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Hindu temple architecture

January 01, 1970

Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. For rituals and prayers, this chamber frequently has an open space that can be moved in a clockwise direction. There are frequently additional buildings and structures in the vicinity of this chamber, with the largest ones covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama, a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. In addition to other small temples in the compound, there may be additional mandapas or buildings that are either connected or separate from the larger temples.[1]

Types of Hindu temple architecture in India from left to right: Nagara style of northern India, Dravida style of southern India, Kerala style with Dravida influences and Kathkuni style of northern Indian hills with Nagara influences.
Architecture of a Hindu temple (Nagara style). These core elements are evidenced in the oldest surviving 5th–6th century CE temples.

Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture.[2] The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.[3]

The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras.[4][5] The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life.[6]

History edit

Early structures edit

Temple of Vāsudeva in Besnagar (2nd century BCE)
 
Initial excavations
 
Elliptic plan of the Temple
Excavation of the huge Temple of Vāsudeva next to the Heliodorus pillar in Besnagar.[7] The Temple measured 30x30 meters, and the walls were 2.4 meters thick. Pottery remains assigns the site to the 2nd century BCE.[8] Further excavations also revealed the outline of a smaller elliptic temple structure, which was probably destroyed by the end of the 3rd century BCE.[9] The platform and the base of the Heliodorus pillar are visible in the immediate background.

Remains of early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE)[10] and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism.[11][12][13] In Tamil Nadu, the earliest version of the Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam, north-facing and in brick, appears to date from between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE.[14]

In Besnagar, the temple structures have been found in conjonction with the Heliodorus pillar dedicated to Vāsudeva.[15] The archaeologists found an ancient elliptical foundation, extensive floor and plinth produced from burnt bricks. Further, the foundations for all the major components of a Hindu temple – garbhagriha (sanctum), pradakshinapatha (circumambulation passage), antarala (antechamber next to sanctum) and mandapa (gathering hall) – were found.[16] These sections had a thick support base for their walls. These core temple remains cover an area of 30 x 30 m.[17] The sections had post-holes, which likely contained the wooden pillars for the temple superstructure above. In the soil were iron nails that likely held together the wooden pillars.[16] The superstructure of the temple was likely made of wood, mud and other perishable materials.[16]

The ancient temple complex discovered in Nagari (Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) – about 500 kilometers to the west of Vidisha, has a sub-surface structure nearly identical to that of the Besnagar temple. The structure is also associated to the cult of Vāsudeva and Saṃkarṣaṇa, and dated to the 1st century BCE.[16][18]

Classical period (4-6th century) edit

Hindu temples of the Gupta period
 
Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa, 5th century
 
Vishnu temple in Eran, late 5th century.
 
Hindu temple of Bhitargaon, late 5th century.[19]
 
Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh, early 6th century

Though there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE, there probably were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture.[20] The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi.[21] By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424 CE, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.[21][22]

Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa,[23] Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465),[22] Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive,[24] Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600-625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple, Rajim (7th-century).[25] Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.[26]

No pre-7th century CE South Indian free-standing stone temples have survived. Examples of early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include the diverse styles at Mahabalipuram, from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. In the Deccan, Cave 3 of the Badami cave temples was cut out in 578 CE, and Cave 1 is probably slightly earlier.[27] Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal.[25][28]

Medieval period (7th to 16th century) edit

 
 
Bhima Ratha and Ganesha Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram, ca, 600s.

By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.[29] From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. The Vesara style originated in the region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka. According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture built temples in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles, for example using both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at Pattadakal. This style was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983AD) in sites such as Ellora. Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style,[30] other writers only date the start of Vesara to the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD),[31] in sites such as Lakkundi, Dambal, Itagi, and Gadag,[32] and continued by the Hoysala empire (1000-1330 AD).

 
Kailasanatha temple, remarkably carved out of one single rock was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756–773 CE)[33]

The earliest examples of Pallava architecture are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, including the Shore Temple. This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple.

Western Chalukya architecture linked between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.[34][35] The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.[36] Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.

In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones.[29] The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north.[37] In late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse, (actually a late development, from the 12th century or later), was typically added to older large temples.[29]

Southeast Asian Hindu temples edit

 
 
Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond.[38]

 
A puja ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, Indonesia.

The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is the Võ Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between the 4th and 5th century CE.[39][note 1] Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both.[41][42]

Hindu temples in Southeast Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles.[43] However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different, and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent.[43] Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods.[43] Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century),[44] and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century).[45]

Design edit

 
17th-century palm leaf manuscript page on temple building, Odisha.

A Hindu temple is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas, depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares.[6][2] Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one, everything is connected. A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring, and at the same time being, the universal whole" like an "organism of repeating cells".[46]: 68, 71  The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).[47][48]

At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee.[2] The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.

The site edit

The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.[2] These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.[2][46]

While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93,[49] inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.

In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town.[50] Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often these are the best-preserved examples of older styles. Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples.[50]

The plan edit

 
The 8×8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.[6][2]

The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.[51] Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[52] The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[6]

The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[2] The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8×8 or 64-grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’.[6][53] The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.[2]

In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory.[2] The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented.

The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s).

 
 
A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[2][54]

Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) – a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence.[51] In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge,[55] or vision[51]).

Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[51] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below).[2] Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology.[46]: 69–72 

In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[51]

Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure,[56] each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.[57]

Exceptions to the square grid principle

Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle.[58] However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.[6]

The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dvayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign,  ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts.[59]

The builders edit

The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their knowledge and craft traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by the oral tradition, later with palm-leaf manuscripts.[60] The building tradition was typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next, and this knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions.[60] The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction, which in the case of large projects might be several years.[61]

The work was led by a chief architect (sutradhara). The construction superintendent was equal in his authority.[60] Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who collaborated to complete a temple. The sculptors were called shilpins. Women participated in temple building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing.[60] Hindu texts are inconsistent about which caste did the construction work, with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin.[62] The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum.[63]

In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs. Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased.[63] This "presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the "increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins" on suitable forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in a temple project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form through a temple, for the most part anonymously.[63]

 
Dashavatara temple sculpture at Deogarh, completed about 500 CE.

The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks.[63] Though great masters probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple, the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost certainly the inspiration of a single artist".[64]

Schools of temple building tradition edit

Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Maya (Devanagari: मय not to be pronounced as Maayaa) school.[65][66] The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style.[65][67] The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of the other extinct schools.[68]

Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on śilpa śāstras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so how.[69][65] According to Adam Hardy – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere in between".[69] According to George Michell – an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely co-evolved, and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to.[63]

Various styles of architecture edit

 
Architecture of the Khajuraho temples
 
Dravidian (South Indian) Hindu Temple Architecture

The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, states Michell, classify temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal plan regulates the vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary, with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply to a different part of the temple.[70] Following a general historical division, the early Hindu temples, up to the 7th or 8th century, are often called classical or ancient temples, while those after the classical period to the 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as medieval. However, this division does not reflect a major break in Hindu architecture, which continued to evolve gradually across these periods.[71]

The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and the local climate.[71] Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions, but much of the temples were built from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in South Karnataka, the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks.[71] In other places, artists used to cut granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or a region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were unavailable, brick temples flourished. Hindu temple architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region, its "tonal value, texture and structural possibilities" states Michell.[71]

India edit

Dravidian architecture edit

Main article: Dravidian architecture
 
Kanchipuram Varadaraja Peruma temple's Gopuram and the temple tank Anandasaras Pushkarini

Dravidian architecture is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from South India, reaching its final form by the 1500 CE. It is seen in Hindu temples, and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana, where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikhara. However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high Gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the dvarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha.

Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra, the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, some parts of Maharashtra, Odisha and Sri Lanka.[72][73] Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas of Vidarbha, the Cholas, the Chera, the Kakatiyas, the Reddis, the Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of the Dravida architecture.

Dravida and Nagara architecture edit

Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of northern India and the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common.[74] Other styles are also found. For example, the rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions.[75] At other sites such as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions, as well as features in a common style local to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built.[76]

Feature Nagara architecture[77] Vesara architecture Dravidian architecture[78][79] Reference
Main temple spire (tower) Shikhara above sanctum Vimana that may be multistorey (talas), the top of which is called the shikhara [80]
Mandapa spire (tower) Yes No [81]
Curvature of the spire Curvilinear centred over the sanctum, also straight-edged pyramidal Straight-edged pyramidal, sometimes curvilinear centred over the sanctum[note 2]
Sanctum Single or multi-storey Typically single (Vimana may be multi-storey) [82]
Plan Mandapa, sanctum and tower plans are predominantly Chaturasra (square); uncommon: Ashtasra, Vritta, Ayatasra, Ayata Ashtasra, Ayata Vritta, Hasti Prishta, Dvayasra Vrita Same, plus Prana Vikara [82]
Gopuram Not a prominent feature Characteristic, but not essential; after 10th century often higher than the vimana. May be several, on all sides of the compound, serving as landmarks for pilgrims
Other features Sacred pools, fewer pillared mandapas in temple grounds (separate dharmashala), prakara walls rare (e.g. Odisha after 14th century), single or multiple entrances into temple Sacred pools, many pillared mandapas in temple grounds (used for rites of passage ceremonies, choultry, temple rituals), prakara walls became common after 14th century, single or multiple entrances into temple [82]
Major sub-styles Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari, Valabhi Tamil (upper and lower Dravidadesa), Karnata, Andhra, Kerala [82]
Geography Northern, western and central of the Indian subcontinent Southern parts of the Indian subcontinent, southeast Asia [82]
Chronology of surviving stone-masonry monuments Late Kushana era, early Gupta: rudimentary archaic; 6th-10th century: zenith Late Gupta era: rudimentary; 6th-10th century: zenith [83]

Regional styles edit

The architecture of the rock-cut temples, particularly the rathas, became a model for south Indian temples.[84] Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian, Cambodian, Annamese and Javanese temples.[85] Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram.[86]

Badami Chalukya architecture edit

The Badami Chalukya Architecture style originated by 5th century in Aihole and was perfected in Pattadakal and Badami.

Chalukya Architecture of temples at Aihole and Pattadakal
 
Mallikarjuna temple complex at Aihole, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka, India dated from the sixth century through the twelfth century CE.[87][88][89]
 
The Virupaksha temple (or Lokesvara temple) at Pattadakal, built by queen Lokamahadevi (queen of Badami Chalukya King Vikramaditya II) around 740 CE, now a World Heritage Site.

Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas built Hindu temples out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills.

In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150 temples scattered around the village. The Lad Khan Temple is the oldest. The Durga Temple is notable for its semi-circular apse, elevated plinth and the gallery that encircles the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture of Vishnu sitting atop a large cobra is at Hutchimali Temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple.

Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site, where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.

