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State terrorism

January 19, 2024

Not to be confused with State-sponsored terrorism.

State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism which a state conducts against another state or against its own citizens.[2][3][4][5]

The Imperial Japanese Army carried out a terrorist massacre of Chinese civilians in Nanjing.[1]

Definition edit

See also: Definition of terrorism and Terrorism

There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper definition of the word "terrorism".[6][7] Some scholars believe the actions of governments can be labelled "terrorism".[8] Using the term 'terrorism' to mean violent action used with the predominant intention of causing terror, Paul James and Jonathan Friedman distinguish between state terrorism against non-combatants and state terrorism against combatants, including 'shock and awe' tactics:

"Shock and Awe" as a subcategory of "rapid dominance" is the name given to massive intervention designed to strike terror into the minds of the enemy. It is a form of state-terrorism. The concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel.[9]

However, others, including governments, international organisations, private institutions and scholars, believe the term "terrorism" is applicable only to the actions of violent non-state actors. This approach is termed as an "actor-centric" definition which emphasizes the characteristics of the groups or individuals who use terrorism; whilst act-centric definitions emphasize the unique aspects of terrorism from other acts of violence.[10] Historically, the term terrorism was used to refer to actions taken by governments against their own citizens whereas now it is more often perceived as targeting of non-combatants as part of a strategy directed against governments.[11]

Historian Henry Commager wrote that "Even when definitions of terrorism allow for state terrorism, state actions in this area tend to be seen through the prism of war or national self-defense, not terror."[12] While states may accuse other states of state-sponsored terrorism when they support insurgencies, individuals who accuse their governments of terrorism are seen as radicals, because actions by legitimate governments are not generally seen as illegitimate. Academic writing tends to follow the definitions accepted by states.[13] Most states use the term "terrorism" for non-state actors only.[14]

The Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines terrorism generally as "the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective", and states that "terrorism is not legally defined in all jurisdictions." The encyclopedia adds that "[e]stablishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government's citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups."[3]

While the most common modern usage of the word terrorism refers to political violence by insurgents or conspirators,[15] several scholars make a broader interpretation of the nature of terrorism that encompasses the concepts of state terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism.[16] Michael Stohl argues, "The use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents.[17] Stohl clarifies, however, that "[n]ot all acts of state violence are terrorism. It is important to understand that in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated, has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim. The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim."[18]

Scholar Gus Martin describes state terrorism as terrorism "committed by governments and quasi-governmental agencies and personnel against perceived threats", which can be directed against both domestic and foreign targets.[5] Noam Chomsky defines state terrorism as "terrorism practised by states (or governments) and their agents and allies".[19]

Simon Taylor provides a definition of state terrorism as "state agents using threats or acts of violence against civilians, marked by a callous indifference to human life, to instill fear in a community beyond the initial victim for the purpose of preventing a change or challenge to the status quo."[20] These acts of violence can include both the types of state violence that some argue ought to be considered terrorism, such as: genocide, mass murders, ethnic cleansing, disappearances, detention without trial, and torture; and more widely accepted methods of terror including bombings and targeted killings.

Stohl and George A. Lopez have designated three categories of state terrorism, based on the openness/secrecy with which the alleged terrorist acts are performed, and whether states directly perform the acts, support them, or acquiesce in them.[21]

History edit

 
The Drownings at Nantes were a series of mass executions by drowning during the Reign of Terror in France

Aristotle wrote critically of terror employed by tyrants against their subjects.[22] The earliest use of the word terrorism identified by the Oxford English Dictionary is a 1795 reference to tyrannical state behavior, the "reign of terrorism" in France.[23] In that same year, Edmund Burke decried the "thousands of those hell-hounds called terrorists" who he believed threatened Europe.[24] During the Reign of Terror, the Jacobin government and other factions of the French Revolution used the apparatus of the state to kill and intimidate political opponents, and the Oxford English Dictionary includes as one definition of terrorism "Government by intimidation carried out by the party in power in France between 1789–1794".[25] The original general meaning of terrorism was of terrorism by the state, as reflected in the 1798 supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Académie française, which described terrorism as systeme, regime de la terreur.[24] Myra Williamson wrote:

The meaning of "terrorism" has undergone a transformation. During the Reign of Terror, a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance, wielded by a recently established revolutionary state against the enemies of the people. Now the term "terrorism" is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or sub-national entities against a state. (italics in original)[26]

Later examples of state terrorism include the police state measures employed by the Soviet Union beginning in the 1930s, and by Germany's Nazi regime in the 1930s and 1940s.[27] According to Igor Primoratz, "Both [the Nazis and the Soviets] sought to impose total political control on society. Such a radical aim could be pursued only by a similarly radical method: by terrorism directed by an extremely powerful political police at an atomized and defenseless population. Its success was due largely to its arbitrary character—to the unpredictability of its choice of victims. In both countries, the regime first suppressed all opposition; when it no longer had any opposition to speak of, political police took to persecuting 'potential' and 'objective opponents'. In the Soviet Union, it was eventually unleashed on victims chosen at random."[28]

The terror of tsarism was directed against the proletariat. Our Extraordinary Commissions shoot landlords, capitalists, and generals who are striving to restore the capitalist order. Do you grasp this ... distinction? Yes? For us communists it is quite sufficient.

Leon Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 1920.[29]

Military actions primarily directed against non-combatant targets have also been referred to as state terrorism. For example, the bombing of Guernica has been called an act of terrorism.[30] Other examples of state terrorism may include the World War II bombings of Pearl Harbor, London, Dresden, Chongqing, and Hiroshima.[31]

An act of sabotage, sometimes regarded as an act of terrorism, was the peacetime sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, a ship owned by Greenpeace, which occurred while in port at Auckland, New Zealand on July 10, 1985. The bomb detonation killed Fernando Pereira, a Dutch photographer. The organisation who committed the attack, the Directorate-General for External Security (DSGE), is a branch of France's intelligence services. The agents responsible pleaded guilty to manslaughter as part of a plea deal and were sentenced to ten years in prison, but were secretly released early to France under an agreement between the two countries' governments.[32]

 
Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims

During the Troubles, an ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the 1960's to the 1990's, the Military Reaction Force (MRF), a counterinsurgency unit of the British Intelligence Corps, was tasked with tracking down members of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). During the period when it was active, the MRF was involved in the killings of Catholic civilians in Northern Ireland.[33][34]

In November 2013, a BBC Panorama documentary was aired about the MRF. It drew on information from seven former members, as well as a number of other sources. Soldier H said: "We operated initially with them thinking that we were the UVF." Soldier F added: "We wanted to cause confusion."[35] In June 1972, he[who?] was succeeded as commander by Captain James 'Hamish' McGregor.[36]

