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Earl Warren

February 15, 2024

For the saxophonist and singer, see Earle Warren. For the Wisconsin politician, see Earl W. Warren.
"Justice Warren" redirects here. For other uses, see Justice Warren (disambiguation).

Earl Warren (March 19, 1891 – July 9, 1974) was an American lawyer, politician, and jurist who served as the 30th governor of California from 1943 to 1953 and as the 14th Chief Justice of the United States from 1953 to 1969. The Warren Court presided over a major shift in American constitutional jurisprudence, which has been recognized by many as a "Constitutional Revolution" in the liberal direction, with Warren writing the majority opinions in landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Reynolds v. Sims (1964), Miranda v. Arizona (1966), and Loving v. Virginia (1967). Warren also led the Warren Commission, a presidential commission that investigated the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy. He served as Governor of California from 1943 to 1953, and is the last chief justice to have served in an elected office before nomination to the Supreme Court. Warren is generally considered to be one of the most influential Supreme Court justices and political leaders in the history of the United States.

Earl Warren
14th Chief Justice of the United States
In office
October 5, 1953 – June 23, 1969
Nominated byDwight D. Eisenhower
Preceded byFred M. Vinson
Succeeded byWarren E. Burger
30th Governor of California
In office
January 4, 1943 – October 5, 1953
LieutenantFrederick F. Houser
Goodwin Knight
Preceded byCulbert Olson
Succeeded byGoodwin Knight
20th Attorney General of California
In office
January 3, 1939 – January 4, 1943
GovernorCulbert Olson
Preceded byUlysses S. Webb
Succeeded byRobert W. Kenny
Chair of the California Republican Party
In office
1932–1938
Preceded byLouis B. Mayer
Succeeded byJustus Craemer
District Attorney of Alameda County
In office
1925–1939
Preceded byEzra Decoto
Succeeded byRalph Hoyt
Personal details
Born(1891-03-19)March 19, 1891
Los Angeles, California, U.S.
DiedJuly 9, 1974(1974-07-09) (aged 83)
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Resting placeArlington National Cemetery
Political partyRepublican
Spouse
Nina Meyers
​
(m. 1925)​
Children6
EducationUniversity of California, Berkeley (BA, LLB)
Signature
Military service
AllegianceUnited States
Branch/serviceUnited States Army
Years of service1917–1918
Rank First Lieutenant
Unit91st Division

Warren was born in 1891 in Los Angeles and was raised in Bakersfield, California. After graduating from the University of California, Berkeley, School of Law, he began a legal career in Oakland. He was hired as a deputy district attorney for Alameda County in 1920 and was appointed district attorney in 1925. He emerged as a leader of the state Republican Party and won election as the Attorney General of California in 1938. In that position he supported, and was a firm proponent of the forced removal and internment of over 100,000 Japanese Americans during World War II. In the 1942 California gubernatorial election, Warren defeated incumbent Democratic governor Culbert Olson. As the 30th Governor of California, Warren presided over a period of major growth—for the state as well as the nation. Serving from 1943 to 1953, Warren is the only governor of California to be elected for three consecutive terms.

Warren served as Thomas E. Dewey's running mate in the 1948 presidential election, but the ticket lost the election to incumbent President Harry S. Truman and Senator Alben W. Barkley in an election upset. Warren sought the Republican nomination in the 1952 presidential election, but the party nominated General Dwight D. Eisenhower. After Eisenhower won election as president, he appointed Warren as Chief Justice. A series of rulings made by the Warren Court in the 1950s helped lead to the decline of McCarthyism. Warren helped arrange a unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. After Brown, the Warren Court continued to issue rulings that helped bring an end to the segregationist Jim Crow laws that were prevalent throughout the Southern United States. In Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964), the Court upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a federal law that prohibits racial segregation in public institutions and public accommodations.

In the 1960s, the Warren Court handed down several landmark rulings that significantly transformed criminal procedure, redistricting, and other areas of the law. Many of the Court's decisions incorporated the Bill of Rights, making the protections of the Bill of Rights apply to state and local governments. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) established a criminal defendant's right to an attorney in felony cases, and Miranda v. Arizona (1966) required police officers to give what became known as the Miranda warning to suspects taken into police custody that advises them of their constitutional protections. Reynolds v. Sims (1964) established that all state legislative districts must be of roughly equal population size, while the Court's holding in Wesberry v. Sanders (1964) required equal populations for congressional districts, thus achieving "one man, one vote" in the United States. Schmerber v. California (1966) established that forced extraction of a blood sample is not compelled testimony, illuminating the limits on the protections of the 4th and 5th Amendments and Warden v. Hayden (1967) dramatically expanded the rights of police to seize evidence with a search warrant, reversing the mere evidence rule. Furthermore, Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) established a constitutional right to privacy and struck down a state law that restricted access to contraceptives, and Loving v. Virginia (1967) struck down state anti-miscegenation laws, which had banned or otherwise regulated interracial marriage. Warren announced his retirement in 1968 and was succeeded by Appellate Judge Warren E. Burger in 1969. The Warren Court's rulings have received criticism, but have received widespread support and acclamation from both liberals and conservatives. As yet, few of the Court's decisions have been overturned.

Early life, family, and education edit

 
Warren as a U.S. Army officer in 1918

Warren was born in Los Angeles, California, on March 19, 1891, to Matt Warren and his wife, Crystal. Matt, whose original family name was Vaare, was born in Stavanger, Norway, in 1864, and he and his family migrated to the United States in 1866. Crystal, whose maiden name was Hernlund, was born in Hälsingland, Sweden; she and her family migrated to the United States when she was an infant. After marrying in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Mathias and Crystal settled in Southern California in 1889, where Matthias found work with the Southern Pacific Railroad. Earl Warren was the second of two children, after his older sister, Ethel. Earl did not receive a middle name; his father later commented that "when you were born I was too poor to give you a middle name."[1] In 1896, the family resettled in Bakersfield, California, where Warren grew up. Though not an exceptional student, Warren graduated from Kern County High School in 1908.[2]

Hoping to become a trial lawyer, Warren enrolled in the University of California, Berkeley after graduating from high school. He majored in political science and became a member of the La Junta Club, which became the Sigma Phi Society of California while Warren was attending college. Like many other students at Berkeley, Warren was influenced by the Progressive movement, and he was especially affected by Governor Hiram Johnson of California and Senator Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin.[3] While at Berkeley, Warren was little more than an average student who earned decent but undistinguished grades and after his third year, he entered the school's Department of Jurisprudence (now UC Berkeley School of Law). He received a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1914. Like his classmates upon graduation, Warren was admitted to the California bar without examination. After graduation, he took a position with the Associated Oil Company in San Francisco. Warren disliked working at the company and was disgusted by the corruption he saw in San Francisco, so he took a position with the Oakland law firm of Robinson and Robinson.[4]

After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Warren volunteered for an officer training camp, but was rejected due to hemorrhoids. Still hoping to become an officer, Warren underwent a procedure to remove the hemorrhoids, but by the time he fully recovered from the operation the officer training camp had closed. Warren enlisted in the United States Army as a private in August 1917, and was assigned to Company I of the 91st Division's 363rd Infantry Regiment at Camp Lewis, Washington. He was made acting first sergeant of the company before being sent to a three-month officer training course. After he returned to the company in May 1918 as a second lieutenant, the regiment was sent to Camp Lee, Virginia, to train draftees. Warren spent the rest of the war there and was discharged less than a month after Armistice Day, following a promotion to first lieutenant. Warren remained in the United States Army Reserve until 1934, rising to the rank of captain.[5]

City and district attorney edit

 
The René C. Davidson Courthouse, the main courthouse of the Alameda County Superior Court, completed in 1934

In late 1918, Warren returned to Oakland, where he accepted a position as the legislative assistant to Leon E. Gray, a newly elected member of the California State Assembly. Shortly after arriving in the state capital of Sacramento, Warren was appointed as the clerk of the Assembly Judiciary Committee.[6] After a brief stint as a deputy city attorney for Oakland, in 1920 Warren was hired as a deputy district attorney for Alameda County.[7] By the end of 1924, Warren had become the most senior person in the department outside of the district attorney, Ezra Decoto. Though many of his professional colleagues supported Calvin Coolidge, Warren cast his vote for Progressive Party candidate Robert La Follette in the 1924 presidential election. That same year, Warren made his first foray into electoral politics, serving as the campaign manager for his friend, Republican Assemblyman Frank Anderson.[8]

With the support of Governor Friend Richardson and publisher Joseph R. Knowland, a leader of the conservative faction of San Francisco Bay Area Republicans, Warren was appointed as the Alameda County district attorney in 1925.[9] Warren faced a tough re-election campaign in 1926, as local Republican boss Michael Joseph Kelly sought to unseat him. Warren rejected political contributions and largely self-funded his campaign, leaving him at a financial disadvantage to Kelly's preferred candidate, Preston Higgins. Nonetheless, Warren won a landslide victory over Higgins, taking over two-thirds of the vote.[10] When he ran for re-election again in 1930, he faced only token opposition.[11]

Warren gained a statewide reputation as a tough, no-nonsense district attorney who fought corruption in government and ran his office in a nonpartisan manner. Warren strongly supported the autonomy of law enforcement agencies, but also believed that police and prosecutors had to act fairly.[12] Unlike many other local law enforcement officials in the 1920s, Warren vigorously enforced Prohibition.[13] In 1927, he launched a corruption investigation against Sheriff Burton Becker. After a trial that some in the press described as "the most sweeping exposé of graft in the history of the country," Warren won a conviction against Becker in 1930.[14] When one of his own undercover agents admitted that he had perjured himself in order to win convictions in bootleg cases, Warren personally took charge of prosecuting the agent.[15] Warren's efforts gained him national attention; a 1931 nationwide poll of law enforcement officials found that Warren was "the most intelligent and politically independent district attorney in the United States".[16]

The Great Depression hit the San Francisco Bay area hard in the 1930s, leading to high levels of unemployment and a destabilization of the political order.[17] Warren took a hard stance against labor in the buildup to the San Francisco General Strike. In Whitney v. California (1927) Warren prosecuted a woman under the California Criminal Syndicalism Act for attending a communist meeting in Oakland.[18] In 1936, Warren faced one of the most controversial cases of his career after George W. Alberts, the chief engineer of a freighter, was found dead. Warren believed that Alberts was murdered in a conspiracy orchestrated by radical left-wing union members, and he won the conviction of union officials George Wallace, Earl King, Ernest Ramsay, and Frank Conner. Many union members argued that the defendants had been framed by Warren's office, and they organized protests of the trial.[19]

State party leader edit

While continuing to serve as the district attorney of Alameda County, Warren emerged as leader of the state Republican Party. He served as the county chairman for Herbert Hoover's 1932 campaign and, after Franklin D. Roosevelt won that election, he attacked Roosevelt's New Deal policies.[20] In 1934, Warren became chairman of the state Republican Party and he took a leading public role in opposing the gubernatorial candidacy of Democrat Upton Sinclair.[21] Warren earned national notoriety in 1936 for leading a successful campaign to elect a slate of unpledged delegates to the 1936 Republican National Convention; he was motivated largely by his opposition to the influence of Governor Frank Merriam and publisher William Randolph Hearst. In the 1936 presidential election, Warren campaigned on behalf of the unsuccessful Republican nominee, Alf Landon.[22]

Family and social life edit

After World War I, Warren lived with his sister and her husband in Oakland.[23] In 1921, he met Nina Elisabeth Meyers (née Palmquist), a widowed, 28-year-old store manager with a three-year-old son. Nina had been born in Sweden to a Baptist minister and his wife, and her family had migrated to the United States when she was an infant.[24] On October 4, 1925, shortly after Warren was appointed district attorney, Warren and Nina married. Their first child, Virginia, was born in 1928, and they had four more children: Earl Jr. (born 1930), Dorothy (born 1931), Nina Elisabeth (born 1933), and Robert (born 1935). Warren also adopted Nina's son, James.[25] Warren was the father-in-law of John Charles Daly, the host of the television game show What's My Line through his daughter Virginia's marriage. Warren enjoyed a close relationship with his wife; one of their daughters later described it as "the most ideal relationship I could dream of."[26] In 1935, the family moved to a seven-bedroom home just outside of downtown Oakland. Though the Warrens sent their children to Sunday school at a local Baptist church, Warren was not a regular churchgoer.[27] In 1938, Warren's father, Matt, was murdered; investigators never discovered the identity of the murderer.[28] Warren and his family moved to the state capital of Sacramento in 1943,[29] and to Wardman-Park, a residential hotel in Washington, D.C., in 1953.[30]

Warren was very active after 1919 in such groups as Freemasonry, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows,[31] the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, the Loyal Order of Moose (obtained the Pilgrim Degree of Merit, the highest award given in the fraternity) and the American Legion. Each one introduced Warren to new friends and political connections. He rose through the ranks in the Masons, culminating in his election in 1935 as the Grand Master of the Freemasons for the state of California from 1935 to 1936.[32][33] Biographer Jim Newton says that Warren "thrived in the Masons because he shared their ideals, but those ideals also helped shape him, nurturing his commitment to service, deepening his conviction that society's problems were best addressed by small groups of enlightened, well-meaning citizens. Those ideals knitted together Warren's Progressivism, his Republicanism, and his Masonry."[34]

Attorney General of California edit

 
California Attorney General

In 1934, Warren and his allies won passage of a state ballot measure that transformed the position of Attorney General of California into a full-time office; previous officeholders had worked part-time while maintaining their own private practice.[35] After incumbent Ulysses S. Webb announced his retirement, Warren jumped into the 1938 state attorney general election.[36] Earlier in the 20th century, progressives had passed a state constitutional amendment allowing for "cross-filing," whereby a candidate could file to run in multiple party primaries for the same office. Warren took advantage of that amendment and ran in multiple primaries.[37] Even though he continued to serve as chairman of the state Republican Party until April 1938, Warren won the Republican, Progressive, and, crucially, Democratic primaries for attorney general. He faced no serious opposition in the 1938 elections, even while incumbent Republican Governor Frank Merriam was defeated by Democratic nominee Culbert Olson.[38]

Once elected, he organized state law enforcement officials into regions and led a statewide anti-crime effort. One of his major initiatives was to crack down on gambling ships operating off the coast of Southern California.[39] Warren continued many of the policies from his predecessor Ulysses S. Webb's four decades in office. These included eugenic forced sterilizations and the confiscation of land from Japanese owners.[40] Warren, who was a member of the outspoken anti-Asian society Native Sons of the Golden West,[41] successfully sought legislation expanding the land confiscations.[42] During his time as Attorney General, Warren appointed as one of his deputy attorneys general Roger J. Traynor, who was then a law professor at UC Berkeley and later became the 23rd chief justice of California, as well as one of the most influential judges of his time.[43][44][45]

Internment of Japanese Americans edit

After World War II broke out in Europe in 1939, foreign policy became an increasingly important issue in the United States; Warren rejected the isolationist tendencies of many Republicans and supported Roosevelt's rearmament campaign. The United States entered World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.[46] Following the attack, Warren organized the state's civilian defense program, warning in January 1942 that "the Japanese situation as it exists in this state today may well be the Achilles' heel of the entire civilian defense effort." He became a driving force behind the internment of over one hundred thousand Japanese Americans without any charges or due process.[47]

Though the decision to intern Japanese Americans was made by General John L. DeWitt, and the internment was carried out by federal officials, Warren's advocacy played a major role in providing public justification for the internment.[48] In particular, Warren had claimed that Japanese Americans had willfully infiltrated "every strategic spot" in California coastal and valley counties, had warned of potentially greater danger from American born ethnic Japanese than from first-generation immigrants,[49] and asserted that although there were means to test the loyalty of a "Caucasian" that the same could not be said for ethnic Japanese.[50][51] Warren further argued that the complete lack of disloyal acts among Japanese Americans in California to date indicated that they intended to commit such acts in the future.[52] Later, Warren vigorously protested the return of released internees back into California.[53][51]

By early 1944, Warren had come to regret his role in the internment of Japanese Americans, and he eventually approved of the federal government's decision to allow Japanese Americans to begin returning to California in December 1944.[54] However, he long resisted any public expression of regret in spite of years of repeated requests from the Japanese American community.[55][51]

In a 1972 oral history interview, Warren said that "I feel that everybody who had anything to do with the relocation of the Japanese, after it was all over, had something of a guilty consciousness about it, and wanted to show that it wasn't a racial thing as much as it was a defense matter".[56] When during the interview Warren mentioned the faces of the children separated from their parents, he broke down in tears and the interview was temporarily halted.[57] In 1974, shortly before his death, Warren privately confided to journalist and former internee Morse Saito that he greatly regretted his actions during the evacuation.[58]

In his posthumously published memoirs, Warren fully acknowledged his error, stating that he

since deeply regretted the removal order and my own testimony advocating it, because it was not in keeping with our American concept of freedom and the rights of citizens... Whenever I thought of the innocent little children who were torn from home, school friends, and congenial surroundings, I was conscience-stricken... [i]t was wrong to react so impulsively, without positive evidence of disloyalty.