Bengal temple architecture edit
Further information: Bengal temple architecture

Several styles of temple architecture developed in Bengal. Notable temple architectural styles of Bengal are the Chala, Ratna and Dalan temples.[90][91] Chala-style is a hut with a sloping roof, which follows the pattern of huts in most villages of Bengal. Ratna-style originated in Bengal from the 15th to 16th centuries, under the Mallabhum kingdom (also called Malla dynasty). One of the most prominent features of the Chala and Ratna style is the terracotta artwork on the temple walls. The Dalan-style is flat-roofed temples with their heavy cornices on S-curved brackets, and this style was later influenced by European ideas in the 19th century.[90]

The prominent examples of Chala-style are Siddheshwari Kali Temple of Kalna City and Palpara Terracotta Temple of Palpara. One of the prominent example of Ratna-style is Ramchandraji temple at Guptipara. The Sharabhuja Gauranga temple at Panchrol is an example of Dalan-style.

  • Chala, Ratna and Dalan style Architecture of temples
  •  
    Chala-style (Charchala) temple at Palpara in Nadia district.
  •  
    Ek-ratna Ramchandraji temple at Guptipara, Hooghly district
  •  
    Naba-ratna Dakshineswar Kali Temple near Kolkata, North 24 Parganas district.
  •  
    Dalan-style Sharabhuja Gauranga temple at Panchrol, Purba Medinipur district.
Gadag architecture edit

The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya architecture. The style flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built. Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag, the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture. This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I.

Kalinga architecture edit
Further information: Kalinga architecture
The three types of Deulas
 
Rekha and Pidha Deula of the Konark Sun Temple
 
Khakhara Deula of the Vaital Deula

The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture. The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the Odia language. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.

The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneswar and Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the prominent example of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula. The Mukhasala structure that remains of the Konark Sun Temple is an example of Pidha Deula.

 
Navlakha Temple, Ghumli, Gujarat, 12th century
Māru-Gurjara architecture edit

Māru-Gurjara architecture, or Solaṅkī style,[94] is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty).[95] Although originating as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples and, mainly under Jain patronage, later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world.[96]

On the exteriors, the style is distinguished from other north Indian temple styles of the period in "that the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples.[96]

 
Devotions in the Swaminarayan temple in Houston, Texas (2004)

Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.[97]

The style mostly fell from use in Hindu temples in its original regions by the 13th century, especially as the area had fallen to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate by 1298. But, unusually for an Indian temple style, it continued to be used by Jains there and elsewhere, with a notable "revival" in the 15th century.[98] Since then it has continued in use in Jain and some Hindu temples, and from the late 20th century has spread to temples built outside India by both the Jain diaspora and Hindus. Some buildings mix Māru-Gurjara elements with those of local temple styles and modern international ones. Generally, where there is elaborate carving, often still done by craftsmen from Gujarat or Rajasthan, this has more ornamental and decorative work than small figures. In particular the style is used in India and abroad by the Swaminarayan sect. Sometimes the Māru-Gurjara influence is limited to the "flying arches" and mandapa ceiling rosettes, and a preference for white marble.[96]

Nepal edit

Newar architecture edit

This style is one of the oldest styles of temples on the Asian continent and derives its shape from Himalayan fir trees. The ground floor is typically the residence of the diety, either Hindu or Buddhist, while the upper floors are used as storage for religious items. There is gajura at the top which is the combination of a lotus base, an upside-down vase, a triangle and a kalasha. The pagoda style flourished in Nepal from the beginning of the 13th century. The temples of Pashupatinath, Changunarayan, Chandeshwori and Banepa are excellent examples of ancient architecture in the pagoda style. The Malla period produced various pagoda-style temples and palaces such as Nayatapola, Dattatraya of Bhaktapur, Kasthamandap of Kathmandu, Taleju Temple, Vajrabarahi, Vajrayogini.[99]

Southeast Asia as part of Greater India edit

See also: Influence of Indian architecture on other nations, Indianization of Southeast Asia, Greater India, Indosphere, Indomania, and History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia

Architecture of the southeast nations was inspired by the Indian temple architecture,[84][85] as those were Indianised as part of the Greater India.

Champa architecture edit

Further information: Champa architecture
 
The profile of the 13th-century Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan Rang includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the gopura, the saddle-shaped kosagrha, and mandapa attached to the kalan tower.

Between the 6th and the 16th century, the Kingdom of Champa flourished in present-day central and southern Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples, and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to construct their religious buildings, the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang.[citation needed]

Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings.[100] They are kalan, a brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti of deity. A mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity. The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex. These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India.[citation needed]

Indonesian architecture edit

Further information: Candi of Indonesia, Indonesian architecture, and Balinese temple
Prambanan, an example of Indonesian temple architecture
 
 
 
 
Prambanan temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna-vajra.

Temples are called candi (pronounced [tʃandi]) in Indonesia, whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it (Meru tower in Bali), and a portico for entrance,[101] mostly built between the 7th to 15th centuries.[101][102] In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple compound, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers, dedicated to Trimurti gods. Shiva temple, the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre-high (154 ft).

The term "candi" itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death.[103]

The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.[104]

The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (centre), and head (roof). They are Bhurloka represented by the outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples, Bhuvarloka represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each temples, and Svarloka which symbolized by the roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) or vajra.[citation needed]

Khmer architecture edit

Further information: Khmer architecture
 
A diagram map of Angkor Wat reveal the concentric square galleries. On the right is an aerial view of the central structure of Angkor Wat, in front of it lies the cruciform terrace.

Before the 14th century, the Khmer Empire flourished in present-day Cambodia with its influence extended to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor (Khmer: អង្គរ, "Capital City", derived from Sanskrit "nagara"), contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer temple architecture. The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century Angkor Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials.

The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering prasat called prang which houses the garbhagriha inner chamber, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace.[105]

Glossary edit

The Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology. Most terms have several different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India, as well as the Sanscrit names used in ancient texts. A few of the more common terms are tabulated below, mostly in their Sanscrit/Hindi forms:[106]

Term Explanation Synonyms or Similar Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules 		Reference Image
Adhisthana stylobate, plinth, base typically with mouldings on the side, on which a temple building or pillar stands Athavaksham, Pista, Pitha Manasara XIV, Kamikagama 35, Suprabhedagama 31 [107]  
Amalaka a crowning ornament on the top of shikara, shape of an Indian amalok fruit that looks like a cogged wheel. The amalaka supports the kalasha. Mayamata śilpaśāstra [107][108]  
Antarala lit. interior space of any building; in temples, it is the intermediate space (vestibule, antechamber) between the sanctum and space where pilgrims gather Sukhanasi Manasara XV, XXIII; Kamikagama XXXV [107][108]  
Ardhamandapa half hall at each entrance, usually the reception area that connects to the mandapa Manasara XIV, Kamikagama 35, Suprabhedagama 31 [107]  
Ayatana assembly hall, grounds inside a temple or monastery compound Agni Purana XLIII, Matsya Purana CCLXX, Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.2 [109]
Bhadra a projection often aligned to one of the cardinal directions; typically of central part of walls; decoration or a projected porch for pilgrims; also may be a tower storey projection Manasara XXX-XXXIV [107]
Dvarapala a gate guardian often portrayed as a warrior or fearsome giant
Gana a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a protruded belly and with humorous expression [110]  
Garbhagriha The womb-house, adytum, sanctum sanctorum; it is the loci of the temple and the darshana, the spiritual space that Hindus circumambulate clockwise about. This is where the main murti image is placed. Usually the space is very plain, with no distractions from the murti, which is rich in symbolism. A large temple may have many shrines, each with a garbhagriya. Garbha-griya, Garbha-geha, Sibika, Garbha, Mula-sthana Brihat Samhita LXI [106]
 
 
Gavaksha one of the arch motifs; it is horseshoe-shaped, found with windows or for decorating spires, pillars and other elements Gavaksa, kudu [111][112]  
Gopuram a gateway at entrance or one that connects two sacred spaces of the temple; becomes very large in South Indian temples, which may have several; it has roots in ancient Indian monasteries and the Vedic word gomatipur;[113] Gopura, Dvara attalaka Agni Purana XLII, Manasara XI, XXXIII verses 1–601, LVIII [114][115]  
Hara neck ornament such as necklace [116]  
Jala a trellis, stone grille, net, first seen in 6th-century temples Jali, Indra koshtha [117]  
Jagati any moulded base or pedestal for the temple or a statue that extends out, part of platform that forms a terrace to stand on or circumambulate around on, while reading the reliefs and friezes Jagata, Pithika, Jagati-pitha, Kati, Vasudha Samarangana-sutradhara LXVIII, Agni Purana XLII, Suprabhedagama 31.19 [107][118]  
Kalasha the pinnacle element of a temple, a vase finial, cupola or pitcher Kalasam, Stupi, Kumuda Agni Purana CIV, Kamikagama 55 [110][119]  
Kunda temple tank, stepwell, pool, usually with steps, public utility for taking a dip; often connected to a nearby river or mountain stream Pushkarani, Sara, Sagar, Tadaga, Udapana, Var, Vapi Garuda Purana XLVI, Mahanirvana tantra XIII [120]  
Lata liana, creeper-style plant, vine, one type of scroll work; also found on shikhara [121]
Makara a mythical fusion sea creature with fish-crocodile like face, trunk or snout, legs sometimes with lion claws and a tail; vahana of Varuna Suprabhedagama 31.68-72 [122]  
Mandapa pillared hall or pavilion, with pillars usually carved; a mandapa is typically square, rectangle, octagonal or circular; it may have walls with perforated stone windows, it may just be open on some or all sides. Large temples may have many interconnected mandapas. It is a gathering place, a place for pilgrims to rest (choultry), a part of the circumambulation space, or to wait during prayers or Sanskara (rite of passage) rituals. A mandapa may have a tower (shikhara) of its own, but it is lower than that above the sanctum. Mandapam, Mantapa, Jagamohan Manasara XXXII-XXXIV, Kamikagama 50, Brihat samhita, Vishnu Purana 6.124-136 [123][114][124]  
Mulaprasada main shrine in a temple complex [123]
Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures or stele [125]
Nyasa the art of arranging images and friezes to create a narrative or composition, in some texts it refers to relative placement of images within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable; also a form a ritual. Vastusutra Upanishad VI [125][126]
Prakara wall that separates an inner zone of temple ground from an outer zone; typically concentric, defensive and fortified, a feature added after the wars and plunders starting in the 14th-century [127][128]  
Prastara entablature, horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings above column capitals, sometimes functions as a parapet of a storey Chaiva, gopanam, kapotam, mancham Manasara XVI; Kamikagama LIV [129][130][131]  
Ratha a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum and shikhara above, or other structure. It is generally carried up from the bottom of the temple to the superstructure. A ratha, meaning cart, is also the temple chariot used for processing the murti at festivals, and a "ratha temple" is one designed to resemble a cart, with wheels on the sides, and often horses. The most famous example is the Sun Temple, Konarak. [132]
Sala Round barrel-roofed, wagon-roofed pavilion; rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people or cattle tradition, then other materials of construction; any mansion or griha; a pilgrim services building with mandapas or pillared veranda or both inside the temple complex, Hindu texts describe multi-storey Sala; in south, sala are structures used as a decorative motif, or an actual roof, as at the top of gopurams; rooted in ancient thatched roof styles. Chala Manasara XXXV verses 1-404 [133][134]  
Shikhara/Vimana In North India, the tower above the sanctum (entire spire above mulaprasada); in South India, that top part of tower that is above the vimana Shikha, Shikhanta, Shikhamani, Deul in East India, Garbhaka, Garbhamandira Brihat Samhita LVI [135][136][137]  
Stambha A pillar; it can be a load bearing element or an independent standing element with diya (lamps) and Hindu icons below, around and / or on top; the designs vary significantly by region, in Kerala Hindu temples they are at the entrance; on festive occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil and lit up. Kambha, Dhvajastambha, Kodimaram Manasara XV, Kaśyapa śilpa śāstra IX [138]  
Sukanasa an external ornamented feature over the entrance to the garbhagriha or inner shrine. It sits on the face of the shikhara tower (in South India, the vimana) as a sort of antefix. Can refer to the antarala below as well. sukanasa-sika Agni Purana XLII [139]  
Tala tier or storey of a shikhara, vimana or gopuram [135]
Torana any arch or canopy motif, ornament or architectural member in temples and buildings; it also refers to an arched gateway Numerous terms, e.g. Gavaksha (from 'cow eye'-shaped) Garuda Purana XLVII, Manasara XLVI verses 1-77 [140]  
Urushringa subsidiary turret-like shikharas on the side of the main shikhara; the primary turret is called shringa Brihat Samhita LVI, Agni Purana CIV [141][142]  