In June 2014, in the wake of the Panorama programme, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) opened an investigation into the matter.[37] In an earlier review of the programme, the position of the PSNI was that none of the statements by soldiers in the programme could be taken as an admission of criminality.[38]

By country edit

Argentina edit

Main article: Dirty War
See also: Operation Condor

The Dirty War is the name used for the period of state terrorism in Argentina between 1974 and 1983.[39][40]

Belarus edit

See also: Ryanair Flight 4978 and Vitaly Shishov

Brazil edit

See also: Human rights abuses of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964-1985)

Chile edit

See also: Human rights violations in Pinochet's Chile
 
The torture center of Chile's secret police DINA at José Domingo Cañas 1367

Chile during Augusto Pinochet's rule was accused of state terror against political opponents.[41][42]

China edit

See also: Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong, Cultural Revolution, and Uyghur genocide

The Uyghur American Association has claimed that Beijing's approach to terrorism in Xinjiang constitutes state terrorism.[43] In 2006, a Spanish court opened an investigation into claims that the Chinese state was committing acts of state terrorism in Tibet. However, the investigation was dropped in 2014.[44][45]

France edit

The sinking of the Rainbow Warrior took place in Auckland Harbour on July 10, 1985. It was an attack carried out by French DGSE agents Captain Dominique Prieur and Commander Alain Mafart aimed at sinking the flagship craft of the Greenpeace Organisation in order to stop it from interfering in French nuclear testing in the South Pacific. The attack resulted in the death of Greenpeace photographer Fernando Pereira and led to a huge uproar over the first ever attack on New Zealand's sovereignty as a modern nation. France initially denied any involvement in the attack, and it even joined in condemning the attack as a terrorist act.[46] In July 1986, a United Nations-sponsored mediation effort between New Zealand and France resulted in the transfer of the two prisoners to the French Polynesian island of Hao, so they could serve three years there, as well as an apology and an NZ$13 million payment from France to New Zealand.[47]

India edit

Main article: India and state-sponsored terrorism

Iran edit

Main article: Iran and state-sponsored terrorism

Israel edit

Main article: Israel and state-sponsored terrorism

Italy edit

See also: Strategy of tension and Operation Gladio

Libya edit

In the 1980s, Libya under Muammar Gaddafi was accused of state terrorism following attacks abroad such as the Lockerbie bombing.[48] Between 9 July and 15 August 1984 seventeen merchant vessels were damaged in the Gulf of Suez and Bab al-Mandeb straits by underwater explosions. Terrorist group Al Jihad (thought to be a pro-Iranian Shiite group connected to the Palestine Liberation Organisation) issued a claim of responsibility for the mining, but circumstantial evidence indicated that Libya was responsible.[49]

Myanmar edit

See also: Rohingya genocide

Myanmar has been accused of state terrorism in the internal conflict.[50][51]

North Korea edit

North Korea has been accused of state terrorism on several occasions, such as in 1983 in the Rangoon bombing, the Gimpo International Airport bombing, and in 1987 when North Korean agents detonated a bomb on Korean Air Flight 858, killing everybody aboard.[52]

Pakistan edit

Main article: Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism

Qatar edit

Main article: Qatar and state-sponsored terrorism

Russia edit

 
Russian President Vladimir Putin and his long-time confidant Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu.[53]

Following the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and the initial investigations into war crimes committed by Russian soldiers, there were calls for Russia to be designated a terrorist state. On May 10, 2022, Lithuania's parliament designated Russia a terrorist state and its actions in Ukraine a genocide.[54] The US Senate unanimously passed a resolution to this effect on July 27, 2022,[55] and the US House of Representatives is to consider such legislation.[56] On August 11, Latvia's parliament designated Russia a state sponsor of terrorism.[57] Ukraine's Verkhovna Rada on 20 August 2022 also designated Russia as a terrorist state.[58] On October 17, the European Parliament approved a request to debate and vote on a resolution recognizing Russia as a terrorist state,[59] which it did on November 23.[60]

As of October 2023, the following states and organizations have designated Russia as terrorist or a sponsor of terrorism:

Saudi Arabia edit

See also: Blockade of Yemen, Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism, and Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks

South Africa edit

See also: 1982 bombing of the African National Congress headquarters in London

Between 1979 and 1990, the Apartheid government in South Africa operated a branch of the South African Police known as Vlakplaas who routinely used methods of terrorism to support the state in maintaining Apartheid.[20] These methods included the bombing of civilian buildings (COSATU House and Khotso House), and the targeted-killing and assassinations of anti-Apartheid activists.

In the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, the former Major-General and Commander of Vlakplaas, Sarel “Sakkie” du Plessis Crafford gave the following three reasons for the Apartheid state’s policy of extra-judicial killings: (1) “It scared off other supporters and potential supporters; it made people reluctant to offer open support; it created distrust and demoralization amongst cadres. (2) It gave white voters confidence that the security forces were in control and winning the fight against Communism and terrorism. (3) The information gleaned during the interrogation needed to be protected against disclosure.”[74]

The most notorious of the Vlakplaas operatives were Eugene de Kock and the askari Joe Mamasela, who were linked to several high-profile extra-judicial killings, including that of Griffiths Mxenge. Following South Africa's transition to democracy, de Kock was later tried and convicted on eighty-nine charges and sentenced to 212 years in prison.

Soviet Union edit

Main articles: Red Terror, White Terror (Russia), and Soviet Union and state terrorism

Spain edit

See also: GAL (paramilitary group)

Sri Lanka edit

Main article: Sri Lanka and state terrorism

Syria edit

Main article: State terrorism by Syria

Turkey edit

Main article: Turkey and state-sponsored terrorism

United Kingdom edit

During World War II, the United Kingdom created the Special Operations Executive (SOE) which, in the words of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, was to "set Europe ablaze" with sabotage and subversion in countries occupied by the Axis powers, especially Nazi Germany.[75] The British military historian John Keegan later wrote, "We must recognise that our response to the scourge of terrorism is compromised by what we did through SOE. The justification ... That we had no other means of striking back at the enemy ... is exactly the argument used by the Red Brigades, the Baader-Meinhoff gang, the PFLP, the IRA and every other half-articulate terrorist organisation on Earth. Futile to argue that we were a democracy and Hitler a tyrant. Means besmirch ends. SOE besmirched Britain."[76]

British Foreign Office documents declassified in 2021 revealed that during the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66, British propagandists secretly incited anti-communists including army generals to eliminate the PKI, and used black propaganda, due to Indonesian President Sukarno's hostility to the formation of former British colonies into the Malayan federation from 1963.[77][78] British Prime Minister Harold Wilson's government had instructed propaganda specialists from the Foreign Office to send hundreds of inflammatory pamphlets to leading anti-communists in Indonesia, inciting them to kill the foreign minister, Subandrio, and claiming that ethnic Chinese Indonesians deserved the violence meted out to them.[79]

