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Malcolm X

March 15, 2023

This article is about the person. For other uses, see Malcolm X (disambiguation).
"Malcolm Little" and "Malik Shabazz" redirect here. For other uses, see Malcolm Little (disambiguation) and Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).

Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little, later el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement. A spokesman for the Nation of Islam until 1964, he was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment and the promotion of Islam within the Black community. A posthumous autobiography, on which he collaborated with Alex Haley, was published in 1965.

Malcolm X
Malcolm X in March 1964
Born
Malcolm Little

(1925-05-19)May 19, 1925
Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.
DiedFebruary 21, 1965(1965-02-21) (aged 39)
New York City, U.S.
Cause of deathAssassination by gunshot
Resting placeFerncliff Cemetery
Other namesMalik el-Shabazz (Arabic: مَالِك ٱلشَّبَازّ, romanized: Mālik ash-Shabāzz)
Occupations
  • Minister
  • activist
Organizations
Movement
Spouse
​
(m. 1958)​
Children6, including Attallah, Qubilah, and Ilyasah
RelativesLouise Helen Norton Little (mother)
Malcolm Shabazz (grandson)[1]
Signature

Malcolm spent his adolescence living in a series of foster homes or with relatives after his father's death and his mother's hospitalization. He committed various crimes, being sentenced to 10 years in prison in 1946 for larceny and burglary. In prison he joined the Nation of Islam (adopting the name Malcolm X to symbolize his unknown African ancestral surname while discarding "the White slavemaster name of 'Little'"), and after his parole in 1952 quickly became one of the organization's most influential leaders. He was the public face of the organization for 12 years, advocating Black empowerment and separation of Black and White Americans, and criticizing Martin Luther King Jr. and the mainstream civil rights movement for its emphasis on nonviolence and racial integration.[2][3] Malcolm X also expressed pride in some of the Nation's social welfare achievements, such as its free drug rehabilitation program. Throughout his life, beginning in the 1950s, Malcolm X was subjected to surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

In the 1960s, Malcolm X began to grow disillusioned with the Nation of Islam, as well as with its leader, Elijah Muhammad. He subsequently embraced Sunni Islam and the civil rights movement after completing the Hajj to Mecca, and became known as "el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz,"[4] which roughly translates to "The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch".[5][6][7] After a brief period of travel across Africa, he publicly renounced the Nation of Islam and founded the Islamic Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI) and the Pan-African Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). Throughout 1964, his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, and he was repeatedly sent death threats. On February 21, 1965, he was assassinated in New York City. Three Nation members were charged with the murder and given indeterminate life sentences; in 2021, two of the convictions were vacated. Speculation about the assassination and whether it was conceived or aided by leading or additional members of the Nation, or with law enforcement agencies, has persisted for decades.

A controversial figure accused of preaching racism and violence, Malcolm X is also a widely celebrated figure within African-American and Muslim American communities for his pursuit of racial justice. He was posthumously honored with Malcolm X Day, on which he is commemorated in various cities across the United States. Hundreds of streets and schools in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, while the Audubon Ballroom, the site of his assassination, was partly redeveloped in 2005 to accommodate the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center.

Early years

 
A 1930 United States Census return listing the Little family (lines 59ff)

Malcolm X was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children of Grenada-born Louise Helen Little (née Norton) and Georgia-born Earl Little.[8] Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker, and he and Louise were admirers of Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey. Earl was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and Louise served as secretary and "branch reporter", sending news of local UNIA activities to Negro World; they inculcated self-reliance and black pride in their children.[9][10][11] Malcolm X later said that White violence killed four of his father's brothers.[12]

Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, Earl's UNIA activities were said to be "spreading trouble"[13] and the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan.[14] There, the family was frequently harassed by the Black Legion, a White racist group Earl accused of burning their family home in 1929.[15]

When Malcolm was six, his father died in what has been officially ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that White racists were responsible for his father's death were widely circulated and were very disturbing to Malcolm X as a child. As an adult, he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question.[16] After a dispute with creditors, Louise received a life insurance benefit (nominally $1,000 ‍—‌about $18,000 in 2022)[A] in payments of $18 per month;[17] the issuer of another, larger policy refused to pay, claiming her husband Earl had committed suicide.[18] To make ends meet, Louise rented out part of her garden, and her sons hunted game.[17]

In 1937, a man Louise had been dating‍—‌marriage had seemed a possibility‍—‌vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child.[19] In late 1938, she had a nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital. The children were separated and sent to foster homes. Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[20][21]

Malcolm attended West Junior High School in Lansing and then Mason High School in Mason, Michigan, but left high school in 1941, before graduating.[22] He excelled in junior high school but dropped out of high school after a White teacher told him that practicing law, his aspiration at the time, was "no realistic goal for a nigger."[23] Later, Malcolm X recalled feeling that the White world offered no place for a career-oriented Black man, regardless of talent.[23]

 
A Boston police mug shot of Malcolm, following his arrest for larceny.[24] (1944)

From age 14 to 21, Malcolm held a variety of jobs while living with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins in Roxbury, a largely African-American neighborhood of Boston.[25][26]

After a short time in Flint, Michigan, he moved to New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1943, where he found employment on the New Haven Railroad and engaged in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[27] According to biographer Bruce Perry, Malcolm also occasionally had sex with other men, usually for money, though this conjecture has been disputed by those who knew him.[28][29][B] He befriended John Elroy Sanford, a fellow dishwasher at Jimmy's Chicken Shack in Harlem who aspired to be a professional comedian. Both men had reddish hair, so Sanford was called "Chicago Red" after his hometown, and Malcolm was known as "Detroit Red". Years later, Sanford became famous as comedian and actor Redd Foxx.[37]

Summoned by the local draft board for military service in World War II, he feigned mental disturbance by rambling and declaring: "I want to be sent down South. Organize them nigger soldiers ... steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers".[38][39][40] He was declared "mentally disqualified for military service".[38][39][40]

In late 1945, Malcolm returned to Boston, where he and four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy White families.[41] In 1946, he was arrested while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for repairs,[42] and in February began serving an eight-to-ten-year sentence at Charlestown State Prison for larceny and breaking and entering.[43] Two years later, Malcolm was transferred to Norfolk Prison Colony (also in Massachusetts).[44][45]

Nation of Islam period

Further information: Nation of Islam

Prison

Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my cor­re­spond­ence, my vis­i­tors ... and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being impris­oned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life.

—Malcolm X[46]

When Malcolm was in prison, he met fellow convict John Bembry,[47] a self-educated man he would later describe as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words".[48] Under Bembry's influence, Malcolm developed a voracious appetite for reading.[49]

At this time, several of his siblings wrote to him about the Nation of Islam, a relatively new religious movement preaching Black self-reliance and, ultimately, the return of the African diaspora to Africa, where they would be free from White American and European domination.[50] He showed scant interest at first, but after his brother Reginald wrote in 1948, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison",[51] he quit smoking and began to refuse pork.[52]

After a visit in which Reginald described the group's teachings, including the belief that White people are devils, Malcolm concluded that every relationship he had had with Whites had been tainted by dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred.[53] Malcolm, whose hostility to Christianity had earned him the prison nickname "Satan,"[54] became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam.[55]

In late 1948, Malcolm wrote to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to renounce his past, humbly bow in prayer to God, and promise never to engage in destructive behavior again.[56] Though he later recalled the inner struggle he had before bending his knees to pray,[57] Malcolm soon became a member of the Nation of Islam,[56] maintaining a regular correspondence with Muhammad.[58]

In 1950, the FBI opened a file on Malcolm after he wrote a letter from prison to President Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a communist.[59] That year, he also began signing his name "Malcolm X."[60] Muhammad instructed his followers to leave their family names behind when they joined the Nation of Islam and use "X" instead. When the time was right, after they had proven their sincerity, he said, he would reveal the Muslim's "original name."[61] In his autobiography, Malcolm X explained that the "X" symbolized the true African family name that he could never know. "For me, my 'X' replaced the White slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[62]

Early ministry

After his parole in August 1952,[63] Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago.[64] In June 1953, he was named assistant minister of the Nation's Temple Number One in Detroit.[65][C] Later that year he established Boston's Temple Number 11;[67] in March 1954, he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia;[68] and two months later he was selected to lead Temple Number 7 in Harlem,[69] where he rapidly expanded its membership.[70]

In 1953, the FBI began surveillance of him, turning its attention from Malcolm X's possible communist associations to his rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[71]

During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and Atlanta (Number 15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[72]

Besides his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[73] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[74] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly well-groomed".[73]

Marriage and family

In 1955, Betty Sanders met Malcolm X after one of his lectures, then again at a dinner party; soon she was regularly attending his lectures. In 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam, changing her name to Betty X.[75] One-on-one dates were contrary to the Nation's teachings, so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of others, and Malcolm X made a point of inviting her on the frequent group visits he led to New York City's museums and libraries.[76]

Malcolm X proposed during a telephone call from Detroit in January 1958, and they married two days later.[77][78] They had six daughters: Attallah (b. 1958; Arabic for "gift of God"; perhaps named after Attila the Hun);[79][D][E] Qubilah (b. 1960, named after Kublai Khan);[83] Ilyasah (b. 1962, named after Elijah Muhammad);[84] Gamilah Lumumba (b. 1964, named after Gamal Abdel Nasser and Patrice Lumumba);[85][86] and twins Malikah (1965–2021)[87] and Malaak (b. 1965 after their father's death, and named in his honor).[88]

Hinton Johnson incident

The American public first became aware of Malcolm X in 1957, after Hinton Johnson,[F] a Nation of Islam member, was beaten by two New York City police officers.[91][92] On April 26, Johnson and two other passersby‍—‌also Nation of Islam members‍—‌saw the officers beating an African-American man with nightsticks.[91] When they attempted to intervene, shouting, "You're not in Alabama ... this is New York!"[92] one of the officers turned on Johnson, beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four African-American men were arrested.[91]

Alerted by a witness, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Johnson.[91] Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held, but when the crowd grew to about five hundred, they allowed Malcolm X to speak with Johnson.[93] Afterward, Malcolm X insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Johnson to Harlem Hospital.[94]

Johnson's injuries were treated and by the time he was returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside.[93] Inside the station, Malcolm X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims. Johnson was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day.[94] Considering the situation to be at an impasse, Malcolm X stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation members silently left, after which the rest of the crowd also dispersed.[94]