— The Memoirs of Earl Warren (1977)[51]

Governor of California edit

 
Warren as Governor of California

Election edit

Warren frequently clashed with Governor Culbert Olson over various issues, partly because they belonged to different parties. As early as 1939, supporters of Warren began making plans for his candidacy in California's 1942 gubernatorial election.[59] Though initially reluctant to run, Warren announced his gubernatorial candidacy in April 1942. He cross-filed in the Democratic and Republican primaries, ran without a party label, and refused to endorse candidates running for other offices. He sought to attract voters regardless of party, and stated "I can and will support President Roosevelt better than Olson ever has or ever will." Many Democrats, including Olson, criticized Warren for "put[ting] on a cloak of nonpartisanship," but Warren's attempts to appear above parties resonated with many voters. In August, Warren easily won the Republican primary, and surprised many observers by nearly defeating Olson in the Democratic primary. In November, he decisively defeated Olson in the general election, taking just under 57 percent of the vote. Warren's victory immediately made him a figure with national stature, and he enjoyed good relations with both the conservative wing of the Republican Party, led by Robert A. Taft, and the moderate wing of the Republican Party, led by Thomas E. Dewey.[60]

Policies edit

 
Governor Warren meets a young "gold miner" as part of the California centennials, 1948–1950

Warren modernized the office of governor, and state government generally. Like most progressives, Warren believed in efficiency and planning. During World War II, he aggressively pursued postwar economic planning. Fearing another postwar decline that would rival the depression years, Governor Earl Warren initiated public works projects similar to those of the New Deal to capitalize on wartime tax surpluses and provide jobs for returning veterans. For example, his support of the Collier-Burns Act in 1947 raised gasoline taxes that funded a massive program of freeway construction. Unlike states where tolls or bonds funded highway construction, California's gasoline taxes were earmarked for building the system. Warren's support for the bill was crucial because his status as a popular governor strengthened his views, in contrast with opposition from trucking, oil, and gas lobbyists. The Collier-Burns Act helped influence passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, setting a pattern for national highway construction.[61] In the mid-1940s, Warren sought to implement a state universal health care, but he was unable to pass his plan due to opposition from the medical and business communities.[62] In 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed in San Francisco while Warren was the governor of California.[63] He played an important role in the United Nations Conference on International Organization from April 25 to June 26, 1945, which resulted in the United Nations Charter.[64][65][66]

Warren also pursued social legislation. He built up the state's higher education system based on the University of California and its vast network of small universities and community colleges.[67] After federal courts declared the segregation of Mexican schoolchildren illegal in Mendez v. Westminster (1947), Governor Warren signed legislation ending the segregation of American Indians and Asians.[68] He sought the creation of a commission to study employment discrimination, but his plan was blocked by Republicans in the state legislature.[69] Governor Warren stopped enforcing California's anti-miscegenation law after it was declared unconstitutional in Perez v. Sharp (1948). He also improved the hospital and prison systems.[70] These reforms provided new services to a fast-growing population; the 1950 Census showed that California's population had grown by over 50% over the previous ten years.[71]

Re-election campaigns edit

By 1946, California's economy was booming, Warren was widely popular, and he enjoyed excellent relations with the state's top Democratic officeholder, Attorney General Robert W. Kenny. At the urging of state party leaders, Kenny agreed to run against Warren in the 1946 gubernatorial election, but Kenny was reluctant to criticize his opponent and was distracted by his role in the Nuremberg trials. As in 1942, Warren refused to endorse candidates for other offices, and he sought to portray himself as an effective, nonpartisan governor. Warren easily won the Republican primary for governor and, in a much closer vote, defeated Kenny in the Democratic primary. After winning both primaries, Warren endorsed Republican William Knowland's U.S. Senate candidacy and Goodwin Knight's candidacy for lieutenant governor. Warren won the general election by an overwhelming margin, becoming the first Governor of California since Hiram Johnson in 1914 to win a second term.[72]

Though he considered retiring after two terms, Warren ultimately chose to seek re-election in 1950, partly to prevent Knight from succeeding him. He easily won the Republican primary, but was defeated in the Democratic primary by James Roosevelt.[73] Warren consistently led Roosevelt in general election polls and won re-election in a landslide, taking 65 percent of the vote.[74] He was the first Governor of California elected to three consecutive terms.[63] During the 1950 campaign, Warren refused to formally endorse Richard Nixon, the Republican nominee for the Senate. Warren disliked what he saw as Nixon's ruthless approach to politics and was wary of having a conservative rival for leadership of the state party. Despite Warren's refusal to campaign for him, Nixon defeated Democratic nominee Helen Gahagan Douglas by a decisive margin.[75]

National politics, 1942–1952 edit

After his election as governor, Warren emerged as a potential candidate for president or vice president in the 1944 election. Seeking primarily to ensure his status as the most prominent Republican in California, he ran as a favorite son candidate in the 1944 Republican primaries. Warren won the California primary with no opposition, but Thomas Dewey clinched the party's presidential nomination by the time of the 1944 Republican National Convention. Warren delivered the keynote address of the convention, in which he called for a more liberal Republican Party. Dewey asked Warren to serve as his running mate, but Warren was uninterested in the vice presidency and correctly believed that Dewey would be defeated by President Roosevelt in the 1944 election.[76]

After his 1946 re-election victory, Warren began planning a run for president in the 1948 election. The two front-runners for the nomination were Dewey and Robert Taft, but Warren, Harold Stassen, Arthur Vandenberg, and General Douglas MacArthur each had significant support.[77] Prior to the 1948 Republican National Convention, Warren attempted to position himself as a dark horse candidate who might emerge as a compromise nominee. However, Dewey won the nomination on the third ballot of the convention.[78] Dewey once again asked Warren to serve as his running mate, and this time Warren agreed. Far ahead in the polls against President Harry S. Truman, the Democratic nominee, Dewey ran a cautious campaign that largely focused on platitudes rather than issues.[79] Warren campaigned across the country on behalf of the ticket, but was frustrated by his inability to support specific policies.[80] To the surprise of many observers, Truman won the election, and this became the only election Warren ever lost.[81][82]

After his 1950 re-election, Warren decided that he would seek the Republican nomination in the 1952 presidential election, and he announced his candidacy in November 1951. Taft also sought the nomination, but Dewey declined to make a third run for president. Dewey and his supporters instead conducted a long campaign to draft General Dwight D. Eisenhower as the Republican presidential nominee.[83] Warren ran in three Republican presidential primaries, but won just a handful of delegates outside of his home state. In the California primary, he defeated a challenge from Thomas H. Werdel, whose conservative backers alleged that Warren had "abandoned Republicanism and embraced the objectives of the New Deal." After Eisenhower entered the race, Warren realized that his only hope of nomination was to emerge as a compromise nominee at the 1952 Republican National Convention after a deadlock between supporters of Eisenhower and Taft.[84]

After the primaries, Warren had the support of 80 delegates, while Eisenhower and Taft each had about 450 delegates. Though the California delegation was pledged to support Warren, many of the delegates personally favored Eisenhower or Taft. Unknown to Warren, Eisenhower supporters had promised Richard Nixon the vice presidency if he could swing the California delegation to Eisenhower.[85] By the time of the convention, Nixon and his supporters had convinced most California delegates to switch their votes to Eisenhower after the first presidential ballot.[86] Eisenhower won 595 votes on the first presidential ballot of the convention, just 9 short of the majority. Before the official end of the first ballot, several states shifted their votes to Eisenhower, giving him the nomination.[87] Warren's decision to support a convention rule that unseated several contested delegations was critical to Eisenhower's victory; Eisenhower himself said that "if anyone ever clinched the nomination for me, it was Earl Warren."[88] Nixon was named as Eisenhower's running mate, and Warren campaigned on behalf of the Republican ticket in fourteen different states. Ultimately, Eisenhower defeated Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson II, taking 55 percent of the national popular vote.[89] Nixon resigned from the Senate to become vice president, and Warren appointed Thomas Kuchel to the Senate seat vacated by Nixon.[90]

Chief Justice of the United States edit

Further information: Warren Court and List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court
 
Chief Justice Earl Warren

Appointment edit

After the 1952 election, President-elect Eisenhower promised that he would appoint Warren to the next vacancy on the Supreme Court of the United States. Warren turned down the position of Secretary of the Interior in the new administration, but in August 1953 he agreed to serve as the Solicitor General.[91] In September 1953, before Warren's nomination as solicitor general was announced, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson died.[92] To fill the critical position of chief justice, Eisenhower first offered the position of chief justice to Thomas E. Dewey, but Dewey declined the offer. He then considered either elevating a sitting Supreme Court justice or appointing another individual with judicial experience but ultimately chose to honor his promise to appoint Warren to the first Supreme Court vacancy.[93] Explaining Warren's qualifications for the Court, Eisenhower wrote to his brother, "Warren has had seventeen years of practice in public law, during which his record was one of remarkable accomplishment and success.... He has been very definitely a liberal-conservative; he represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court."[94]

Warren received a recess appointment in October 1953. In the winter of 1953–1954, the Senate Judiciary Committee reported him favorably by a 12–3 majority, with three southerners in James Eastland, Olin D. Johnston and Harley M. Kilgore reporting negatively.[95] The Senate would then confirm Warren's appointment by acclamation in March 1954;[96] unlike the future appointments of John Marshall Harlan II and Potter Stewart (who ironically would prove the most conservative members of the Warren Court) southern senators made no effort to block Warren.[97] As of 2021, Warren is the most recent chief justice to have held statewide elected office at any point in his career and the most recent serving politician to be appointed Chief Justice. Warren was also the first Scandinavian American to be appointed to the Supreme Court.[98]

Leadership and philosophy edit

 
The Warren Court (1953–1954)

When Warren was appointed, all of the other Supreme Court justices had been appointed by Presidents Franklin Roosevelt or Harry Truman, and most were committed New Deal liberal Democrats. Nonetheless, they disagreed about the role that courts should play. Felix Frankfurter led a faction that insisted upon judicial self-restraint and deference to the policymaking prerogatives of the White House and Congress. Hugo Black and William O. Douglas led the opposing faction by agreeing the Court should defer to Congress in matters of economic policy but favored a more activist role for the courts in matters related to individual liberties. Warren's belief that the judiciary must seek to do justice placed him with the Black and Douglas faction.[99] William J. Brennan Jr. became the intellectual leader of the activist faction after he was appointed to the court by Eisenhower in 1956 and complemented Warren's political skills by the strong legal skills that Warren lacked.[100][page needed]

As chief justice, Warren's most important prerogative was the power to assign opinions if he was in the majority. That power had a subtle but important role in shaping the Court's majority opinions, since different justices would write different opinions.[101] Warren initially asked the senior associate justice, Hugo Black, to preside over conferences until he became accustomed to the processes of the Court. However, Warren learned quickly and soon was in fact, as well as in name, the Court's chief justice.[102] Warren's strength lay in his public gravitas, his leadership skills, and his firm belief that the Constitution guaranteed natural rights and that the Court had a unique role in protecting those rights.[103][104] His arguments did not dominate judicial conferences, but Warren excelled at putting together coalitions and cajoling his colleagues in informal meetings.[105]

Warren saw the US Constitution as the embodiment of American values, and he cared deeply about the ethical implications of the Court's rulings.[106] According to Justice Potter Stewart, Warren's philosophical foundations were the "eternal, rather bromidic, platitudes in which he sincerely believed" and "Warren's great strength was his simple belief in the things we now laugh at: motherhood, marriage, family, flag, and the like."[107] The constitutional historian Melvin I. Urofsky concludes that "scholars agree that as a judge, Warren does not rank with Louis Brandeis, Black, or Brennan in terms of jurisprudence. His opinions were not always clearly written, and his legal logic was often muddled."[108] Other scholars have also reached this conclusion.[109][110]

1950s edit

See also: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and History of the United States (1945–1964)

Brown v. Board of Education edit

Soon after joining the Court, Warren presided over the case of Brown v. Board of Education, which arose from the NAACP's legal challenge against Jim Crow laws. The Southern United States had implemented Jim Crow laws in aftermath of the Reconstruction Era to disenfranchise African Americans and segregate public schools and other institutions. In the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Court had held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit segregation in public institutions if the institutions were "separate but equal." In the decades after Plessy, the NAACP had won several incremental victories, but 17 states required the segregation of public schools by 1954. In 1951, the Vinson Court had begun hearing the NAACP's legal challenge to segregated school systems but had not rendered a decision when Warren took office.[111]

By the early 1950s, Warren had become personally convinced that segregation was morally wrong and legally indefensible. Warren sought not only to overturn Plessy but also to have a unanimous verdict. Warren, Black, Douglas, Burton, and Minton supported overturning the precedent, but for different reasons, Robert H. Jackson, Felix Frankfurter, Tom C. Clark, and Stanley Forman Reed were reluctant to overturn Plessy.[112] Nonetheless, Warren won over Jackson, Frankfurter, and Clark, in part by allowing states and federal courts the flexibility to pursue desegregation of schools at different speeds. Warren extensively courted the last holdout, Reed, who finally agreed to join a unanimous verdict because he feared that a dissent would encourage resistance to the Court's holding. After the Supreme Court formally voted to hold that the segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, Warren drafted an eight-page outline from which his law clerks drafted an opinion, and the Court handed down its decision in May 1954.[113] In the Deep South at the time, people could view signs claiming "Impeach Earl Warren."[114]

Other decisions and events edit

In arranging a unanimous decision in Brown, Warren fully established himself as the leader of the Court.[115] He also remained a nationally prominent figure. After a 1955 Gallup poll found that a plurality of Republican respondents favored Warren as the successor to Eisenhower, Warren publicly announced that he would not resign from the Court under any circumstance. Eisenhower seriously considered retiring after one term and encouraging Warren to run in the 1956 presidential election but ultimately chose to run after he had received a positive medical report after his heart attack.[116] Despite that brief possibility, a split developed between Eisenhower and Warren, and some writers believe that Eisenhower once remarked that his appointment was "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made."[117][a]

Meanwhile, many Southern politicians expressed outrage at the Court's decisions and promised to resist any federal attempt to force desegregation, a strategy known as massive resistance. Although Brown did not mandate immediate school desegregation or bar other "separate but equal" institutions, most observers recognized that the decision marked the beginning of the end for the Jim Crow system.[121] Throughout his years as chief justice, Warren succeeded in keeping decisions concerning segregation unanimous. Brown applied only to schools, but soon, the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions by striking down racial classification in many areas. Warren compromised by agreeing to Frankfurter's demand for the Court to go slowly in implementing desegregation. Warren used Frankfurter's suggestion for a 1955 decision (Brown II) to include the phrase "all deliberate speed."[122] In 1956, after the Montgomery bus boycott, the Supreme Court affirmed a lower court's decision that segregated buses are unconstitutional.[123] Two years later, Warren assigned Brennan to write the Court's opinion in Cooper v. Aaron. Brennan held that state officials were legally bound to enforce the Court's desegregation ruling in Brown.[124]

In the 1956 term, the Warren Court received condemnation from right-wingers such as US Senator Joseph McCarthy by handing down a series of decisions, including Yates v. United States, which struck down laws designed to suppress communists and later led to the decline of McCarthyism.[125][126] The Warren Court's decisions on those cases represented a major shift from the Vinson Court, which had generally upheld such laws during the Second Red Scare.[125][127] That same year, Warren was elected to the American Philosophical Society. In 1957, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[128]

1960s edit

See also: Presidency of John F. Kennedy, Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, and History of the United States (1964–1980)
 
President Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy, Chief Justice Earl Warren, and Nina Elisabeth Meyers (Warren's wife), November 1963

After the Republican Party nominated Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election, Warren privately supported the Democratic nominee, John F. Kennedy. They became personally close after Kennedy was inaugurated. Warren later wrote that "no American during my long life ever set his sights higher for a better America or centered his attacks more accurately on the evils and shortcomings of our society than did [Kennedy]."[129] In 1962, Frankfurter retired and was replaced by Kennedy appointee Arthur Goldberg, which gave the liberal bloc a majority on the Court.[130] Goldberg left the Court in 1965 but was replaced by Abe Fortas, who largely shared Goldberg's judicial philosophy.[131] With the liberal bloc firmly in control, the Warren Court handed down a series of momentous rulings in the 1960s.[132]

Bill of Rights edit

The 1960s marked a major shift in constitutional interpretation, as the Warren Court continued the process of the incorporation of the Bill of Rights in which the provisions of the first ten amendments to the US Constitution were applied to the states.[133][b] Warren saw the Bill of Rights as a codification of "the natural rights of man" against the government and believed that incorporation would bring the law "into harmony with moral principles."[135] When Warren took office, most of the provisions of the First Amendment already applied to the states, but the vast majority of the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government. The Warren Court saw the incorporation of the remaining provisions of the First Amendment as well as all or part of the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments. The Warren Court also handed down numerous other important decisions regarding the Bill of Rights, especially in the field of criminal procedure.[133]

In New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, the Supreme Court reversed a libel conviction of the publisher of the New York Times. In the majority opinion, Brennan articulated the actual malice standard for libel against public officials, which has become an enduring part of constitutional law.[136] In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, the Court reversed the suspension of an eighth-grade student who wore a black armband in protest of the Vietnam War. Fortas's majority opinion noted that students did not "shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate."[137] The Court's holding in United States v. Seeger expanded those who could be classified as conscientious objectors under the Selective Service System by allowing nonreligious individuals with ethical objections to claim conscientious objector status.[138] Another case, United States v. O'Brien, saw the Court uphold a prohibition against burning draft-cards.[139] Warren dissented in Street v. New York in which the Court struck down a state law that prohibited the desecration of the American flag. When his law clerks asked why he dissented in the case, Warren stated, "Boys, it's the American flag. I'm just not going to vote in favor of burning the American flag."[140] In the 1969 case of Brandenburg v. Ohio, the Court held that governments cannot punish speech unless it is "directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action."[141]

 
An "Impeach Earl Warren sign", posted in San Francisco in October 1958

In 1962, Engel v. Vitale held that the Establishment Clause prohibits mandatory prayer in public school.[142] The ruling sparked a strong backlash from many political and religious leaders, some of whom called for the impeachment of Warren. Warren became a favored target of right-wing groups, such as the John Birch Society, as well as the 1964 Republican presidential nominee, Barry Goldwater.[143] Engel, the criminal procedure cases, and the persistent criticism of conservative politicians like Goldwater and Nixon contributed to a decline in the Court's popularity in the mid- and the late 1960s.[144] Griswold v. Connecticut had the Court strike down a state law designed to restrict access to contraception, and it established a constitutional right to privacy. Griswold later provided an important precedent for the case of Roe v. Wade, which disallowed many laws designed to restrict access to abortion.[145]

Criminal procedure edit

In the early 1960s, the Court increasingly turned its attention to criminal procedure, which had traditionally been primarily a domain of the states. In Elkins v. United States (1960), Warren joined with the majority in striking down the "Silver Platter Doctrine," a loophole to the exclusionary rule that had allowed federal officials to use evidence that had been illegally gathered by state officials. The next year, in Mapp v. Ohio, the Court held that the Fourth Amendment's prohibition on "unreasonable searches and seizures" applied to state officials.[146] Warren wrote the majority opinion in Terry v. Ohio (1968) in which the Court established that police officers may frisk a criminal suspect if they have a reasonable suspicion that the suspect is committing or is about to commit a crime.[147] In Gideon v. Wainwright (1962), the Court held that the Sixth Amendment required states to furnish publicly funded attorneys to all criminal defendants accused of a felony and unable to afford counsel. Prior to Gideon, criminal defendants had been guaranteed the right to counsel only in federal trials and capital cases.[148]

In Escobedo v. Illinois (1964), the Court held that the Sixth Amendment guarantees criminal suspects the right to speak to their counsel during police interrogations. Escobedo was limited to criminal suspects who had an attorney at the time of their arrest and requested to speak with that counsel. In the landmark case of Miranda v. Arizona, Warren wrote the majority opinion, which established a right to counsel for every criminal suspect and required police to give criminal suspects what became known as a "Miranda warning" in which suspects are notified of their right to an attorney and their right to silence. Warren incorporated some suggestions from Brennan, but his holding in Miranda was most influenced by his past experiences as a district attorney. Unlike many of the other Warren Court decisions, including Mapp and Gideon, Miranda created standards that went far beyond anything that had been established by any of the states. Miranda received a strong backlash from law enforcement and political leaders.[149] Conservatives angrily denounced what they called the "handcuffing of the police."[150]

Reapportionment (one man, one vote) edit

The right to vote freely for the candidate of one's choice is of the essence of a democratic society, and any restrictions on that right strike at the heart of representative government. And the right of suffrage can be denied by a debasement or dilution of the weight of a citizen's vote just as effectively as by wholly prohibiting the free exercise of the franchise.