Britain has been accused of involvement in state terrorism during the Troubles, an ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the 1960s to the 1990s by covertly assisting loyalist paramilitaries.[80][81][82][83]

United States edit

Main article: United States and state terrorism
See also: Operation Condor and Central American crisis
 
Argentines commemorate the victims of the U.S.-backed military junta on 24 March 2019

Ruth J Blakeley, Professor of Politics and International Relations at the University of Sheffield, accuses the United States of sponsoring and deploying state terrorism, which she defines as "the illegal targeting of individuals that the state has a duty to protect in order to instill fear in a target audience beyond the direct victim", on an "enormous scale" during the Cold War. The United States government justified this policy by saying it needed to contain the spread of Communism, but Blakeley says the United States government also used it as a means to buttress and promote the interests of U.S. elites and multinational corporations. The U.S. supported governments who employed death squads throughout Latin America and counterinsurgency training of right-wing military forces included advocating the interrogation and torture of suspected insurgents.[84] J. Patrice McSherry, a professor of political science at Long Island University, says "hundreds of thousands of Latin Americans were tortured, abducted or killed by right-wing military regimes as part of the U.S.-led anti-communist crusade," which included U.S. support for Operation Condor and the Guatemalan military during the Guatemalan Civil War.[85] More people were repressed and killed throughout Latin America in the last three decades of the Cold War than in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, according to historian John Henry Coatsworth.[86]

Declassified documents from the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta in 2017 confirm that U.S. officials directly facilitated and encouraged the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of suspected Communists in Indonesia during the mid-1960s.[87][88] Bradley Simpson, Director of the Indonesia/East Timor Documentation Project at the National Security Archive, says "Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia."[89] According to Simpson, the terror in Indonesia was an "essential building block of the quasi neo-liberal policies the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia in the years to come".[90] Historian John Roosa, who commented on documents which were released by the U.S. embassy in Jakarta in 2017, said they confirmed that "the U.S. was part and parcel of the operation, strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI."[91] Geoffrey B. Robinson, a historian at UCLA, argues that without the support of the U.S. and other powerful Western states, the Indonesian Army's program of mass killings would not have happened.[92]

Uzbekistan edit

Main article: State terrorism by Uzbekistan

Venezuela edit

An Organization of American States report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos, armed groups that support Nicolás Maduro and the ruling United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV) party, murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti-government protests.[93]

The National Assembly of Venezuela designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their "violence, paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes," declaring their acts as state-sponsored terrorism.[94]

Criticism of the concept edit

The chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has said the twelve previous international conventions on terrorism had never referred to state terrorism, which was not an international legal concept, and when states abuse their powers they should be judged against international conventions which deal with war crimes, international human rights law, and international humanitarian law, rather than international anti-terrorism statutes.[95] In a similar vein, Kofi Annan, at the time the United Nations Secretary-General, said it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The use of force by states is already regulated under international law".[96] Annan added, "... regardless of the differences between governments on the question of the definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians [or non-combatants], regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism."[97]

Dr. Bruce Hoffman has argued that failing to differentiate between state and non-state violence ignores the fact that there is a "fundamental qualitative difference between the two types of violence." Hoffman argues that even in war, there are rules and accepted norms of behaviour that prohibit certain types of weapons and tactics and outlaw attacks on specific categories of targets. For instance, rules which are codified in the Geneva and Hague Conventions on warfare prohibit taking civilians as hostages, outlaw reprisals against either civilians or POWs, recognise neutral territory, etc. Hoffman says "even the most cursory review of terrorist tactics and targets over the past quarter century reveals that terrorists have violated all these rules." Hoffman also says that when states transgress these rules of war "the term "war crime" is used to describe such acts."[98]

Walter Laqueur has said those who argue that state terrorism should be included in studies of terrorism ignore the fact that "The very existence of a state is based on its monopoly of power. If it were different, states would not have the right, nor would they be in a position, to maintain that minimum of order on which all civilized life rests."[99] Calling the concept a "red herring" he stated: "This argument has been used by the terrorists themselves, arguing that there is no difference between their activities and those by governments and states. It has also been employed by some sympathizers, and it rests on the deliberate obfuscation between all kinds of violence ..."[100]

See also edit

References edit

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Bibliography edit

  • Barsamian, David (2001). "The United States is a Leading Terrorist State". Monthly Review.
  • Kisangani, E. & Nafziger, E. Wayne (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror" (PDF). Defence and Peace Economics. 18 (5): 405–414. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.579.1472. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. S2CID 155020309.
  • Martin, Gus (2006). Understanding terrorism: challenges, perspectives, and issues. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-2722-2.
  • Nairn, Tom; James, Paul (2005). Global Matrix: Nationalism, Globalism and State-Terrorism. London and New York: Pluto Press.
  • Primoratz, Igor (2004). "State Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism". In Primoratz, Igor (ed.). Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1817-8.
  • Selden, Mark; So, Alvin Y., eds. (2004). War and state terrorism: the United States, Japan, and the Asia–Pacific in the long twentieth century. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-2391-3.
  • Sluka, Jeffrey A., ed. (2000). Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1711-7.
  • Stohl, Michael & Lopez, George A. (1988). Terrible beyond Endurance?: The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-25297-6.

