste of resources and environmental deterioration in the core growing dependence of the core on the resources of the periphery and pressure to develop the latter in the cheapest and often most short sighted manner 4 Administration of the economy by sectors and tendencies towards narrow departmentalism leading to the development of a series of ministerial empires lacking interlinkages reducing the scope for scale economies encouraging excessive transportation and leading to the economic overspecialization of many cities and regions especially peripheral ones 5 The relative neglect of agriculture transportation consumer welfare and numerous services 6 A well developed hierarchy of well being in the settlement structure whereby in general terms the best endowed settlements were the biggest ones with major administrative and political functions conditions deteriorating as they became smaller 7 The development of regional economies greatly influenced by the military industrial complex with the progress of individual cities groups of cities and even entire regions including peripheral ones very much bound up with the needs of the military machine 8 Continental and inward looking development induced by the longstanding tendency towards economic autarky Isolation from the world economy Only from the 1960s were autarkic tendencies modified encouraging further economic development along land frontiers on coasts and at ports see Shaw Denis J B Russia in the Modern World A New Geography Wiley Blackwell 1999 ISBN 0 631 18134 2 ISBN 978 0 631 18134 7 Pp 81 84 Copleston Frederick S J A History of Philosophy Russian Philosophy Continuum International Publishing Group 2003 ISBN 0 8264 6904 3 ISBN 978 0 8264 6904 5 P 403 Osborn Andrew 21 February 2006 Outrage at revision of Stalin s legacy The New Zealand Herald The Independent Retrieved 28 October 2011 Russia today is reminiscent of the Brezhnev era which led to neo Stalinism Stalinism without political reprisals but with persecution and total control Reichman Henry Reconsidering Stalinism Theory and Society Volume 17 Number 1 Springer Netherlands January 1988 Pp 57 89 Stalinism und Neo 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Wall Street Journal 5 Archived copy Archived from the original on 9 July 2009 Retrieved 4 September 2009 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Russia scolds OSCE for equating Hitler and Stalin Retrieved on 25 July 2009 Resolution on Stalin riles Russia BBC News 3 July 2009 a b c d e Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin Kommersant 8 September 2009 Zakharovich Yuri Can the U S Russian Alliance Last TIME 21 December 2001 Archived from the original on 29 May 2008 Opinion amp Reviews Wall Street Journal www opinionjournal com Retrieved 16 February 2018 Fiery Counterrevolutionaries Archived 3 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine Kommersant 18 April 2005 Liberals rap Kremlin as Stalin is worshipped Reuters 5 March 2010 Short questions and answers by Dmitry Puchkov The satanization of the modern Russia is ongoing same way as it happened with the Soviet Union Archived 26 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine Sergey Kara Murza 24 September 2009 in Russian Thomas Sherlock Russian politics and the Soviet past Reassessing Stalin and Stalinism under Vladimir Putin Communist and Post Communist Studies 30 1 2016 pp 1 15 2016 RT Writer Glorifies Stalin s Gulags in False Tweets Later Apologizes Newsweek 8 October 2018 RT Reporter Exits Network After Misguided Praise of Stalin s Gulags 16 October 2018 How Andor Drew from Joseph Stalin Plus Inside Season 2 of the Revolutionary Star Wars Show 10 November 2022 Further reading editKhapaeva Dina Triumphant memory of the perpetrators Putin s politics of re Stalinization Communist amp Post Communist Studies March 2016 pp 61 73 celebrations of Stalin s memory in Russia today online Khapaeva Dina Historical memory in post Soviet Gothic society Social Research 2009 359 394 online Sherlock Thomas Russian politics and the Soviet past Reassessing Stalin and Stalinism under Vladimir Putin Communist and Post Communist Studies 49 1 2016 45 59 online Torbakov Igor History Memory and National Identity Understanding the politics of history and memory wars in post Soviet lands Demokratizatsiya 19 3 2011 209 online Archived 10 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine Tumarkin Maria M The Long Life of Stalinism Reflections on the Aftermath of Totalitarianism and Social Memory Journal of social history 44 4 2011 1047 1061 External links editAgence France Presse 2015 Stalin portraits emerge in heart of Ukraine s rebel held territory 19 October The Guardian Russian history in the classroom Archived 30 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Stalin s Return Time Magazine 1970 Moscow Stalin 2 0 video report by Global Post The rehabilitation of Stalin an ideological cornerstone of the new Kremlin politics World Socialist Web Site 2000 Russian historians denounce re Stalinization Eurasia Daily Monitor 2005 Russia Nostalgia For USSR Increases By Victor Yasmann RFE RL 21 December 2006 Outrage at revision of Stalin s legacy Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Andrew Osborn 21 February 2006 Russia Gorbachev Speaks About Democracy Authoritarianism RFE RL 1 March 2006 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Neo Stalinism amp oldid 1219595211, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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