--Chief Justice Earl Warren on the right to vote as the foundation of democracy in Reynolds v. Sims (1964).[151]

In 1959, several residents dissatisfied with Tennessee's legislative districts brought suit against the state in Baker v. Carr. Like many other states, Tennessee had state legislative districts of unequal populations,[c] and the plaintiffs sought more equitable legislative districts. In Colegrove v. Green (1946), the Supreme Court had declined to become involved in legislative apportionment and instead left the issue as a matter for Congress and the states. In Gomillion v. Lightfoot (1960), the Court struck down a redistricting plan designed to disenfranchise African-American voters, but many of the justices were reluctant to involve themselves further in redistricting.[153] Frankfurter insisted that the Court should avoid the "political thicket" of apportionment and warned that the Court would never be able to find a clear formula to guide lower courts.[154] Warren helped convince Associate Justice Potter Stewart to join Brennan's majority decision in Baker v. Carr, which held that redistricting was not a political question and so federal courts had jurisdiction over the issue. The opinion did not directly require Tennessee to implement redistricting but instead left it to a federal district court to determine whether Tennessee's districts violated the Constitution.[155] In another case, Gray v. Sanders, the Court struck down Georgia's County Unit System, which granted disproportional power to rural counties in party primaries.[156] In a third case, Wesberry v. Sanders, the Court required states to draw congressional districts of equal population.[157]

In Reynolds v. Sims (1963), the chief justice wrote what biographer Ed Cray terms "the most influential of the 170 majority opinions [Warren] would write." While eight of the nine justices had voted to require congressional districts of equal population in Wesberry, some of the justices were reluctant to require state legislative districts to be of equal population. Warren indicated that the Equal Protection Clause required that state legislative districts be apportioned on an equal basis: "legislators represent people, not trees or acres. Legislators are elected by voters, not farms or cities or economic interests." His holding upheld the principle of "one man, one vote," which had previously been articulated by Douglas.[158] After the decision, the states reapportioned their legislatures quickly and with minimal troubles. Numerous commentators have concluded reapportionment was the Warren Court's great "success story."[159]

Civil rights edit

See also: Civil rights movement

Civil rights continued to be a major issue facing the Warren Court in the 1960s. In Peterson v. Greenville (1963), Warren wrote the Court's majority opinion, which struck down local ordinances that prohibited restaurants from serving black and white individuals in the same room.[160] Later that decade, the Court upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States. The Court held that the Commerce Clause empowered the federal government to prohibit racial segregation in public accommodations like hotels. The ruling effectively overturned the 1883 Civil Rights Cases in which the Supreme Court had held that Congress could not regulate racial discrimination by private businesses.[161] The Court upheld another landmark civil rights act, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, by holding that it was valid under the authority provided to Congress by the Fifteenth Amendment.[162]

In 1967, Warren wrote the majority opinion in the landmark case of Loving v. Virginia in which the Court struck down state laws banning interracial marriage. Warren was particularly pleased by the ruling in Loving since he had long regretted that the Court had not taken up the similar case of Naim v. Naim in 1955.[163] In Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections (1966), the Court struck down poll taxes in state elections.[164] In another case, Bond v. Floyd, the Court required the Georgia legislature to seat the newly elected legislator Julian Bond; members of the legislature had refused to seat Bond because he opposed the Vietnam War.[165]

Warren Commission edit

Main article: Warren Commission
 
Earl Warren presents the Commission's report to President Johnson on September 24, 1964.

Shortly after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the newly sworn-in president, Lyndon B. Johnson, convinced Warren to serve as the head of a bipartisan commission tasked with investigating the assassination.[166] From December 1963 to October 1964, Warren simultaneously served as chief justice of the United States and chairman of the Warren Commission.[167]

At the start of the investigation, Warren decided to hire the commission's legal staff from outside the government to avoid any improper influence on their work.[168]  Warren appointed Lee Rankin as general counsel and worked closely with Rankin and his assistants, Howard P. Willens and Norman Redlich, to recruit staff lawyers, supervise their investigation and publish the Commission's report.[168] To avoid the confusion and duplication of parallel investigations, Warren convinced the Texas authorities to defer any local inquiry into the assassination.[169]

Warren was personally involved in several aspects of the investigation.  He supervised four days of testimony by Lee Harvey Oswald's widow, Marina Oswald, and was widely criticized for telling the press that, although her testimony would be publicly disclosed, "it might not be in your lifetime."[170] He attended the closed-door interview of Jacqueline Kennedy[171] and insisted on participating in the deposition of Jack Ruby in Dallas, where he visited the book depository.[172] Warren also participated in the investigation of Kennedy's medical treatment and autopsy.[173] At Robert Kennedy's insistence, Warren handled the unwelcome task of reviewing the autopsy photos alone.[174]  Because the photos were so gruesome, Warren decided that they should not be included in the Commission's records.[175]

Warren closely supervised the drafting of the Commission's report. He wanted to ensure that Commission members had ample opportunity to evaluate the staff's work and to make their own judgments about important conclusions in the report.[176] He insisted that the report should be unanimous and so he compromised on a number of issues to get all the members to sign the final version. Although a reenactment of the assassination "produced convincing evidence" supporting the single-bullet theory, the Commission decided not to take a position on the single-bullet theory.[177][178] The Commission unanimously concluded that the assassination was the result of a single individual, Lee Harvey Oswald, who acted alone.[179]

The Warren Commission was an unhappy experience for the chief justice. As Willens recalled, "One can't say too much about the Chief's sacrifice. The work was a drain on his physical well-being."[180] However, Warren always believed that the Commission's primary conclusion, that Oswald acted alone, was correct. In his memoirs, Warren wrote that Oswald was incapable of being the key operative in a conspiracy, and that any high-level government conspiracy would inevitably have been discovered.[181] Newsweek magazine quoted Warren saying that, if he handled the Oswald case as a district attorney, "I could have gotten a conviction in two days and never heard about the case again."[182] Warren wrote that "the facts of the assassination itself are simple, so simple that many people believe it must be more complicated and conspiratorial to be true."[183] Warren told the Commission staff not to worry about conspiracy theories and other criticism of the report because “history will prove us right.”[184]

Retirement edit

 
Chief Justice Warren swears in President Nixon on January 20, 1969.

By 1968, Warren was ready to retire from the Court. He hoped to travel the world with his wife, and he wanted to leave the bench before he suffered a mental decline, something that he perceived in both Hugo Black and William Douglas. He also feared that Nixon would win the 1968 presidential election and appoint a conservative successor if Warren left the Court later. On 13 June 1968, Warren submitted his letter of resignation to President Johnson (who made it official on 21 June[185]), effective upon the confirmation of a successor. In an election year, confirmation of a successor was not assured; after Warren announced his retirement, about half of the Senate Republican caucus pledged to oppose any Supreme Court appointment prior to the election.[186]

Johnson nominated Associate Justice Fortas, a personal friend and adviser to the president, as Warren's successor, and nominated federal appellate judge Homer Thornberry to succeed Fortas. Republicans and Southern Democrats joined to scuttle Fortas's nomination. Their opposition centered on criticism of the Warren Court, including many decisions that had been handed down before Fortas joined the Court, as well as ethical concerns related to Fortas's paid speeches and closeness with Johnson. Though the majority of the Senate may have favored the confirmation of Fortas, opponents conducted a filibuster, which blocked the Senate from voting on the nomination, and Johnson withdrew the nomination.[187] In early 1969, Warren learned that Fortas had made a secret lifetime contract for $20,000 a year to provide private legal advice to Louis Wolfson, a friend and financier in deep legal trouble. Warren immediately asked Fortas to resign, which he did after some consideration.[188]

Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election and took office in January 1969. Though reluctant to be succeeded by a Nixon appointee, Warren declined to withdraw his letter of resignation. He believed that withdrawing the letter would be "a crass admission that he was resigning for political reasons." Nixon and Warren jointly agreed that Warren would retire in June 1969 to ensure that the Court would have a chief justice throughout the 1968 term and to allow Nixon to focus on other matters in the first months of his presidency.[189] Nixon did not solicit Warren's opinion regarding the next chief justice and ultimately appointed the conservative federal appellate judge Warren E. Burger.[190] Warren later regretted his decision to retire and reflected, "If I had ever known what was going to happen to this country and this Court, I never would have resigned. They would have had to carry me out of there on a plank."[191] In addition, he later remarked on his retirement and on the Warren Court, "I would like the Court to be remembered as the people's court."[192]

Final years and death edit

 
Grave at Arlington National Cemetery

After stepping down from the Court, Warren began working on his memoirs and took numerous speaking engagements. He also advocated for an end to the Vietnam War and the elimination of poverty.[193] He avoided publicly criticizing the Burger Court, but was privately distressed by the Court's increasingly conservative holdings.[194] He closely followed investigations into the Watergate scandal, a major political scandal that stemmed from a break-in of the Democratic National Committee's headquarters and the Nixon administration's subsequent attempts to cover up that break-in. Warren continued to hold Nixon in low regard, privately stating that Nixon was "perhaps the most despicable president that this country has ever had."[195]

Five years into retirement, Warren died due to cardiac arrest at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, D.C., at 8:10 p.m. on July 9, 1974, at the age of 83.[196] He had been hospitalized since July 2 due to congestive heart failure and coronary insufficiency.[196] On that same day, he was visited by Justices Brennan and Douglas, until 5:30 p.m.[196] Warren could not resist asking his friends whether the Court would order President Nixon to release the sixty-four tapes demanded by the Watergate investigation. Both justices assured him that the court had voted unanimously in United States v. Nixon for the release of the tapes. Relieved, Warren died just a few hours later, safe in the knowledge that the Court he had so loved would force justice on the man who had been his most bitter foe.[197][d]

Warren had his wife and one of his daughters, Nina Elizabeth Brien, at his bedside when he died.[196] After he lay in repose in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building, his funeral was held at Washington National Cathedral, and he was interred at Arlington National Cemetery.[199]

Legacy edit

Historical reputation edit

 
Warren bust, U.S. Supreme Court

Warren is generally considered to be one of the most influential U.S. Supreme Court justices,[200][201][202] as well as political leaders in the history of the United States.[192][203][204] The Warren Court has been recognized by many to have created a liberal "Constitutional Revolution",[205] which embodied a deep belief in equal justice, freedom, democracy, and human rights.[206][207][208] In July 1974, after Warren died, the Los Angeles Times commented that "Mr. Warren ranked with John Marshall and Roger Taney as one of the three most important chief justices in the nation's history."[196] In December 2006, The Atlantic cited Earl Warren as the 29th most influential person in the history of the United States and the second most influential Chief Justice, after John Marshall.[200] In September 2018, The Economist named Warren as "the 20th century's most consequential American jurist" and one of "the 20th century's greatest liberal jurists".[202][209]

President Harry S. Truman wrote in his tribute to Warren, which appeared in the California Law Review in 1970, "[t]he Warren record as Chief Justice has stamped him in the annals of history as the man who read and interpreted the Constitution in relation to its ultimate intent. He sensed the call of the times-and he rose to the call."[203] Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas wrote, in the same article, "in my view [Warren] will rank with Marshall and Hughes in the broad sweep of United States history".[203] According to biographer Ed Cray, Warren was "second in greatness only to John Marshall himself in the eyes of most impartial students of the Court as well as the Court's critics."[133] Pulitzer Prize winner Anthony Lewis described Warren as "the closest thing the United States has had to a Platonic Guardian".[210] In 1958, Martin Luther King Jr. sent one copy of his newly published book, Stride Toward Freedom, to Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing on the first free end page:[211][212] "To: Justice Earl Warren. In appreciation for your genuine good-will, your great humanitarian concern, and your unswerving devotion to the sublime principles of our American democracy. With warm Regards, Martin L. King Jr." The book remained with Warren's family until 2015, when it was auctioned online for US$49,335 (including the buyer's premium).[211]

Warren's critics found him a boring person. Dennis J. Hutchinson wrote: "Although Warren was an important and courageous figure and although he inspired passionate devotion among his followers...he was a dull man and a dull judge."[213] Conservatives attacked the Warren Court's rulings as inappropriate and have called for courts to be deferential to the elected political branches.[214][215] In his 1977 book Government by Judiciary, originalist and legal scholar Raoul Berger accuses the Warren Court of overstepping its authority by interpreting the 14th Amendment in a way contrary to the original intent of its draftsmen and framers in order to achieve results that it found desirable as a matter of public policy.[216]

Overall, law professor Justin Driver divides interpretations of the Warren Court into three main groups: conservatives such as Robert Bork who attack the Court as "a legislator of policy...that was not theirs to make", liberals such as Morton Horwitz who strongly approve of the Court, and liberals such as Cass Sunstein who largely approve of the Court's overall legacy but believe that it went too far in making policy in some cases.[207] Driver offers a fourth view, arguing that the Warren Court took overly conservative stances in such cases as Powell v. Texas and Hoyt v. Florida.[217] As for the legacy of the Warren Court, Chief Justice Burger, who succeeded Earl Warren in 1969, proved to be quite ineffective at consolidating conservative control over the Court, so the Warren Court legacy continued in many respects until about 1986, when William Rehnquist became chief justice and took firmer control of the agenda.[218] Even the more conservative Rehnquist Court refrained from expressly overturning major Warren Court cases such as Miranda, Gideon, Brown v. Board of Education, and Reynolds v. Sims.[219] On occasion, the Rehnquist Court expanded Warren Court precedents, such as in Bush v. Gore, where the Rehnquist Court applied the principles of 1960s voting rights cases to invalidate Florida's recount in the 2000 U.S. presidential election.[220]

Memorials and honors edit

 
Earl Warren Hall, University of California, Berkeley
 
Earl Warren Building, headquarters of California Supreme Court (San Francisco)

Earl Warren was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 1981. He was also honored by the United States Postal Service with a 29¢ Great Americans series postage stamp.[221] In December 2007, Warren was inducted into the California Hall of Fame.[222] An extensive collection of Warren's papers, including case files from his Supreme Court service, is located at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Most of the collection is open for research.