Further reading edit

External links edit

Prevention of terrorism

  • The National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism

January 19, 2024
state, terrorism, confused, with, state, sponsored, terrorism, this, article, lead, section, short, adequately, summarize, points, please, consider, expanding, lead, provide, accessible, overview, important, aspects, article, 2017, refers, acts, terrorism, whi. Not to be confused with State sponsored terrorism This article s lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article May 2017 State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism which a state conducts against another state or against its own citizens 2 3 4 5 The Imperial Japanese Army carried out a terrorist massacre of Chinese civilians in Nanjing 1 Contents 1 Definition 2 History 3 By country 3 1 Argentina 3 2 Belarus 3 3 Brazil 3 4 Chile 3 5 China 3 6 France 3 7 India 3 8 Iran 3 9 Israel 3 10 Italy 3 11 Libya 3 12 Myanmar 3 13 North Korea 3 14 Pakistan 3 15 Qatar 3 16 Russia 3 17 Saudi Arabia 3 18 South Africa 3 19 Soviet Union 3 20 Spain 3 21 Sri Lanka 3 22 Syria 3 23 Turkey 3 24 United Kingdom 3 25 United States 3 26 Uzbekistan 3 27 Venezuela 4 Criticism of the concept 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External linksDefinition editSee also Definition of terrorism and Terrorism There is neither an academic nor an international legal consensus regarding the proper definition of the word terrorism 6 7 Some scholars believe the actions of governments can be labelled terrorism 8 Using the term terrorism to mean violent action used with the predominant intention of causing terror Paul James and Jonathan Friedman distinguish between state terrorism against non combatants and state terrorism against combatants including shock and awe tactics Shock and Awe as a subcategory of rapid dominance is the name given to massive intervention designed to strike terror into the minds of the enemy It is a form of state terrorism The concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel 9 However others including governments international organisations private institutions and scholars believe the term terrorism is applicable only to the actions of violent non state actors This approach is termed as an actor centric definition which emphasizes the characteristics of the groups or individuals who use terrorism whilst act centric definitions emphasize the unique aspects of terrorism from other acts of violence 10 Historically the term terrorism was used to refer to actions taken by governments against their own citizens whereas now it is more often perceived as targeting of non combatants as part of a strategy directed against governments 11 Historian Henry Commager wrote that Even when definitions of terrorism allow for state terrorism state actions in this area tend to be seen through the prism of war or national self defense not terror 12 While states may accuse other states of state sponsored terrorism when they support insurgencies individuals who accuse their governments of terrorism are seen as radicals because actions by legitimate governments are not generally seen as illegitimate Academic writing tends to follow the definitions accepted by states 13 Most states use the term terrorism for non state actors only 14 The Encyclopaedia Britannica Online defines terrorism generally as the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective and states that terrorism is not legally defined in all jurisdictions The encyclopedia adds that e stablishment terrorism often called state or state sponsored terrorism is employed by governments or more often by factions within governments against that government s citizens against factions within the government or against foreign governments or groups 3 While the most common modern usage of the word terrorism refers to political violence by insurgents or conspirators 15 several scholars make a broader interpretation of the nature of terrorism that encompasses the concepts of state terrorism and state sponsored terrorism 16 Michael Stohl argues The use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents 17 Stohl clarifies however that n ot all acts of state violence are terrorism It is important to understand that in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim 18 Scholar Gus Martin describes state terrorism as terrorism committed by governments and quasi governmental agencies and personnel against perceived threats which can be directed against both domestic and foreign targets 5 Noam Chomsky defines state terrorism as terrorism practised by states or governments and their agents and allies 19 Simon Taylor provides a definition of state terrorism as state agents using threats or acts of violence against civilians marked by a callous indifference to human life to instill fear in a community beyond the initial victim for the purpose of preventing a change or challenge to the status quo 20 These acts of violence can include both the types of state violence that some argue ought to be considered terrorism such as genocide mass murders ethnic cleansing disappearances detention without trial and torture and more widely accepted methods of terror including bombings and targeted killings Stohl and George A Lopez have designated three categories of state terrorism based on the openness secrecy with which the alleged terrorist acts are performed and whether states directly perform the acts support them or acquiesce in them 21 History edit nbsp The Drownings at Nantes were a series of mass executions by drowning during the Reign of Terror in FranceAristotle wrote critically of terror employed by tyrants against their subjects 22 The earliest use of the word terrorism identified by the Oxford English Dictionary is a 1795 reference to tyrannical state behavior the reign of terrorism in France 23 In that same year Edmund Burke decried the thousands of those hell hounds called terrorists who he believed threatened Europe 24 During the Reign of Terror the Jacobin government and other factions of the French Revolution used the apparatus of the state to kill and intimidate political opponents and the Oxford English Dictionary includes as one definition of terrorism Government by intimidation carried out by the party in power in France between 1789 1794 25 The original general meaning of terrorism was of terrorism by the state as reflected in the 1798 supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Academie francaise which described terrorism as systeme regime de la terreur 24 Myra Williamson wrote The meaning of terrorism has undergone a transformation During the Reign of Terror a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance wielded by a recently established revolutionary state against the enemies of the people Now the term terrorism is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non state or sub national entities against a state italics in original 26 Later examples of state terrorism include the police state measures employed by the Soviet Union beginning in the 1930s and by Germany s Nazi regime in the 1930s and 1940s 27 According to Igor Primoratz Both the Nazis and the Soviets sought to impose total political control on society Such a radical aim could be pursued only by a similarly radical method by terrorism directed by an extremely powerful political police at an atomized and defenseless population Its success was due largely to its arbitrary character to the unpredictability of its choice of victims In both countries the regime first suppressed all opposition when it no longer had any opposition to speak of political police took to persecuting potential and objective opponents In the Soviet Union it was eventually unleashed on victims chosen at random 28 The terror of tsarism was directed against the proletariat Our Extraordinary Commissions shoot landlords capitalists and generals who are striving to restore the capitalist order Do you grasp this distinction Yes For us communists it is quite sufficient Leon Trotsky Terrorism and Communism 1920 29 Military actions primarily directed