One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[94][95] Within a month the New York City Police Department arranged to keep Malcolm X under surveillance; it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served time.[96] A grand jury declined to indict the officers who beat Johnson. In October, Malcolm X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon the police department assigned undercover officers to infiltrate the Nation of Islam.[97]

Increasing prominence

By the late 1950s, Malcolm X was using a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[98] His comments on issues and events were being widely reported in print, on radio, and on television,[99] and he was featured in a 1959 New York City television broadcast about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced.[99]

In September 1960, at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City, Malcolm X was invited to the official functions of several African nations. He met Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress.[100] Fidel Castro also attended the Assembly, and Malcolm X met publicly with him as part of a welcoming committee of Harlem community leaders.[101] Castro was sufficiently impressed with Malcolm X to suggest a private meeting, and after two hours of talking, Castro invited Malcolm X to visit Cuba.[102]

Advocacy and teachings while with Nation

 
Cassius Clay (second row, in dark suit) watches Elijah Muhammad speak, 1964

From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings. These included beliefs:

  • that Black people are the original people of the world[103]
  • that White people are "devils"[2] and
  • that the demise of the White race is imminent.[3]

Louis E. Lomax said that "those who don't understand biblical prophecy wrongly label him as a racist and as a hate teacher, or as being anti-White or as teaching Black Supremacy".[104] One of the goals of the civil rights movement was to end disenfranchisement of African Americans, but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from participating in voting and other aspects of the political process.[105] The NAACP and other civil rights organizations denounced him and the Nation of Islam as irresponsible extremists whose views did not represent the common interests of African Americans.[106][107]

Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement.[108] He called Martin Luther King Jr. a "chump," and said other civil rights leaders were "stooges" of the White establishment.[109][G] He called the 1963 March on Washington "the farce on Washington,"[111] and said he did not know why so many Black people were excited about a demonstration "run by Whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive."[112]

While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from Whites. He proposed that African Americans should return to Africa and that, in the interim, a separate country for Black people in America should be created.[113][114] He rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, arguing that Black people should defend and advance themselves "by any means necessary".[115] His speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, who were generally African Americans in northern and western cities. Many of them‍—‌tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect[116]‍—‌felt that he articulated their complaints better than did the civil rights movement.[117][118]

Antisemitism

Malcolm X has been widely accused of being antisemitic.[119][120] His autobiography contains several antisemitic charges and caricatures of Jews.[121] Alex Haley, the autobiography's co-author, had to rewrite some of the book in order to eliminate a number of negative statements about Jews in the manuscript.[122] Malcolm X believed that the fabricated antisemitic text "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", was authentic and introduced it to NOI members, while blaming Jewish people for "perfecting the modern evil" of neo-colonialism.[123][124] He was a leading figure in reshaping the Black community's perception of The Holocaust, engaging in Holocaust trivialization and claiming that the Jews "brought it on themselves".[125]

In 1961, Malcolm X spoke at a NOI rally alongside George Lincoln Rockwell, the head of the American Nazi Party. Rockwell claimed that there was overlap between Black nationalism and White supremacy.[126] Even after his departure from the NOI and during the last months of his life, Malcolm X's statements about Jews continued to include antisemitic images of Jews as "bloodsucker[s]".[127]

Effect on Nation membership

Malcolm X is widely regarded as the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[128] He was largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one estimate;[H] from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another).[130][I]

He inspired the boxer Muhammad Ali to join the Nation,[132] and the two became close.[133] In January 1964, Ali brought Malcolm X and his family to Miami to watch him train for his fight against Sonny Liston.[134] When Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam, he tried to convince Ali (who had just been renamed by Elijah Muhammad) to join him in converting to Sunni Islam, but Ali instead broke ties with him, later describing the break as one of his greatest regrets.[J]

Malcolm X mentored and guided Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan), who eventually became the leader of the Nation of Islam.[136] Malcolm X also served as a mentor and confidant to Elijah Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad; the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism toward his father's "unorthodox approach" to Islam.[137] Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the Nation of Islam several times, although he was eventually re-admitted.[138]

Disillusionment and departure

During 1962 and 1963, events caused Malcolm X to reassess his relationship with the Nation of Islam, and particularly its leader, Elijah Muhammad.

Lack of Nation of Islam response to LAPD violence

In late 1961, there were violent confrontations between the Nation of Islam members and police in South Central Los Angeles, and numerous Muslims were arrested. They were acquitted, but tensions had been raised. Just after midnight on April 27, 1962, two LAPD officers, unprovoked, shoved and beat several Muslims outside Temple Number 27. A large crowd of angry Muslims emerged from the mosque and the officers attempted to intimidate them.[139][140]

One officer was disarmed; his partner was shot in the elbow by a third officer. More than 70 backup officers arrived who then raided the mosque and randomly beat Nation of Islam members. Police officers shot seven Muslims, including William X Rogers, who was hit in the back and paralyzed for life, and Ronald Stokes, a Korean War veteran, who was shot from behind while raising his hands over his head to surrender, killing him.[139][140]

A number of Muslims were indicted after the event, but no charges were laid against the police. The coroner ruled that Stokes's killing was justified. To Malcolm X, the desecration of the mosque and the associated violence demanded action, and he used what Louis X (later Louis Farrakhan) later called his "gangsterlike past" to rally the more hardened of the Nation of Islam members to take violent revenge against the police.[139][140]

Malcolm X sought Elijah Muhammad's approval which was denied, stunning Malcolm X. Malcolm X was again blocked by Elijah Muhammad when he spoke of the Nation of Islam starting to work with civil rights organizations, local Black politicians, and religious groups. Louis X saw this as an important turning point in the deteriorating relationship between Malcolm X and Muhammad.[139][140]

Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad

Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌which would constitute a serious violation of Nation teachings. After first discounting the rumors, Malcolm X came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad's son Wallace and with the girls making the accusations. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963, attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[141]

Over a series of national TV interviews between 1964 and 1965, Malcolm X provided testimony of his investigation, corroboration, and confirmation by Elijah Muhammed himself of multiple counts of child rape. During this investigation, he learned that 7 of the 8 girls had become pregnant as a result of this. He also revealed an assassination attempt made on his life, through a discovered explosive device in his car, as well as the death threats he was receiving, in response to his exposure of Elijah Muhammad.[142]

Remarks on Kennedy assassination

On December 1, 1963, when asked to comment on the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost." He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[143] Likewise, according to The New York Times:[143]

[I]n further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other "chickens coming home to roost".

The remarks prompted widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had sent a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[144] Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, but was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[145]

Media attention to Malcolm X over Muhammad

Malcolm X had by now become a media favorite, and some Nation members believed he was a threat to Muhammad's leadership. Publishers had shown interest in Malcolm X's autobiography, and when Louis Lomax wrote his 1963 book about the Nation, When the Word Is Given, he used a photograph of Malcolm X on the cover. He also reproduced five of his speeches, but featured only one of Muhammad's‍—‌all of which greatly upset Muhammad and made him envious.[146]

Departure from Nation of Islam

On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. Though still a Muslim, he felt that the Nation had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid teachings. He said he was planning to organize a Black nationalist organization to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans. He also expressed a desire to work with other civil rights leaders, saying that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[147]

Activity after leaving Nation of Islam

 
Malcolm X's only meeting with Martin Luther King Jr., March 26, 1964, during the Senate debates regarding the (eventual) Civil Rights Act of 1964.[148]

After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI), a religious organization,[149][150] and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), a secular group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[151][152] On March 26, 1964, he briefly met Martin Luther King Jr. for the first and only time‍—‌and only long enough for photographs to be taken‍—‌in Washington, D.C., as both men attended the Senate's debate on the Civil Rights bill at the US Capitol building.[K][L]

In April, Malcolm X gave a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet", in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely but cautioned that if the government continued to prevent African Americans from attaining full equality, it might be necessary for them to take up arms.[155][156]

In the weeks after he left the Nation of Islam, several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about their faith. He soon converted to the Sunni faith.[157][158]

Pilgrimage to Mecca

In April 1964, with financial help from his half-sister Ella Little-Collins, Malcolm X flew to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, as the start of his Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca obligatory for every Muslim who is able to do so. He was delayed in Jeddah when his U.S. citizenship and inability to speak Arabic caused his status as a Muslim to be questioned.[159][160]

He had received Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam's book The Eternal Message of Muhammad with his visa approval, and he contacted the author. Azzam's son arranged for his release and lent him his personal hotel suite. The next morning Malcolm X learned that Prince Faisal had designated him as a state guest.[161] Several days later, after completing the Hajj rituals, Malcolm X had an audience with the prince.[162]

Malcolm X later said that seeing Muslims of "all colors, from blue-eyed blonds to Black-skinned Africans," interacting as equals led him to see Islam as a means by which racial problems could be overcome.[163]

Visit to Cairo

 
Malcolm X, after his 1964 pilgrimage to Mecca

Malcolm X had already visited the United Arab Republic (a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana in 1959 to make arrangements for a tour of Africa by Elijah Muhammad.[164] After his journey to Mecca in 1964, he visited Africa a second time. He returned to the United States in late May[165] and flew to Africa again in July.[166] During these visits he met officials, gave interviews, and spoke on radio and television in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika, Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco.[167]

In Cairo, he attended the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity as a representative of the OAAU.[168] By the end of this third visit, he had met with essentially all of Africa's prominent leaders;[169] Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria had all invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments.[169] After he spoke at the University of Ibadan, the Nigerian Muslim Students Association bestowed on him the honorary Yoruba name Omowale ('the son who has come home').[170] He later called this his most treasured honor.[171]

Malcolm especially hated Moïse Tshombe of the Congo as an "Uncle Tom" figure. In a 1964 speech in New York, he called Tshombe "the worse African ever born" and "the man who in cold blood, cold blood, committed an international crime-murdered Patrice Lumumba".[172] Tshombe's decision in 1964 to hire White mercenaries to put down the Simba rebellion greatly offended Malcolm, who accused the mercenaries of committing war crimes against the Congolese.[173]

France and United Kingdom

On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke in the Salle de la Mutualité.[174][175] After his return to the United States, he accused the United States of imperialism in the Congo by supporting Tshombe and "his hired killers" as he called the White mercenaries.[173] X accused Tshombe and the American president Lyndon B. Johnson of "...sleeping together. When I say sleeping together, I don't mean that literally. But beyond that, they're in the same bed. Johnson is paying the salaries, paying the government, propping up Tshombe's government, this murderer".[173]