On the campus of the University of California, Berkeley, Warren's alma mater, "Earl Warren Hall" is named after him.[223] In addition, the UC Berkeley School of Law has established "The Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race, Ethnicity and Diversity", or "Warren Institute" for short, in memory of Earl Warren, while the "Warren Room" inside the Law Building was also named in his honor.[224][225]

In 2016 the United States Navy named the support ship USNS Earl Warren in his honour.[226]

A number of governmental and educational institutions have been named for Warren:

Electoral history edit

Earl Warren electoral history

California Republican presidential primary, 1936:[237]

  • Earl Warren – 350,917 (57.43%)
  • Alf Landon – 260,170 (42.58%)

1936 Republican presidential primaries:[238]

Republican primary for Governor of California, 1942:[239]

  • Earl Warren – 635,230 (94.23%)
  • Nathan T. Porter – 15,604 (2.32%)
  • William E. Riker – 10,004 (1.48%)
  • Fred Dyster – 9,824 (1.46%)
  • Culbert Olson (inc.) (write-in) – 3,504 (0.52%)

Democratic primary for Governor of California, 1942:[240]

  • Culbert Olson (inc.) – 513,244 (51.98%)
  • Earl Warren – 404,778 (41.00%)
  • Roy G. Owens – 50,780 (5.14%)
  • Nathan T. Porter – 11,302 (1.15%)
  • Alonzo J. Riggs – 7,231 (0.73%)

California gubernatorial election, 1942:[241]

  • Earl Warren (R) – 1,275,237 (57.07%)
  • Culbert Olson (D) (inc.) – 932,995 (41.75%)

California Republican presidential primary, 1944[242]

  • Earl Warren – 594,439 (100.00%)

1944 Republican presidential primaries:[243]

Republican primary for Governor of California, 1946:[244]

  • Earl Warren (inc.) – 774,302 (91.10%)
  • Robert W. Kenny – 70,331 (8.27%)

Democratic primary for Governor of California, 1946:[245]

  • Earl Warren (inc.) – 593,180 (51.93%)
  • Robert W. Kenny – 530,968 (46.49%)

California gubernatorial election, 1946:[246]

  • Earl Warren (R, D) (inc.) – 2,344,542 (91.64%)
  • Henry R. Schmidt (Prohibition) – 180,579 (7.06%)
  • Archie Brown (Communist) – 22,606 (0.88%)
  • James Roosevelt (D) (write-in) – 3,210 (0.13%)

1948 Republican presidential primaries:[247]

1948 Republican National Convention (Presidential tally)[248]

1948 Republican National Convention (Vice Presidential tally):[249]

  • Earl Warren – 1,094 (100.00%)

1948 United States presidential election

California gubernatorial election, 1950:[250]

  • Earl Warren (R) (inc.) – 2,461,754 (64.85%)
  • James Roosevelt (D) – 1,333,856 (35.14%)

1952 Republican presidential primaries:[251]

1952 Republican National Convention (1st ballot)

1952 Republican National Convention (2nd ballot)

See also edit

Explanatory notes edit

  1. ^ Eisenhower biographer Jean Edward Smith concluded in 2012 that "Eisenhower never said that. I have no evidence that he ever made such a statement."[118] Nonetheless, Eisenhower privately expressed his displeasure regarding some of Warren's decisions, and Warren grew frustrated at Eisenhower's unwillingness to support the Court publicly in Brown. Warren was recorded in the 1957 diary of Justice Harold Burton as confiding in Burton that "[Eisenhower] expressed disappointment at the trend of decisions of Chief Justice and Brennan."[119] In 1961, when Eisenhower was asked whether he had made any major mistakes as president, the former president responded that "yes, two, and they are both sitting on the Supreme Court."[120]
  2. ^ The original Bill of Rights did not apply to the states, but the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, contains the Due Process Clause, which applies to state governments and has been used by the Court to incorporate the Bill of Rights. Some, including Douglas, favored the total incorporation of the Bill of Rights, but the Court has selectively incorporated various provisions of the Bill of Rights across numerous cases. The first major incorporation case was Gitlow v. New York (1925).[134]
  3. ^ The Vermont General Assembly provides one example of the disparity in populations. In 1961, one member of the Vermont General Assembly represented 33,000 people, and another member represented 49 people.[152]
  4. ^ Facing impeachment, Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by Gerald Ford.[198]

Citations edit

  1. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 16–18.
  2. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 19–21.
  3. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 23–28, 31.
  4. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 28–32.
  5. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 32–33.
  6. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 35–36.
  7. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 37–38.
  8. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 41–42.
  9. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 45–47.
  10. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 44, 50–53.
  11. ^ Cray 1997, p. 57.
  12. ^ White 1982, Ch. 2.
  13. ^ Cray 1997, p. 55.
  14. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 54–57.
  15. ^ Cray 1997, p. 58.
  16. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 60–61.
  17. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 65–66.
  18. ^ David Skover and Ronald Collins, A Curious Concurrence: Justice Brandeis' Vote in Whitney v. California, 2005 Supreme Court Review 333 (2005).
  19. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 82–89.
  20. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 69–71.
  21. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 74–76.
  22. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 79–81.
  23. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 33, 39.
  24. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 40–41.
  25. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 49–50, 61.
  26. ^ Cray 1997, p. 150.
  27. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 61–62.
  28. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 94–96.
  29. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 133.
  30. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 270–271.
  31. ^ Suits, Julia (November 1, 2011). The Extraordinary Catalog of Peculiar Inventions: The Curious World of the Demoulin Brothers and Their Fraternal Lodge Prank Machi nes - from Human Centipedes and Revolving Goats to ElectricCarpets and SmokingC. Penguin. ISBN 9781101545768.
  32. ^ "U.S. Famous Freemasons". from the original on May 10, 2008.
  33. ^ "U.S. Famous Master Mason". from the original on January 4, 2016.
  34. ^ Newton 2006, pp. 72–73.
  35. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 71–72.
  36. ^ Cray 1997, p. 90.
  37. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 77–78.
  38. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 92–94.
  39. ^ White 1982, pp. 44–67.
  40. ^ Sumi K. Cho, Redeeming Whiteness in the Shadow of Internment: Earl Warren, Brown, and a Theory of Racial Redemption, 40 Boston College Law Review 73 (1998).
  41. ^ Sandhya Ramadas, How Earl Warren Previewed Today's Civil Liberties Debate - And Got It Right in the End, 16 Asian Am. L.J. 73 (2009).
  42. ^ Edwin E. Ferguson, The California Alien Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment, 35 Cal. L. Rev. 61 (1947).
  43. ^ "University of California: In Memoriam, 1985". texts.cdlib.org. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
  44. ^ McCall, James R. (1984). "Roger Traynor: Teacher, Jurist, and Friend". Hastings Law Journal.
  45. ^ Les Ledbetter, "Roger J. Traynor, California Justice", The New York Times, 17 May 1983, B6. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
  46. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 112–114.
  47. ^ White 1982, pp. 69–71.
  48. ^ Cray 1997, pp. 120–123.
  49. ^ Weglyn, Michi Nishiura (1976). Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps. New York: William Morrow & Company. pp. 30–31, 37–38. ISBN 978-0688079963.
  50. ^ Weglyn, Michi Nishiura (1976). Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps. New York: William Morrow & Company. p. 38. ISBN 978-0688079963.
  51. ^ a b c d G. Edward White (Autumn 1979). "The Unacknowledged Lesson: Earl Warren and the Japanese Relocation Controversy". Virginia Quarterly Review: 613–629. Retrieved May 12, 2012.
  52. ^ Hosokawa, Bill (1969). Nisei: the Quiet Americans. New York: William Morrow & Company. p. 288. ISBN 978-0688050139.
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General bibliography edit

Works cited edit

  • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506557-2.
  • Belknap, Michael (2005). The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren, 1953–1969. The University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-563-0.
  • Cray, Ed (1997). Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-80852-9.
  • Driver, Justin (2012). "The Constitutional Conservatism of the Warren Court". California Law Review. 100 (5): 1101–1167. JSTOR 23408735.
  • Hutchinson, Dennis J. (1983). "Hail to the Chief: Earl Warren and the Supreme Court". Michigan Law Review. 81 (4): 922–983. doi:10.2307/1288417. JSTOR 1288417. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
  • Mitchell, Daniel J. B. (2003). "Earl Warren's California Health Insurance Plan: What Might Have Been". Southern California Quarterly. 85 (2): 205–228. doi:10.2307/41172162. JSTOR 41172162.
  • Newton, Jim (2006). Justice for All: Earl Warren and the Nation He Made. Penguin. ISBN 978-1594482700.
  • Patterson, James T. (2001). Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156324.
  • Powe, Lucas A. (2000). The Warren Court and American Politics. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674006836.
  • Schwartz, Bernard (1983). Super Chief: Earl Warren and His Supreme Court, A Judicial Biography. New York University Press. ISBN 9780814778265.
  • Urofsky, Melvin I. (2001). The Warren Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071601.
  • White, G. Edward (1981). "Earl Warren as Jurist". Virginia Law Review. 67 (3): 461–551. doi:10.2307/1072897. JSTOR 1072897.
  • White, G. Edward (1982). Earl Warren, a Public Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503121-8.
  • Woodward, Robert; Armstrong, Scott (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0743274029. ISBN 978-0-380-52183-8. ISBN 978-0-671-24110-0.

Primary sources edit

  • Warren, Earl (1977). The Memoirs of Earl Warren. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385128353. Goes only to 1954.
  • Warren, Earl (1959). Christman, Henry M. (ed.). The Public Papers of Chief Justice Earl Warren. New York: Simon and Schuster. OCLC 184375.[permanent dead link] Speeches and decisions, 1946–1958.
  • Willens, Howard P. (October 31, 2013). History will prove us right : inside the Warren Commission report on the assassination of John F. Kennedy. New York, NY. ISBN 978-1-4683-0917-1. OCLC 863152345.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Further reading edit

  • Horwitz, Morton J. (1999). The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice. Hill and Wang Critical Issues. ISBN 978-0809016259.
  • Lewis, Anthony (1997). "Earl Warren". In Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L. (eds.). The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Vol. 4. New York : Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 1373–1400. ISBN 978-0791013779.
  • Moke, Paul (2015). Earl Warren and the Struggle for Justice. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1498520133.
  • Olney III, Warren; Brownell, Herbert (1981). "Law Enforcement and Judicial Administration in the Earl Warren Era," an oral history conducted 1970 through 1977 by Miriam F. Stein and Amelia R. Fry. Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. The Earl Warren Oral History Project,[...] was inaugurated in 1969 to produce tape-recorded interviews with persons prominent in the arenas of politics, governmental administration, and criminal Justice during the Warren Era in California. Focusing on the years 1925-1953, the interviews were designed not only to document the life of Chief Justice Warren "but to gain new information on the social and political changes of a state in the throes of a depression, then a war, then a postwar boom".
  • Rawls, James J. (1987). "The Earl Warren Oral History Project: an Appraisal". Pacific Historical Review. 56 (1): 87–97. doi:10.2307/3638827. JSTOR 3638827.
  • Scheiber, Harry N. (2006). Earl Warren and the Warren Court: The Legacy in American and Foreign Law. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0739116357.
  • Schwartz, Bernard (1996). The Warren Court: A Retrospective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195104394.
  • Schwartz, Bernard (1998). "Chief Justice Earl Warren: Super Chief in Action". Journal of Supreme Court History. 23 (1): 112–132. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5818.1998.tb00128.x. S2CID 144488598.
  • Simon, James F. (2018). Eisenhower vs. Warren: The Battle for Civil Rights and Liberties. Liveright Publishing. ISBN 9780871407665.
  • Smemo, Kristoffer (2005). "The Little People's Century: Industrial Pluralism, Economic Development, and the Emergence of Liberal Republicanism in California, 1942-1946". Journal of American History. 101 (4): 1166–1189. doi:10.1093/jahist/jav143.
  • Smith, J. Douglas (2014). On Democracy's Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought "One Person, One Vote" to the United States. Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0809074235.
  • Tushnet, Mark (1996). The Warren Court in Historical and Political Perspective. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0813916651.

External links edit

 
Wikisource has original works by or about:
Earl Warren
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Earl Warren.
  • Works by or about Earl Warren at Internet Archive
  • Earl Warren at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
  • Oral History Interview with Earl Warren, from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 2001-11-27)
  • at the Wayback Machine (archived 2007-01-06)
  • Earl Warren's Eulogy for John F. Kennedy
  • at the Wayback Machine (archived 2011-06-13). A speech by Earl Warren from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives
  • A film clip "Longines Chronoscope with Earl Warren (April 11, 1952)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
  • Comedy Clip Earl Warren & Gracie Allen – November 15, 1952 on YouTube
  • Biography Earl Warren (1891–1974) author Melvin I. Urofsky