against non combatant targets have also been referred to as state terrorism For example the bombing of Guernica has been called an act of terrorism 30 Other examples of state terrorism may include the World War II bombings of Pearl Harbor London Dresden Chongqing and Hiroshima 31 An act of sabotage sometimes regarded as an act of terrorism was the peacetime sinking of the Rainbow Warrior a ship owned by Greenpeace which occurred while in port at Auckland New Zealand on July 10 1985 The bomb detonation killed Fernando Pereira a Dutch photographer The organisation who committed the attack the Directorate General for External Security DSGE is a branch of France s intelligence services The agents responsible pleaded guilty to manslaughter as part of a plea deal and were sentenced to ten years in prison but were secretly released early to France under an agreement between the two countries governments 32 nbsp Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victimsDuring the Troubles an ethno nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the 1960 s to the 1990 s the Military Reaction Force MRF a counterinsurgency unit of the British Intelligence Corps was tasked with tracking down members of the Irish Republican Army IRA During the period when it was active the MRF was involved in the killings of Catholic civilians in Northern Ireland 33 34 In November 2013 a BBC Panorama documentary was aired about the MRF It drew on information from seven former members as well as a number of other sources Soldier H said We operated initially with them thinking that we were the UVF Soldier F added We wanted to cause confusion 35 In June 1972 he who was succeeded as commander by Captain James Hamish McGregor 36 In June 2014 in the wake of the Panorama programme the Police Service of Northern Ireland PSNI opened an investigation into the matter 37 In an earlier review of the programme the position of the PSNI was that none of the statements by soldiers in the programme could be taken as an admission of criminality 38 By country editArgentina edit Main article Dirty War See also Operation Condor The Dirty War is the name used for the period of state terrorism in Argentina between 1974 and 1983 39 40 Belarus edit See also Ryanair Flight 4978 and Vitaly Shishov Brazil edit See also Human rights abuses of the military dictatorship in Brazil 1964 1985 Chile edit See also Human rights violations in Pinochet s Chile nbsp The torture center of Chile s secret police DINA at Jose Domingo Canas 1367Chile during Augusto Pinochet s rule was accused of state terror against political opponents 41 42 China edit See also Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries Mass killings of landlords under Mao Zedong Cultural Revolution and Uyghur genocide The Uyghur American Association has claimed that Beijing s approach to terrorism in Xinjiang constitutes state terrorism 43 In 2006 a Spanish court opened an investigation into claims that the Chinese state was committing acts of state terrorism in Tibet However the investigation was dropped in 2014 44 45 France edit The sinking of the Rainbow Warrior took place in Auckland Harbour on July 10 1985 It was an attack carried out by French DGSE agents Captain Dominique Prieur and Commander Alain Mafart aimed at sinking the flagship craft of the Greenpeace Organisation in order to stop it from interfering in French nuclear testing in the South Pacific The attack resulted in the death of Greenpeace photographer Fernando Pereira and led to a huge uproar over the first ever attack on New Zealand s sovereignty as a modern nation France initially denied any involvement in the attack and it even joined in condemning the attack as a terrorist act 46 In July 1986 a United Nations sponsored mediation effort between New Zealand and France resulted in the transfer of the two prisoners to the French Polynesian island of Hao so they could serve three years there as well as an apology and an NZ 13 million payment from France to New Zealand 47 India edit Main article India and state sponsored terrorism Iran edit Main article Iran and state sponsored terrorism Israel edit Main article Israel and state sponsored terrorism Italy edit See also Strategy of tension and Operation Gladio Libya edit In the 1980s Libya under Muammar Gaddafi was accused of state terrorism following attacks abroad such as the Lockerbie bombing 48 Between 9 July and 15 August 1984 seventeen merchant vessels were damaged in the Gulf of Suez and Bab al Mandeb straits by underwater explosions Terrorist group Al Jihad thought to be a pro Iranian Shiite group connected to the Palestine Liberation Organisation issued a claim of responsibility for the mining but circumstantial evidence indicated that Libya was responsible 49 Myanmar edit See also Rohingya genocide Myanmar has been accused of state terrorism in the internal conflict 50 51 North Korea edit North Korea has been accused of state terrorism on several occasions such as in 1983 in the Rangoon bombing the Gimpo International Airport bombing and in 1987 when North Korean agents detonated a bomb on Korean Air Flight 858 killing everybody aboard 52 Pakistan edit Main article Pakistan and state sponsored terrorism Qatar edit Main article Qatar and state sponsored terrorism Russia edit nbsp Russian President Vladimir Putin and his long time confidant Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu 53 Following the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and the initial investigations into war crimes committed by Russian soldiers there were calls for Russia to be designated a terrorist state On May 10 2022 Lithuania s parliament designated Russia a terrorist state and its actions in Ukraine a genocide 54 The US Senate unanimously passed a resolution to this effect on July 27 2022 55 and the US House of Representatives is to consider such legislation 56 On August 11 Latvia s parliament designated Russia a state sponsor of terrorism 57 Ukraine s Verkhovna Rada on 20 August 2022 also designated Russia as a terrorist state 58 On October 17 the European Parliament approved a request to debate and vote on a resolution recognizing Russia as a terrorist state 59 which it did on November 23 60 As of October 2023 the following states and organizations have designated Russia as terrorist or a sponsor of terrorism nbsp Czechia 16 November 2022 61 nbsp Estonia 18 October 2022 62 nbsp European Parliament 23 November 2022 60 nbsp Latvia 11 August 2022 63 nbsp Lithuania 10 May 2022 54 64 nbsp NATO Parliamentary Assembly 21 November 2022 65 66 nbsp Netherlands 24 November 2022 67 nbsp OSCE Parliamentary Assembly 4 July 2023 68 nbsp Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 13 October 2022 69 70 nbsp Poland 14 December 2022 71 nbsp Slovakia 16 February 2023 72 nbsp Ukraine 14 April 2022 73 nbsp United States Senate 27 July 2022 55 Saudi Arabia edit See also Blockade of Yemen Saudi Arabia and state sponsored terrorism and Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks South Africa edit See also 1982 bombing of the African National Congress headquarters in London Between 1979 and 1990 the Apartheid government in South Africa operated a branch of the South African Police known as Vlakplaas who routinely used methods of terrorism to support the state in maintaining Apartheid 20 These methods included the bombing of civilian buildings COSATU House and Khotso House and the targeted killing and assassinations of anti Apartheid activists In the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings the former Major General and Commander of Vlakplaas Sarel Sakkie du Plessis Crafford gave the following three reasons for the Apartheid state s policy of extra judicial killings 1 It scared off other supporters and potential supporters it made people reluctant to offer open support it created distrust and demoralization amongst cadres 2 It gave white voters confidence that the security forces were in control and winning the fight against Communism and terrorism 3 The information gleaned during the interrogation needed to be protected against disclosure 74 The most