Gallery edit

  •  
    Single storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)
  •  
    Two storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)
  •  
    Pillar elements (shared by Nagara and Dravidian)
  •  
    Athisthana architectural elements of a Hindu temple
  •  
    Entablature elements
  •  
    A vimana with mandapam elements (Dravidian architecture)

See also edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temple architecture of India.

Notes edit

  1. ^ Richard Salomon dates the earliest Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions to the 5th century.[40]
  2. ^ In rare cases, such as the Brihadishvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, the centre is outside the temple.

References edit

  1. ^ These are the usual terms, but there are many variants or different ones in the many Indian languages, ancient and modern.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
  3. ^ George Michell 1988, pp. 60–61.
  4. ^ Jack Hebner (2010), Architecture of the Vastu Sastra - According to Sacred Science, in Science of the Sacred (Editor: David Osborn), ISBN 978-0557277247, pp 85-92; N Lahiri (1996), Archaeological landscapes and textual images: a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh, World Archaeology, 28(2), pp 244-264
  5. ^ BB Dutt (1925), Town planning in Ancient India at Google Books, ISBN 978-81-8205-487-5
  6. ^ a b c d e f Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44 (4): 266–296. doi:10.2307/3249613. JSTOR 3249613.
  7. ^ Approaches to Iconology. Brill Archive. 1985. p. 41. ISBN 978-90-04-07772-0.
  8. ^ Ghosh, A. (1967). Indian Archaeology 1963-64, A Review. ASI. p. 17. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3416858.
  9. ^ Archaeological Survey Of India (1965). Indian Archaeology -- A Review 1964-65. pp. 19–20, BSN-3. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1442629.
  10. ^ Shaw, Julia (31 August 2013). Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD. Left Coast Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-61132-344-3.
  11. ^ Mishra, Susan Verma; Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2016). The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces: The temple in western India, 2nd century BCE–8th century CE. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-317-19374-6.
  12. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2004). "The Apsidal Shrine in Early Hinduism: Origins, Cultic Affiliation, Patronage". World Archaeology. 36 (3): 348. doi:10.1080/0043824042000282786. ISSN 0043-8243. JSTOR 4128336. S2CID 161072766.
  13. ^ Shaw, Julia (31 August 2013). Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD. Left Coast Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-1-61132-344-3.
  14. ^ N. Ramya (1 August 2010). . The Times of India. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012.
  15. ^ Kumar, Ashish (2013). "Heliodorous Pillar of Besnagar- Past and Present (pp. 13-19)". Heritage and Us. Year 2 (1): 15–16.
  16. ^ a b c d Khare, M. D. (1975). "THE HELIODORUS PILLAR—A FRESH APPRAISAL, BY JOHN IRWIN ( AARP—ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY RESEARCH PAPERS—DECEMBER 1974 ) A REJOINDER". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 36: 92–93. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44138838.
  17. ^ A., Gosh. Indian Archaeology: A Review 1963-64. Calcutta: Archaeological survey of India. p. 17.
  18. ^ Shaw, Julia (31 August 2013). Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD. Left Coast Press. p. 264, note 14; 265, note 10. ISBN 978-1-61132-344-3.
  19. ^ Harle, James C. (January 1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
  20. ^ Harle (1994), 87-100; Michell (1988), 18
  21. ^ a b Meister, Michael W. (1988–1989). "Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple". Artibus Asiae. 49 (3–4): 254–256. doi:10.2307/3250039. JSTOR 3250039.
  22. ^ a b Michael Meister (1987), Hindu Temple, in The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor: Mircea Eliade, Volume 14, Macmillan, ISBN 0-02-909850-5, page 370
  23. ^ Michell (1990), 192
  24. ^ Michell (1990), 157; Michell (1988), 96
  25. ^ a b Meister, Michael W. (1988–1989). "Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple". Artibus Asiae. 49 (3–4): 254–280. doi:10.2307/3250039. JSTOR 3250039.
  26. ^ Harle, 136-138; Michell (1988), 90, 96-98
  27. ^ Michell (1990), 349
  28. ^ Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (1983), South India: Lower Dravidadesa, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Part I, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691784021, pages 30-53
  29. ^ a b c Michell (1988), 18, 50-54, 89, 149-155; Harle (1994), 335
  30. ^ Michell, 149
  31. ^ Harle, 254
  32. ^ Harle, 256-261
  33. ^ Lisa Nadine Owen, Beyond Buddhist and Brahmanical Activity: The Place of the Jain Rock-Cut Excavations at Ellora, PhD thesis 2006, University of Texas at Austin p. 255
  34. ^ An important period in the development of Indian art (Kamath 2001, p115)
  35. ^ Arthikaje. . 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
  36. ^ Kannikeswaran. "Temples of Karnataka, Kalyani Chalukyan temples". webmaster@templenet.com,1996–2006. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
  37. ^ George Michell 1995, pp. 9–10, Quote: "The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur, forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the Delhi empire.".
  38. ^ Sen, Võ Văn; Thắng, Đặng Văn (2017-10-06). "Recognition of Oc Eo Culture Relic in Thoai Son District an Giang Province, Vienam". American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS). 36 (1): 271–293. ISSN 2313-4402.
  39. ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 587–588. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
  40. ^ Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 155–157. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
  41. ^ Michell (1988), 18-19, 54, 159-182
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  53. ^ In addition to square (4) sided layout, Brhat Samhita also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle (3), hexagon (6), octagon (8) and hexadecagon (16) sided layouts, according to Stella Kramrisch. The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’.
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  60. ^ a b c d Michell (1988), 55–56 with Figure 20
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  81. ^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 68-70.
  82. ^ a b c d e Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 66-70.
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  84. ^ a b "The Rathas, monolithic [Mamallapuram]". Online Gallery of British Library. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
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  94. ^ Hegewald, note 3. Mitchell (1988) uses "Solanki style", while Harle is reluctant to tie the style to a specific name.
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  108. ^ a b Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 283.
  109. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 59–60.
  110. ^ a b Adam Hardy 1995, p. 388.
  111. ^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 73-80.
  112. ^ George Michell 2000, pp. 39–44.
  113. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, p. 157.
  114. ^ a b Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 284.
  115. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 157–161.
  116. ^ Alice Boner & Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā 2005, p. 147.
  117. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 68, 190.
  118. ^ Stella Kramrisch 1976, p. 145 with footnote 44.
  119. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 108–109.
  120. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 74, 162, 192, 312, 454.
  121. ^ Alice Boner & Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā 2005, p. 151.
  122. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 219, 389.
  123. ^ a b Adam Hardy 1995, p. 389.
  124. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 468–489, 513.
  125. ^ a b Alice Boner & Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā 2005, p. 154.
  126. ^ Alice Boner; Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā; Bettina Bäumer (1996). The essence of form in sacred art. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 79–99. ISBN 978-81-208-0090-8.
  127. ^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 285.
  128. ^ O. M. Starza (1993). The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art, and Cult. BRILL Academic. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-90-04-09673-8.
  129. ^ Adam Hardy 1995, p. 82, 390.
  130. ^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, pp. 112, 126–130, 149–152, 280.
  131. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 328–336.
  132. ^ Harle, 153, 252
  133. ^ Harle (1994), pp. 148, 158, 280, 301
  134. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 484–489.
  135. ^ a b Adam Hardy 1995, p. 390.
  136. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 490–491.
  137. ^ Alice Boner & Sadāśiva Rath Śarmā 2005, p. 158.
  138. ^ Vinayak Bharne & Krupali Krusche 2014, p. 148-149.
  139. ^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010, pp. 495–496.
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  141. ^ Harle (1994), 219
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Bibliography edit

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  • A.K. Coomaraswamy; Michael W. Meister (1995). Essays in Architectural Theory. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. ISBN 978-0-19-563805-9.
  • Dehejia, V. (1997). Indian Art. Phaidon: London. ISBN 0-7148-3496-3.
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  • Adam Hardy (1995), Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-81-7017-312-0
  • Adam Hardy (2007). The Temple Architecture of India. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-02827-8.
  • Adam Hardy (2015). Theory and Practice of Temple Architecture in Medieval India: Bhoja's Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra and the Bhojpur Line Drawings. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. ISBN 978-93-81406-41-0.
  • Hardy, Adam (2007). The Temple Architecture of India, Wiley: Chichester. ISBN 978-0-470-02827-8
  • Hegewald, Julia A. B. (2011). "The International Jaina Style? Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora". Ars Orientalis. 45 (20210122). doi:10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.005. ISSN 2328-1286.
  • Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
  • Knut A. Jacobsen; Helene Basu; Angelika Malinar; et al. (2009). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9.
  • Monica Juneja (2001). Architecture in Medieval India: Forms, Contexts, Histories. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-7824-228-6.
  • Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press), ISBN 978-81-208-0223-0
  • Stella Kramrisch (1979). The Hindu Temple Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press). ISBN 978-81-208-0224-7.
  • Michael W. Meister; Madhusudan Dhaky (1986). Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architecture. American Institute of Indian Studies. ISBN 978-0-8122-7992-4.
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  • Sedyawati, Edi; Santiko, Hariani; Djafar, Hasan; Maulana, Ratnaesih; Ramelan, Wiwin Djuwita Sudjana; Ashari, Chaidir (2013). Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa (in Indonesian and English). Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan. ISBN 978-602-17669-3-4.
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  • Soekmono, R. (1995). Jan Fontein (ed.). The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume 17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17. Leiden: E.J. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10215-6.
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  • Burton Stein (1978). South Indian Temples. Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-0449-9.
  • Burton Stein (1989). The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26693-2.
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External links edit