X expressed much anger about Operation Dragon Rouge, where the United States Air Force dropped in Belgian paratroopers into the city of Stanleyville, modern Kisangani, to rescue the White Belgian hostages from the Simbas.[173] Malcolm X maintained that there was a double standard when it came to White and Black lives, noting it was an international emergency when the lives of Whites were in danger, making Dragon Rouge necessary, but that nothing was done to stop the abuses of the Congolese at the hands of "Tshombe's hired killers".[176] X charged that the "Congolese have been massacred by White people for years and years" and that "the chickens have home to roast".[177]

A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom. On December 3 he took part in a debate at the Oxford Union Society. The motion was taken from a statement made earlier that year by U.S. presidential candidate Barry Goldwater: "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue".[178] Malcolm X argued for the affirmative, and interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[179][180]

In his address at Oxford, Malcolm rejected the label of "Black Muslim" and instead focused on being a Muslim who happened to be Black, which reflected his conversion to Sunni Islam.[181] Malcolm only mentioned his religion twice during his Oxford speech, which was part of his effort to defuse his image as an "angry Black Muslim extremist", which he had long hated.[181] During the debate at Oxford, he criticized the way the Anglo-American press portrayed the Congo crisis, noting the Simbas were portrayed as primitive cannibalistic "savages" who engaged in every form of depravity imaginable while Tshombe and the White mercenaries were portrayed in a very favorable light with almost no mention of any atrocities on their part.[176]

Malcolm X charged that the Cuban émigré pilots hired by the CIA to serve as Tshombe's air force indiscriminately bombed Congolese villages and towns, killing women and children, but this was almost never mentioned in the media while the newspapers featured long accounts of the Simbas "raping White women, molesting nuns".[182] Likewise, he felt the term mercenary was inappropriate, preferring the term "hired killer" and that Tshombe should not be described as a premier as he preferred the term "cold-blooded murderer" to describe him.[182] Malcolm X stated that what he regarded as the extremism of the Tshombe government was "never referred to as extremism because it is endorsed by the West, it is financed by America, it's made respectable by America, and that kind of extremism is never labelled as extremism".[183]

X argued this extremism was not morally acceptable "since it's not extremism in defense of liberty".[184] Many in the audience at Oxford were angered by Malcolm X's thesis and his support for the Simbas who had committed atrocities with one asking "What sort of extremism would you consider the killing of missionaries?".[184] In response, Malcolm X answered "It is an act of war. I'd call it the same kind of extremism that happened when England dropped bombs on German cities and Germans dropped bombs on English cities".[184]

On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X flew to Britain again,[185] and on February 8 he addressed the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations in London.[186] The next day he tried to return to France, but was refused entry.[187] On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, where the Conservative Party had won the parliamentary seat in the 1964 general election. The town had become a byword for racial division after the successful candidate, Peter Griffiths, was accused of using the slogan, "If you want a nigger for a neighbour, vote Liberal or Labour." In Smethwick, Malcolm X compared the treatment of ethnic minority residents with the treatment of Jews under Hitler, saying: "I would not wait for the fascist element in Smethwick to erect gas ovens."[188][189]

Return to United States

After returning to the U.S., Malcolm X addressed a wide variety of audiences. He spoke regularly at meetings held by MMI and the OAAU, and was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses.[190] One of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students."[191] He also addressed public meetings of the Socialist Workers Party, speaking at their Militant Labor Forum.[192] He was interviewed on the subjects of segregation and the Nation of Islam by Robert Penn Warren for Warren's 1965 book Who Speaks for the Negro?[193]

Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam

 
Malcolm X guards his family after Nation of Islam threats in an iconic Ebony photo

Throughout 1964, as his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, Malcolm X was repeatedly threatened.[194]

In February, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered the bombing of Malcolm X's car.[195] In March, Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off";[196] the April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon depicting Malcolm X's bouncing, severed head.[197][198]

On June 8, FBI surveillance recorded a telephone call in which Betty Shabazz was told that her husband was "as good as dead."[199] Four days later, an FBI informant received a tip that "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off."[200] That same month, the Nation sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York. His family was ordered to vacate[201] but on February 14, 1965‍—‌the night before a hearing on postponing the eviction‍—‌the house was destroyed by fire.[202]

On July 9, Muhammad aide John Ali (suspected of being an undercover FBI agent)[203] referred to Malcolm X by saying, "Anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[204] In the December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks, Louis X wrote that "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[205]

The September 1964 issue of Ebony dramatized Malcolm X's defiance of these threats by publishing a photograph of him holding an M1 carbine while peering out a window.[206][207]

Assassination

Main article: Assassination of Malcolm X
External image
  "The Violent End of the Man Called Malcolm", LIFE, March 5, 1965. Photos taken moments after the fatal shots were fired, including one of activist Yuri Kochiyama cradling the dying Malcolm X's head.[208]

On February 19, 1965, Malcolm X told interviewer Gordon Parks that the Nation of Islam was actively trying to kill him. On February 21, 1965, he was preparing to address the OAAU in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom when someone in the 400-person audience yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[209][210][211]

As Malcolm X and his bodyguards tried to quell the disturbance,[M] a man rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a sawed-off shotgun[212][213] and two other men charged the stage firing semi-automatic handguns.[210] Malcolm X was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after arriving at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[211] The autopsy identified 21 gunshot wounds to the chest, left shoulder, arms and legs, including ten buckshot wounds from the initial shotgun blast.[214]

Les Payne and Tamara Payne, in their Pulitzer Prize winning biography The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X, claim that the assassins were members of the Nation of Islam's Newark, New Jersey, mosque: William 25X (also known as William Bradley), who fired the shotgun; Leon Davis; and Thomas Hayer.[215]

One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan), was beaten by the crowd before police arrived.[216][217] Witnesses identified the other gunmen as Nation members Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson.[218] All three were convicted of murder in March 1966 and sentenced to life in prison.[219][220]

At trial, Hayer confessed, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[221] In 1977 and 1978, he signed affidavits reasserting Butler's and Johnson's innocence, naming four other Nation members of Newark's Mosque No. 25 as participants in the murder or its planning.[222][223][224][225] These affidavits did not result in the case being reopened.

Butler, today known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998; he maintains his innocence.[226] In prison Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[227][228] Hayer, who also rejected the Nation's teachings while in prison and converted to Sunni Islam,[229] is known today as Mujahid Halim.[230] He was paroled in 2010.[231]

In 2021, Muhammad Abdul Aziz and Khalil Islam (formerly Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson) were exonerated from their murder convictions, following a review that found the FBI and the New York Police Department withheld key evidence during the trial.[232] On July 14, 2022, Aziz filed suit in the U.S. District Court in Brooklyn against the City of New York, seeking $40 million in damages related to his wrongful imprisonment.[233]

Funeral

The public viewing, February 23–26 at Unity Funeral Home in Harlem, was attended by some 14,000 to 30,000 mourners.[234] For the funeral on February 27, loudspeakers were set up for the overflow crowd outside Harlem's thousand-seat Faith Temple of the Church of God in Christ,[235][236] and a local television station carried the service live.[237]

Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young.[235][238] Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining Black prince ... who didn't hesitate to die because he loved us so":

There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain‍—‌and we will smile. Many will say turn away‍—‌away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the Black man‍—‌and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate‍—‌a fanatic, a racist‍—‌who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.... And, in honoring him, we honor the best in ourselves.[239]

Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[237] Friends took up the gravediggers' shovels to complete the burial themselves.[240]

Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise money for a home for his family and for his children's educations.[241]

Reactions

Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. In a telegram to Betty Shabazz, Martin Luther King Jr. expressed his sadness at "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."[242] He said:[242]

While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.

Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26 that "Malcolm X got just what he preached," but denied any involvement with the murder.[243] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him," Muhammad said, adding "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[244]

Writer James Baldwin, who had been a friend of Malcolm X's, was in London when he heard the news of the assassination. He responded with indignation towards the reporters interviewing him, shouting, "You did it! It is because of you—the men that created this White supremacy—that this man is dead. You are not guilty, but you did it.... Your mills, your cities, your rape of a continent started all this."[245]

The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance‍—‌often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[246] The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted."[247] Time called him "an unashamed demagogue" whose "creed was violence."[248]

Outside of the U.S., particularly in Africa, the press was sympathetic.[249] The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X would "have a place in the palace of martyrs"[250] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown, Medgar Evers, and Patrice Lumumba, and counted him among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause."[251][252]

In China, the People's Daily described Malcolm X as a martyr killed by "ruling circles and racists" in the United States; his assassination, the paper wrote, demonstrated that "in dealing with imperialist oppressors, violence must be met with violence."[252] The Guangming Daily, also published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights."[253] In Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination."[249]

In a weekly column he wrote for the New York Amsterdam News, King reflected on Malcolm X and his assassination:[254]

Malcolm X came to the fore as a public figure partially as a result of a TV documentary entitled, The Hate that Hate Produced. That title points to the nature of Malcolm's life and death.

Malcolm X was clearly a product of the hate and violence invested in the Negro's blighted existence in this nation....

In his youth, there was no hope, no preaching, teaching or movements of non-violence....

It is a testimony to Malcolm's personal depth and integrity that he could not become an underworld Czar, but turned again and again to religion for meaning and destiny. Malcolm was still turning and growing at the time of his brutal and meaningless assassination.…

Like the murder of Lumumba, the murder of Malcolm X deprives the world of a potentially great leader. I could not agree with either of these men, but I could see in them a capacity for leadership which I could respect, and which was just beginning to mature in judgment and statesmanship.

Allegations of conspiracy

 
Louis Farrakhan in 2005

Within days, the question of who bore responsibility for the assassination was being publicly debated. On February 23, James Farmer, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[255] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[256][257] Earl Grant, one of Malcolm X's associates who was present at the assassination, later wrote:[258]

[A]bout five minutes later, a most incredible scene took place. Into the hall sauntered about a dozen policemen. They were strolling at about the pace one would expect of them if they were patrolling a quiet park. They did not seem to be at all excited or concerned about the circumstances.