notorious of the Vlakplaas operatives were Eugene de Kock and the askari Joe Mamasela who were linked to several high profile extra judicial killings including that of Griffiths Mxenge Following South Africa s transition to democracy de Kock was later tried and convicted on eighty nine charges and sentenced to 212 years in prison Soviet Union edit Main articles Red Terror White Terror Russia and Soviet Union and state terrorism Spain edit See also GAL paramilitary group Sri Lanka edit Main article Sri Lanka and state terrorism Syria edit Main article State terrorism by Syria Turkey edit Main article Turkey and state sponsored terrorism United Kingdom edit During World War II the United Kingdom created the Special Operations Executive SOE which in the words of Prime Minister Winston Churchill was to set Europe ablaze with sabotage and subversion in countries occupied by the Axis powers especially Nazi Germany 75 The British military historian John Keegan later wrote We must recognise that our response to the scourge of terrorism is compromised by what we did through SOE The justification That we had no other means of striking back at the enemy is exactly the argument used by the Red Brigades the Baader Meinhoff gang the PFLP the IRA and every other half articulate terrorist organisation on Earth Futile to argue that we were a democracy and Hitler a tyrant Means besmirch ends SOE besmirched Britain 76 British Foreign Office documents declassified in 2021 revealed that during the Indonesian mass killings of 1965 66 British propagandists secretly incited anti communists including army generals to eliminate the PKI and used black propaganda due to Indonesian President Sukarno s hostility to the formation of former British colonies into the Malayan federation from 1963 77 78 British Prime Minister Harold Wilson s government had instructed propaganda specialists from the Foreign Office to send hundreds of inflammatory pamphlets to leading anti communists in Indonesia inciting them to kill the foreign minister Subandrio and claiming that ethnic Chinese Indonesians deserved the violence meted out to them 79 Britain has been accused of involvement in state terrorism during the Troubles an ethno nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the 1960s to the 1990s by covertly assisting loyalist paramilitaries 80 81 82 83 United States edit Main article United States and state terrorism See also Operation Condor and Central American crisis nbsp Argentines commemorate the victims of the U S backed military junta on 24 March 2019Ruth J Blakeley Professor of Politics and International Relations at the University of Sheffield accuses the United States of sponsoring and deploying state terrorism which she defines as the illegal targeting of individuals that the state has a duty to protect in order to instill fear in a target audience beyond the direct victim on an enormous scale during the Cold War The United States government justified this policy by saying it needed to contain the spread of Communism but Blakeley says the United States government also used it as a means to buttress and promote the interests of U S elites and multinational corporations The U S supported governments who employed death squads throughout Latin America and counterinsurgency training of right wing military forces included advocating the interrogation and torture of suspected insurgents 84 J Patrice McSherry a professor of political science at Long Island University says hundreds of thousands of Latin Americans were tortured abducted or killed by right wing military regimes as part of the U S led anti communist crusade which included U S support for Operation Condor and the Guatemalan military during the Guatemalan Civil War 85 More people were repressed and killed throughout Latin America in the last three decades of the Cold War than in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc according to historian John Henry Coatsworth 86 Declassified documents from the U S Embassy in Jakarta in 2017 confirm that U S officials directly facilitated and encouraged the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of suspected Communists in Indonesia during the mid 1960s 87 88 Bradley Simpson Director of the Indonesia East Timor Documentation Project at the National Security Archive says Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army led massacre of alleged PKI members and U S officials worried only that the killing of the party s unarmed supporters might not go far enough permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the Johnson Administration s emerging plans for a post Sukarno Indonesia 89 According to Simpson the terror in Indonesia was an essential building block of the quasi neo liberal policies the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia in the years to come 90 Historian John Roosa who commented on documents which were released by the U S embassy in Jakarta in 2017 said they confirmed that the U S was part and parcel of the operation strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI 91 Geoffrey B Robinson a historian at UCLA argues that without the support of the U S and other powerful Western states the Indonesian Army s program of mass killings would not have happened 92 Uzbekistan edit Main article State terrorism by Uzbekistan Venezuela edit An Organization of American States report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos armed groups that support Nicolas Maduro and the ruling United Socialist Party of Venezuela PSUV party murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti government protests 93 The National Assembly of Venezuela designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their violence paramilitary actions intimidation murders and other crimes declaring their acts as state sponsored terrorism 94 Criticism of the concept editThe chairman of the United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee has said the twelve previous international conventions on terrorism had never referred to state terrorism which was not an international legal concept and when states abuse their powers they should be judged against international conventions which deal with war crimes international human rights law and international humanitarian law rather than international anti terrorism statutes 95 In a similar vein Kofi Annan at the time the United Nations Secretary General said it is time to set aside debates on so called state terrorism The use of force by states is already regulated under international law 96 Annan added regardless of the differences between governments on the question of the definition of terrorism what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians or non combatants regardless of one s cause is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism 97 Dr Bruce Hoffman has argued that failing to differentiate between state and non state violence ignores the fact that there is a fundamental qualitative difference between the two types of violence Hoffman argues that even in war there are rules and accepted norms of behaviour that prohibit certain types of weapons and tactics and outlaw attacks on specific categories of targets For instance rules which are codified in the Geneva and Hague Conventions on warfare prohibit taking civilians as hostages outlaw reprisals against either civilians or POWs recognise neutral territory etc Hoffman says even the most cursory review of terrorist tactics and targets over the past quarter century reveals that terrorists have violated all these rules Hoffman also says that when states transgress these rules of war the term war crime is used to describe such acts 98 Walter Laqueur has said those who argue that state terrorism should be included in studies of terrorism ignore the fact that The very existence of a state is based on its monopoly of power If it were different states would not have the right nor would they be in a position to maintain that minimum of order on which all civilized life rests 99 Calling the concept a red herring he stated This argument has been used by the terrorists