  • Sabha, Vedic altar, Indian temples and Buddhist Mandala: Drawings, Patrick George, University of Pennsylvania
  • Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple
  • (archived 24 June 2004)

January 01, 1970
hindu, temple, architecture, main, form, hindu, architecture, many, varieties, style, though, basic, nature, hindu, temple, remains, same, with, essential, feature, inner, sanctum, garbha, griha, womb, chamber, where, primary, murti, image, deity, housed, simp. Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same with the essential feature an inner sanctum the garbha griha or womb chamber where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell For rituals and prayers this chamber frequently has an open space that can be moved in a clockwise direction There are frequently additional buildings and structures in the vicinity of this chamber with the largest ones covering several acres On the exterior the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower like shikhara also called the vimana in the south The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama a mandapa congregation hall and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa In addition to other small temples in the compound there may be additional mandapas or buildings that are either connected or separate from the larger temples 1 Types of Hindu temple architecture in India from left to right Nagara style of northern India Dravida style of southern India Kerala style with Dravida influences and Kathkuni style of northern Indian hills with Nagara influences Architecture of a Hindu temple Nagara style These core elements are evidenced in the oldest surviving 5th 6th century CE temples Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts the ideals of dharma values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism The temple is a place for Tirtha pilgrimage 2 All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon are present in a Hindu temple from fire to water from images of nature to deities from the feminine to the masculine from kama to artha from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha the eternal nothingness yet universality is part of a Hindu temple architecture 2 The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth his liberation it calls moksha 3 The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras 4 5 The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life 6 Contents 1 History 1 1 Early structures 1 2 Classical period 4 6th century 1 3 Medieval period 7th to 16th century 1 4 Southeast Asian Hindu temples 2 Design 2 1 The site 2 2 The plan 3 The builders 3 1 Schools of temple building tradition 4 Various styles of architecture 4 1 India 4 1 1 Dravidian architecture 4 1 2 Dravida and Nagara architecture 4 1 3 Regional styles 4 1 3 1 Badami Chalukya architecture 4 1 3 2 Bengal temple architecture 4 1 3 3 Gadag architecture 4 1 3 4 Kalinga architecture 4 1 3 5 Maru Gurjara architecture 4 2 Nepal 4 2 1 Newar architecture 4 3 Southeast Asia as part of Greater India 4 3 1 Champa architecture 4 3 2 Indonesian architecture 4 3 3 Khmer architecture 5 Glossary 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Bibliography 10 External linksHistory editEarly structures edit Temple of Vasudeva in Besnagar 2nd century BCE nbsp Initial excavations nbsp Elliptic plan of the TempleExcavation of the huge Temple of Vasudeva next to the Heliodorus pillar in Besnagar 7 The Temple measured 30x30 meters and the walls were 2 4 meters thick Pottery remains assigns the site to the 2nd century BCE 8 Further excavations also revealed the outline of a smaller elliptic temple structure which was probably destroyed by the end of the 3rd century BCE 9 The platform and the base of the Heliodorus pillar are visible in the immediate background Remains of early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar 3rd 2nd century BCE 10 and Nagari 1st century BCE may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures associated to the early Bhagavata tradition a precursor of Vaishnavism 11 12 13 In Tamil Nadu the earliest version of the Murugan Temple Saluvankuppam north facing and in brick appears to date from between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE 14 In Besnagar the temple structures have been found in conjonction with the Heliodorus pillar dedicated to Vasudeva 15 The archaeologists found an ancient elliptical foundation extensive floor and plinth produced from burnt bricks Further the foundations for all the major components of a Hindu temple garbhagriha sanctum pradakshinapatha circumambulation passage antarala antechamber next to sanctum and mandapa gathering hall were found 16 These sections had a thick support base for their walls These core temple remains cover an area of 30 x 30 m 17 The sections had post holes which likely contained the wooden pillars for the temple superstructure above In the soil were iron nails that likely held together the wooden pillars 16 The superstructure of the temple was likely made of wood mud and other perishable materials 16 The ancient temple complex discovered in Nagari Chittorgarh Rajasthan about 500 kilometers to the west of Vidisha has a sub surface structure nearly identical to that of the Besnagar temple The structure is also associated to the cult of Vasudeva and Saṃkarṣaṇa and dated to the 1st century BCE 16 18 Classical period 4 6th century edit Hindu temples of the Gupta period nbsp Kankali Devi temple in Tigawa 5th century nbsp Vishnu temple in Eran late 5th century nbsp Hindu temple of Bhitargaon late 5th century 19 nbsp Dashavatara Temple Deogarh early 6th century Though there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE there probably were earlier structures in timber based architecture The rock cut Udayagiri Caves 401 CE are among the most important early sites built with royal sponsorship recorded by inscriptions and with impressive sculpture 20 The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell like stone temples some rock cut and others structural as at Temple 17 at Sanchi 21 By the 6th or 7th century these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures However there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424 CE states Meister that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material These temples have not survived 21 22 Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa 23 Deogarh Parvati Temple Nachna 465 22 Bhitargaon the largest Gupta brick temple to survive 24 Lakshman Brick Temple Sirpur 600 625 CE Rajiv Lochan temple Rajim 7th century 25 Gop Temple in Gujarat c 550 or later is an oddity with no surviving close comparator 26 No pre 7th century CE South Indian free standing stone temples have survived Examples of early major South Indian temples that have survived some in ruins include the diverse styles at Mahabalipuram from the 7th and 8th centuries According to Meister the Mahabalipuram temples are monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed Dravida South Indian order They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built In the Deccan Cave 3 of the Badami cave temples was cut out in 578 CE and Cave 1 is probably slightly earlier 27 Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal 25 28 Medieval period 7th to 16th century edit nbsp nbsp Bhima Ratha and Ganesha Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram ca 600s By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods 29 From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived though far fewer than once existed Many regional styles developed very often following political divisions as large temples were typically built with royal patronage The Vesara style originated in the region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka According to some art historians the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of Badami 500 753AD whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture built temples in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles for example using both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date as at Pattadakal This style was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta 750 983AD in sites such as Ellora Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style 30 other writers only date the start of Vesara to the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani 983 1195 AD 31 in sites such as Lakkundi Dambal Itagi and Gadag 32 and continued by the Hoysala empire 1000 1330 AD nbsp Kailasanatha temple remarkably carved out of one single rock was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I r 756 773 CE 33 The earliest examples of Pallava architecture are rock cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram a UNESCO World Heritage Site including the Shore Temple This group includes both excavated pillared halls with no external roof except the natural rock and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple Western Chalukya architecture linked between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century 34 35 The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the Gadag style after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra Krishna River doab region of present day Gadag district in Karnataka 36 Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the deccan more than half of them in present day Karnataka Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells Pushkarni which served as ritual bathing places many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries In the north Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples and saw the loss of many existing ones 29 The south also witnessed Hindu Muslim conflict that affected the temples but the region was relatively less affected than the north 37 In late 14th century the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India During this period the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late development from the 12th century or later was typically added to older large temples 29 Southeast Asian Hindu temples edit nbsp nbsp Prambanan in Java Indonesia 9th century and Angkor Wat in Cambodia 12th century examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta They were probably dedicated to a sun god Shiva and Vishnu The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks one with a small stepped pond 38 nbsp A puja ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali Indonesia The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is the Vo Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between the 4th and 5th century CE 39 note 1 Prior to the 14th century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar Malaysia Indonesia Thailand Cambodia Laos and Vietnam These developed several national traditions and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South East Asia except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both 41 42 Hindu temples in Southeast Asia developed their own distinct versions mostly based on Indian architectural models both North Indian and South Indian styles 43 However the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples According to Michell it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from the theoretical prescriptions about temple building from Indian texts but never saw one They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent 43 Additionally unlike the Indian temples the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler devaraja with the divine with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods 43 Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java Indonesia 9th century 44 and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia 12th century 45 Design edit nbsp 17th century palm leaf manuscript page on temple building Odisha A Hindu temple is a symmetry driven structure with many variations on a square grid of padas depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares 6 2 Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one everything is connected A temple states Lewandowski replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring and at the same time being the universal whole like an organism of repeating cells 46 68 71 The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces a network of art pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life the pursuit of artha prosperity wealth the pursuit of kama desire the pursuit of dharma virtues ethical life and the pursuit of moksha release self knowledge 47 48 At the centre of the temple typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity is mere hollow space with no decoration symbolically representing Purusa the Supreme Principle the sacred Universal one without form which is present everywhere connects everything and is the essence of everyone A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection facilitate purification of one s mind and trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee 2 The specific process is left to the devotee s school of belief The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum The site edit The appropriate site for a Mandir suggest ancient Sanskrit texts is near water and gardens where lotus and flowers bloom where swans ducks and other birds are heard where animals rest without fear of injury or harm 2 These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play and thus the best site for Hindu temples 2 46 While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams confluence of rivers river banks lakes and seashore the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present Here too they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens If water is neither present naturally nor by design water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity Temples may also be built suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93 49 inside caves and carved stones on hill tops affording peaceful views mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys inside forests and hermitages next to gardens or at the head of a town street