I could hardly believe my eyes. Here were New York City policemen, entering a room from which at least a dozen shots had been heard, and yet not one of them had his gun out! As a matter of absolute fact, some of them even had their hands in their pockets.

In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs established to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[259] Louis Lomax wrote that John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was a former FBI agent.[203] Malcolm X had confided to a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad and that he considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[203] Ali had a meeting with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X, the night before the assassination.[260]

The Shabazz family are among those who have accused Louis Farrakhan of involvement in Malcolm X's assassination.[261][262][263][264][265] In a 1993 speech Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible:[266][267]

Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.

In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke," he said, adding "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[268] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[269]

No consensus has been reached on who was responsible for the assassination.[270] In August 2014, an online petition was started using the White House online petition mechanism to call on the government to release, without alteration, any files they still held relating to the murder of Malcolm X.[271] In January 2019, members of the families of Malcolm X, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy were among dozens of Americans who signed a public statement calling for a truth and reconciliation commission to persuade Congress or the Justice Department to review the assassinations of all four leaders during the 1960s.[272][273]

A February 21, 2021 press conference attended by three of Malcolm X's daughters and members of deceased NYPD undercover officer Raymond Wood's family released his authorized posthumous letter that stated in part: "I was told to encourage leaders and members of the civil rights groups to commit felonious acts." The Guardian reports that "The arrests kept the two men from managing door security at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights on the day of the shooting, according to the letter."[274] On February 26, 2021, the daughter of Raymond Wood, Kelly Wood, stated that the letter presented at the February 21 press conference is fake. Kelly Wood stated that the letter was created by her cousin Reggie Wood for attention and book sales.[275]

On February 22, 2023, it was announced that the daughters of Malcolm X will file a $100 million wrongful death lawsuit against the CIA, the FBI, the NYPD and others for allegedly concealing evidence related to the assassination and for alleged involvement to it. The attorney representing the family is Benjamin Crump.[276]

Philosophy

Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the many speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death.[277] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[278]

Beliefs of the Nation of Islam

Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam

The white liberal differs from the white con­serv­a­tive only in one way: the liberal is more deceitful than the conservative.

—Malcolm X[279]

While he was a member of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X taught its beliefs, and his statements often began with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that ..."[280] It is virtually impossible now to discern whether Malcolm X's personal beliefs at the time diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[281][N] After he left the Nation in 1964, he compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him to say.[280][O]

Malcolm X taught that Black people were the original people of the world,[103] and that Whites were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[2] The Nation of Islam believed that Black people were superior to White people and that the demise of the White race was imminent.[3] When questioned concerning his statements that White people were devils, Malcolm X said: "history proves the White man is a devil."[284] "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people ... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil."[285]

Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of Black mankind" and that Christianity was "the White man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[286] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of Black people in the United States.[287] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was God incarnate,[288] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or Prophet.[P]

While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of Blacks from Whites. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for African Americans in the southern[113] or southwestern United States[291] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[114] Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to Black people for the unpaid labor of their ancestors.[292] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, advocating instead that Black people should defend themselves.[115]

Independent views

The common goal of 22 million Afro-Americans is respect as human beings. ... We can never get civil rights in America until our human rights are first restored. We will never be recognized as citizens there until we are first recognized as humans. ...

Just as the violation of human rights of our brothers and sisters in South Africa and Angola is an international issue and has brought the racists of South Africa and Portugal under attack from all other independent governments at the United Nations, once the miserable plight of the 22 million Afro-Americans is also lifted to the level of human rights our struggle then becomes an international issue and the direct concern of all other civilized governments. We can then take the racist American Government before the World Court and have the racists in it exposed and condemned as the criminals that they are.

—Malcolm X[293]

After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[147] though he advocated some changes to their policies. He felt that calling the movement a struggle for civil rights would keep the issue within the United States while changing the focus to human rights would make it an international concern. The movement could then bring its complaints before the United Nations, where Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support.[294]

Malcolm X argued that if the U.S. government was unwilling or unable to protect Black people, Black people should protect themselves. He said that he and the other members of the OAAU were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary".[295]

 
Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference

Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the independence struggles of Third World nations.[296] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; globally, Black people were the majority.[297]

In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X criticized capitalism.[192] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he did not know, but that it was no coincidence the newly independent countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[298] When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, Malcolm X asked whether it was good for Black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm X told him: "Then I'm for it."[298][299]

Although he no longer called for the separation of Black people from White people, Malcolm X continued to advocate Black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community.[300] In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support for Black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were White.[301]

After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of White people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with White people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[302] In a conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:

[L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a Black and White problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.

Brother, remember the time that White college girls came into the restaurant‍—‌the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the Whites get together‍—‌and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent, I saw White students helping Black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then‍—‌like all [Black] Muslims‍—‌I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.

That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days‍—‌I'm glad to be free of them.[303]

Purported bisexuality

In recent years, some researchers have alleged that Malcolm X was bisexual. These claims are founded upon the work of late Columbia University historian Manning Marable, and his controversial 2011 book Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. In the book, Marable asserted that "Malcolm X had exaggerated his early criminal career and had engaged in an early homosexual relationship with a White businessman."[304]

Scholar Christopher Phelps agreed with Marable in the Journal of American Studies: "Malcolm Little did take part in sex acts with male counterparts. If set in the context of the 1930s and 1940s, these acts position him not as a 'homosexual lover,' as has been asserted, but in the pattern of 'straight trade'—heterosexual men open to sex with homosexuals—an understanding that in turn affords insights into the Black revolutionary's mature masculinity."[305]

Malcolm X's family has rejected these allegations about his personal life. His daughter Ilyasah Shabazz said she would have known about these encounters before abruptly walking out on an interview on NPR. Shabazz said: "I think the things that I take issue with are the fact that he said my father engaged in a bisexual relationship, a homo—you know, he had a gay lover who was an elder White businessman, I think, in his late 50s when my father was in his teens. And, you know, my father was an open book. And we actually have four of the missing chapters from the autobiography. And, you know, he is very clear in his activities, which nothing included being gay. And certainly he didn't have anything against gay—he was for human rights, human justice, you know. So if he had a gay encounter, he likely would've talked about it. And what he did talk about was someone else's encounter."[306]

Legacy

Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.[307][308][309] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of Black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[310] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the Black community in the United States.[311][312][313] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than did the mainstream civil rights movement.[117][118] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that White America would have to pay if it did not accede to Black America's legitimate demands."[314]

In the late 1960s, increasingly radical Black activists based their movements largely on Malcolm X and his teachings. The Black Power movement,[73][315] the Black Arts Movement,[73][316] and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful"[317] can all trace their roots to Malcolm X. In 1963, Malcolm X began a collaboration with Alex Haley on his life story, The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[146] He told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle."[318] Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination.[319]

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in his life among young people. Hip-hop groups such as Public Enemy adopted Malcolm X as an icon,[320] and his image was displayed in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[321] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[322] In 1986 Ella Little-Collins merged the Organization of Afro-American Unity with the African American Defense League.[323] In 1992 the film Malcolm X was released,[324] an adaptation of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. In 1998, Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[325]

Malcolm X was an inspiration for several fictional characters. The Marvel Comics writer Chris Claremont confirmed that Malcolm X was an inspiration for the X-Men character Magneto, while Martin Luther King was an inspiration for Professor X.[326][327][328] Malcolm X also inspired the character Erik Killmonger in the film Black Panther.[329][330]

Memorials and tributes

 
Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City

The house that once stood at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, was the first home of Malcolm Little with his birth family. The house was torn down in 1965 by new owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X.[331] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.[332][333][334]

In Lansing, Michigan, a Michigan Historical Marker was erected in 1975 on Malcolm Little's childhood home.[335] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The school is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[336]

In cities across the United States, Malcolm X's birthday (May 19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[337] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized Malcolm X's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[338]

Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X. In 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[339] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[340][341] Brooklyn also has El Shabazz Playground that was named after him.[342] New Dudley Street, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard in the 1990s.[343] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard.[344] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[345] In 2016, Ankara, Turkey, renamed the street on which the U.S. is building its new embassy after Malcolm X.[346][347][Q]

Dozens of schools have been named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey,[349] Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin,[350] Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois,[351] and El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy in Lansing, Michigan.[352] Malcolm X Liberation University, based on the Pan-Africanist ideas of Malcolm X, was founded in 1969 in North Carolina.[353]

In 1996, the first library named after Malcolm X was opened, the Malcolm X Branch Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system.[354]

The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999.[355] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[356] Collections of Malcolm X's papers are held by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodruff Library.[357][358][359]

After a community-led initiative, Conrad Grebel University College in Canada (affiliated with the University of Waterloo) launched the Malcolm X Peace and Conflict Studies Scholarship in 2021 to support Black and Indigenous students enrolled in their Master of Peace and Conflict Studies program.[360][361]

Portrayal in film, in television, and on stage

 
Portrait of Malcolm X by Robert Templeton, from the collection Lest We Forget: Images of the Black Civil Rights Movement

Arnold Perl and Marvin Worth attempted to create a drama film based on The Autobiography of Malcolm X, but when people close to the subject declined to talk to them they decided to make a documentary instead. The result was the 1972 documentary film Malcolm X.

Denzel Washington played the title role in the 1992 motion picture Malcolm X.[362] Critic Roger Ebert and film director Martin Scorsese included the film among their lists as one of the ten best films of the 1990s.[363] Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 Off-Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost.[364]

Other portrayals include:

Published works

  • The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. OCLC 219493184.
  • Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
  • Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
  • Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
  • Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
  • The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC 185901618.
  • By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
  • The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
  • The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
  • Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87348-962-1.
  • February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-87348-749-8.
  • The Diary of Malcolm X: 1964. Herb Boyd and Ilyasah Shabazz, eds. Chicago: Third World Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-88378-351-1.