themselves arguing that there is no difference between their activities and those by governments and states It has also been employed by some sympathizers and it rests on the deliberate obfuscation between all kinds of violence 100 See also editAsymmetric warfare Crimes against humanity Domestic terrorism Ethnic violence History of terrorism Left wing terrorism Nationalist terrorism Religious terrorism Religious violence Right wing terrorism Political repression Political violence Sociology of revolution State violence State sponsors of terrorism State sponsored terrorism War crimes State terrorism by country India and state sponsored terrorism Iran and state sponsored terrorism Israel and state sponsored terrorism State terrorism by Kazakhstan Soviet Union and state terrorism Sri Lanka and state terrorism State terrorism by Syria United States and state terrorism State terrorism by Uzbekistan Pakistan and state sponsored terrorismReferences edit Nanjing remembers massacre victims BBC News 2007 12 13 Retrieved 2024 01 02 Aust Anthony 2010 Handbook of International Law 2nd ed Cambridge University Press p 265 ISBN 978 0 521 13349 4 a b Terrorism Encyclopaedia Britannica Selden amp So 2003 p 4 a b Martin 2006 p 111 Williamson Myra 2009 Terrorism war and international law the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001 Ashgate Publishing p 38 ISBN 978 0 7546 7403 0 Schmid Alex P 2011 The Definition of Terrorism The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research Routledge p 39 ISBN 978 0 203 82873 1 Nairn Tom James Paul 2005 Global Matrix Nationalism Globalism and State Terrorism London and New York Pluto Press James Paul Friedman Jonathan 2006 Globalization and Violence Vol 3 Globalizing War and Intervention London Sage Publications p xxx Chenoweth Erica English Richard Gofas Andrew Kalyvas Stathis 2019 The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism First ed Oxford United Kingdom Oxford University Press p 153 ISBN 9780198732914 Williamson Myra 2009 Terrorism war and international law the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001 Ashgate Publishing p 40 ISBN 978 0 7546 7403 0 Hor Michael Yew Meng 2005 Global anti terrorism law and policy Cambridge University Press p 20 ISBN 978 0 521 10870 6 Archived from the original on 2019 03 03 Retrieved 2016 11 12 Donahue pp 19 20 Alex P Schmid 2011 Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research Routledge p 48 ISBN 978 0 415 41157 8 Dealing with Terrorism by Helen Purkitt in Conflict in World Society 1984 p 162 Michael Stohl p 14 The Superpowers and International Terror Michael Stohl Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association Atlanta March 27 April 1 1984 Stohl National Interests and State Terrorism The Politics of Terrorism Marcel Dekker 1988 p 275 Chomsky Noam April 2002 What Anthropologists Should Know about the Concept of Terrorism Anthropology Today 18 2 a b Taylor Simon 3 May 2021 Status Quo Terrorism State Terrorism in South Africa during Apartheid Terrorism and Political Violence 35 2 2 doi 10 1080 09546553 2021 1916478 S2CID 235534871 Stohl amp Lopez 1988 pp 207 208 Those Hell Hounds Called Terrorists By Harvey C Mansfield The Claremont Institute posted November 28 2001 Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Edition CD Version 3 2002 Oxford University Press a b A History of Terrorism by Walter Laqueur Transaction Publishers 2007 ISBN 0 7658 0799 8 at 1 p 6 Teichman Jenny October 1989 How to define terrorism Philosophy 64 250 505 517 doi 10 1017 S0031819100044260 S2CID 144723359 Williamson Myra 2009 Terrorism war and international law the legality of the use of force against Afghanistan in 2001 Ashgate Publishing p 43 ISBN 978 0 7546 7403 0 Primoratz Igor 2007 Terrorism in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Primoratz Igor 2007 Gage Beverly 2009 The Day Wall Street Exploded A Story of America in its First Age of Terror New York Oxford University Press p 263 ISBN 978 0199759286 What s wrong with terrorism by Robert E Goodin Polity 2006 ISBN 0 7456 3497 4 at 2 p 62 Michael Stohl The Superpowers and International Terror Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association Atlanta March 27 April 1 1984 Russell Einstein Manifesto ICJ case and Rainbow Warrior bombing Remembering humanity Down to Earth July 9 2020 Undercover soldiers killed unarmed civilians in Belfast BBC News 21 November 2014 Retrieved 28 November 2014 Ed Moloney November 2003 A Secret History of the IRA W W Norton amp Company pp 119 122 123 ISBN 978 0 393 32502 7 Retrieved 7 February 2011 Ware John Britain s Secret Terror Force Irish Republican News 23 November 2013 Retrieved 23 November 2013 Telling Leo director 21 November 2013 Britain s Secret Terror Force Panorama BBC Police investigate Military Reaction Force allegations BBC 10 June 2014 Retrieved 1 March 2015 Panorama MRF programme Soldiers admitted no crimes BBC 13 May 2014 Retrieved 1 March 2015 Blakeley Ruth 2009 State Terrorism and Neoliberalism The North in the South Routledge pp 96 97 ISBN 978 0 415 68617 4 Borger Julian 2004 Kissinger backed dirty war against left in Argentina The Guardian Wright Thomas C State Terrorism in Latin America Terrorism and State Terror in Latin America University of Kent Gaye Christoffersen 2 September 2002 Constituting the Uyghur in U S China Relations The Geopolitics of Identity Formation in the War on Terrorism PDF Strategic Insights 1 7 7 Retrieved 9 May 2020 China rejects Spain s genocide claims The Independent 2006 06 07 Archived from the original on 2022 05 24 Retrieved 2020 09 04 Spain drops genocide case against China s Tibet leaders BBC News 2014 06 24 Retrieved 2023 05 14 Diary compiled by Mike Andrews Secretary of the Dargaville Maritime Museum Case concerning the difference between New Zealand and France concerning the interpretation or application of two agreements concluded on 9 July 1986 between the two states and which related to the problems arising from the Rainbow Warrior Affair PDF Reports of International Arbitral Awards XX 215 284 especially p 275 30 April 1990 Jurenczyk Lukasz 2018 Great Britain Against Libya s state Terrorism in the 1980s Historia i Polityka 31 24 61 71 doi 10 12775 HiP 2018 011 ISSN 1899 5160 The Red Sea 1984 The Rohingya are the victims of state terrorism it must be stopped Middle East Monitor 2017 09 17 Retrieved 2020 09 04 https www lakeheadu ca sites default files uploads 92 Dr 20Islam pdf bare URL PDF United States Department of State PDF Kirby Paul 2 March 2022 Ukraine conflict Who s in Putin s inner circle and running the war BBC News Retrieved 4 March 2022 a b Treisman Rachel 2022 05 10 Lithuania designates Russia as a terrorist country a global first NPR Retrieved 2022 05 10 a b Medina Eduardo 2022 07 28 The U S Senate passes a resolution seeking to label Russia as a sponsor of terrorism The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2022 08 02 Ward Alexander Desiderio Andrew Forgey Quint 2022 07 28 House group moves to label Russia as terrorist state Politico Retrieved 2022 08 02 Latvia designates Russia a state sponsor of terrorism over Ukraine war Reuters 11 August 2022 Archived from the original on 12 August 2022 Retrieved 11 August 2022 Rada recognizes Russia as terrorist state calls on world to follow suit 19 August 2022 Retrieved 19 August 2022 European Parliament to vote on recognising Russia a state sponsor of terror news yahoo com 17 October 2022 Retrieved 2022 10 18 a b European Parliament declares Russia to be a state sponsor of terrorism News European Parliament 2022 11 23 Retrieved 2022 11 24 Lower House of Czech Parliament Recognises Russian Regime as Terrorist European Pravda 2022 11 16 Retrieved 2022 11 16 Estonian parliament declares Russia a terrorist state POLITICO 2022 10 18 Retrieved 2022 10 18 Saeima Krieviju atzist par terorismu atbalstosu valsti The Saeima recognizes Russia as a country supporting terrorism Diena in Latvian 11 August 2022 Lithuania Adopts Resolution Calling Russia Terrorist State Accuses Moscow Of Genocide RadioFreeEurope RadioLiberty Retrieved 2022 08 08 NATO Parliamentary