In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town 50 Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape often these are the best preserved examples of older styles Aihole Badami Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples 50 The plan edit nbsp The 8 8 64 grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan according to Vastupurusamandala The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template The bright saffron centre where diagonals intersect above represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy 6 2 The design especially the floor plan of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu purusha mandala The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan Mandala means circle Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition while Vastu means the dwelling structure 51 Vastupurushamandala is a yantra 52 The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical self repeating structure derived from central beliefs myths cardinality and mathematical principles 6 The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple around which is formed a perfect square in the space available The circle of mandala circumscribes the square The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought while circle is considered earthly human and observed in everyday life moon sun horizon water drop rainbow Each supports the other 2 The square is divided into perfect square grids In large temples this is often a 8 8 or 64 grid structure In ceremonial temple superstructures this is an 81 sub square grid The squares are called padas 6 53 The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar Agni The alignment along cardinal direction similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations through the gnomon In Hindu temple manuals design plans are described with 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 up to 1024 squares 1 pada is considered the simplest plan as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on do yoga or make offerings with Vedic fire in front The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection and is also a meditative layout The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre and is the template for the smallest temple Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples It is also called Manduka Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara The central square s of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman not to be confused with Brahmin and are called Brahma padas 2 In a Hindu temple s structure of symmetry and concentric squares each concentric layer has significance The outermost layer Paisachika padas signify aspects of Asuras and evil the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory 2 The devotees as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama or Pradakshina walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side In smaller temples the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented The Paisachika padas Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple s primary idol for darsana Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha Garbha Centre gruha house literally the centre of the house Purusa Space signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone 2 The spire of a Hindu temple called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada s nbsp nbsp A Hindu temple has a Shikhara Vimana or Spire that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple These spires come in many designs and shapes but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning squares theme left and a concentric layering design right that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky 2 54 Beneath the mandala s central square s is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit the Purusha This space is sometimes referred to as garbha griya literally womb house a small perfect square windowless enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence 51 In or near this space is typically a murti This is the main deity image and this varies with each temple Often it is this idol that gives it a local name such as Vishnu temple Krishna temple Rama temple Narayana temple Siva temple Lakshmi temple Ganesha temple Durga temple Hanuman temple Surya temple and others It is this garbha griya which devotees seek for darsana literally a sight of knowledge 55 or vision 51 Above the vastu purusha mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India and vimana in south India that stretches towards the sky 51 Sometimes in makeshift temples the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top The vertical dimension s cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid conical or other mountain like shape once again using principle of concentric circles and squares see below 2 Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology 46 69 72 In larger temples the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee 2 In some temples these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities The pillars walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life kama artha dharma and moksa This walk around is called pradakshina 51 Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa One on the east side serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry grids and mathematical precision An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal like design structure 56 each unique yet also repeating the central common principle one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as an organism of repeating cells 57 Exceptions to the square grid principle Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle 58 However there are some exceptions For example the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares Further the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 5 3 5 and 4 5 ratios These ratios are exact suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake nor an arbitrary approximation Other examples of non square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti Mata temple near Jaipur Rajasthan Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence 6 The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature Chaturasra square Ashtasra octagonal Vritta circular Ayatasra rectangular Ayata Ashtasra rectangular octagonal fusion Ayata Vritta elliptical Hasti Prishta apsidal Dvayasra Vrita rectangular circular fusion in Tamil literature the Prana Vikara shaped like a Tamil Om sign nbsp is also found Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts 59 nbsp Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple cross section and plan 1910 sketch nbsp Nashik Maharashtra temple cross section and plan 1910 sketch nbsp Vrindavan Uttar Pradesh temple plan nbsp Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh temple plan nbsp Puri Odisha temple complex plan nbsp Bhubneshwar Odisha a smaller temple plan nbsp Halebidu Karnataka temple plan nbsp Chidambaram Tamil Nadu temple plan nbsp Thiruvallur Sri Veera Raghavaswamy temple Tamil Hindu temple complex nbsp Mandapa and Shikara of Khajuraho Group of Monuments ca 885 CE and 1000 CE The builders editThe temples were built by guilds of architects artisans and workmen Their knowledge and craft traditions states Michell were originally preserved by the oral tradition later with palm leaf manuscripts 60 The building tradition was typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next and this knowledge was jealously guarded The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard wages These guilds over time became wealthy and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions 60 The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during the period of construction which in the case of large projects might be several years 61 The work was led by a chief architect sutradhara The construction superintendent was equal in his authority 60 Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief image maker who collaborated to complete a temple The sculptors were called shilpins Women participated in temple building but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing 60 Hindu texts are inconsistent about which caste did the construction work with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin 62 The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed They also performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum 63 In the earliest periods of Hindu art from about the 4th century to about the 10th century the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in the considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs Later much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased 63 This presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians states Michell and the increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins on suitable forms of sacred images The individual pursuit of self expression in a temple project was not allowed and instead the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form through a temple for the most part anonymously 63 nbsp Dashavatara temple sculpture at Deogarh completed about 500 CE The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks 63 Though great masters probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were almost certainly the inspiration of a single artist 64 Schools of temple building tradition edit Along with guilds surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India Each school developed its own gurukuls study centres and texts Of these state Bharne and Krusche two became most prominent the Vishwakarma school and the Maya Devanagari मय not to be pronounced as Maayaa school 65 66 The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style 65 67 The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles it probably reflects one of the other extinct schools 68 Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts whether the artists relied on silpa sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites over many centuries could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory shared terminology and tools and if so how 69 65 According to Adam Hardy an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture the truth must lie somewhere in between 69 According to George Michell an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu Architecture the theory and the creative field practice likely co evolved and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to 63 Various styles of architecture edit nbsp Architecture of the Khajuraho temples nbsp Dravidian South Indian Hindu Temple ArchitectureThe ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others states Michell classify temples into five orders based on their typological features Nagara Dravida Vesara ellipse and rectangle The plan described for each include square octagonal and apsidal Their horizontal plan regulates the vertical form Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply to a different part of the temple 70 Following a general historical division the early Hindu temples up to the 7th or 8th century are often called classical or ancient temples while those after the classical period to the 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as medieval However this division does not reflect a major break in Hindu architecture which continued to evolve gradually across these periods 71 The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology spiritual ideas and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and the local climate 71 Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions but much of the temples were built from readily available materials In some regions such as in South Karnataka the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks 71 In other places artists used to cut granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or a region s rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock cut temple architecture In regions where stones were unavailable brick temples flourished Hindu temple architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region its tonal value texture and structural possibilities states Michell 71 India edit Dravidian architecture edit Main article Dravidian architecture nbsp Kanchipuram Varadaraja Peruma temple s Gopuram and the temple tank Anandasaras Pushkarini Dravidian architecture is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from South India reaching its final form by the 1500 CE It is seen in Hindu temples and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana where the north has taller towers usually bending inwards as they rise called shikhara However for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high Gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound large temples have several dwarfing the vimana these are a much more recent development There are numerous other distinct features such as the dvarapalakas twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Karnataka Tamil Nadu Kerala Andhra Pradesh Telangana some parts of Maharashtra Odisha and Sri Lanka 72 73 Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas the Vakatakas of Vidarbha the Cholas the Chera the Kakatiyas the Reddis the Pandyas the Pallavas the Gangas the Kadambas the Rashtrakutas the Chalukyas the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of the Dravida architecture Dravida and Nagara architecture edit Of the different styles of temple architecture in India the Nagara architecture of northern India and the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common 74 Other styles are also found For example the rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal Kerala Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions 75 At other sites such as Ellora and Pattadakal adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions as well as features in a common style local to that region and period In modern era literature many styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built 76 Feature Nagara architecture 77 Vesara