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved April 16, 2022.
  2. ^ The accuracy of these accounts has been questioned by some people who met Malcolm X later in life or never knew him, including Ta-Nehisi Coates,[30] Maulana Karenga,[31] Ilyasah Shabazz,[32] and Raymond Winbush.[33] For further information, see Phelps,[34] Polk,[35] and Street et al.[36]
  3. ^ Nation of Islam Temples were numbered according to the order in which they were established.[66]
  4. ^ Attallah Shabazz has said she was not named after Attila, rather her name is Arabic for "the gift of God".[80][81]
  5. ^ "People have to understand the [Autobiography of Malcolm X] was written at a time when indeed African Americans were likening themselves to warriors to underscore our revolutionary fervor. And Attallah was close to Attila the Hun, the warrior. But I'm named Attallah, which in Arabic means 'Gift of God.' I've never been Attila."[82]
  6. ^ Some sources, including The Autobiography of Malcolm X, give the name Johnson Hinton, but Benjamin Karim (one of Malcolm X's top aides) and former Newsweek editor and Malcolm X biographer Peter Goldman both give the name Hinton Johnson.[89][90]
  7. ^ King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate ... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views ... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer ... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice ... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief."[110]
  8. ^ "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."[129]
  9. ^ "The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers‍—‌'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'‍—‌was typical of the attitude of the leadership."[131]
  10. ^ "Turning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life. I wish I'd been able to tell Malcolm that I was sorry, that he was right about so many things. But he was killed before I got the chance ... I might never have become a Muslim if it hadn't been for Malcolm. If I could go back and do it over again, I would never have turned my back on him."[135]
  11. ^ "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."[153]
  12. ^ "Camera shutters clicked. The next day, the Chicago Sun-Times, the New York World-Telegram and Sun, and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands."[154]
  13. ^ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Haley wrote that Malcolm X said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it, brothers" (p. 499). According to a transcript of an audio recording, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", repeated ten times (DeCaro, p. 274).
  14. ^ "'I'll be honest with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"[282]
  15. ^ On a radio program in December 1964, Malcolm X said "all of my former statements were prefaced by 'the Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches thus and so.' They weren't my statements, they were his statements, and I was repeating them."[283]
  16. ^ Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah."[289] On another occasion, he said, "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet."[290]
  17. ^ English-language sources disagreed whether the street was being renamed Malcolm X Road[346] or Malcolm X Avenue,[347] perhaps because of translation issues. The state media agency's English-language announcement said merely that "the street ... will bear the name of Malcolm X".[348]

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Works cited

Further reading

External links

  • Official website of the Estate of Malcolm X
  • The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
  • Malcolm, website on the life and legacy of Malcolm X
  • Malcolm Little (Malcolm X) file at Federal Bureau of Investigation
  • Malcolm X at IMDb