Assembly declares Russia to be a terrorist state The New Voice of Ukraine 2022 11 21 Retrieved 2022 11 23 NATO PA recognizes Russia as terrorist state Ukrinform 2022 11 23 Retrieved 2022 11 23 Dutch Parliament declares Russia state sponsor of terrorism The New Voice of Ukraine 2022 11 25 Retrieved 2022 11 26 OSCE Parliamentary Assembly recognizes Russia as state sponsor of terrorism The Kyiv Independent 2023 07 04 Retrieved 2023 07 04 PACE adopts resolution declaring Russian regime as terrorist one The New Voice of Ukraine 2022 10 13 Retrieved 2022 10 13 Further escalation in the Russian Federation s aggression against Ukraine Resolution 2463 Parliamentary Assembly Council of Europe 2022 10 13 Retrieved 2022 10 13 Sejm uznal Rosje za panstwo sponsorujace terroryzm The Sejm recognized Russia as a state sponsoring terrorism Onet Wiadomosci in Polish 2022 12 14 Retrieved 2022 12 15 Slovak parliament recognises Russian regime as terrorist and Russia as terrorism sponsor Ukrainska Pravda 2023 02 16 Retrieved 2023 02 16 VR recognizes Russia as terrorist state bans military symbols Z and V Ukrinform 2022 04 14 Retrieved 2022 08 02 Taylor Simon 3 May 2021 Status Quo Terrorism State Terrorism in South Africa during Apartheid Terrorism and Political Violence 35 2 4 5 doi 10 1080 09546553 2021 1916478 S2CID 235534871 Cookridge E H 1966 Set Europe Ablaze New York Thomas Y Cromwell Company pp 1 6 Geraghty Tony 2000 The Irish War The Hidden Conflict between the IRA and British Intelligence Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press p 346 ISBN 9780801864568 Lashmar Paul Gilby Nicholas Oliver James 17 October 2021 Revealed how UK spies incited mass murder of Indonesia s communists The Observer Lashmar Paul Gilby Nicholas Oliver James October 17 2021 Slaughter in Indonesia Britain s secret propaganda war The Observer Lashmar Paul Gilby Nicholas Oliver James 23 January 2022 UK s propaganda leaflets inspired 1960s massacre of Indonesian communists The Observer Retrieved 23 January 2022 CAIN Issues Collusion Chronology of Events in the Stevens Inquiries Cain ulst ac uk Retrieved 2016 01 28 Dr Martin Melaugh CAIN Issues Violence Stevens Enquiry 3 Overview and Recommendations 17 April 2003 Cain ulst ac uk Retrieved 2016 01 28 Report of the Independent International Panel on Alleged Collusion in Sectarian Killings in Northern Ireland PDF Patfinucanecentre org Archived from the original PDF on 2011 06 10 Retrieved 2016 01 28 Village Politics Media and Current Affairs in Ireland I m lucky to be above the ground 2006 11 16 Archived from the original on 2007 11 20 Retrieved 2016 01 28 Blakeley Ruth 2009 State Terrorism and Neoliberalism The North in the South Routledge pp 21 22 amp 23 ISBN 0415686172 McSherry J Patrice 2011 Chapter 5 Industrial repression and Operation Condor in Latin America In Esparza Marcia Henry R Huttenbach Daniel Feierstein eds State Violence and Genocide in Latin America The Cold War Years Critical Terrorism Studies Routledge p 107 ISBN 978 0415664578 Coatsworth John Henry 2012 The Cold War in Central America 1975 1991 In Leffler Melvyn P Westad Odd Arne eds The Cambridge History of the Cold War Volume 3 Cambridge University Press p 230 ISBN 978 1107602311 Melvin Jess 20 October 2017 Telegrams confirm scale of US complicity in 1965 genocide Indonesia at Melbourne University of Melbourne Retrieved May 21 2018 Scott Margaret October 26 2017 Uncovering Indonesia s Act of Killing The New York Review of Books Retrieved May 21 2018 Simpson Bradley Economists with Guns Authoritarian Development and U S Indonesia Relations 1960 1968 Stanford University Press 2010 p 193 ISBN 0804771820 Brad Simpson 2009 Accomplices in atrocity Inside Indonesia Retrieved May 21 2018 Bevins Vincent 20 October 2017 What the United States Did in Indonesia The Atlantic Retrieved May 21 2018 Robinson Geoffrey B 2018 The Killing Season A History of the Indonesian Massacres 1965 66 Princeton University Press pp 22 23 177 ISBN 9781400888863 OAS says to present evidence of Venezuela rights violations to The Hague Reuters Retrieved 30 May 2018 AN declaro como terroristas a los colectivos NA declares colectivos terrorists Prensa AN Press release in Spanish National Assembly of Venezuela 2 April 2019 Archived from the original on April 4 2019 Retrieved 9 April 2019 Addressing Security Council Secretary General Calls On Counter Terrorism Committee To Develop Long Term Strategy To Defeat Terror United Nations Retrieved 2009 03 25 The Legal Debate is Over Terrorism is a War Crime Michael Lind New America Foundation Archived from the original on 2009 02 21 Retrieved 2009 03 25 Press conference with Kofi Annan and Foreign Minister Kamal Kharrazi United Nations Retrieved 2009 03 25 Bruce Hoffman 1998 Inside Terrorism Columbia University Press April 15 1998 pp 34 35 ISBN 978 0 231 11468 4 Ruth Blakeley 2009 State terrorism and neoliberalism Routledge p 27 ISBN 978 0 415 46240 2 Walter Laqueur 2003 No end to war terrorism in the twenty first century Continuum p 237 ISBN 978 0 8264 1435 9 Bibliography editBarsamian David 2001 The United States is a Leading Terrorist State Monthly Review Kisangani E amp Nafziger E Wayne 2007 The Political Economy Of State Terror PDF Defence and Peace Economics 18 5 405 414 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 579 1472 doi 10 1080 10242690701455433 S2CID 155020309 Martin Gus 2006 Understanding terrorism challenges perspectives and issues SAGE ISBN 978 1 4129 2722 2 Nairn Tom James Paul 2005 Global Matrix Nationalism Globalism and State Terrorism London and New York Pluto Press Primoratz Igor 2004 State Terrorism and Counter Terrorism In Primoratz Igor ed Terrorism The Philosophical Issues Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 4039 1817 8 Selden Mark So Alvin Y eds 2004 War and state terrorism the United States Japan and the Asia Pacific in the long twentieth century Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 2391 3 Sluka Jeffrey A ed 2000 Death Squad The Anthropology of State Terror University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 1711 7 Stohl Michael amp Lopez George A 1988 Terrible beyond Endurance The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 25297 6 Further reading editRuth Blakeley 2009 State Terrorism and Neoliberalism the North in the South Routledge ISBN 978 0415686174 Chomsky Noam amp Herman Edward S 1979 The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism The Political Economy of Human Rights Vol 1 South End Press ISBN 978 0 89608 090 4 Chomsky Noam 1988 The Culture of Terrorism South End Press ISBN 978 0 89608 334 9 Curtis Mark 2004 Unpeople Britain s Secret Human Rights Abuses Vintage ISBN 978 0 09 946972 8 George Alexander 1991 Western State Terrorism Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 0931 7 Glover Jonathan 1991 State terrorism In Frey Raymond Gillespie ed Violence terrorism and Justice Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 40950 6 Hayner Priscilla B 2000 Unspeakable truths confronting state terror and atrocities Psychology Press ISBN 978 0 415 92477 1 Herbst Philip 2003 Talking terrorism a dictionary of the loaded language of political violence Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 32486 4 Herman Edward S 1982 The Real Terror Network Terrorism in Fact and Propaganda South End Press ISBN 978 0896081345 Kushner Harvey W ed 2003 State terrorism Encyclopedia of Terrorism SAGE ISBN 978 0 7619 2408 1 Lerner Brenda Wilmoth K Lee Lerner eds 2006 Terrorism essential primary sources Thomson Gale ISBN 978 1 4144 0621 3 Nairn Tom James Paul 2005 Global Matrix Nationalism Globalism and State Terrorism London and New York Pluto Press Oliverio Annamarie 1998 The state of terror SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 7914 3708 7 External links editPrevention of terrorism The National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism State Terrorism and Counterterrorism Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title State terrorism amp oldid 1194048832, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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