February 15, 2024
earl, warren, saxophonist, singer, earle, warren, wisconsin, politician, earl, warren, justice, warren, redirects, here, other, uses, justice, warren, disambiguation, march, 1891, july, 1974, american, lawyer, politician, jurist, served, 30th, governor, califo. For the saxophonist and singer see Earle Warren For the Wisconsin politician see Earl W Warren Justice Warren redirects here For other uses see Justice Warren disambiguation Earl Warren March 19 1891 July 9 1974 was an American lawyer politician and jurist who served as the 30th governor of California from 1943 to 1953 and as the 14th Chief Justice of the United States from 1953 to 1969 The Warren Court presided over a major shift in American constitutional jurisprudence which has been recognized by many as a Constitutional Revolution in the liberal direction with Warren writing the majority opinions in landmark cases such as Brown v Board of Education 1954 Reynolds v Sims 1964 Miranda v Arizona 1966 and Loving v Virginia 1967 Warren also led the Warren Commission a presidential commission that investigated the 1963 assassination of President John F Kennedy He served as Governor of California from 1943 to 1953 and is the last chief justice to have served in an elected office before nomination to the Supreme Court Warren is generally considered to be one of the most influential Supreme Court justices and political leaders in the history of the United States Earl Warren14th Chief Justice of the United StatesIn office October 5 1953 June 23 1969Nominated byDwight D EisenhowerPreceded byFred M VinsonSucceeded byWarren E Burger30th Governor of CaliforniaIn office January 4 1943 October 5 1953LieutenantFrederick F HouserGoodwin KnightPreceded byCulbert OlsonSucceeded byGoodwin Knight20th Attorney General of CaliforniaIn office January 3 1939 January 4 1943GovernorCulbert OlsonPreceded byUlysses S WebbSucceeded byRobert W KennyChair of the California Republican PartyIn office 1932 1938Preceded byLouis B MayerSucceeded byJustus CraemerDistrict Attorney of Alameda CountyIn office 1925 1939Preceded byEzra DecotoSucceeded byRalph HoytPersonal detailsBorn 1891 03 19 March 19 1891Los Angeles California U S DiedJuly 9 1974 1974 07 09 aged 83 Washington D C U S Resting placeArlington National CemeteryPolitical partyRepublicanSpouseNina Meyers m 1925 wbr Children6EducationUniversity of California Berkeley BA LLB SignatureMilitary serviceAllegianceUnited StatesBranch serviceUnited States ArmyYears of service1917 1918RankFirst LieutenantUnit91st DivisionWarren was born in 1891 in Los Angeles and was raised in Bakersfield California After graduating from the University of California Berkeley School of Law he began a legal career in Oakland He was hired as a deputy district attorney for Alameda County in 1920 and was appointed district attorney in 1925 He emerged as a leader of the state Republican Party and won election as the Attorney General of California in 1938 In that position he supported and was a firm proponent of the forced removal and internment of over 100 000 Japanese Americans during World War II In the 1942 California gubernatorial election Warren defeated incumbent Democratic governor Culbert Olson As the 30th Governor of California Warren presided over a period of major growth for the state as well as the nation Serving from 1943 to 1953 Warren is the only governor of California to be elected for three consecutive terms Warren served as Thomas E Dewey s running mate in the 1948 presidential election but the ticket lost the election to incumbent President Harry S Truman and Senator Alben W Barkley in an election upset Warren sought the Republican nomination in the 1952 presidential election but the party nominated General Dwight D Eisenhower After Eisenhower won election as president he appointed Warren as Chief Justice A series of rulings made by the Warren Court in the 1950s helped lead to the decline of McCarthyism Warren helped arrange a unanimous decision in Brown v Board of Education 1954 which ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional After Brown the Warren Court continued to issue rulings that helped bring an end to the segregationist Jim Crow laws that were prevalent throughout the Southern United States In Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc v United States 1964 the Court upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964 a federal law that prohibits racial segregation in public institutions and public accommodations In the 1960s the Warren Court handed down several landmark rulings that significantly transformed criminal procedure redistricting and other areas of the law Many of the Court s decisions incorporated the Bill of Rights making the protections of the Bill of Rights apply to state and local governments Gideon v Wainwright 1963 established a criminal defendant s right to an attorney in felony cases and Miranda v Arizona 1966 required police officers to give what became known as the Miranda warning to suspects taken into police custody that advises them of their constitutional protections Reynolds v Sims 1964 established that all state legislative districts must be of roughly equal population size while the Court s holding in Wesberry v Sanders 1964 required equal populations for congressional districts thus achieving one man one vote in the United States Schmerber v California 1966 established that forced extraction of a blood sample is not compelled testimony illuminating the limits on the protections of the 4th and 5th Amendments and Warden v Hayden 1967 dramatically expanded the rights of police to seize evidence with a search warrant reversing the mere evidence rule Furthermore Griswold v Connecticut 1965 established a constitutional right to privacy and struck down a state law that restricted access to contraceptives and Loving v Virginia 1967 struck down state anti miscegenation laws which had banned or otherwise regulated interracial marriage Warren announced his retirement in 1968 and was succeeded by Appellate Judge Warren E Burger in 1969 The Warren Court s rulings have received criticism but have received widespread support and acclamation from both liberals and conservatives As yet few of the Court s decisions have been overturned Contents 1 Early life family and education 2 City and district attorney 2 1 State party leader 3 Family and social life 4 Attorney General of California 4 1 Internment of Japanese Americans 5 Governor of California 5 1 Election 5 2 Policies 5 3 Re election campaigns 5 4 National politics 1942 1952 6 Chief Justice of the United States 6 1 Appointment 6 2 Leadership and philosophy 6 3 1950s 6 3 1 Brown v Board of Education 6 3 2 Other decisions and events 6 4 1960s 6 4 1 Bill of Rights 6 4 2 Criminal procedure 6 4 3 Reapportionment one man one vote 6 4 4 Civil rights 6 4 5 Warren Commission 6 5 Retirement 7 Final years and death 8 Legacy 8 1 Historical reputation 8 2 Memorials and honors 9 Electoral history 10 See also 11 Explanatory notes 12 Citations 13 General bibliography 13 1 Works cited 13 2 Primary sources 14 Further reading 15 External linksEarly life family and education edit nbsp Warren as a U S Army officer in 1918Warren was born in Los Angeles California on March 19 1891 to Matt Warren and his wife Crystal Matt whose original family name was Vaare was born in Stavanger Norway in 1864 and he and his family migrated to the United States in 1866 Crystal whose maiden name was Hernlund was born in Halsingland Sweden she and her family migrated to the United States when she was an infant After marrying in Minneapolis Minnesota Mathias and Crystal settled in Southern California in 1889 where Matthias found work with the Southern Pacific Railroad Earl Warren was the second of two children after his older sister Ethel Earl did not receive a middle name his father later commented that when you were born I was too poor to give you a middle name 1 In 1896 the family resettled in Bakersfield California where Warren grew up Though not an exceptional student Warren graduated from Kern County High School in 1908 2 Hoping to become a trial lawyer Warren enrolled in the University of California Berkeley after graduating from high school He majored in political science and became a member of the La Junta Club which became the Sigma Phi Society of California while Warren was attending college Like many other students at Berkeley Warren was influenced by the Progressive movement and he was especially affected by Governor Hiram Johnson of California and Senator Robert M La Follette of Wisconsin 3 While at Berkeley Warren was little more than an average student who earned decent but undistinguished grades and after his third year he entered the school s Department of Jurisprudence now UC Berkeley School of Law He received a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1914 Like his classmates upon graduation Warren was admitted to the California bar without examination After graduation he took a position with the Associated Oil Company in San Francisco Warren disliked working at the company and was disgusted by the corruption he saw in San Francisco so he took a position with the Oakland law firm of Robinson and Robinson 4 After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 Warren volunteered for an officer training camp but was rejected due to hemorrhoids Still hoping to become an officer Warren underwent a procedure to remove the hemorrhoids but by the time he fully recovered from the operation the officer training camp had closed Warren enlisted in the United States Army as a private in August 1917 and was assigned to Company I of the 91st Division s 363rd Infantry Regiment at Camp Lewis Washington He was made acting first sergeant of the company before being sent to a three month officer training course After he returned to the company in May 1918 as a second lieutenant the regiment was sent to Camp Lee Virginia to train draftees Warren spent the rest of the war there and was discharged less than a month after Armistice Day following a promotion to first lieutenant Warren remained in the United States Army Reserve until 1934 rising to the rank of captain 5 City and district attorney edit nbsp The Rene C Davidson Courthouse the main courthouse of the Alameda County Superior Court completed in 1934In late 1918 Warren returned to Oakland where he accepted a position as the legislative assistant to Leon E Gray a newly elected member of the California State Assembly Shortly after arriving in the state capital of Sacramento Warren was appointed as the clerk of the Assembly Judiciary Committee 6 After a brief stint as a deputy city attorney for Oakland in 1920 Warren was hired as a deputy district attorney for Alameda County 7 By the end of 1924 Warren had become the most senior person in the department outside of the district attorney Ezra Decoto Though many of his professional colleagues supported Calvin Coolidge Warren cast his vote for Progressive Party candidate Robert La Follette in the 1924 presidential election That same year Warren made his first foray into electoral politics serving as the campaign manager for his friend Republican Assemblyman Frank Anderson 8 With the support of Governor Friend Richardson and publisher Joseph R Knowland a leader of the conservative faction of San Francisco Bay Area Republicans Warren was appointed as the Alameda County district attorney in 1925 9 Warren faced a tough re election campaign in 1926 as local Republican boss Michael Joseph Kelly sought to unseat him Warren rejected political contributions and largely self funded his campaign leaving him at a financial disadvantage to Kelly s preferred candidate Preston Higgins Nonetheless Warren won a landslide victory over Higgins taking over two thirds of the vote 10 When he ran for re election again in 1930 he faced only token opposition 11 Warren gained a statewide reputation as a tough no nonsense district attorney who fought corruption in government and ran his office in a nonpartisan manner Warren strongly supported the autonomy of law enforcement agencies but also believed that police and prosecutors had to act fairly 12 Unlike many other local law enforcement officials in the 1920s Warren vigorously enforced Prohibition 13 In 1927 he launched a corruption investigation against Sheriff Burton Becker After a trial that some in the press described as the most sweeping expose of graft in the history of the country Warren won a conviction against Becker in 1930 14 When one of his own undercover agents admitted that he had perjured himself in order to win convictions in bootleg cases Warren personally took charge of prosecuting the agent 15 Warren s efforts gained him national attention a 1931 nationwide poll of law enforcement officials found that Warren was the most intelligent and politically independent district attorney in the United States 16 The Great Depression hit the San Francisco Bay area hard in the 1930s leading to high levels of unemployment and a destabilization of the political order 17 Warren took a hard stance against labor in the buildup to the San Francisco General Strike In Whitney v California 1927 Warren prosecuted a woman under the California Criminal Syndicalism Act for attending a communist meeting in Oakland 18 In 1936 Warren faced one of the most controversial cases of his career after George W Alberts the chief engineer of a freighter was found dead Warren believed that Alberts was murdered in a conspiracy orchestrated by radical left wing union members and he won the conviction of union officials George Wallace Earl King Ernest Ramsay and Frank Conner Many union members argued that the defendants had been framed by Warren s office and they organized protests of the trial 19 State party leader edit While continuing to serve as the district attorney of Alameda County Warren emerged as leader of the state Republican Party He served as the county chairman for Herbert Hoover s 1932 campaign and after Franklin D Roosevelt won that election he attacked Roosevelt s New Deal policies 20 In 1934 Warren became chairman of the state Republican Party and he took a leading public role in opposing the gubernatorial candidacy of Democrat Upton Sinclair 21 Warren earned national notoriety in 1936 for leading a successful campaign to elect a slate of unpledged delegates to the 1936 Republican National Convention he was motivated largely by his opposition to the influence of Governor Frank Merriam and publisher William Randolph Hearst In the 1936 presidential election Warren campaigned on behalf of the unsuccessful Republican nominee Alf Landon 22 Family and social life editAfter World War I Warren lived with his sister and her husband in Oakland 23 In 1921 he met Nina Elisabeth Meyers nee Palmquist a widowed 28 year old store manager with a three year old son Nina had been born in Sweden to a Baptist minister and his wife and her family had migrated to the United States when she was an infant 24 On October 4 1925 shortly after Warren was appointed district attorney Warren and Nina married Their first child Virginia was born in 1928 and they had four more children Earl Jr born 1930 Dorothy born 1931 Nina Elisabeth born 1933 and Robert born 1935 Warren also adopted Nina s son James 25 Warren was the father in law of John Charles Daly the host of the television game show What s My Line through his daughter Virginia s marriage Warren enjoyed a close relationship with his wife one of their daughters later described it as the most ideal relationship I could dream of 26 In 1935 the family moved to a seven bedroom home just outside of downtown Oakland Though the Warrens sent their children to Sunday school at a local Baptist church Warren was not a regular churchgoer 27 In 1938 Warren s father Matt was murdered investigators never discovered the identity of the murderer 28 Warren and his family moved to the state capital of Sacramento in 1943 29 and to Wardman Park a residential hotel in Washington D C in 1953 30 Warren was very active after 1919 in such groups as Freemasonry the Independent Order of Odd Fellows 31 the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks the Loyal Order of Moose obtained the Pilgrim Degree of Merit the highest award given in the fraternity and the American Legion Each one introduced Warren to new friends and political connections He rose through the ranks in the Masons culminating in his election in 1935 as the Grand Master of the Freemasons for the state of California from 1935 to 1936 32 33 Biographer Jim Newton says that Warren thrived in the Masons because he shared their ideals but those ideals also helped shape him nurturing his commitment to service deepening his conviction that society s problems were best addressed by small groups of enlightened well meaning citizens Those ideals knitted together Warren s Progressivism his Republicanism and his Masonry 34 Attorney General of California edit nbsp California Attorney GeneralIn 1934 Warren and his allies won passage of a state ballot measure that transformed the position of Attorney General of California into a full time office previous officeholders had worked part time while maintaining their own private practice 35 After incumbent Ulysses S Webb announced his retirement Warren jumped into the 1938 state attorney general election 36 Earlier in the 20th century progressives had passed a state constitutional amendment allowing for cross filing whereby a candidate could file to run in multiple party primaries for the same office Warren took advantage of that amendment and ran in multiple primaries 37 Even though he continued to serve as chairman of the state Republican Party until April 1938 Warren won the Republican Progressive and crucially Democratic primaries for attorney general He faced no serious opposition in the 1938 elections even while incumbent Republican Governor Frank Merriam was defeated by Democratic nominee Culbert Olson 38 Once elected he organized state law enforcement officials into regions and led a statewide anti crime effort One of his major initiatives was to crack down on gambling ships operating off the coast of Southern California 39 Warren continued many of the policies from his predecessor Ulysses S Webb s four decades in office These included eugenic forced sterilizations and the confiscation of land from Japanese owners 40 Warren who was a member of the outspoken anti Asian society Native Sons of the Golden West 41 successfully sought legislation expanding the land confiscations 42 During his time as Attorney General Warren appointed as one of his deputy attorneys general Roger J Traynor who was then a law professor at UC Berkeley and later became the 23rd chief justice of California as well as one of the most influential judges of his time 43 44 45 Internment of Japanese Americans edit After World War II broke out in Europe in 1939 foreign policy became an increasingly important issue in the United States Warren rejected the isolationist tendencies of many Republicans and supported Roosevelt s rearmament campaign The United States entered World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 46 Following the attack Warren organized the state s civilian defense program warning in January 1942 that the Japanese situation as it exists in this state today may well be the Achilles heel of the entire civilian defense effort He became a driving force behind the internment of over one hundred thousand Japanese Americans without any charges or due process 47 Though the decision to intern Japanese Americans was made by General John L DeWitt and the internment was carried out by federal officials Warren s advocacy played a major role in providing public justification for the internment 48 In particular Warren had claimed that Japanese Americans had willfully infiltrated every strategic spot in California coastal and valley counties had warned of potentially greater danger from American born ethnic Japanese than from first generation immigrants 49 and asserted that although there were means to test the loyalty of a Caucasian that the same could not be said for ethnic Japanese 50 51 Warren further argued that the complete lack of disloyal acts among Japanese Americans in California to date indicated that they intended to commit such acts in the future 52 Later Warren vigorously protested the return of released internees back into California 53 51 By early 1944 Warren had come to regret his role in the internment of Japanese Americans and he eventually approved of the federal government s decision to allow Japanese Americans to begin returning to California in December 1944 54 However he long resisted any public expression of regret in spite of years of repeated requests from the Japanese American community 55 51 In a 1972 oral history interview Warren said that I feel that everybody who had anything to do with the relocation of the Japanese after it was all over had something of a guilty consciousness about it and wanted to show that it wasn t a racial thing as much as it was a defense matter 56 When during the interview Warren mentioned the faces of the children separated from their parents he broke down in tears and the interview was temporarily halted 57 In 1974 shortly before his death Warren privately confided to journalist and former internee Morse Saito that he greatly regretted his actions during the evacuation 58 In his posthumously published memoirs Warren fully acknowledged his error stating that he since deeply regretted the removal order and my own testimony advocating it because it was not in keeping with our American concept of freedom and the rights of citizens Whenever I thought of the innocent little children who were torn from home school friends and congenial surroundings I was conscience stricken i t was wrong to react so impulsively without positive evidence of disloyalty The Memoirs of Earl Warren 1977 51 Governor of California edit nbsp Warren as Governor of CaliforniaElection edit Warren frequently clashed with Governor Culbert Olson over various issues partly because they belonged to different parties As early as 1939 supporters of Warren began making plans for his candidacy in California s 1942 gubernatorial election 59 Though initially reluctant to run Warren announced his gubernatorial candidacy in April 1942 He cross filed in the Democratic and Republican primaries ran without a party label and refused to endorse candidates running for other offices He sought to attract voters regardless of party and stated I can and will support President Roosevelt better than Olson ever has or ever will Many Democrats including Olson criticized Warren for put ting on a cloak of nonpartisanship but Warren s attempts to appear above parties resonated with many voters In August Warren easily won the Republican primary and surprised many observers by nearly defeating Olson in the Democratic primary In November he decisively defeated Olson in the general election taking just under 57 percent of the vote Warren s victory immediately made him a figure with national stature and he enjoyed good relations with both the conservative wing of the Republican Party led by Robert A Taft and the moderate wing of the Republican Party led by Thomas E Dewey 60 Policies edit nbsp Governor Warren meets a young