March 15, 2023
malcolm, this, article, about, person, other, uses, disambiguation, malcolm, little, malik, shabazz, redirect, here, other, uses, malcolm, little, disambiguation, malik, shabazz, disambiguation, born, malcolm, little, later, hajj, malik, shabazz, 1925, februar. This article is about the person For other uses see Malcolm X disambiguation Malcolm Little and Malik Shabazz redirect here For other uses see Malcolm Little disambiguation and Malik Shabazz disambiguation Malcolm X born Malcolm Little later el Hajj Malik el Shabazz May 19 1925 February 21 1965 was an American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement A spokesman for the Nation of Islam until 1964 he was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment and the promotion of Islam within the Black community A posthumous autobiography on which he collaborated with Alex Haley was published in 1965 Malcolm XMalcolm X in March 1964BornMalcolm Little 1925 05 19 May 19 1925Omaha Nebraska U S DiedFebruary 21 1965 1965 02 21 aged 39 New York City U S Cause of deathAssassination by gunshotResting placeFerncliff CemeteryOther namesMalik el Shabazz Arabic م ال ك ٱلش ب از romanized Malik ash Shabazz OccupationsMinisteractivistOrganizationsNation of IslamMuslim Mosque Inc Organization of Afro American UnityMovementBlack nationalismPan AfricanismIslamismSpouseBetty Shabazz m 1958 wbr Children6 including Attallah Qubilah and IlyasahRelativesLouise Helen Norton Little mother Malcolm Shabazz grandson 1 SignatureMalcolm spent his adolescence living in a series of foster homes or with relatives after his father s death and his mother s hospitalization He committed various crimes being sentenced to 10 years in prison in 1946 for larceny and burglary In prison he joined the Nation of Islam adopting the name Malcolm X to symbolize his unknown African ancestral surname while discarding the White slavemaster name of Little and after his parole in 1952 quickly became one of the organization s most influential leaders He was the public face of the organization for 12 years advocating Black empowerment and separation of Black and White Americans and criticizing Martin Luther King Jr and the mainstream civil rights movement for its emphasis on nonviolence and racial integration 2 3 Malcolm X also expressed pride in some of the Nation s social welfare achievements such as its free drug rehabilitation program Throughout his life beginning in the 1950s Malcolm X was subjected to surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI In the 1960s Malcolm X began to grow disillusioned with the Nation of Islam as well as with its leader Elijah Muhammad He subsequently embraced Sunni Islam and the civil rights movement after completing the Hajj to Mecca and became known as el Hajj Malik el Shabazz 4 which roughly translates to The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch 5 6 7 After a brief period of travel across Africa he publicly renounced the Nation of Islam and founded the Islamic Muslim Mosque Inc MMI and the Pan African Organization of Afro American Unity OAAU Throughout 1964 his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified and he was repeatedly sent death threats On February 21 1965 he was assassinated in New York City Three Nation members were charged with the murder and given indeterminate life sentences in 2021 two of the convictions were vacated Speculation about the assassination and whether it was conceived or aided by leading or additional members of the Nation or with law enforcement agencies has persisted for decades A controversial figure accused of preaching racism and violence Malcolm X is also a widely celebrated figure within African American and Muslim American communities for his pursuit of racial justice He was posthumously honored with Malcolm X Day on which he is commemorated in various cities across the United States Hundreds of streets and schools in the U S have been renamed in his honor while the Audubon Ballroom the site of his assassination was partly redeveloped in 2005 to accommodate the Malcolm X and Dr Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center Contents 1 Early years 2 Nation of Islam period 2 1 Prison 2 2 Early ministry 2 3 Marriage and family 2 4 Hinton Johnson incident 2 5 Increasing prominence 2 6 Advocacy and teachings while with Nation 2 6 1 Antisemitism 2 7 Effect on Nation membership 3 Disillusionment and departure 3 1 Lack of Nation of Islam response to LAPD violence 3 2 Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad 3 3 Remarks on Kennedy assassination 3 4 Media attention to Malcolm X over Muhammad 3 5 Departure from Nation of Islam 4 Activity after leaving Nation of Islam 4 1 Pilgrimage to Mecca 4 2 Visit to Cairo 4 3 France and United Kingdom 4 4 Return to United States 5 Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam 6 Assassination 6 1 Funeral 6 2 Reactions 6 3 Allegations of conspiracy 7 Philosophy 7 1 Beliefs of the Nation of Islam 7 2 Independent views 8 Purported bisexuality 9 Legacy 9 1 Memorials and tributes 10 Portrayal in film in television and on stage 11 Published works 12 Explanatory notes 13 References 13 1 Citations 13 2 Works cited 14 Further reading 15 External linksEarly years A 1930 United States Census return listing the Little family lines 59ff Malcolm X was born May 19 1925 in Omaha Nebraska the fourth of seven children of Grenada born Louise Helen Little nee Norton and Georgia born Earl Little 8 Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker and he and Louise were admirers of Pan African activist Marcus Garvey Earl was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association UNIA and Louise served as secretary and branch reporter sending news of local UNIA activities to Negro World they inculcated self reliance and black pride in their children 9 10 11 Malcolm X later said that White violence killed four of his father s brothers 12 Because of Ku Klux Klan threats Earl s UNIA activities were said to be spreading trouble 13 and the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee and shortly thereafter to Lansing Michigan 14 There the family was frequently harassed by the Black Legion a White racist group Earl accused of burning their family home in 1929 15 When Malcolm was six his father died in what has been officially ruled a streetcar accident though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion Rumors that White racists were responsible for his father s death were widely circulated and were very disturbing to Malcolm X as a child As an adult he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question 16 After a dispute with creditors Louise received a life insurance benefit nominally 1 000 about 18 000 in 2022 A in payments of 18 per month 17 the issuer of another larger policy refused to pay claiming her husband Earl had committed suicide 18 To make ends meet Louise rented out part of her garden and her sons hunted game 17 In 1937 a man Louise had been dating marriage had seemed a possibility vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child 19 In late 1938 she had a nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital The children were separated and sent to foster homes Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later 20 21 Malcolm attended West Junior High School in Lansing and then Mason High School in Mason Michigan but left high school in 1941 before graduating 22 He excelled in junior high school but dropped out of high school after a White teacher told him that practicing law his aspiration at the time was no realistic goal for a nigger 23 Later Malcolm X recalled feeling that the White world offered no place for a career oriented Black man regardless of talent 23 A Boston police mug shot of Malcolm following his arrest for larceny 24 1944 From age 14 to 21 Malcolm held a variety of jobs while living with his half sister Ella Little Collins in Roxbury a largely African American neighborhood of Boston 25 26 After a short time in Flint Michigan he moved to New York City s Harlem neighborhood in 1943 where he found employment on the New Haven Railroad and engaged in drug dealing gambling racketeering robbery and pimping 27 According to biographer Bruce Perry Malcolm also occasionally had sex with other men usually for money though this conjecture has been disputed by those who knew him 28 29 B He befriended John Elroy Sanford a fellow dishwasher at Jimmy s Chicken Shack in Harlem who aspired to be a professional comedian Both men had reddish hair so Sanford was called Chicago Red after his hometown and Malcolm was known as Detroit Red Years later Sanford became famous as comedian and actor Redd Foxx 37 Summoned by the local draft board for military service in World War II he feigned mental disturbance by rambling and declaring I want to be sent down South Organize them nigger soldiers steal us some guns and kill us some crackers 38 39 40 He was declared mentally disqualified for military service 38 39 40 In late 1945 Malcolm returned to Boston where he and four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy White families 41 In 1946 he was arrested while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for repairs 42 and in February began serving an eight to ten year sentence at Charlestown State Prison for larceny and breaking and entering 43 Two years later Malcolm was transferred to Norfolk Prison Colony also in Massachusetts 44 45 Nation of Islam periodFurther information Nation of Islam Prison Between Mr Muhammad s teachings my cor re spond ence my vis i tors and my reading of books months passed without my even thinking about being impris oned In fact up to then I had never been so truly free in my life Malcolm X 46 When Malcolm was in prison he met fellow convict John Bembry 47 a self educated man he would later describe as the first man I had ever seen command total respect with words 48 Under Bembry s influence Malcolm developed a voracious appetite for reading 49 At this time several of his siblings wrote to him about the Nation of Islam a relatively new religious movement preaching Black self reliance and ultimately the return of the African diaspora to Africa where they would be free from White American and European domination 50 He showed scant interest at first but after his brother Reginald wrote in 1948 Malcolm don t eat any more pork and don t smoke any more cigarettes I ll show you how to get out of prison 51 he quit smoking and began to refuse pork 52 After a visit in which Reginald described the group s teachings including the belief that White people are devils Malcolm concluded that every relationship he had had with Whites had been tainted by dishonesty injustice greed and hatred 53 Malcolm whose hostility to Christianity had earned him the prison nickname Satan 54 became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam 55 In late 1948 Malcolm wrote to Elijah Muhammad the leader of the Nation of Islam Muhammad advised him to renounce his past humbly bow in prayer to God and promise never to engage in destructive behavior again 56 Though he later recalled the inner struggle he had before bending his knees to pray 57 Malcolm soon became a member of the Nation of Islam 56 maintaining a regular correspondence with Muhammad 58 In 1950 the FBI opened a file on Malcolm after he wrote a letter from prison to President Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a communist 59 That year he also began signing his name Malcolm X 60 Muhammad instructed his followers to leave their family names behind when they joined the Nation of Islam and use X instead When the time was right after they had proven their sincerity he said he would reveal the Muslim s original name 61 In his autobiography Malcolm X explained that the X symbolized the true African family name that he could never know For me my X replaced the White slavemaster name of Little which some blue eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears 62 Early ministry After his parole in August 1952 63 Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago 64 In June 1953 he was named assistant minister of the Nation s Temple Number One in Detroit 65 C Later that year he established Boston s Temple Number 11 67 in March 1954 he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia 68 and two months later he was selected to lead Temple Number 7 in Harlem 69 where he rapidly expanded its membership 70 In 1953 the FBI began surveillance of him turning its attention from Malcolm X s possible communist associations to his rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam 71 During 1955 Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam He established temples in Springfield Massachusetts Number 13 Hartford Connecticut Number 14 and Atlanta Number 15 Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month 72 Besides his skill as a speaker Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence He stood 6 feet 3 inches 1 91 m tall and weighed about 180 pounds 82 kg 73 One writer described him as powerfully built 74 and another as mesmerizingly handsome and always spotlessly well groomed 73 Marriage and family In 1955 Betty Sanders met Malcolm X after one of his lectures then again at a dinner party soon she was regularly attending his lectures In 1956 she joined the Nation of Islam changing her name to Betty X 75 One on one dates were contrary to the Nation s teachings so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of others and Malcolm X made a point of inviting her on the frequent group visits he led to New York City s museums and libraries 76 Malcolm X proposed during a telephone call from Detroit in January 1958 and they married two days later 77 78 They had six daughters Attallah b 1958 Arabic for gift of God perhaps named after Attila the Hun 79 D E Qubilah b 1960 named after Kublai Khan 83 Ilyasah b 1962 named after Elijah Muhammad 84 Gamilah Lumumba b 1964 named after Gamal Abdel Nasser and Patrice Lumumba 85 86 and twins Malikah 1965 2021 87 and Malaak b 1965 after their father s death and named in his honor 88 Hinton Johnson incident The American public first became aware of Malcolm X in 1957 after Hinton Johnson F a Nation of Islam member was beaten by two New York City police officers 91 92 On April 26 Johnson and two other passersby also Nation of Islam members saw the officers beating an African American man with nightsticks 91 When they attempted to intervene shouting You re not in Alabama this is New York 92 one of the officers turned on Johnson beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging All four African American men were arrested 91 Alerted by a witness Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Johnson 91 Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held but when the crowd grew to about five hundred they allowed Malcolm X to speak with Johnson 93 Afterward Malcolm X insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Johnson to Harlem Hospital 94 Johnson s injuries were treated and by the time he was returned to the police station some four thousand people had gathered outside 93 Inside the station Malcolm X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims Johnson was not bailed and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day 94 Considering the situation to be at an impasse Malcolm X stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd Nation members silently left after which the rest of the crowd also dispersed 94 One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News No one man should have that much power 94 95 Within a month the New York City Police Department arranged to keep Malcolm X under surveillance it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived and prisons in which he had served time 96 A grand jury declined to indict the officers who beat Johnson In October Malcolm X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner Soon the police department assigned undercover officers to infiltrate the Nation of Islam 97 Increasing prominence By the late 1950s Malcolm X was using a new name Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el Shabazz although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X 98 His comments on issues and events were being widely reported in print on radio and on television 99 and he was featured in a 1959 New York City television broadcast about the Nation of Islam The Hate That Hate Produced 99 In September 1960 at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City Malcolm X was invited to the official functions of several African nations He met Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt Ahmed Sekou Toure of Guinea and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress 100 Fidel Castro also attended the Assembly and Malcolm X met publicly with him as part of a welcoming committee of Harlem community leaders 101 Castro was sufficiently impressed with Malcolm X to suggest a private meeting and after two hours of talking Castro invited Malcolm X to visit Cuba 102 Advocacy and teachings while with Nation Cassius Clay second row in dark suit watches Elijah Muhammad speak 1964 From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964 Malcolm X promoted the Nation s teachings These included beliefs that Black people are the original people of the world 103 that White people are devils 2 and that the demise of the White race is imminent 3 Louis E Lomax said that those who don t understand biblical prophecy wrongly label him as a racist and as a hate teacher or as being anti White or as teaching Black Supremacy 104 One of the goals of the civil rights movement was to end disenfranchisement of African Americans but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from participating in voting and other aspects of the political process 105 The NAACP and other civil rights organizations denounced him and the Nation of Islam as irresponsible extremists whose views did not represent the common interests of