architecture Dravidian architecture 78 79 Reference Main temple spire tower Shikhara above sanctum Vimana that may be multistorey talas the top of which is called the shikhara 80 Mandapa spire tower Yes No 81 Curvature of the spire Curvilinear centred over the sanctum also straight edged pyramidal Straight edged pyramidal sometimes curvilinear centred over the sanctum note 2 Sanctum Single or multi storey Typically single Vimana may be multi storey 82 Plan Mandapa sanctum and tower plans are predominantly Chaturasra square uncommon Ashtasra Vritta Ayatasra Ayata Ashtasra Ayata Vritta Hasti Prishta Dvayasra Vrita Same plus Prana Vikara 82 Gopuram Not a prominent feature Characteristic but not essential after 10th century often higher than the vimana May be several on all sides of the compound serving as landmarks for pilgrims Other features Sacred pools fewer pillared mandapas in temple grounds separate dharmashala prakara walls rare e g Odisha after 14th century single or multiple entrances into temple Sacred pools many pillared mandapas in temple grounds used for rites of passage ceremonies choultry temple rituals prakara walls became common after 14th century single or multiple entrances into temple 82 Major sub styles Latina Phamsana Sekhari Valabhi Tamil upper and lower Dravidadesa Karnata Andhra Kerala 82 Geography Northern western and central of the Indian subcontinent Southern parts of the Indian subcontinent southeast Asia 82 Chronology of surviving stone masonry monuments Late Kushana era early Gupta rudimentary archaic 6th 10th century zenith Late Gupta era rudimentary 6th 10th century zenith 83 Regional styles edit The architecture of the rock cut temples particularly the rathas became a model for south Indian temples 84 Architectural features particularly the sculptures were widely adopted in South Indian Cambodian Annamese and Javanese temples 85 Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram 86 Badami Chalukya architecture edit The Badami Chalukya Architecture style originated by 5th century in Aihole and was perfected in Pattadakal and Badami Chalukya Architecture of temples at Aihole and Pattadakal nbsp Mallikarjuna temple complex at Aihole is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka India dated from the sixth century through the twelfth century CE 87 88 89 nbsp The Virupaksha temple or Lokesvara temple at Pattadakal built by queen Lokamahadevi queen of Badami Chalukya King Vikramaditya II around 740 CE now a World Heritage Site Between 500 and 757 CE Badami Chalukyas built Hindu temples out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills In Aihole known as the Cradle of Indian architecture there are over 150 temples scattered around the village The Lad Khan Temple is the oldest The Durga Temple is notable for its semi circular apse elevated plinth and the gallery that encircles the sanctum sanctorum A sculpture of Vishnu sitting atop a large cobra is at Hutchimali Temple The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site where one finds the Virupaksha temple it is the biggest temple having carved scenes from the great epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna Kashivishwanatha Galaganatha and Papanath Bengal temple architecture edit Further information Bengal temple architecture Several styles of temple architecture developed in Bengal Notable temple architectural styles of Bengal are the Chala Ratna and Dalan temples 90 91 Chala style is a hut with a sloping roof which follows the pattern of huts in most villages of Bengal Ratna style originated in Bengal from the 15th to 16th centuries under the Mallabhum kingdom also called Malla dynasty One of the most prominent features of the Chala and Ratna style is the terracotta artwork on the temple walls The Dalan style is flat roofed temples with their heavy cornices on S curved brackets and this style was later influenced by European ideas in the 19th century 90 The prominent examples of Chala style are Siddheshwari Kali Temple of Kalna City and Palpara Terracotta Temple of Palpara One of the prominent example of Ratna style is Ramchandraji temple at Guptipara The Sharabhuja Gauranga temple at Panchrol is an example of Dalan style Chala Ratna and Dalan style Architecture of temples nbsp Chala style Charchala temple at Palpara in Nadia district nbsp Ek ratna Ramchandraji temple at Guptipara Hooghly district nbsp Naba ratna Dakshineswar Kali Temple near Kolkata North 24 Parganas district nbsp Dalan style Sharabhuja Gauranga temple at Panchrol Purba Medinipur district Gadag architecture edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya architecture The style flourished for 150 years 1050 to 1200 CE in this period about 50 temples were built Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag the Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and the Amriteshwara temple at Annigeri which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas also known as Western Chalukya Someswara I Gadag Western Chalukya style Architecture of temples nbsp Stepped floorplan of Dattatreya Temple one side of the shrine with five projections at Chattarki in Gulbarga district 12th century CE nbsp Shrine wall and superstructure in Kasivisvesvara temple at Lakkundi nbsp Ornate Gadag style pillars at Sarasvati Temple Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag nbsp Mahadeva Temple at Itagi Koppal district in Karnataka also called Devalaya Chakravarti 92 93 1112 CE an example of dravida articulation with a nagara superstructure Kalinga architecture edit Further information Kalinga architecture The three types of Deulas nbsp Rekha and Pidha Deula of the Konark Sun Temple nbsp Khakhara Deula of the Vaital Deula This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula Deula means temple in the Odia language The former two are associated with Vishnu Surya and Shiva temple while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneswar and Jagannath Temple of Puri One of the prominent example of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula The Mukhasala structure that remains of the Konark Sun Temple is an example of Pidha Deula nbsp Navlakha Temple Ghumli Gujarat 12th century Maru Gurjara architecture edit Maru Gurjara architecture or Solaṅki style 94 is a style of north Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries under the Chaulukya dynasty or Solaṅki dynasty 95 Although originating as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture it became especially popular in Jain temples and mainly under Jain patronage later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world 96 On the exteriors the style is distinguished from other north Indian temple styles of the period in that the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses accommodating sharply carved statues in niches These are normally positioned in superimposed registers above the lower bands of moldings The latter display continuous lines of horse riders elephants and kirttimukhas Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned The main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it and two smaller side entrances with porches are common in larger temples 96 nbsp Devotions in the Swaminarayan temple in Houston Texas 2004 Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated with elaborate carving on most surfaces In particular Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design Another distinctive feature is flying arch like elements between pillars touching the horizontal beam above in the centre and elaborately carved These have no structural function and are purely decorative The style developed large pillared halls many open at the sides with Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine 97 The style mostly fell from use in Hindu temples in its original regions by the 13th century especially as the area had fallen to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate by 1298 But unusually for an Indian temple style it continued to be used by Jains there and elsewhere with a notable revival in the 15th century 98 Since then it has continued in use in Jain and some Hindu temples and from the late 20th century has spread to temples built outside India by both the Jain diaspora and Hindus Some buildings mix Maru Gurjara elements with those of local temple styles and modern international ones Generally where there is elaborate carving often still done by craftsmen from Gujarat or Rajasthan this has more ornamental and decorative work than small figures In particular the style is used in India and abroad by the Swaminarayan sect Sometimes the Maru Gurjara influence is limited to the flying arches and mandapa ceiling rosettes and a preference for white marble 96 Nepal edit Newar architecture edit This style is one of the oldest styles of temples on the Asian continent and derives its shape from Himalayan fir trees The ground floor is typically the residence of the diety either Hindu or Buddhist while the upper floors are used as storage for religious items There is gajura at the top which is the combination of a lotus base an upside down vase a triangle and a kalasha The pagoda style flourished in Nepal from the beginning of the 13th century The temples of Pashupatinath Changunarayan Chandeshwori and Banepa are excellent examples of ancient architecture in the pagoda style The Malla period produced various pagoda style temples and palaces such as Nayatapola Dattatraya of Bhaktapur Kasthamandap of Kathmandu Taleju Temple Vajrabarahi Vajrayogini 99 Southeast Asia as part of Greater India edit See also Influence of Indian architecture on other nations Indianization of Southeast Asia Greater India Indosphere Indomania and History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia Architecture of the southeast nations was inspired by the Indian temple architecture 84 85 as those were Indianised as part of the Greater India Champa architecture edit Further information Champa architecture nbsp The profile of the 13th century Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan Rang includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple From left to right one can see the gopura the saddle shaped kosagrha and mandapa attached to the kalan tower Between the 6th and the 16th century the Kingdom of Champa flourished in present day central and southern Vietnam Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to construct their religious buildings the Cham built their temples from reddish bricks The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang Po Nagar near Nha Trang and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang citation needed Typically a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings 100 They are kalan a brick sanctuary typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti of deity A mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary A kosagrha or fire house is a temple construction typically with a saddle shaped roof used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity The gopura was a gate tower leading into a walled temple complex These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general the classification is valid not only for the architecture of Champa but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India citation needed Indonesian architecture edit Further information Candi of Indonesia Indonesian architecture and Balinese temple Prambanan an example of Indonesian temple architecture nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp Prambanan temple Shivagrha of Central Java an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna vajra Temples are called candi pronounced tʃandi in Indonesia whether it is Buddhist or Hindu A Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single celled shrine with a pyramidal tower above it Meru tower in Bali and a portico for entrance 101 mostly built between the 7th to 15th centuries 101 102 In Hindu Balinese architecture a candi shrine can be found within a pura compound The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century Prambanan Shivagrha temple compound located in Central Java near Yogyakarta This largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers dedicated to Trimurti gods Shiva temple the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre high 154 ft The term candi itself is believed was derived from Candika one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death 103 The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra The temple layout especially in central Java period incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples The candi was designed to mimic Meru the holy mountain the abode of gods The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka 104 The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms The Indic tradition of Hindu Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements Subsequently the design plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements commonly identified as foot base body centre and head roof They are Bhurloka represented by the outer courtyard and the foot base part of each temples Bhuvarloka represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each temples and Svarloka which symbolized by the roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna sanskrit jewel or vajra citation needed Khmer architecture edit Further information Khmer architecture nbsp A diagram map of Angkor Wat reveal the concentric square galleries On the right is an aerial view of the central structure of Angkor Wat in front of it lies the cruciform terrace Before the 14th century the Khmer Empire flourished in present day Cambodia with its influence extended to most of mainland Southeast Asia Its great capital Angkor Khmer អង គរ Capital City derived from Sanskrit nagara contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer temple architecture The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century Angkor Wat Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering prasat called prang which houses the garbhagriha inner chamber where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva or a lingam resides Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls with the central sanctuary in the middle this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru the mythical home of the gods Enclosures are the spaces between these walls and between the innermost wall and the temple itself The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points The main entrance usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace 105 Glossary editThe Hindu texts on temple architecture have an extensive terminology Most terms have several different names in the various Indian languages used in different regions of India as well as the Sanscrit names used in ancient texts A few of the more common terms are tabulated below mostly in their Sanscrit Hindi forms 106 Term Explanation Synonyms or Similar Illustrative Hindu textmention design rules Reference Image Adhisthana stylobate plinth base typically with mouldings on the side on which a temple building or pillar stands Athavaksham Pista Pitha Manasara XIV Kamikagama 35 Suprabhedagama 31 107 nbsp Amalaka a crowning ornament on the top of shikara shape of an Indian amalok fruit that looks like a cogged wheel The amalaka supports the kalasha Mayamata silpasastra 107 108 nbsp Antarala lit interior space of any building in temples it is the intermediate space vestibule antechamber between the sanctum and space where pilgrims gather Sukhanasi Manasara XV XXIII Kamikagama XXXV 107 108 nbsp Ardhamandapa half hall at each entrance usually the reception area that connects to the mandapa Manasara XIV Kamikagama 35 Suprabhedagama 31 107 nbsp Ayatana assembly hall grounds inside a temple or monastery compound Agni Purana XLIII Matsya Purana CCLXX Chandogya Upanishad 6 8 2 109 Bhadra a projection often aligned to one of the cardinal directions typically of central part of walls decoration or a projected porch for pilgrims also may be a tower storey projection Manasara XXX XXXIV 107 Dvarapala a gate guardian often portrayed as a warrior or fearsome giant Gana a mythical dwarf or goblin usually with a protruded belly and with humorous expression 110 nbsp Garbhagriha The womb house adytum sanctum sanctorum it is the loci of the temple and the darshana the spiritual space that Hindus circumambulate clockwise about This is where the main murti image is placed Usually the space is very plain with no distractions from the murti which is rich in symbolism A large temple may have many shrines each with a garbhagriya Garbha griya Garbha geha Sibika Garbha Mula sthana Brihat Samhita LXI 106 nbsp nbsp Gavaksha one of the arch motifs it is horseshoe shaped found with windows or for decorating spires pillars and other elements Gavaksa kudu 111 112 nbsp Gopuram a gateway at entrance or one that connects two sacred spaces of the temple becomes very large in South Indian temples which may have several it has roots in ancient Indian monasteries and the Vedic word gomatipur 113 Gopura Dvara attalaka Agni Purana XLII Manasara XI XXXIII verses 1 601 LVIII 114 115 nbsp Hara neck ornament such as necklace 116 nbsp Jala a trellis stone grille net first seen in 6th century temples Jali Indra koshtha 117 nbsp Jagati any moulded base or pedestal for the temple or a statue that extends out part of platform that forms a terrace to stand on or circumambulate around on while reading the reliefs and friezes Jagata Pithika Jagati pitha Kati Vasudha Samarangana sutradhara LXVIII Agni Purana XLII Suprabhedagama 31 19 107 118 nbsp Kalasha the pinnacle element of a temple a vase finial cupola or pitcher Kalasam Stupi Kumuda Agni Purana CIV Kamikagama 55 110 119 nbsp Kunda temple tank stepwell pool usually with steps public utility for taking a dip often connected to a nearby river or mountain stream Pushkarani Sara Sagar Tadaga Udapana Var Vapi Garuda Purana XLVI Mahanirvana tantra XIII 120 nbsp Lata liana creeper style plant vine one type of scroll work also found on shikhara 121 Makara a mythical fusion sea creature with fish crocodile like face trunk or snout legs sometimes with lion claws and a tail vahana of Varuna Suprabhedagama 31 68 72 122 nbsp Mandapa pillared hall or pavilion with pillars usually carved a mandapa is typically square rectangle octagonal or circular it may have walls with perforated stone windows it may just be open on some or all sides Large temples may have many interconnected mandapas It is a gathering place a place for pilgrims to rest choultry a part of the circumambulation space or to wait during prayers or Sanskara rite of passage rituals A mandapa may have a tower shikhara of its own but it is lower than that above the sanctum Mandapam Mantapa Jagamohan Manasara XXXII XXXIV Kamikagama 50 Brihat samhita Vishnu Purana 6 124 136 123 114 124 nbsp Mulaprasada main shrine in a temple complex 123 Nisha niche on temple walls or in pillars for sculptures or stele 125 Nyasa the art of arranging images and friezes to create a narrative or composition in some texts it refers to relative placement of images within a panel to summarize a Hindu legend or fable also a form a ritual Vastusutra Upanishad VI 125 126 Prakara wall that separates an inner zone of temple ground from an outer zone typically concentric defensive and fortified a feature added after the wars and plunders starting in the 14th century 127 128 nbsp Prastara entablature horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings above column capitals sometimes functions as a parapet of a storey Chaiva gopanam kapotam mancham Manasara XVI Kamikagama LIV 129 130 131 nbsp Ratha a facet or vertical offset projection on the plan of the sanctum and shikhara above or other structure It is generally carried up from the bottom of the temple to the superstructure A ratha meaning cart is also the temple chariot used for processing the murti at festivals and a ratha temple is one designed to resemble a cart with wheels on the sides and often horses The most famous example is the Sun Temple Konarak 132 Sala Round barrel roofed wagon roofed pavilion rooted in the thatched roofed stall for people or cattle tradition then other materials of construction any mansion or griha a pilgrim services building with mandapas or pillared veranda or both inside the temple complex Hindu texts describe multi storey Sala in south sala are structures used as a decorative motif or an actual roof as at the top of gopurams rooted in ancient thatched roof styles Chala Manasara XXXV verses 1 404 133 134 nbsp Shikhara Vimana In North India the tower above the sanctum entire spire above mulaprasada in South India that top part of tower that is above the vimana Shikha Shikhanta Shikhamani Deul in East India Garbhaka Garbhamandira Brihat Samhita LVI 135 136 137 nbsp Stambha A pillar it can be a load bearing element or an independent standing element with diya lamps and Hindu icons below around and or on top the designs vary significantly by region in Kerala Hindu temples they are at the entrance on festive occasions the wick lamps are loaded with oil and lit up Kambha Dhvajastambha Kodimaram Manasara XV Kasyapa silpa sastra IX 138 nbsp Sukanasa an external ornamented feature over the entrance to the garbhagriha or inner shrine It sits on the face of the shikhara tower in South India the vimana as a sort of antefix Can refer to the antarala below as well sukanasa sika Agni Purana XLII 139 nbsp Tala tier or storey of a shikhara vimana or gopuram 135 Torana any arch or canopy motif ornament or architectural member in temples and buildings it also refers to an arched gateway Numerous terms e g Gavaksha from cow eye shaped Garuda Purana XLVII Manasara XLVI verses 1 77 140 nbsp Urushringa subsidiary turret like shikharas on the side of the main shikhara the primary turret is called shringa Brihat Samhita LVI Agni Purana CIV 141 142 nbsp Gallery edit nbsp Single storey gopura Dravidian architecture nbsp Two storey gopura Dravidian architecture nbsp Pillar elements shared by Nagara and Dravidian nbsp Athisthana architectural elements of a Hindu temple nbsp Entablature elements nbsp A vimana with mandapam elements Dravidian architecture See also edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Temple architecture of India Temple tank Vedic altars Indonesian architecture Candi of Indonesia Rock cut architecture Indian rock cut architecture Architecture of Angkor Hemadpanthi architecture Style Dhvajastambha flagstaff Notes edit Richard Salomon dates the earliest Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions to the 5th century 40 In rare cases such as the Brihadishvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram the centre is outside the temple References edit These are the usual terms but there are many variants or different ones in the many Indian languages ancient and modern a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Stella Kramrisch The Hindu Temple Vol 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0222 3 George Michell 1988 pp 60 61 Jack Hebner 2010 Architecture of the Vastu Sastra According to Sacred Science in Science of the Sacred Editor David Osborn ISBN 978 0557277247 pp 85 92 N Lahiri 1996 Archaeological landscapes and textual images a study of the sacred geography of late medieval Ballabgarh World Archaeology 28 2 pp 244 264 BB Dutt 1925 Town planning in Ancient India at Google Books ISBN 978 81 8205 487 5 a b c d e f Meister Michael 1983 Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans Rectangular Temples Artibus Asiae 44 4 266 296 doi 10 2307 3249613 JSTOR 3249613 Approaches to Iconology Brill Archive 1985 p 41 ISBN 978 90 04 07772 0 Ghosh A 1967 Indian Archaeology 1963 64 A Review ASI p 17 doi 10 5281 zenodo 3416858 Archaeological Survey Of India 1965 Indian Archaeology A Review 1964 65 pp 19 20 BSN 3 doi 10 5281 zenodo 1442629 Shaw Julia 31 August 2013 Buddhist Landscapes in Central India Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change C Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD Left Coast Press p 40 ISBN 978 1 61132 344 3 Mishra Susan Verma Ray Himanshu Prabha 2016 The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces The temple in western India 2nd century BCE 8th century CE Routledge p 5 ISBN 978 1 317 19374 6 Ray Himanshu Prabha 2004 The Apsidal Shrine in Early Hinduism Origins Cultic Affiliation Patronage World Archaeology 36 3 348 doi 10 1080 0043824042000282786 ISSN 0043 8243 JSTOR 4128336 S2CID 161072766 Shaw Julia 31 August 2013 Buddhist Landscapes in Central India Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change C Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD Left Coast Press pp 176 177 ISBN 978 1 61132 344 3 N Ramya 1 August 2010 New finds of old temples enthuse archaeologists The Times of India Archived from the original on 15 September 2012 Kumar Ashish 2013 Heliodorous Pillar of Besnagar Past and Present pp 13 19 Heritage and Us Year 2 1 15 16 a b c d Khare M D 1975 THE HELIODORUS PILLAR A FRESH APPRAISAL BY JOHN IRWIN AARP ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY RESEARCH PAPERS DECEMBER 1974 A REJOINDER Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 36 92 93 ISSN 2249 1937 JSTOR 44138838 A Gosh Indian Archaeology A Review 1963 64 Calcutta Archaeological survey of India p 17 Shaw Julia 31 August 2013 Buddhist Landscapes in Central India Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change C Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD Left Coast Press p 264 note 14 265 note 10 ISBN 978 1 61132 344 3 Harle James C January 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press p 116 ISBN 978 0 300 06217 5 Harle 1994 87 100 Michell 1988 18 a b Meister Michael W 1988 1989 Prasada as Palace Kuṭina Origins of the Nagara Temple Artibus Asiae 49 3 4 254 256 doi 10 2307 3250039 JSTOR 3250039 a b Michael Meister 1987 Hindu Temple in The Encyclopedia of Religion editor Mircea Eliade Volume 14 Macmillan ISBN 0 02 909850 5 page 370 Michell 1990 192 Michell 1990 157 Michell 1988 96 a b Meister Michael W 1988 1989 Prasada as Palace Kuṭina Origins of the Nagara Temple Artibus Asiae 49 3 4 254 280 doi 10 2307 3250039 JSTOR 3250039 Harle 136 138 Michell 1988 90 96 98 Michell 1990 349 Michael W Meister and M A Dhaky 1983 South India Lower Dravidadesa Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture Vol I Part I Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691784021 pages 30 53 a b c Michell 1988 18 50 54 89 149 155 Harle 1994 335 Michell 149 Harle 254 Harle 256 261 Lisa Nadine Owen Beyond Buddhist and Brahmanical Activity The Place of the Jain Rock Cut Excavations at Ellora PhD thesis 2006 University of Texas at Austin p 255 An important period in the development of Indian art Kamath 2001 p115 Arthikaje History of Karnataka Chalukyas of Kalyani 1998 2000 OurKarnataka Com Inc Archived from the original on 4 November 2006 Retrieved 2006 11 10 Kannikeswaran Temples of Karnataka Kalyani Chalukyan temples webmaster templenet com 1996 2006 Retrieved 2006 12 16 George Michell 1995 pp 9 10 Quote The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur general of Alauddin Sultan of Delhi Malik Kafur s forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling houses of Southern India not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the conquest Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur forts were destroyed palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai Madura in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces Madurai thereupon became the capital of the Ma bar Malabar province of the Delhi empire Sen Vo Văn Thắng Đặng Văn 2017 10 06 Recognition of Oc Eo Culture Relic in Thoai Son District an Giang Province Vienam American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering Technology and Sciences ASRJETS 36 1 271 293 ISSN 2313 4402 Keat Gin Ooi 2004 Southeast Asia A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor ABC CLIO pp 587 588 ISBN 978 1 57607 770 2 Richard Salomon 1998 Indian Epigraphy A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit Prakrit and the other Indo Aryan Languages Oxford University Press pp 155 157 ISBN 978 0 19 535666 3 Michell 1988 18 19 54 159 182 Richard Salomon 1990 