gold miner as part of the California centennials 1948 1950Warren modernized the office of governor and state government generally Like most progressives Warren believed in efficiency and planning During World War II he aggressively pursued postwar economic planning Fearing another postwar decline that would rival the depression years Governor Earl Warren initiated public works projects similar to those of the New Deal to capitalize on wartime tax surpluses and provide jobs for returning veterans For example his support of the Collier Burns Act in 1947 raised gasoline taxes that funded a massive program of freeway construction Unlike states where tolls or bonds funded highway construction California s gasoline taxes were earmarked for building the system Warren s support for the bill was crucial because his status as a popular governor strengthened his views in contrast with opposition from trucking oil and gas lobbyists The Collier Burns Act helped influence passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 setting a pattern for national highway construction 61 In the mid 1940s Warren sought to implement a state universal health care but he was unable to pass his plan due to opposition from the medical and business communities 62 In 1945 the United Nations Charter was signed in San Francisco while Warren was the governor of California 63 He played an important role in the United Nations Conference on International Organization from April 25 to June 26 1945 which resulted in the United Nations Charter 64 65 66 Warren also pursued social legislation He built up the state s higher education system based on the University of California and its vast network of small universities and community colleges 67 After federal courts declared the segregation of Mexican schoolchildren illegal in Mendez v Westminster 1947 Governor Warren signed legislation ending the segregation of American Indians and Asians 68 He sought the creation of a commission to study employment discrimination but his plan was blocked by Republicans in the state legislature 69 Governor Warren stopped enforcing California s anti miscegenation law after it was declared unconstitutional in Perez v Sharp 1948 He also improved the hospital and prison systems 70 These reforms provided new services to a fast growing population the 1950 Census showed that California s population had grown by over 50 over the previous ten years 71 Re election campaigns edit By 1946 California s economy was booming Warren was widely popular and he enjoyed excellent relations with the state s top Democratic officeholder Attorney General Robert W Kenny At the urging of state party leaders Kenny agreed to run against Warren in the 1946 gubernatorial election but Kenny was reluctant to criticize his opponent and was distracted by his role in the Nuremberg trials As in 1942 Warren refused to endorse candidates for other offices and he sought to portray himself as an effective nonpartisan governor Warren easily won the Republican primary for governor and in a much closer vote defeated Kenny in the Democratic primary After winning both primaries Warren endorsed Republican William Knowland s U S Senate candidacy and Goodwin Knight s candidacy for lieutenant governor Warren won the general election by an overwhelming margin becoming the first Governor of California since Hiram Johnson in 1914 to win a second term 72 Though he considered retiring after two terms Warren ultimately chose to seek re election in 1950 partly to prevent Knight from succeeding him He easily won the Republican primary but was defeated in the Democratic primary by James Roosevelt 73 Warren consistently led Roosevelt in general election polls and won re election in a landslide taking 65 percent of the vote 74 He was the first Governor of California elected to three consecutive terms 63 During the 1950 campaign Warren refused to formally endorse Richard Nixon the Republican nominee for the Senate Warren disliked what he saw as Nixon s ruthless approach to politics and was wary of having a conservative rival for leadership of the state party Despite Warren s refusal to campaign for him Nixon defeated Democratic nominee Helen Gahagan Douglas by a decisive margin 75 National politics 1942 1952 edit After his election as governor Warren emerged as a potential candidate for president or vice president in the 1944 election Seeking primarily to ensure his status as the most prominent Republican in California he ran as a favorite son candidate in the 1944 Republican primaries Warren won the California primary with no opposition but Thomas Dewey clinched the party s presidential nomination by the time of the 1944 Republican National Convention Warren delivered the keynote address of the convention in which he called for a more liberal Republican Party Dewey asked Warren to serve as his running mate but Warren was uninterested in the vice presidency and correctly believed that Dewey would be defeated by President Roosevelt in the 1944 election 76 After his 1946 re election victory Warren began planning a run for president in the 1948 election The two front runners for the nomination were Dewey and Robert Taft but Warren Harold Stassen Arthur Vandenberg and General Douglas MacArthur each had significant support 77 Prior to the 1948 Republican National Convention Warren attempted to position himself as a dark horse candidate who might emerge as a compromise nominee However Dewey won the nomination on the third ballot of the convention 78 Dewey once again asked Warren to serve as his running mate and this time Warren agreed Far ahead in the polls against President Harry S Truman the Democratic nominee Dewey ran a cautious campaign that largely focused on platitudes rather than issues 79 Warren campaigned across the country on behalf of the ticket but was frustrated by his inability to support specific policies 80 To the surprise of many observers Truman won the election and this became the only election Warren ever lost 81 82 After his 1950 re election Warren decided that he would seek the Republican nomination in the 1952 presidential election and he announced his candidacy in November 1951 Taft also sought the nomination but Dewey declined to make a third run for president Dewey and his supporters instead conducted a long campaign to draft General Dwight D Eisenhower as the Republican presidential nominee 83 Warren ran in three Republican presidential primaries but won just a handful of delegates outside of his home state In the California primary he defeated a challenge from Thomas H Werdel whose conservative backers alleged that Warren had abandoned Republicanism and embraced the objectives of the New Deal After Eisenhower entered the race Warren realized that his only hope of nomination was to emerge as a compromise nominee at the 1952 Republican National Convention after a deadlock between supporters of Eisenhower and Taft 84 After the primaries Warren had the support of 80 delegates while Eisenhower and Taft each had about 450 delegates Though the California delegation was pledged to support Warren many of the delegates personally favored Eisenhower or Taft Unknown to Warren Eisenhower supporters had promised Richard Nixon the vice presidency if he could swing the California delegation to Eisenhower 85 By the time of the convention Nixon and his supporters had convinced most California delegates to switch their votes to Eisenhower after the first presidential ballot 86 Eisenhower won 595 votes on the first presidential ballot of the convention just 9 short of the majority Before the official end of the first ballot several states shifted their votes to Eisenhower giving him the nomination 87 Warren s decision to support a convention rule that unseated several contested delegations was critical to Eisenhower s victory Eisenhower himself said that if anyone ever clinched the nomination for me it was Earl Warren 88 Nixon was named as Eisenhower s running mate and Warren campaigned on behalf of the Republican ticket in fourteen different states Ultimately Eisenhower defeated Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson II taking 55 percent of the national popular vote 89 Nixon resigned from the Senate to become vice president and Warren appointed Thomas Kuchel to the Senate seat vacated by Nixon 90 Chief Justice of the United States editFurther information Warren Court and List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court nbsp Chief Justice Earl WarrenAppointment edit After the 1952 election President elect Eisenhower promised that he would appoint Warren to the next vacancy on the Supreme Court of the United States Warren turned down the position of Secretary of the Interior in the new administration but in August 1953 he agreed to serve as the Solicitor General 91 In September 1953 before Warren s nomination as solicitor general was announced Chief Justice Fred M Vinson died 92 To fill the critical position of chief justice Eisenhower first offered the position of chief justice to Thomas E Dewey but Dewey declined the offer He then considered either elevating a sitting Supreme Court justice or appointing another individual with judicial experience but ultimately chose to honor his promise to appoint Warren to the first Supreme Court vacancy 93 Explaining Warren s qualifications for the Court Eisenhower wrote to his brother Warren has had seventeen years of practice in public law during which his record was one of remarkable accomplishment and success He has been very definitely a liberal conservative he represents the kind of political economic and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court 94 Warren received a recess appointment in October 1953 In the winter of 1953 1954 the Senate Judiciary Committee reported him favorably by a 12 3 majority with three southerners in James Eastland Olin D Johnston and Harley M Kilgore reporting negatively 95 The Senate would then confirm Warren s appointment by acclamation in March 1954 96 unlike the future appointments of John Marshall Harlan II and Potter Stewart who ironically would prove the most conservative members of the Warren Court southern senators made no effort to block Warren 97 As of 2021 Warren is the most recent chief justice to have held statewide elected office at any point in his career and the most recent serving politician to be appointed Chief Justice Warren was also the first Scandinavian American to be appointed to the Supreme Court 98 Leadership and philosophy edit nbsp The Warren Court 1953 1954 When Warren was appointed all of the other Supreme Court justices had been appointed by Presidents Franklin Roosevelt or Harry Truman and most were committed New Deal liberal Democrats Nonetheless they disagreed about the role that courts should play Felix Frankfurter led a faction that insisted upon judicial self restraint and deference to the policymaking prerogatives of the White House and Congress Hugo Black and William O Douglas led the opposing faction by agreeing the Court should defer to Congress in matters of economic policy but favored a more activist role for the courts in matters related to individual liberties Warren s belief that the judiciary must seek to do justice placed him with the Black and Douglas faction 99 William J Brennan Jr became the intellectual leader of the activist faction after he was appointed to the court by Eisenhower in 1956 and complemented Warren s political skills by the strong legal skills that Warren lacked 100 page needed As chief justice Warren s most important prerogative was the power to assign opinions if he was in the majority That power had a subtle but important role in shaping the Court s majority opinions since different justices would write different opinions 101 Warren initially asked the senior associate justice Hugo Black to preside over conferences until he became accustomed to the processes of the Court However Warren learned quickly and soon was in fact as well as in name the Court s chief justice 102 Warren s strength lay in his public gravitas his leadership skills and his firm belief that the Constitution guaranteed natural rights and that the Court had a unique role in protecting those rights 103 104 His arguments did not dominate judicial conferences but Warren excelled at putting together coalitions and cajoling his colleagues in informal meetings 105 Warren saw the US Constitution as the embodiment of American values and he cared deeply about the ethical implications of the Court s rulings 106 According to Justice Potter Stewart Warren s philosophical foundations were the eternal rather bromidic platitudes in which he sincerely believed and Warren s great strength was his simple belief in the things we now laugh at motherhood marriage family flag and the like 107 The constitutional historian Melvin I Urofsky concludes that scholars agree that as a judge Warren does not rank with Louis Brandeis Black or Brennan in terms of jurisprudence His opinions were not always clearly written and his legal logic was often muddled 108 Other scholars have also reached this conclusion 109 110 1950s edit See also Presidency of Dwight D Eisenhower and History of the United States 1945 1964 Brown v Board of Education edit Soon after joining the Court Warren presided over the case of Brown v Board of Education which arose from the NAACP s legal challenge against Jim Crow laws The Southern United States had implemented Jim Crow laws in aftermath of the Reconstruction Era to disenfranchise African Americans and segregate public schools and other institutions In the 1896 case of Plessy v Ferguson the Court had held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit segregation in public institutions if the institutions were separate but equal In the decades after Plessy the NAACP had won several incremental victories but 17 states required the segregation of public schools by 1954 In 1951 the Vinson Court had begun hearing the NAACP s legal challenge to segregated school systems but had not rendered a decision when Warren took office 111 By the early 1950s Warren had become personally convinced that segregation was morally wrong and legally indefensible Warren sought not only to overturn Plessy but also to have a unanimous verdict Warren Black Douglas Burton and Minton supported overturning the precedent but for different reasons Robert H Jackson Felix Frankfurter Tom C Clark and Stanley Forman Reed were reluctant to overturn Plessy 112 Nonetheless Warren won over Jackson Frankfurter and Clark in part by allowing states and federal courts the flexibility to pursue desegregation of schools at different speeds Warren extensively courted the last holdout Reed who finally agreed to join a unanimous verdict because he feared that a dissent would encourage resistance to the Court s holding After the Supreme Court formally voted to hold that the segregation of public schools was unconstitutional Warren drafted an eight page outline from which his law clerks drafted an opinion and the Court handed down its decision in May 1954 113 In the Deep South at the time people could view signs claiming Impeach Earl Warren 114 Other decisions and events edit In arranging a unanimous decision in Brown Warren fully established himself as the leader of the Court 115 He also remained a nationally prominent figure After a 1955 Gallup poll found that a plurality of Republican respondents favored Warren as the successor to Eisenhower Warren publicly announced that he would not resign from the Court under any circumstance Eisenhower seriously considered retiring after one term and encouraging Warren to run in the 1956 presidential election but ultimately chose to run after he had received a positive medical report after his heart attack 116 Despite that brief possibility a split developed between Eisenhower and Warren and some writers believe that Eisenhower once remarked that his appointment was the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made 117 a Meanwhile many Southern politicians expressed outrage at the Court s decisions and promised to resist any federal attempt to force desegregation a strategy known as massive resistance Although Brown did not mandate immediate school desegregation or bar other separate but equal institutions most observers recognized that the decision marked the beginning of the end for the Jim Crow system 121 Throughout his years as chief justice Warren succeeded in keeping decisions concerning segregation unanimous Brown applied only to schools but soon the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions by striking down racial classification in many areas Warren compromised by agreeing to Frankfurter s demand for the Court to go slowly in implementing desegregation Warren used Frankfurter s suggestion for a 1955 decision Brown II to include the phrase all deliberate speed 122 In 1956 after the Montgomery bus boycott the Supreme Court affirmed a lower court s decision that segregated buses are unconstitutional 123 Two years later Warren assigned Brennan to write the Court s opinion in Cooper v Aaron Brennan held that state officials were legally bound to enforce the Court s desegregation ruling in Brown 124 In the 1956 term the Warren Court received condemnation from right wingers such as US Senator Joseph McCarthy by handing down a series of decisions including Yates v United States which struck down laws designed to suppress communists and later led to the decline of McCarthyism 125 126 The Warren Court s decisions on those cases represented a major shift from the Vinson Court which had generally upheld such laws during the Second Red Scare 125 127 That same year Warren was elected to the American Philosophical Society In 1957 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 128 1960s edit See also Presidency of John F Kennedy Presidency of Lyndon B Johnson and History of the United States 1964 1980 nbsp President Kennedy Jacqueline Kennedy Chief Justice Earl Warren and Nina Elisabeth Meyers Warren s wife November 1963After the Republican Party nominated Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election Warren privately supported the Democratic nominee John F Kennedy They became personally close after Kennedy was inaugurated Warren later wrote that no American during my long life ever set his sights higher for a better America or centered his attacks more accurately on the evils and shortcomings of our society than did Kennedy 129 In 1962 Frankfurter retired and was replaced by Kennedy appointee Arthur Goldberg which gave the liberal bloc a majority on the Court 130 Goldberg left the Court in 1965 but was replaced by Abe Fortas who largely shared Goldberg s judicial philosophy 131 With the liberal bloc firmly in control the Warren Court handed down a series of momentous rulings in the 1960s 132 Bill of Rights edit The 1960s marked a major shift in constitutional interpretation as the Warren Court continued the process of the incorporation of the Bill of Rights in which the provisions of the first ten amendments to the US Constitution were applied to the states 133 b Warren saw the Bill of Rights as a codification of the natural rights of man against the government and believed that incorporation would bring the law into harmony with moral principles 135 When Warren took office most of the provisions of the First Amendment already applied to the states but the vast majority of the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government The Warren Court saw the incorporation of the remaining provisions of the First Amendment as well as all or part of the Fourth Fifth Sixth and Eighth Amendments The Warren Court also handed down numerous other important decisions regarding the Bill of Rights especially in the field of criminal procedure 133 In New York Times Co v Sullivan the Supreme Court reversed a libel conviction of the publisher of the New York Times In the majority opinion Brennan articulated the actual malice standard for libel against public officials which has become an enduring part of constitutional law 136 In Tinker v Des Moines Independent Community School District the Court reversed the suspension of an eighth grade student who wore a black armband in protest of the Vietnam War Fortas s majority opinion noted that students did not shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate 137 The Court s holding in United States v Seeger expanded those who could be classified as conscientious objectors under the Selective Service System by allowing nonreligious individuals with ethical objections to claim conscientious objector status 138 Another case United States v O Brien saw the Court uphold a prohibition against burning draft cards 139 Warren dissented in Street v New York in which the Court struck down a state law that prohibited the desecration of the American flag When his law clerks asked why he dissented in the case Warren stated Boys it s the American flag I m just not going to vote in favor of burning the American flag 140 In the 1969 case of Brandenburg v Ohio the Court held that governments cannot punish speech unless it is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action 141 nbsp An Impeach Earl Warren sign posted in San Francisco in October 1958In 1962 Engel v Vitale held that the Establishment Clause prohibits mandatory prayer in public school 142 The ruling sparked a strong backlash from many political and religious leaders some of whom called for the impeachment of Warren Warren became a favored target of right wing groups such as the John Birch Society as well as the 1964 Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater 143 Engel the criminal procedure cases and the persistent criticism of conservative politicians like Goldwater and Nixon contributed to a decline in the Court s popularity in the mid and the late 1960s 144 Griswold v Connecticut had the Court strike down a state law designed to restrict access to contraception and it established a constitutional right to privacy Griswold later provided an important precedent for the case of Roe v Wade which disallowed many laws designed to restrict access to abortion 145 Criminal procedure edit In the early 1960s the Court increasingly turned its attention to criminal procedure which had traditionally been primarily a domain of the states In Elkins v United States 1960 Warren joined with the majority in striking down the Silver Platter Doctrine a loophole to the exclusionary rule that had allowed federal officials to use evidence that had been illegally gathered by state officials The next year in Mapp v Ohio the Court held that the Fourth Amendment s prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures applied to state officials 146 Warren wrote the majority opinion in Terry v Ohio 1968 in which the Court established that police officers may frisk a criminal suspect if they have a reasonable suspicion that the suspect is committing or is about to commit a crime 147 In Gideon v Wainwright 1962 the Court held that the Sixth Amendment required states to furnish publicly funded attorneys to all criminal defendants accused of a felony and unable to afford counsel Prior to Gideon criminal defendants had been guaranteed the right to counsel only in federal trials and capital cases 148 In Escobedo v Illinois 