African Americans 106 107 Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement 108 He called Martin Luther King Jr a chump and said other civil rights leaders were stooges of the White establishment 109 G He called the 1963 March on Washington the farce on Washington 111 and said he did not know why so many Black people were excited about a demonstration run by Whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn t like us when he was alive 112 While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from Whites He proposed that African Americans should return to Africa and that in the interim a separate country for Black people in America should be created 113 114 He rejected the civil rights movement s strategy of nonviolence arguing that Black people should defend and advance themselves by any means necessary 115 His speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences who were generally African Americans in northern and western cities Many of them tired of being told to wait for freedom justice equality and respect 116 felt that he articulated their complaints better than did the civil rights movement 117 118 Antisemitism Malcolm X has been widely accused of being antisemitic 119 120 His autobiography contains several antisemitic charges and caricatures of Jews 121 Alex Haley the autobiography s co author had to rewrite some of the book in order to eliminate a number of negative statements about Jews in the manuscript 122 Malcolm X believed that the fabricated antisemitic text Protocols of the Elders of Zion was authentic and introduced it to NOI members while blaming Jewish people for perfecting the modern evil of neo colonialism 123 124 He was a leading figure in reshaping the Black community s perception of The Holocaust engaging in Holocaust trivialization and claiming that the Jews brought it on themselves 125 In 1961 Malcolm X spoke at a NOI rally alongside George Lincoln Rockwell the head of the American Nazi Party Rockwell claimed that there was overlap between Black nationalism and White supremacy 126 Even after his departure from the NOI and during the last months of his life Malcolm X s statements about Jews continued to include antisemitic images of Jews as bloodsucker s 127 Effect on Nation membership Malcolm X is widely regarded as the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad 128 He was largely credited with the group s dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s from 500 to 25 000 by one estimate H from 1 200 to 50 000 or 75 000 by another 130 I He inspired the boxer Muhammad Ali to join the Nation 132 and the two became close 133 In January 1964 Ali brought Malcolm X and his family to Miami to watch him train for his fight against Sonny Liston 134 When Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam he tried to convince Ali who had just been renamed by Elijah Muhammad to join him in converting to Sunni Islam but Ali instead broke ties with him later describing the break as one of his greatest regrets J Malcolm X mentored and guided Louis X later known as Louis Farrakhan who eventually became the leader of the Nation of Islam 136 Malcolm X also served as a mentor and confidant to Elijah Muhammad s son Wallace D Muhammad the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism toward his father s unorthodox approach to Islam 137 Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the Nation of Islam several times although he was eventually re admitted 138 Disillusionment and departureDuring 1962 and 1963 events caused Malcolm X to reassess his relationship with the Nation of Islam and particularly its leader Elijah Muhammad Lack of Nation of Islam response to LAPD violence In late 1961 there were violent confrontations between the Nation of Islam members and police in South Central Los Angeles and numerous Muslims were arrested They were acquitted but tensions had been raised Just after midnight on April 27 1962 two LAPD officers unprovoked shoved and beat several Muslims outside Temple Number 27 A large crowd of angry Muslims emerged from the mosque and the officers attempted to intimidate them 139 140 One officer was disarmed his partner was shot in the elbow by a third officer More than 70 backup officers arrived who then raided the mosque and randomly beat Nation of Islam members Police officers shot seven Muslims including William X Rogers who was hit in the back and paralyzed for life and Ronald Stokes a Korean War veteran who was shot from behind while raising his hands over his head to surrender killing him 139 140 A number of Muslims were indicted after the event but no charges were laid against the police The coroner ruled that Stokes s killing was justified To Malcolm X the desecration of the mosque and the associated violence demanded action and he used what Louis X later Louis Farrakhan later called his gangsterlike past to rally the more hardened of the Nation of Islam members to take violent revenge against the police 139 140 Malcolm X sought Elijah Muhammad s approval which was denied stunning Malcolm X Malcolm X was again blocked by Elijah Muhammad when he spoke of the Nation of Islam starting to work with civil rights organizations local Black politicians and religious groups Louis X saw this as an important turning point in the deteriorating relationship between Malcolm X and Muhammad 139 140 Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries which would constitute a serious violation of Nation teachings After first discounting the rumors Malcolm X came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad s son Wallace and with the girls making the accusations Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963 attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets 141 Over a series of national TV interviews between 1964 and 1965 Malcolm X provided testimony of his investigation corroboration and confirmation by Elijah Muhammed himself of multiple counts of child rape During this investigation he learned that 7 of the 8 girls had become pregnant as a result of this He also revealed an assassination attempt made on his life through a discovered explosive device in his car as well as the death threats he was receiving in response to his exposure of Elijah Muhammad 142 Remarks on Kennedy assassination On December 1 1963 when asked to comment on the assassination of John F Kennedy Malcolm X said that it was a case of chickens coming home to roost He added that chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad they ve always made me glad 143 Likewise according to The New York Times 143 I n further criticism of Mr Kennedy the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba Congo leader of Medgar Evers civil rights leader and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church These he said were instances of other chickens coming home to roost The remarks prompted widespread public outcry The Nation of Islam which had sent a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination publicly censured their former shining star 144 Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister but was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days 145 Media attention to Malcolm X over Muhammad Malcolm X had by now become a media favorite and some Nation members believed he was a threat to Muhammad s leadership Publishers had shown interest in Malcolm X s autobiography and when Louis Lomax wrote his 1963 book about the Nation When the Word Is Given he used a photograph of Malcolm X on the cover He also reproduced five of his speeches but featured only one of Muhammad s all of which greatly upset Muhammad and made him envious 146 Departure from Nation of Islam On March 8 1964 Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam Though still a Muslim he felt that the Nation had gone as far as it can because of its rigid teachings He said he was planning to organize a Black nationalist organization to heighten the political consciousness of African Americans He also expressed a desire to work with other civil rights leaders saying that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past 147 Activity after leaving Nation of Islam Malcolm X s only meeting with Martin Luther King Jr March 26 1964 during the Senate debates regarding the eventual Civil Rights Act of 1964 148 After leaving the Nation of Islam Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque Inc MMI a religious organization 149 150 and the Organization of Afro American Unity OAAU a secular group that advocated Pan Africanism 151 152 On March 26 1964 he briefly met Martin Luther King Jr for the first and only time and only long enough for photographs to be taken in Washington D C as both men attended the Senate s debate on the Civil Rights bill at the US Capitol building K L In April Malcolm X gave a speech titled The Ballot or the Bullet in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely but cautioned that if the government continued to prevent African Americans from attaining full equality it might be necessary for them to take up arms 155 156 In the weeks after he left the Nation of Islam several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about their faith He soon converted to the Sunni faith 157 158 Pilgrimage to Mecca In April 1964 with financial help from his half sister Ella Little Collins Malcolm X flew to Jeddah Saudi Arabia as the start of his Hajj the pilgrimage to Mecca obligatory for every Muslim who is able to do so He was delayed in Jeddah when his U S citizenship and inability to speak Arabic caused his status as a Muslim to be questioned 159 160 He had received Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam s book The Eternal Message of Muhammad with his visa approval and he contacted the author Azzam s son arranged for his release and lent him his personal hotel suite The next morning Malcolm X learned that Prince Faisal had designated him as a state guest 161 Several days later after completing the Hajj rituals Malcolm X had an audience with the prince 162 Malcolm X later said that seeing Muslims of all colors from blue eyed blonds to Black skinned Africans interacting as equals led him to see Islam as a means by which racial problems could be overcome 163 Visit to Cairo Malcolm X after his 1964 pilgrimage to Mecca Malcolm X had already visited the United Arab Republic a short lived political union between Egypt and Syria Sudan Nigeria and Ghana in 1959 to make arrangements for a tour of Africa by Elijah Muhammad 164 After his journey to Mecca in 1964 he visited Africa a second time He returned to the United States in late May 165 and flew to Africa again in July 166 During these visits he met officials gave interviews and spoke on radio and television in Egypt Ethiopia Tanganyika Nigeria Ghana Guinea Sudan Senegal Liberia Algeria and Morocco 167 In Cairo he attended the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity as a representative of the OAAU 168 By the end of this third visit he had met with essentially all of Africa s prominent leaders 169 Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria had all invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments 169 After he spoke at the University of Ibadan the Nigerian Muslim Students Association bestowed on him the honorary Yoruba name Omowale the son who has come home 170 He later called this his most treasured honor 171 Malcolm especially hated Moise Tshombe of the Congo as an Uncle Tom figure In a 1964 speech in New York he called Tshombe the worse African ever born and the man who in cold blood cold blood committed an international crime murdered Patrice Lumumba 172 Tshombe s decision in 1964 to hire White mercenaries to put down the Simba rebellion greatly offended Malcolm who accused the mercenaries of committing war crimes against the Congolese 173 France and United Kingdom On November 23 1964 on his way home from Africa Malcolm X stopped in Paris where he spoke in the Salle de la Mutualite 174 175 After his return to the United States he accused the United States of imperialism in the Congo by supporting Tshombe and his hired killers as he called the White mercenaries 173 X accused Tshombe and the American president Lyndon B Johnson of sleeping together When I say sleeping together I don t mean that literally But beyond that they re in the same bed Johnson is paying the salaries paying the government propping up Tshombe s government this murderer 173 X expressed much anger about Operation Dragon Rouge where the United States Air Force dropped in Belgian paratroopers into the city of Stanleyville modern Kisangani to rescue the White Belgian hostages from the Simbas 173 Malcolm X maintained that there was a double standard when it came to White and Black lives noting it was an international emergency when the lives of Whites were in danger making Dragon Rouge necessary but that nothing was done to stop the abuses of the Congolese at the hands of Tshombe s hired killers 176 X charged that the Congolese have been massacred by White people for years and years and that the chickens have home to roast 177 A week later on November 30 Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom On December 3 he took part in a debate at the Oxford Union Society The motion was taken from a statement made earlier that year by U S presidential candidate Barry Goldwater Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue 178 Malcolm X argued for the affirmative and interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC 179 180 In his address at Oxford Malcolm rejected the label of Black Muslim and instead focused on being a Muslim who happened to be Black which reflected his conversion to Sunni Islam 181 Malcolm only mentioned his religion twice during his Oxford speech which was part of his effort to defuse his image as an angry Black Muslim extremist which he had long hated 181 During the debate at Oxford he criticized the way the Anglo American press portrayed the Congo crisis noting the Simbas were portrayed as primitive cannibalistic savages who engaged in every form of depravity imaginable while Tshombe and the White mercenaries were portrayed in a very favorable light with almost no mention of any atrocities on their part 176 Malcolm X charged that the Cuban emigre pilots hired by the CIA to serve as Tshombe s air force indiscriminately bombed Congolese villages and towns killing women and children but this was almost never mentioned in the media while the newspapers featured long accounts of the Simbas raping White women molesting nuns 182 Likewise he felt the term mercenary was inappropriate preferring the term hired killer and that Tshombe should not be described as a premier as he preferred the term cold blooded murderer to describe him 182 Malcolm X stated that what he regarded as the extremism of the Tshombe government was never referred to as extremism because it is endorsed by the West it is financed by America it s made respectable by America and that kind of extremism is never labelled as extremism 183 X argued this extremism was not morally acceptable since it s not extremism in defense of liberty 184 Many in the audience at Oxford were angered by Malcolm X s thesis and his support for the Simbas who had committed atrocities with one asking What sort of extremism would you consider the killing of missionaries 184 In response Malcolm X answered It is an act of war I d call it the same kind of extremism that happened when England dropped bombs on German cities and Germans dropped bombs on English cities 184 On February 5 1965 Malcolm X flew to Britain again 185 and on February 8 he addressed the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations in London 186 The next day he tried to return to France but was refused entry 187 On February 12 he visited Smethwick near Birmingham where the Conservative Party had won the parliamentary seat in the 1964 general election The town had become a byword for racial division after the successful candidate Peter Griffiths was accused of using the slogan If you want a nigger for a neighbour vote Liberal or Labour In Smethwick Malcolm X compared the treatment of ethnic minority residents with the treatment of Jews under Hitler saying I would not wait for the fascist element in Smethwick to erect gas ovens 188 189 Return to United States After returning to the U S Malcolm X addressed a wide variety of audiences He spoke regularly at meetings held by MMI and the OAAU and was one of the most sought after speakers on college campuses 190 One of his top aides later wrote that he welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students 191 He also addressed public meetings of the Socialist Workers Party speaking at their Militant Labor Forum 192 He was interviewed on the subjects of segregation and the Nation of Islam by Robert Penn Warren for Warren s 1965 book Who Speaks for the Negro 193 Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam Malcolm X guards his family after Nation of Islam threats in an iconic Ebony photo Throughout 1964 as his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified Malcolm X was repeatedly threatened 194 In February a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered the bombing of Malcolm X s car 195 In March Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X later known as Louis Farrakhan that hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off 196 the April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon depicting Malcolm X s bouncing severed head 197 198 On June 8 FBI surveillance recorded a telephone call in which Betty Shabazz was told that her husband was as good as dead 199 Four days later an FBI informant received a tip that Malcolm X is going to be bumped off 200 That same month the Nation sued to reclaim Malcolm X s residence in East Elmhurst Queens New York His family was ordered to vacate 201 but on February 14 1965 the night before a hearing on postponing the eviction the house was destroyed