Indian Tirthas in Southeast Asia In Hans Bakker ed The History of Sacred Places in India As Reflected in Traditional Literature Papers on Pilgrimage in South Asia BRILL Academic pp 160 176 ISBN 978 90 04 09318 8 Quote In the Indianized regions of ancient southeast Asia comprising the modern nations of Burma Thailand Malaysia Cambodia Laos Vietnam and Indonesia a b c George Michell 1988 pp 159 161 Prambanan Taman Wisata Candi borobudurpark com Retrieved 2017 12 15 Centre UNESCO World Heritage Angkor whc unesco org Retrieved 2017 12 15 a b c Susan Lewandowski The Hindu Temple in South India in Buildings and Society Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment Anthony D King Editor ISBN 978 0710202345 Routledge Chapter 4 Alain Danielou 2001 The Hindu Temple Deification of Eroticism Translated from French to English by Ken Hurry ISBN 0 89281 854 9 pp 101 127 Samuel Parker 2010 Ritual as a Mode of Production Ethnoarchaeology and Creative Practice in Hindu Temple Arts South Asian Studies 26 1 pp 31 57 Michael Rabe Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples Editor David White ISBN 978 8120817784 Princeton University Readings in Religion Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Chapter 25 pp 435 446 Stella Kramrisch The Hindu Temple Vol 1 Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0222 3 page 5 6 a b Michell 1988 50 a b c d e Susan Lewandowski The Hindu Temple in South India in Buildings and Society Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment Anthony D King Editor ISBN 978 0710202345 Routledge pp 68 69 Stella Kramrisch 1976 The Hindu Temple Volume 1 amp 2 ISBN 81 208 0223 3 In addition to square 4 sided layout Brhat Samhita also describes Vastu and mandala design principles based on a perfect triangle 3 hexagon 6 octagon 8 and hexadecagon 16 sided layouts according to Stella Kramrisch The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India particularly in Prakaras Meister Michael W March 2006 Mountain Temples and Temple Mountains Masrur Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 65 1 26 49 doi 10 2307 25068237 JSTOR 25068237 Stella Kramrisch 1976 p 8 Trivedi K 1989 Hindu temples models of a fractal universe The Visual Computer 5 4 243 258 Susan Lewandowski The Hindu Temple in South India in Buildings and Society Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment Anthony D King Editor ISBN 978 0710202345 Routledge pp 71 73 Meister Michael W April June 1979 Maṇḍala and Practice in Nagara Architecture in North India Journal of the American Oriental Society 99 2 204 219 doi 10 2307 602657 JSTOR 602657 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 pp 66 69 with Figure 5 8 a b c d Michell 1988 55 56 with Figure 20 Michell 1988 55 57 Stella Kramrisch 1994 Exploring India s Sacred Art Editor Stella Miller Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1208 6 pages 60 64 a b c d e Michell 1988 54 55 57 Michell 1988 57 a b c Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 pp 66 72 Madhusudan A Dhaky 1977 The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇaṭa Inscriptions and Architecture Abhinav Publications pp 1 19 ISBN 978 81 7017 065 5 Tarapada Bhattacharyya 1986 The Canons of Indian Art Or a Study on Vastuvidya Firma KLM pp i v 87 99 201 204 291 292 ISBN 978 0 8364 1618 3 Tarapada Bhattacharyya 1986 The Canons of Indian Art Or a Study on Vastuvidya Firma KLM pp 155 163 ISBN 978 0 8364 1618 3 a b Hardy Adam 2009 Dravida Temples in the Samaranganasutradhara PDF South Asian Studies 25 1 41 62 doi 10 1080 02666030 2009 9628698 S2CID 15290721 George Michell 1988 p 88 a b c d George Michell 1988 p 88 89 Fergusson James 1864 The Rock cut Temples of India Illustrated by Seventy four Photographs Taken on the Spot by Major Gill J Murray Hardy Adam 2007 The Temple Architecture of India Wiley ISBN 978 0 470 02827 8 Hardy 1995 5 Michell 1988 88 89 George Michell 1988 pp 89 155 158 Michell 1988 155 182 Hardy 1995 5 10 Madhusudan A Dhaky 1977 The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇaṭa Inscriptions and Architecture Abhinav Publications pp 7 13 ISBN 978 81 7017 065 5 Hardy 1995 5 8 Madhusudan A Dhaky 1977 The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇaṭa Inscriptions and Architecture Abhinav Publications pp 14 19 ISBN 978 81 7017 065 5 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 68 70 74 75 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 68 70 a b c d e Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 66 70 Madhusudan A Dhaky 1977 The Indian Temple Forms in Karṇaṭa Inscriptions and Architecture Abhinav Publications pp 7 19 ISBN 978 81 7017 065 5 a b The Rathas monolithic Mamallapuram Online Gallery of British Library Retrieved 23 October 2012 a b Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram UNESCO org Retrieved 23 October 2012 Bruyn Pippa de Bain Keith Allardice David Shonar Joshi 18 February 2010 Frommer s India John Wiley amp Sons pp 333 ISBN 978 0 470 64580 2 Retrieved 7 February 2013 Himanshu Prabha Ray 2010 Archaeology and Text The Temple in South Asia Oxford University Press pp 17 18 27 ISBN 978 0 19 806096 3 Heather Elgood 2000 p 151 Jeffery D Long 2011 Historical Dictionary of Hinduism Scarecrow p 29 ISBN 978 0 8108 7960 7 Quote AIHOLE Pronounced Eye ho le village in northern Karnataka that from the fourth to the sixth centuries CE was a major city a b McCutchion David J Late Mediaeval Temples of Bengal first published 1972 reprinted 2017 pp 1 14 19 22 The Asiatic Society Kolkata ISBN 978 93 81574 65 2 Becker Ritterspach Raimund Otto Artur 2016 Ratna style Temples with an Ambulatory Selected temple concepts in Bengal and the Kathmandu Valley First ed Kathmandu Nepal Himal Books ISBN 978 9937 597 29 6 Retrieved 8 June 2023 Cousens 1926 p 101 Kamath 2001 pp 117 118 Hegewald note 3 Mitchell 1988 uses Solanki style while Harle is reluctant to tie the style to a specific name Mitchell 1988 123 Hegewald a b c Hegewald Hegewald Harle 219 220 Harle 239 240 Hegewald Shokoohy Mehradad November 1996 Nepal a guide to the art and architecture of the Kathmandu Valley By Michael Hutt with contributions by David N Gellner Axel Michaels Greta Rana and Govinda Tandan pp 240 16 col pl 263 bl amp wh photos 11 figs 22 maps and plans Gartmore Stirling Paul Strachan Kiscadale 1994 25 00 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6 3 454 455 doi 10 1017 s1356186300008129 ISSN 1356 1863 Tran Ky Phuong Vestiges of Champa Civilization a b Philip Rawson The Art of Southeast Asia Soekmono 1995 p 1 Soekmono Dr R 1973 Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 Yogyakarta Indonesia Penerbit Kanisius p 81 ISBN 978 979 413 290 6 Sedyawati 2013 p 4 Glaize Monuments of the Angkor Group p 27 a b Khajuraho Architecture Archived from the original on 2016 03 02 Retrieved 2012 08 14 a b c d e f Adam Hardy 1995 p 387 a b Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 283 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 59 60 a b Adam Hardy 1995 p 388 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 73 80 George Michell 2000 pp 39 44 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 p 157 a b Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 284 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 157 161 Alice Boner amp Sadasiva Rath Sarma 2005 p 147 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 68 190 Stella Kramrisch 1976 p 145 with footnote 44 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 108 109 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 74 162 192 312 454 Alice Boner amp Sadasiva Rath Sarma 2005 p 151 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 219 389 a b Adam Hardy 1995 p 389 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 468 489 513 a b Alice Boner amp Sadasiva Rath Sarma 2005 p 154 Alice Boner Sadasiva Rath Sarma Bettina Baumer 1996 The essence of form in sacred art Motilal Banarsidass pp 79 99 ISBN 978 81 208 0090 8 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 285 O M Starza 1993 The Jagannatha Temple at Puri Its Architecture Art and Cult BRILL Academic pp 20 21 ISBN 978 90 04 09673 8 Adam Hardy 1995 p 82 390 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 pp 112 126 130 149 152 280 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 328 336 Harle 153 252 Harle 1994 pp 148 158 280 301 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 484 489 a b Adam Hardy 1995 p 390 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 490 491 Alice Boner amp Sadasiva Rath Sarma 2005 p 158 Vinayak Bharne amp Krupali Krusche 2014 p 148 149 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 495 496 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 148 149 Harle 1994 219 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 pp 470 471 Bibliography edit Prasanna Kumar Acharya 2010 An encyclopaedia of Hindu architecture Oxford University Press Republished by Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 7536 534 6 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 1997 A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture Treating of Sanskrit Architectural Terms with Illustrative Quotations Oxford University Press Reprinted in 1997 by Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 7536 113 3 Prasanna Kumar Acharya 1996 Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad Laurier ISBN 978 81 215 0732 5 Vinayak Bharne Krupali Krusche 2014 Rediscovering the Hindu Temple The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India Cambridge Scholars Publishing ISBN 978 1 4438 6734 4 Alice Boner 1990 Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture Cave Temple Period Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0705 1 Alice Boner Sadasiva Rath Sarma 2005 Silpa Prakasa Brill Academic Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 2052 4 A K Coomaraswamy Michael W Meister 1995 Essays in Architectural Theory Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts ISBN 978 0 19 563805 9 Dehejia V 1997 Indian Art Phaidon London ISBN 0 7148 3496 3 Heather Elgood 2000 Hinduism and the Religious Arts Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 0 304 70739 3 Adam Hardy 1995 Indian Temple Architecture Form and Transformation Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 312 0 Adam Hardy 2007 The Temple Architecture of India Wiley ISBN 978 0 470 02827 8 Adam Hardy 2015 Theory and Practice of Temple Architecture in Medieval India Bhoja s Samaraṅgaṇasutradhara and the Bhojpur Line Drawings Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts ISBN 978 93 81406 41 0 Hardy Adam 2007 The Temple Architecture of India Wiley Chichester ISBN 978 0 470 02827 8 Hegewald Julia A B 2011 The International Jaina Style Maru Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkis throughout India and in the Diaspora Ars Orientalis 45 20210122 doi 10 3998 ars 13441566 0045 005 ISSN 2328 1286 Harle J C The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent 2nd edn 1994 Yale University Press Pelican History of Art ISBN 0300062176 Knut A Jacobsen Helene Basu Angelika Malinar et al 2009 Brill s Encyclopedia of Hinduism Sacred texts ritual traditions arts concepts Brill Academic ISBN 978 90 04 17893 9 Monica Juneja 2001 Architecture in Medieval India Forms Contexts Histories Orient Blackswan ISBN 978 81 7824 228 6 Stella Kramrisch 1976 The Hindu Temple Volume 1 Motilal Banarsidass Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press ISBN 978 81 208 0223 0 Stella Kramrisch 1979 The Hindu Temple Volume 2 Motilal Banarsidass Reprinted 1946 Princeton University Press ISBN 978 81 208 0224 7 Michael W Meister Madhusudan Dhaky 1986 Encyclopaedia of Indian temple architecture American Institute of Indian Studies ISBN 978 0 8122 7992 4 George Michell 1988 The Hindu Temple An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 53230 1 George Michell 2000 Hindu Art and Architecture Thames amp Hudson ISBN 978 0 500 20337 8 Michell George 1990 The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India Volume 1 Buddhist Jain Hindu 1990 Penguin Books ISBN 0140081445 George Michell 1995 Architecture and Art of Southern India Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 44110 0 T A Gopinatha Rao 1993 Elements of Hindu iconography Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0878 2 Rajan K V Soundara 1998 Rock Cut Temple Styles Somaiya Publications Mumbai ISBN 81 7039 218 7 Sedyawati Edi Santiko Hariani Djafar Hasan Maulana Ratnaesih Ramelan Wiwin Djuwita Sudjana Ashari Chaidir 2013 Candi Indonesia Seri Jawa in Indonesian and English Jakarta Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan ISBN 978 602 17669 3 4 Ajay J Sinha 2000 Imagining Architects Creativity in the Religious Monuments of India University of Delaware Press ISBN 978 0 87413 684 5 Soekmono R 1995 Jan Fontein ed The Javanese Candi Function and Meaning Volume 17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology Vol 17 Leiden E J BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 10215 6 Stella Snead Wendy Doniger George Michell 1989 Animals in Four Worlds Sculptures from India University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 76726 0 D Srinivasan 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes Origin Meaning and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art BRILL Academic ISBN 978 90 04 10758 8 Burton Stein 1978 South Indian Temples Vikas ISBN 978 0 7069 0449 9 Burton Stein 1989 The New Cambridge History of India Vijayanagara Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 26693 2 Burton Stein David Arnold 2010 A History of India John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4443 2351 1 Kapila Vatsyayan 1997 The Square and the Circle of the Indian Arts Abhinav Publications ISBN 978 81 7017 362 5 External links editSabha Vedic altar Indian temples and Buddhist Mandala Drawings Patrick George University of Pennsylvania Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple Hindu Javanese Temples archived 24 June 2004 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hindu temple architecture amp oldid 1220794239 Nagara न गर architecture, 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