1964 the Court held that the Sixth Amendment guarantees criminal suspects the right to speak to their counsel during police interrogations Escobedo was limited to criminal suspects who had an attorney at the time of their arrest and requested to speak with that counsel In the landmark case of Miranda v Arizona Warren wrote the majority opinion which established a right to counsel for every criminal suspect and required police to give criminal suspects what became known as a Miranda warning in which suspects are notified of their right to an attorney and their right to silence Warren incorporated some suggestions from Brennan but his holding in Miranda was most influenced by his past experiences as a district attorney Unlike many of the other Warren Court decisions including Mapp and Gideon Miranda created standards that went far beyond anything that had been established by any of the states Miranda received a strong backlash from law enforcement and political leaders 149 Conservatives angrily denounced what they called the handcuffing of the police 150 Reapportionment one man one vote edit The right to vote freely for the candidate of one s choice is of the essence of a democratic society and any restrictions on that right strike at the heart of representative government And the right of suffrage can be denied by a debasement or dilution of the weight of a citizen s vote just as effectively as by wholly prohibiting the free exercise of the franchise Chief Justice Earl Warren on the right to vote as the foundation of democracy in Reynolds v Sims 1964 151 In 1959 several residents dissatisfied with Tennessee s legislative districts brought suit against the state in Baker v Carr Like many other states Tennessee had state legislative districts of unequal populations c and the plaintiffs sought more equitable legislative districts In Colegrove v Green 1946 the Supreme Court had declined to become involved in legislative apportionment and instead left the issue as a matter for Congress and the states In Gomillion v Lightfoot 1960 the Court struck down a redistricting plan designed to disenfranchise African American voters but many of the justices were reluctant to involve themselves further in redistricting 153 Frankfurter insisted that the Court should avoid the political thicket of apportionment and warned that the Court would never be able to find a clear formula to guide lower courts 154 Warren helped convince Associate Justice Potter Stewart to join Brennan s majority decision in Baker v Carr which held that redistricting was not a political question and so federal courts had jurisdiction over the issue The opinion did not directly require Tennessee to implement redistricting but instead left it to a federal district court to determine whether Tennessee s districts violated the Constitution 155 In another case Gray v Sanders the Court struck down Georgia s County Unit System which granted disproportional power to rural counties in party primaries 156 In a third case Wesberry v Sanders the Court required states to draw congressional districts of equal population 157 In Reynolds v Sims 1963 the chief justice wrote what biographer Ed Cray terms the most influential of the 170 majority opinions Warren would write While eight of the nine justices had voted to require congressional districts of equal population in Wesberry some of the justices were reluctant to require state legislative districts to be of equal population Warren indicated that the Equal Protection Clause required that state legislative districts be apportioned on an equal basis legislators represent people not trees or acres Legislators are elected by voters not farms or cities or economic interests His holding upheld the principle of one man one vote which had previously been articulated by Douglas 158 After the decision the states reapportioned their legislatures quickly and with minimal troubles Numerous commentators have concluded reapportionment was the Warren Court s great success story 159 Civil rights edit See also Civil rights movement Civil rights continued to be a major issue facing the Warren Court in the 1960s In Peterson v Greenville 1963 Warren wrote the Court s majority opinion which struck down local ordinances that prohibited restaurants from serving black and white individuals in the same room 160 Later that decade the Court upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in Heart of Atlanta Motel Inc v United States The Court held that the Commerce Clause empowered the federal government to prohibit racial segregation in public accommodations like hotels The ruling effectively overturned the 1883 Civil Rights Cases in which the Supreme Court had held that Congress could not regulate racial discrimination by private businesses 161 The Court upheld another landmark civil rights act the Voting Rights Act of 1965 by holding that it was valid under the authority provided to Congress by the Fifteenth Amendment 162 In 1967 Warren wrote the majority opinion in the landmark case of Loving v Virginia in which the Court struck down state laws banning interracial marriage Warren was particularly pleased by the ruling in Loving since he had long regretted that the Court had not taken up the similar case of Naim v Naim in 1955 163 In Harper v Virginia State Board of Elections 1966 the Court struck down poll taxes in state elections 164 In another case Bond v Floyd the Court required the Georgia legislature to seat the newly elected legislator Julian Bond members of the legislature had refused to seat Bond because he opposed the Vietnam War 165 Warren Commission edit Main article Warren Commission nbsp Earl Warren presents the Commission s report to President Johnson on September 24 1964 Shortly after the assassination of John F Kennedy the newly sworn in president Lyndon B Johnson convinced Warren to serve as the head of a bipartisan commission tasked with investigating the assassination 166 From December 1963 to October 1964 Warren simultaneously served as chief justice of the United States and chairman of the Warren Commission 167 At the start of the investigation Warren decided to hire the commission s legal staff from outside the government to avoid any improper influence on their work 168 Warren appointed Lee Rankin as general counsel and worked closely with Rankin and his assistants Howard P Willens and Norman Redlich to recruit staff lawyers supervise their investigation and publish the Commission s report 168 To avoid the confusion and duplication of parallel investigations Warren convinced the Texas authorities to defer any local inquiry into the assassination 169 Warren was personally involved in several aspects of the investigation He supervised four days of testimony by Lee Harvey Oswald s widow Marina Oswald and was widely criticized for telling the press that although her testimony would be publicly disclosed it might not be in your lifetime 170 He attended the closed door interview of Jacqueline Kennedy 171 and insisted on participating in the deposition of Jack Ruby in Dallas where he visited the book depository 172 Warren also participated in the investigation of Kennedy s medical treatment and autopsy 173 At Robert Kennedy s insistence Warren handled the unwelcome task of reviewing the autopsy photos alone 174 Because the photos were so gruesome Warren decided that they should not be included in the Commission s records 175 Warren closely supervised the drafting of the Commission s report He wanted to ensure that Commission members had ample opportunity to evaluate the staff s work and to make their own judgments about important conclusions in the report 176 He insisted that the report should be unanimous and so he compromised on a number of issues to get all the members to sign the final version Although a reenactment of the assassination produced convincing evidence supporting the single bullet theory the Commission decided not to take a position on the single bullet theory 177 178 The Commission unanimously concluded that the assassination was the result of a single individual Lee Harvey Oswald who acted alone 179 The Warren Commission was an unhappy experience for the chief justice As Willens recalled One can t say too much about the Chief s sacrifice The work was a drain on his physical well being 180 However Warren always believed that the Commission s primary conclusion that Oswald acted alone was correct In his memoirs Warren wrote that Oswald was incapable of being the key operative in a conspiracy and that any high level government conspiracy would inevitably have been discovered 181 Newsweek magazine quoted Warren saying that if he handled the Oswald case as a district attorney I could have gotten a conviction in two days and never heard about the case again 182 Warren wrote that the facts of the assassination itself are simple so simple that many people believe it must be more complicated and conspiratorial to be true 183 Warren told the Commission staff not to worry about conspiracy theories and other criticism of the report because history will prove us right 184 Retirement edit nbsp Chief Justice Warren swears in President Nixon on January 20 1969 By 1968 Warren was ready to retire from the Court He hoped to travel the world with his wife and he wanted to leave the bench before he suffered a mental decline something that he perceived in both Hugo Black and William Douglas He also feared that Nixon would win the 1968 presidential election and appoint a conservative successor if Warren left the Court later On 13 June 1968 Warren submitted his letter of resignation to President Johnson who made it official on 21 June 185 effective upon the confirmation of a successor In an election year confirmation of a successor was not assured after Warren announced his retirement about half of the Senate Republican caucus pledged to oppose any Supreme Court appointment prior to the election 186 Johnson nominated Associate Justice Fortas a personal friend and adviser to the president as Warren s successor and nominated federal appellate judge Homer Thornberry to succeed Fortas Republicans and Southern Democrats joined to scuttle Fortas s nomination Their opposition centered on criticism of the Warren Court including many decisions that had been handed down before Fortas joined the Court as well as ethical concerns related to Fortas s paid speeches and closeness with Johnson Though the majority of the Senate may have favored the confirmation of Fortas opponents conducted a filibuster which blocked the Senate from voting on the nomination and Johnson withdrew the nomination 187 In early 1969 Warren learned that Fortas had made a secret lifetime contract for 20 000 a year to provide private legal advice to Louis Wolfson a friend and financier in deep legal trouble Warren immediately asked Fortas to resign which he did after some consideration 188 Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election and took office in January 1969 Though reluctant to be succeeded by a Nixon appointee Warren declined to withdraw his letter of resignation He believed that withdrawing the letter would be a crass admission that he was resigning for political reasons Nixon and Warren jointly agreed that Warren would retire in June 1969 to ensure that the Court would have a chief justice throughout the 1968 term and to allow Nixon to focus on other matters in the first months of his presidency 189 Nixon did not solicit Warren s opinion regarding the next chief justice and ultimately appointed the conservative federal appellate judge Warren E Burger 190 Warren later regretted his decision to retire and reflected If I had ever known what was going to happen to this country and this Court I never would have resigned They would have had to carry me out of there on a plank 191 In addition he later remarked on his retirement and on the Warren Court I would like the Court to be remembered as the people s court 192 Final years and death edit nbsp Grave at Arlington National CemeteryAfter stepping down from the Court Warren began working on his memoirs and took numerous speaking engagements He also advocated for an end to the Vietnam War and the elimination of poverty 193 He avoided publicly criticizing the Burger Court but was privately distressed by the Court s increasingly conservative holdings 194 He closely followed investigations into the Watergate scandal a major political scandal that stemmed from a break in of the Democratic National Committee s headquarters and the Nixon administration s subsequent attempts to cover up that break in Warren continued to hold Nixon in low regard privately stating that Nixon was perhaps the most despicable president that this country has ever had 195 Five years into retirement Warren died due to cardiac arrest at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington D C at 8 10 p m on July 9 1974 at the age of 83 196 He had been hospitalized since July 2 due to congestive heart failure and coronary insufficiency 196 On that same day he was visited by Justices Brennan and Douglas until 5 30 p m 196 Warren could not resist asking his friends whether the Court would order President Nixon to release the sixty four tapes demanded by the Watergate investigation Both justices assured him that the court had voted unanimously in United States v Nixon for the release of the tapes Relieved Warren died just a few hours later safe in the knowledge that the Court he had so loved would force justice on the man who had been his most bitter foe 197 d Warren had his wife and one of his daughters Nina Elizabeth Brien at his bedside when he died 196 After he lay in repose in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building his funeral was held at Washington National Cathedral and he was interred at Arlington National Cemetery 199 Legacy editHistorical reputation edit nbsp Warren bust U S Supreme CourtWarren is generally considered to be one of the most influential U S Supreme Court justices 200 201 202 as well as political leaders in the history of the United States 192 203 204 The Warren Court has been recognized by many to have created a liberal Constitutional Revolution 205 which embodied a deep belief in equal justice freedom democracy and human rights 206 207 208 In July 1974 after Warren died the Los Angeles Times commented that Mr Warren ranked with John Marshall and Roger Taney as one of the three most important chief justices in the nation s history 196 In December 2006 The Atlantic cited Earl Warren as the 29th most influential person in the history of the United States and the second most influential Chief Justice after John Marshall 200 In September 2018 The Economist named Warren as the 20th century s most consequential American jurist and one of the 20th century s greatest liberal jurists 202 209 President Harry S Truman wrote in his tribute to Warren which appeared in the California Law Review in 1970 t he Warren record as Chief Justice has stamped him in the annals of history as the man who read and interpreted the Constitution in relation to its ultimate intent He sensed the call of the times and he rose to the call 203 Supreme Court Associate Justice William O Douglas wrote in the same article in my view Warren will rank with Marshall and Hughes in the broad sweep of United States history 203 According to biographer Ed Cray Warren was second in greatness only to John Marshall himself in the eyes of most impartial students of the Court as well as the Court s critics 133 Pulitzer Prize winner Anthony Lewis described Warren as the closest thing the United States has had to a Platonic Guardian 210 In 1958 Martin Luther King Jr sent one copy of his newly published book Stride Toward Freedom to Chief Justice Earl Warren writing on the first free end page 211 212 To Justice Earl Warren In appreciation for your genuine good will your great humanitarian concern and your unswerving devotion to the sublime principles of our American democracy With warm Regards Martin L King Jr The book remained with Warren s family until 2015 when it was auctioned online for US 49 335 including the buyer s premium 211 Warren s critics found him a boring person Dennis J Hutchinson wrote Although Warren was an important and courageous figure and although he inspired passionate devotion among his followers he was a dull man and a dull judge 213 Conservatives attacked the Warren Court s rulings as inappropriate and have called for courts to be deferential to the elected political branches 214 215 In his 1977 book Government by Judiciary originalist and legal scholar Raoul Berger accuses the Warren Court of overstepping its authority by interpreting the 14th Amendment in a way contrary to the original intent of its draftsmen and framers in order to achieve results that it found desirable as a matter of public policy 216 Overall law professor Justin Driver divides interpretations of the Warren Court into three main groups conservatives such as Robert Bork who attack the Court as a legislator of policy that was not theirs to make liberals such as Morton Horwitz who strongly approve of the Court and liberals such as Cass Sunstein who largely approve of the Court s overall legacy but believe that it went too far in making policy in some cases 207 Driver offers a fourth view arguing that the Warren Court took overly conservative stances in such cases as Powell v Texas and Hoyt v Florida 217 As for the legacy of the Warren Court Chief Justice Burger who succeeded Earl Warren in 1969 proved to be quite ineffective at consolidating conservative control over the Court so the Warren Court legacy continued in many respects until about 1986 when William Rehnquist became chief justice and took firmer control of the agenda 218 Even the more conservative Rehnquist Court refrained from expressly overturning major Warren Court cases such as Miranda Gideon Brown v Board of Education and Reynolds v Sims 219 On occasion the Rehnquist Court expanded Warren Court precedents such as in Bush v Gore where the Rehnquist Court applied the principles of 1960s voting rights cases to invalidate Florida s recount in the 2000 U S presidential election 220 Memorials and honors edit nbsp Earl Warren Hall University of California Berkeley nbsp Earl Warren Building headquarters of California Supreme Court San Francisco Earl Warren was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 1981 He was also honored by the United States Postal Service with a 29 Great Americans series postage stamp 221 In December 2007 Warren was inducted into the California Hall of Fame 222 An extensive collection of Warren s papers including case files from his Supreme Court service is located at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress in Washington D C Most of the collection is open for research On the campus of the University of California Berkeley Warren s alma mater Earl Warren Hall is named after him 223 In addition the UC Berkeley School of Law has established The Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race Ethnicity and Diversity or Warren Institute for short in memory of Earl Warren while the Warren Room inside the Law Building was also named in his honor 224 225 In 2016 the United States Navy named the support ship USNS Earl Warren in his honour 226 A number of governmental and educational institutions have been named for Warren The Earl Warren Building the headquarters of the Supreme Court of California in San Francisco 227 The Earl Warren chapter of the American Inns of Court Alameda County California 228 The Warren Freeway the portion of California State Route 13 in Alameda County nbsp Earl Warren College University of California San Diego In 1977 Fourth College one of the seven undergraduate colleges at the University of California San Diego was renamed Earl Warren College in his honor and the Earl Warren Bill of Rights Project at UCSD is also named in his honor 81 Warren High School Downey California 229 Earl Warren High School San Antonio Texas 230 Warren Hall Bakersfield High School the high school Warren attended 231 Warren Junior High School Bakersfield California Warren s hometown 232 Earl Warren Middle School Solana Beach California 233 Warren Elementary School Garden Grove California 234 Earl Warren Elementary School Lake Elsinore California 235 The Earl Warren Showgrounds in Santa Barbara California 236 Electoral history editEarl Warren electoral historyCalifornia Republican presidential primary 1936 237 Earl Warren 350 917 57 43 Alf Landon 260 170 42 58 1936 Republican presidential primaries 238 William Edgar Borah 1 478 676 44 48 Alf Landon 729 908 21 96 Frank Knox 527 054 15 85 Earl Warren 350 917 10 56 Stephen A Day 155 732 4 69 Warren Green 44 518 1 34 Republican primary for Governor of California 1942 239 Earl Warren 635 230 94 23 Nathan T Porter 15 604 2 32 William E Riker 10 004 1 48 Fred Dyster 9 824 1 46 Culbert Olson inc write in 3 504 0 52 Democratic primary for Governor of California 1942 240 Culbert Olson inc 513 244 51 98 Earl Warren 404 778 41 00 Roy G Owens 50 780 5 14 Nathan T Porter 11 302 1 15 Alonzo J Riggs 7 231 0 73 California gubernatorial election 1942 241 Earl Warren R 1 275 237 57 07 Culbert Olson D inc 932 995 41 75 California Republican presidential primary 1944 242 Earl Warren 594 439 100 00 1944 Republican presidential primaries 243 Douglas MacArthur 662 127 28 94 Earl Warren 594 439 25 99 John W Bricker 366 444 16 02 Thomas E Dewey 278 727 12 18 W Chapman Revercomb 91 602 4 00 Unpledged 87 834 3 84 Harold Stassen 67 508 2 95 Riley A Bender 37 575 1 64 Charles A Christopherson 33 497 1 46 Wendell Willkie 27 097 1 19 Republican primary for Governor of California 1946 244 Earl Warren inc 774 302 91 10 Robert W Kenny 70 331 8 27 Democratic primary for Governor of California 1946 245 Earl Warren inc 593 180 51 93 Robert W Kenny 530 968 46 49 California gubernatorial election 1946 246 Earl Warren R D inc 2 344 542 91 64 Henry R Schmidt Prohibition 180 579 7 06 Archie Brown Communist 22 606 0 88 James Roosevelt D write in 3 210 0 13 1948 Republican presidential primaries 247 Earl Warren 771 295 26 99 Harold Stassen 627 321 21 96 Robert A Taft 464 741 16 27 Thomas E Dewey 330 799 11 58 Riley A Bender 324 029 11 34 Douglas MacArthur 87 839 3 07 Leverett Saltonstall 72 191 2 53 Herbert E Hitchcock 45 463 1 59 Edward Martin 45 072 1 58 Unpledged 28 854 1 01 Arthur H Vandenberg 18 924 0 66 Dwight D Eisenhower 5 014 0 18 Harry S Truman 4 907 0 17 Henry A Wallace 1 452 0 05 Joseph William Martin Jr 974 0 03 Alfred E Driscoll 44 0 00 Others 5 939 0 21 1948 Republican National Convention Presidential tally 248 Thomas E Dewey 1 094 60 74 Robert A Taft 274 15 21 Harold Stassen 157 8 72 Arthur H Vandenberg 62 3 44 Earl Warren 59 3 28 Dwight H Green 56 3 11 Alfred E Driscoll 35 1 94 Raymond E Baldwin 19 1 06 Joseph William Martin Jr 18 1 00 B Carroll Reece 15 0 83 Douglas MacArthur 11 0 61 Everett Dirksen 1 0 06 1948 Republican National Convention Vice Presidential tally 249 Earl Warren 1 094 100 00 1948 United States presidential election Harry S Truman Alben W Barkley D 24 179 347 49 6 and 303 electoral votes 28 states carried Thomas E Dewey Earl Warren R 21 991 292 45 1 and 189 electoral votes 16 states carried Strom Thurmond Fielding L Wright Dixiecrat 1 175 930 2 4 and 39 electoral votes 4 states carried Henry A Wallace Glen H Taylor Progressive 1 157 328 2 4 California gubernatorial election 1950 250 Earl Warren R inc 2 461 754 64 85 James Roosevelt D 1 333 856 35 14 1952 Republican presidential primaries 251 Robert A Taft 2 794 736 35 84 Dwight D Eisenhower 2 050 708 26 30 Earl Warren 1 349 036 17 30 Harold Stassen 881 702 11 31 Thomas H Werdel 521 110 6 68 George T Mickelson 63 879 0 82 Douglas MacArthur 44 209 0 57 Grant A Ritter 26 208 0 34 Edward C Slettedahl 22 712 0 29 Riley A Bender 22 321 0 29 Mary E Kenny 10 411 0 13 Wayne Morse 7 105 0 09 Perry J Stearns 2 925 0 04 William R Schneider 580 0 01 1952 Republican National Convention 1st ballot Dwight D Eisenhower 595 Robert A Taft 500 Earl Warren 81 Harold Stassen 20 Douglas MacArthur 101952 Republican National Convention 2nd ballot Dwight D Eisenhower 845 Robert A Taft 280 Earl Warren 77 Douglas MacArthur 4See also edit nbsp Biography portal nbsp California portal nbsp United States portal nbsp Politics portalList of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States Chief Justice List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office United States Supreme Court cases during the Warren CourtExplanatory notes edit Eisenhower biographer Jean Edward Smith concluded in 2012 that Eisenhower never said that I have no evidence that he ever made such a statement 118 Nonetheless Eisenhower privately expressed his displeasure regarding some of Warren s decisions and Warren grew frustrated at Eisenhower s unwillingness to support the Court publicly in Brown Warren was recorded in the 1957 diary of Justice Harold Burton as confiding in Burton that Eisenhower expressed disappointment at the trend of decisions of Chief Justice and Brennan 119 In 1961 when Eisenhower was asked whether he had made any major mistakes as president the former president responded that yes two and they are both sitting on the Supreme Court 120 The original Bill of Rights did not apply to the states but the Fourteenth Amendment ratified in 1868 contains the Due Process Clause which applies to state governments and has been used by the Court to incorporate the Bill of Rights Some including Douglas favored the total incorporation of the Bill of Rights but the Court has selectively incorporated various provisions of the Bill of Rights across numerous cases The first major incorporation case was Gitlow v New York 1925 134 The Vermont General Assembly provides one example of the disparity in populations In 1961 one member of the Vermont General Assembly represented 33 000 people and another member represented 49 people 152 Facing impeachment Nixon resigned from office on August 9 1974 He was succeeded by Gerald Ford 198 Citations edit Cray 1997 pp 16 18 Cray 1997 pp 19 21 Cray 1997 pp 23 28 31 Cray 1997 pp 28 32 Cray 1997 pp 32 33 Cray 1997 pp 35 36 Cray 1997 pp 37 38 Cray 1997 pp 41 42 Cray 1997 pp 45 47 Cray 1997 pp 44 50 53 Cray 1997 p 57 White 1982 Ch 2 Cray 1997 p 55 Cray 1997 pp 54 57 Cray 1997 p 58 Cray 1997 pp 60 61 Cray 1997 pp 65 66 David Skover and Ronald Collins A Curious Concurrence Justice Brandeis Vote in Whitney v California 2005 Supreme Court Review 333 2005 Cray 1997 pp 82 89 Cray 1997 pp 69 71 Cray 1997 pp 74 76 Cray 1997 pp 79 81 Cray 1997 pp 33 39 Cray 1997 pp 40 41 Cray 1997 pp 49 50 61 Cray 1997 p 150 Cray 1997 pp 61 62 Cray 1997 pp 94 96 Cray 1997 pp 133 Cray 1997 pp 270 271 Suits Julia November 1 2011 The Extraordinary Catalog of Peculiar Inventions The Curious World of the Demoulin Brothers and Their Fraternal Lodge Prank Machi nes from Human Centipedes and Revolving Goats to ElectricCarpets and SmokingC Penguin ISBN 9781101545768 U S Famous Freemasons Archived from the original on May 10 2008 U S Famous Master Mason Archived from the original on January 4 2016 Newton 2006 pp 72 73 Cray 1997 pp 71 72 Cray 1997 p 90 Cray 1997 pp 77 78 Cray 1997 pp 92 94 White 1982 pp 44 67 Sumi K Cho Redeeming Whiteness in the Shadow of Internment Earl Warren Brown and a Theory of Racial Redemption 40 Boston College Law Review 73 1998 Sandhya Ramadas How Earl Warren Previewed Today s Civil Liberties Debate And Got It Right in the End 16 Asian Am L J 73 2009 Edwin E Ferguson The California Alien Land Law and the Fourteenth Amendment 35 Cal L Rev 61 1947 University of California In Memoriam 1985 texts cdlib org Retrieved October 3 2019 McCall James R 1984 Roger Traynor Teacher Jurist and Friend Hastings Law Journal Les Ledbetter Roger J Traynor California Justice The New York Times 17 May 1983 B6 Retrieved October 3 2017 Cray 1997 pp 112 114 White 1982 pp 69 71 Cray 1997 pp 120 123 Weglyn Michi Nishiura 1976 Years of Infamy The Untold Story of America s Concentration Camps New York William Morrow amp Company pp 30 31 37 38 ISBN 978 0688079963 Weglyn Michi Nishiura 1976 Years of Infamy The Untold Story of America s Concentration Camps New York William Morrow amp Company p 38 ISBN 978 0688079963 a b c d G Edward White Autumn 1979 The Unacknowledged Lesson Earl Warren and the Japanese Relocation Controversy Virginia Quarterly Review 613 629 Retrieved May 12 2012 Hosokawa Bill 1969 Nisei the Quiet Americans New York William Morrow amp Company p 288 ISBN 978 0688050139 Weglyn Michi Nishiura 1976 Years of Infamy The Untold Story of America s Concentration Camps New York William Morrow amp Company p 154 ISBN 978 0688079963 Cray 1997 pp 157 159 Weglyn Michi Nishiura 1976 Years of Infamy The Untold Story of America s Concentration Camps New York William Morrow amp Company pp 31 299 ISBN 978 0688079963 White 1982 p 76 White 1982 p 77 Saito Morse June 3 1974 Warren Regrets His Role in 1942 Evacuation Hokubei Mainichi Newspaper p 1 Cray 1997 pp 112 114 124 125 Cray 1997 pp 126 132 Mitchell Daniel J B 2006 Earl Warren s Fight for California s Freeways Setting a Path for the Nation Southern California Quarterly 88 2 205 238 doi 10 2307 41172311 JSTOR 41172311 Mitchell 2003 pp 205 206 219 222 a b Governors of California Earl Warren governors library ca gov Retrieved September 14 2019 Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on International Organization April 25 1945 June 26 1945 PDF Library of Congress Proceedings Hoover Institute Chief Justice Earl Warren Oral History Interview Harry S Truman www trumanlibrary gov Retrieved September 14 2019 Douglass John Aubrey 2000 Earl Warren s New Deal Economic Transition Postwar Planning and Higher Education in California Journal of Policy History 12 4 473 512 doi 10 1353 jph 2000 0029 S2CID 154088575 Wollenberg Charles Mendez v Westminster Race nationality and segregation in California schools California Historical Quarterly 53 4 1974 317 332 Cray 1997 p 196 Schwartz 1983 p 18 Cray 1997 pp 168 169 Cray 1997 pp 171 176 Cray 1997 pp 206 209 Cray 1997 pp 213 215 Cray 1997 pp 209 215 Cray 1997 pp 154 157 Cray 1997 pp 184 185 Cray 1997 pp 186 187 Cray 1997 pp 188 190 Cray 1997 pp 190 191 a b Biography of Earl Warren warren ucsd edu Retrieved October 3 2019 Cray 1997 pp 192 194 Cray 1997 pp 218 223 Cray 1997 pp 226 228 Cray 1997 pp 229 232 Cray 1997 pp 233 235 Cray 1997 pp 243 244 Cray 1997 pp 238 240 Cray 1997 pp 245 246 Cray 1997 p 248 Cray 1997 pp 246 249 Abraham 1992 p 255 Cray 1997 pp 250 253 Cray 1997 pp 261 262 Vote Is 12 to 3 Senate Unit Backs Warren Nomination The Washington Post Washington District of Columbia February 25 1954 p 1 Cray 1997 pp 289 290 Kahn Michael A 1992 Shattering the Myth about President Eisenhower s Supreme Court Appointments Presidential Studies Quarterly 22 1 47 56 Schmidhauser John Richard The Justices of the Supreme Court A Collective Portrait Midwest Journal of Political Science vol 3 no 1 February 1959 pp 1 57 Belknap 2005 pp 13 14 Hutchinson 1983 Cray 1997 pp 268 270 White 1982 pp 159 161 Urofsky 2001 p 157 Powe 2000 pp 499 500 Cray 1997 pp 445 446 White 1981 pp 462 463 Hutchinson 1983 p 927 Urofsky Melvin I 1994 Warren Earl Dictionary of American Biography Supplement 9 p 838 Wrightsman Lawrence S 2006 The Psychology of the Supreme Court p 211 Zotti Priscilla Machado 2005 Injustice for All Mapp vs Ohio and the Fourth Amendment p 11 Cray 1997 pp 274 278 Cray 1997 pp 277 281 Cray 1997 pp 283 286 Bethune Brett July 2022 Influence Without Impeachment How the Impeach Earl Warren Movement Began Faltered But Avoided Irrelevance Journal of Supreme Court History 47 2 142 161 doi 10 1111 jsch 12295 ISSN 1059 4329 Cray 1997 pp 287 288 Cray 1997 pp 312 315 Purdum Todd S July 5 2005 Presidents Picking Justices Can Have Backfires The New York Times Retrieved June 15 2015 Smith Jean Edward 2012 Eisenhower in War and Peace Random House p 603N Anecdotes are dangerous to biographers and truth Mistakes When essential little stories are distorted vast damage is done Cray 1997 pp 336 337 Cray 1997 pp 290 291 Carter Robert L December 1968 The Warren Court and Desegregation Mich L Rev 67 2 237 248 doi 10 2307 1287417 JSTOR 1287417 Cray 1997 p 320 Cray 1997 pp 345 348 a b Lichtman Robert M UI Press Robert M Lichtman The Supreme Court and McCarthy Era Repression One Hundred Decisions www press uillinois edu Retrieved September 19 2019 Pederson William D Earl Warren www mtsu edu Retrieved September 15 2019 Cray 1997 pp 320 322 329 333 Earl Warren American Academy of Arts amp Sciences Retrieved January 10 2023 Cray 1997 pp 368 369 Cray 1997 pp 385 386 403 Cray 1997 pp 444 445 Cray 1997 p 447 a b c Cray 1997 pp 530 531 Cray 1997 pp 373 375 405 530 White 1981 pp 469 470 Cray 1997 pp 438 440 Cray 1997 pp 490 491 Cray 1997 pp 481 483 Cray 1997 pp 485 487 Cray 1997 pp 491 492 Cray 1997 pp 502 503 Cray 1997 pp 386 387 Cray 1997 pp 387 391 435 Cray 1997 p 498 Cray 1997 pp 447 449 Cray 1997 pp 372 376 Cray 1997 pp 466 468 Cray 1997 pp 403 406 Cray 1997 pp 456 460 Kahn Ronald Kersch Ken I eds 2006 The Supreme Court and American Political Development University Press of Kansas p 442 ISBN 978 0 7006 1439 4 Reynolds v Sims 377 U S 533 1964 at 555 Justia US Supreme Court Center June 15 1964 Retrieved January 5 2021 Cray 1997 p 380 Cray 1997 pp 379 381 Gazell James A September 1970 One Man One Vote Its Long Germination The Western Political Quarterly 23 3 445 462 doi 10 1177 106591297002300301 JSTOR 446565 S2CID 154022059 Cray 1997 pp 381 385 Cray 1997 pp 406 407 Cray 1997 p 433 Cray 1997 pp 432 435 McKay Robert B December 1968 Reapportionment Success Story of the Warren Court Mich L Rev 67 2 223 236 doi 10 2307 1287416 JSTOR 1287416 Cray 1997 pp 408 410 Cray 1997 pp 441 442 Cray 1997 pp 469 470 Cray 1997 pp 449 452 Cray 1997 pp 470 471 Cray 1997 pp 484 485 Katzenbach Nicholas deB Nicholas deBelleville 1922 2012 October 17 2008 Some of it was fun working with RFK and LBJ First ed New York p 135 ISBN 978 0 393 07068 2 OCLC 915999588 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link CS1 maint multiple names authors list link CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Cray 1997 pp 414 419 a b Willens 2013 p 37 Willens 2013 p 30 citing Warren Commission Executive Session Transcript Dec 6 1963 at 14 18 Willens 2013 p 60 citing The Baltimore Sun The Whole Truth Feb 5 1964 Specter Arlen 2001 Passion for truth from finding JFK s single bullet to questioning Anita Hill to impeaching Clinton Robbins Charles 1st Perennial ed New York Perennial pp 106 08 ISBN 0 06 095810 3 OCLC 49301736 Willens 2013 pp 206 07 Belin David W 1973 November 22 1963 You Are the Jury Quadrangle pp 345 47 Willens 2013 p 94 Bugliosi Vincent May 17 2007 Reclaiming history the assassination of President John F Kennedy First ed New York pp 426 27 ISBN 978 0 393 07212 9 OCLC 916036483 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Willens 2013 p 219 Willens 2013 p 270 Bugliosi Reclaiming History pp 456 57 Newton Justice for All pp 415 23 431 42 Cray Chief Justice p 429 Warren Earl 2001 The memoirs of chief justice Earl Warren 1st Madison books ed Lanham Md Madison Books pp 364 67 ISBN 1 56833 234 3 OCLC 49302082 Cray Chief Justice p 422 Cray 1997 p 422 Willens 2013 p 11 1 and 2 Cray 1997 pp 494 499 Cray 1997 pp 499 502 Ward Artemus 2002 An Extraconstitutional Arrangement Lyndon Johnson and the Fall of the Warren Court White House Studies 2 2 171 183 Cray 1997 pp 502 505 Cray 1997 pp 513 514 Hutchinson 1983 p 928n23 a b Earl Warren 83 Who Led High Court In Time of Vast Social Change Is Dead archive nytimes com Retrieved September 1 2019 Cray 1997 pp 515 516 Cray 1997 pp 518 520 Cray 1997 pp 521 522 a b c d e From the Archives Earl Warren Dies at 83 Chief Justice for 16 Years Los Angeles Times July 10 1974 Retrieved October 6 2019 Newton 2006 p 514 Cray 1997 pp 528 529 Woodward amp Armstrong 1979 p 385 a b The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History The Atlantic December 1 2006 Retrieved September 1 2019 Douthat Ross December 1 2006 They Made America The Atlantic Retrieved September 1 2019 a b How America s Supreme Court became so politicised The Economist September 15 2018 ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved October 4 2019 a b c Truman Harry Earl Warren A Tribute University of California Berkeley permanent dead link Earl Warren California Museum February 17 2012 Retrieved September 1 2019 Swindler William F 1970 The Warren Court Completion of a Constitutional Revolution PDF Vanderbilt Law Review 23 Archived from the original PDF on October 3 2019 Retrieved September 18 2019 Horwitz Morton J Winter 1993 The Warren Court And The Pursuit Of Justice Washington and Lee Law Review 50 a b Driver 2012 Powe Lucas A Jr 2002 The Warren Court and American Politics Harvard University Press America s highest court needs term limits The Economist September 15 2018 ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved October 4 2019 Hutchinson 1983 p 924 a b Hake s MARTIN LUTHER KING JR S FIRST BOOK SIGNED AND INSCRIBED TO CHIEF JUSTICE EARL WARREN www hakes com Retrieved September 22 2019 First Edition MLK Book Belonging to Earl Warren Leads 1 2M Pop Collectibles Sale Observer July 28 2015 Retrieved September 22 2019 Hutchinson 1983 p 930 Urofsky 2001 p xii Powe 2000 p 101 Raoul Berger Government by Judiciary The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment Online Library of Liberty Retrieved April 13 2019 Driver 2012 pp 1103 1107 Wasby Stephen L July 1993 Civil Rights and the Supreme Court A Return of the Past National Political Science Review 4 49 60 Cray 1997 pp 529 530 E Joshua Rosenkranz January 15 2001 High Court s Misuse of the Past Brennan Center for Justice Retrieved April 13 2019 29 cent Warren Smithsonian Postal Museum Archived from the original on February 28 2014 Retrieved February 19 2014 Warren inducted into California Hall of Fame Archived April 11 2008 at the Wayback Machine California Museum Accessed 2007 Warren Hall 2195 Hearst Ave Disability Access amp Compliance dac berkeley edu Retrieved September 27 2019 Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Race Ethnicity and Diversity at the University of California Berkeley School of Law Warren Room Boalt 295 Berkeley Law Retrieved September 27 2019 US SECNAV names three vessels navaltoday com December 15 2016 Retrieved April 10 2023 Contact Us supreme court www courts ca gov Retrieved September 27 2019 About Earl Warren American Inn of Court Archived from the original on September 27 2019 Retrieved September 27 2019 Warren High Home of the Bears Archived from the original on October 24 2015 About Us Warren High School nisd net Archived from the original on October 2 2019 Retrieved October 3 2019 Hooper Ken June 28 2013 History Growing up and headed for college The Bakersfield Californian Retrieved September 27 2019 Warren Junior High Panama Buena Vista Union School District Archived from the original on January 6 2014 Retrieved October 3 2019 Earl Warren Middle School About EWMS ew sduhsd net Retrieved October 3 2019 Home Warren Elementary School warren ggusd us Retrieved October 3 2019 Earl Warren Elementary School ewe leusd k12 ca us Retrieved October 3 2019 Earl Warren Showgrounds Visit Santa Barbara Retrieved October 3 2019 Our Campaigns CA US President R Primary Race May 05 1936 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US President R Primaries Race Feb 01 1936 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor R Primary Race Aug 25 1942 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor D Primary Race Aug 25 1942 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor Race Nov 03 1942 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA US President R Primary Race May 16 1944 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US President R Primaries Race Feb 01 1944 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor R Primary Race Jun 05 1946 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor D Primary Race Jun 05 1946 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor Race Nov 05 1946 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US President R Primaries Race Feb 01 1948 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US President R Convention Race Jun 21 1948 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US Vice President R Convention Race Jun 21 1948 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns CA Governor Race Nov 07 1950 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 Our Campaigns US President R Primaries Race Feb 01 1952 www ourcampaigns com Retrieved February 2 2024 General bibliography editWorks cited edit Abraham Henry J 1992 Justices and Presidents A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court 3rd ed New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 506557 2 Belknap Michael 2005 The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren 1953 1969 The University of South Carolina Press ISBN 978 1 57003 563 0 Cray Ed 1997 Chief Justice A Biography of Earl Warren Simon and Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 80852 9 Driver Justin 2012 The Constitutional Conservatism of the Warren Court California Law Review 100 5 1101 1167 JSTOR 23408735 Hutchinson Dennis J 1983 Hail to the Chief Earl Warren and the Supreme Court Michigan Law Review 81 4 922 983 doi 10 2307 1288417 JSTOR 1288417 Retrieved July 30 2016 Mitchell Daniel J B 2003 Earl Warren s California Health Insurance Plan What Might Have Been Southern California Quarterly 85 2 205 228 doi 10 2307 41172162 JSTOR 41172162 Newton Jim 2006 Justice for All Earl Warren and the Nation He Made Penguin ISBN 978 1594482700 Patterson James T 2001 Brown v Board of Education A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195156324 Powe Lucas A 2000 The Warren Court and American Politics Belknap Press ISBN 978 0674006836 Schwartz Bernard 1983 Super Chief Earl Warren and His Supreme Court A Judicial Biography New York University Press ISBN 9780814778265 Urofsky Melvin I 2001 The Warren Court Justices Rulings and Legacy ABC CLIO ISBN 9781576071601 White G Edward 1981 Earl Warren as Jurist Virginia Law Review 67 3 461 551 doi 10 2307 1072897 JSTOR 1072897 White G Edward 1982 Earl Warren a Public Life Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 503121 8 Woodward Robert Armstrong Scott 1979 The Brethren Inside the Supreme Court Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0743274029 ISBN 978 0 380 52183 8 ISBN 978 0 671 24110 0 Primary sources edit Warren Earl 1977 The Memoirs of Earl Warren Garden City N Y Doubleday ISBN 978 0385128353 Goes only to 1954 Warren Earl 1959 Christman Henry M ed The Public Papers of Chief Justice Earl Warren New York Simon and Schuster OCLC 184375 permanent dead link Speeches and decisions 1946 1958 Willens Howard P October 31 2013 History will prove us right inside the Warren Commission report on the assassination of John F Kennedy New York NY ISBN 978 1 4683 0917 1 OCLC 863152345 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Further reading editHorwitz Morton J 1999 The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice Hill and Wang Critical Issues ISBN 978 0809016259 Lewis Anthony 1997 Earl Warren In Friedman Leon Israel Fred L eds The Justices of the United States Supreme Court Their Lives and Major Opinions Vol 4 New York Chelsea House Publishers pp 1373 1400 ISBN 978 0791013779 Moke Paul 2015 Earl Warren and the Struggle for Justice Lexington Books ISBN 978 1498520133 Olney III Warren Brownell Herbert 1981 Law Enforcement and Judicial Administration in the Earl Warren Era an oral history conducted 1970 through 1977 by Miriam F Stein and Amelia R Fry Regional Oral History Office The Bancroft Library University of California Berkeley The Earl Warren Oral History Project was inaugurated in 1969 to produce tape recorded interviews with persons prominent in the arenas of politics governmental administration and criminal Justice during the Warren Era in California Focusing on the years 1925 1953 the interviews were designed not only to document the life of Chief Justice Warren but to gain new information on the social and political changes of a state in the throes of a depression then a war then a postwar boom Rawls James J 1987 The Earl Warren Oral History Project an Appraisal Pacific Historical Review 56 1 87 97 doi 10 2307 3638827 JSTOR 3638827 Scheiber Harry N 2006 Earl Warren and the Warren Court The Legacy in American and Foreign Law Lexington Books ISBN 978 0739116357 Schwartz Bernard 1996 The Warren Court A Retrospective Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195104394 Schwartz Bernard 1998 Chief Justice Earl Warren Super Chief in Action Journal of Supreme Court History 23 1 112 132 doi 10 1111 j 1540 5818 1998 tb00128 x S2CID 144488598 Simon James F 2018 Eisenhower vs Warren The Battle for Civil Rights and Liberties Liveright Publishing ISBN 9780871407665 Smemo Kristoffer 2005 The Little People s Century Industrial Pluralism Economic Development and the Emergence of Liberal Republicanism in California 1942 1946 Journal of American History 101 4 1166 1189 doi 10 1093 jahist jav143 Smith J Douglas 2014 On Democracy s Doorstep The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought One Person One Vote to the United States Hill and Wang ISBN 978 0809074235 Tushnet Mark 1996 The Warren Court in Historical and Political Perspective University of Virginia Press ISBN 978 0813916651 External links edit nbsp Wikisource has original works by or about Earl Warren nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Earl Warren Works by or about Earl Warren at Internet Archive Earl Warren at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges a publication of the Federal Judicial Center Oral History Interview with Earl Warren from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library at the Library of Congress Web Archives archived 2001 11 27 More information on Earl Warren and his Masonic Career at the Wayback Machine archived 2007 01 06 Earl Warren s Eulogy for John F Kennedy California 1946 Dec 21 1945 at the Wayback Machine archived 2011 06 13 A speech by Earl Warren from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives A film clip Longines Chronoscope with Earl Warren April 11 1952 is available for viewing at the Internet Archive Comedy Clip Earl Warren amp Gracie Allen November 15 1952 on YouTube Biography Earl Warren 1891 1974 author Melvin I Urofsky Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Earl Warren amp oldid 1202229049, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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