by fire 202 On July 9 Muhammad aide John Ali suspected of being an undercover FBI agent 203 referred to Malcolm X by saying Anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy 204 In the December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks Louis X wrote that such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death 205 The September 1964 issue of Ebony dramatized Malcolm X s defiance of these threats by publishing a photograph of him holding an M1 carbine while peering out a window 206 207 AssassinationMain article Assassination of Malcolm X External image The Violent End of the Man Called Malcolm LIFE March 5 1965 Photos taken moments after the fatal shots were fired including one of activist Yuri Kochiyama cradling the dying Malcolm X s head 208 On February 19 1965 Malcolm X told interviewer Gordon Parks that the Nation of Islam was actively trying to kill him On February 21 1965 he was preparing to address the OAAU in Manhattan s Audubon Ballroom when someone in the 400 person audience yelled Nigger Get your hand outta my pocket 209 210 211 As Malcolm X and his bodyguards tried to quell the disturbance M a man rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a sawed off shotgun 212 213 and two other men charged the stage firing semi automatic handguns 210 Malcolm X was pronounced dead at 3 30 pm shortly after arriving at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital 211 The autopsy identified 21 gunshot wounds to the chest left shoulder arms and legs including ten buckshot wounds from the initial shotgun blast 214 Les Payne and Tamara Payne in their Pulitzer Prize winning biography The Dead Are Arising The Life of Malcolm X claim that the assassins were members of the Nation of Islam s Newark New Jersey mosque William 25X also known as William Bradley who fired the shotgun Leon Davis and Thomas Hayer 215 One gunman Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer also known as Thomas Hagan was beaten by the crowd before police arrived 216 217 Witnesses identified the other gunmen as Nation members Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson 218 All three were convicted of murder in March 1966 and sentenced to life in prison 219 220 At trial Hayer confessed but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson 221 In 1977 and 1978 he signed affidavits reasserting Butler s and Johnson s innocence naming four other Nation members of Newark s Mosque No 25 as participants in the murder or its planning 222 223 224 225 These affidavits did not result in the case being reopened Butler today known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation s Harlem mosque in 1998 he maintains his innocence 226 In prison Johnson who changed his name to Khalil Islam rejected the Nation s teachings and converted to Sunni Islam Released in 1987 he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009 227 228 Hayer who also rejected the Nation s teachings while in prison and converted to Sunni Islam 229 is known today as Mujahid Halim 230 He was paroled in 2010 231 In 2021 Muhammad Abdul Aziz and Khalil Islam formerly Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson were exonerated from their murder convictions following a review that found the FBI and the New York Police Department withheld key evidence during the trial 232 On July 14 2022 Aziz filed suit in the U S District Court in Brooklyn against the City of New York seeking 40 million in damages related to his wrongful imprisonment 233 Funeral The public viewing February 23 26 at Unity Funeral Home in Harlem was attended by some 14 000 to 30 000 mourners 234 For the funeral on February 27 loudspeakers were set up for the overflow crowd outside Harlem s thousand seat Faith Temple of the Church of God in Christ 235 236 and a local television station carried the service live 237 Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis Bayard Rustin James Forman James Farmer Jesse Gray and Andrew Young 235 238 Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy describing Malcolm X as our shining Black prince who didn t hesitate to die because he loved us so There are those who will consider it their duty as friends of the Negro people to tell us to revile him to flee even from the presence of his memory to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy controversial and bold young captain and we will smile Many will say turn away away from this man for he is not a man but a demon a monster a subverter and an enemy of the Black man and we will smile They will say that he is of hate a fanatic a racist who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle And we will answer and say to them Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm Did you ever touch him or have him smile at you Did you ever really listen to him Did he ever do a mean thing Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance For if you did you would know him And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him And in honoring him we honor the best in ourselves 239 Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale New York 237 Friends took up the gravediggers shovels to complete the burial themselves 240 Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier wife of Sidney Poitier established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise money for a home for his family and for his children s educations 241 Reactions Reactions to Malcolm X s assassination were varied In a telegram to Betty Shabazz Martin Luther King Jr expressed his sadness at the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband 242 He said 242 While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior s Day convention on February 26 that Malcolm X got just what he preached but denied any involvement with the murder 243 We didn t want to kill Malcolm and didn t try to kill him Muhammad said adding We know such ignorant foolish teachings would bring him to his own end 244 Writer James Baldwin who had been a friend of Malcolm X s was in London when he heard the news of the assassination He responded with indignation towards the reporters interviewing him shouting You did it It is because of you the men that created this White supremacy that this man is dead You are not guilty but you did it Your mills your cities your rape of a continent started all this 245 The New York Post wrote that even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance often wild unpredictable and eccentric but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized 246 The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was an extraordinary and twisted man who turn ed many true gifts to evil purpose and that his life was strangely and pitifully wasted 247 Time called him an unashamed demagogue whose creed was violence 248 Outside of the U S particularly in Africa the press was sympathetic 249 The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X would have a place in the palace of martyrs 250 The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown Medgar Evers and Patrice Lumumba and counted him among a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom s cause 251 252 In China the People s Daily described Malcolm X as a martyr killed by ruling circles and racists in the United States his assassination the paper wrote demonstrated that in dealing with imperialist oppressors violence must be met with violence 252 The Guangming Daily also published in Beijing stated that Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights 253 In Cuba El Mundo described the assassination as another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination 249 In a weekly column he wrote for the New York Amsterdam News King reflected on Malcolm X and his assassination 254 Malcolm X came to the fore as a public figure partially as a result of a TV documentary entitled The Hate that Hate Produced That title points to the nature of Malcolm s life and death Malcolm X was clearly a product of the hate and violence invested in the Negro s blighted existence in this nation In his youth there was no hope no preaching teaching or movements of non violence It is a testimony to Malcolm s personal depth and integrity that he could not become an underworld Czar but turned again and again to religion for meaning and destiny Malcolm was still turning and growing at the time of his brutal and meaningless assassination Like the murder of Lumumba the murder of Malcolm X deprives the world of a potentially great leader I could not agree with either of these men but I could see in them a capacity for leadership which I could respect and which was just beginning to mature in judgment and statesmanship Allegations of conspiracy Louis Farrakhan in 2005 Within days the question of who bore responsibility for the assassination was being publicly debated On February 23 James Farmer leader of the Congress of Racial Equality announced at a news conference that local drug dealers and not the Nation of Islam were to blame 255 Others accused the NYPD the FBI or the CIA citing the lack of police protection the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene 256 257 Earl Grant one of Malcolm X s associates who was present at the assassination later wrote 258 A bout five minutes later a most incredible scene took place Into the hall sauntered about a dozen policemen They were strolling at about the pace one would expect of them if they were patrolling a quiet park They did not seem to be at all excited or concerned about the circumstances I could hardly believe my eyes Here were New York City policemen entering a room from which at least a dozen shots had been heard and yet not one of them had his gun out As a matter of absolute fact some of them even had their hands in their pockets In the 1970s the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs established to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s 259 Louis Lomax wrote that John Ali national secretary of the Nation of Islam was a former FBI agent 203 Malcolm X had confided to a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad and that he considered Ali his archenemy within the Nation of Islam leadership 203 Ali had a meeting with Talmadge Hayer one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X the night before the assassination 260 The Shabazz family are among those who have accused Louis Farrakhan of involvement in Malcolm X s assassination 261 262 263 264 265 In a 1993 speech Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible 266 267 Was Malcolm your traitor or ours And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor what the hell business is it of yours A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000 Farrakhan stated that some things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X I may have been complicit in words that I spoke he said adding I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being 268 A few days later Farrakhan denied that he ordered the assassination of Malcolm X although he again acknowledged that he created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X s assassination 269 No consensus has been reached on who was responsible for the assassination 270 In August 2014 an online petition was started using the White House online petition mechanism to call on the government to release without alteration any files they still held relating to the murder of Malcolm X 271 In January 2019 members of the families of Malcolm X John F Kennedy Martin Luther King Jr and Robert F Kennedy were among dozens of Americans who signed a public statement calling for a truth and reconciliation commission to persuade Congress or the Justice Department to review the assassinations of all four leaders during the 1960s 272 273 A February 21 2021 press conference attended by three of Malcolm X s daughters and members of deceased NYPD undercover officer Raymond Wood s family released his authorized posthumous letter that stated in part I was told to encourage leaders and members of the civil rights groups to commit felonious acts The Guardian reports that The arrests kept the two men from managing door security at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights on the day of the shooting according to the letter 274 On February 26 2021 the daughter of Raymond Wood Kelly Wood stated that the letter presented at the February 21 press conference is fake Kelly Wood stated that the letter was created by her cousin Reggie Wood for attention and book sales 275 On February 22 2023 it was announced that the daughters of Malcolm X will file a 100 million wrongful death lawsuit against the CIA the FBI the NYPD and others for allegedly concealing evidence related to the assassination and for alleged involvement to it The attorney representing the family is Benjamin Crump 276 PhilosophyExcept for his autobiography Malcolm X left no published writings His philosophy is known almost entirely from the many speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death 277 Many of those speeches especially from the last year of his life were recorded and have been published 278 Beliefs of the Nation of Islam Further information Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam The white liberal differs from the white con serv a tive only in one way the liberal is more deceitful than the conservative Malcolm X 279 While he was a member of the Nation of Islam Malcolm X taught its beliefs and his statements often began with the phrase The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that 280 It is virtually impossible now to discern whether Malcolm X s personal beliefs at the time diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam 281 N After he left the Nation in 1964 he compared himself to a ventriloquist s dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him to say 280 O Malcolm X taught that Black people were the original people of the world 103 and that Whites were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub 2 The Nation of Islam believed that Black people were superior to White people and that the demise of the White race was imminent 3 When questioned concerning his statements that White people were devils Malcolm X said history proves the White man is a devil 284 Anybody who rapes and plunders and enslaves and steals and drops hell bombs on people anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil 285 Malcolm X said that Islam was the true religion of Black mankind and that Christianity was the White man s religion that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave masters 286 He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world but the Nation s teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the uniquely pitiful condition of Black people in the United States 287 He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad the founder of the Nation was God incarnate 288 and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger or Prophet P While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of Blacks from Whites The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for African Americans in the southern 113 or southwestern United States 291 as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa 114 Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to Black people for the unpaid labor of their ancestors 292 He also rejected the civil rights movement s strategy of nonviolence advocating instead that Black people should defend themselves 115 Independent views The common goal of 22 million Afro Americans is respect as human beings We can never get civil rights in America until our human rights are first restored We will never be recognized as citizens there until we are first recognized as humans Just as the violation of human rights of our brothers and sisters in South Africa and Angola is an international issue and has brought the racists of South Africa and Portugal under attack from all other independent governments at the United Nations once the miserable plight of the 22 million Afro Americans is also lifted to the level of human rights our struggle then becomes an international issue and the direct concern of all other civilized governments We can then take the racist American Government before the World Court and have the racists in it exposed and condemned as the criminals that they are Malcolm X 293 After leaving the Nation of Islam Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement 147 though he advocated some changes to their policies He felt that calling the movement a struggle for civil rights would keep the issue within the United States while changing the focus to human rights would make it an international concern The movement could then bring its complaints before the United Nations where Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support 294 Malcolm X argued that if the U S government was unwilling or unable to protect Black people Black people should protect themselves He said that he and the other members of the OAAU were determined to defend themselves from aggressors and to secure freedom justice and equality by whatever means necessary 295 Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels He emphasized the direct connection between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the independence struggles of Third World nations 296 He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority globally Black people were the majority 297 In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party Malcolm X criticized capitalism 192 After one such speech when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted he said he did not know but that it was no coincidence the newly independent countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism 298 When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism Malcolm X asked whether it was good for Black people When the reporter told him it seemed to be Malcolm X told him Then I m for it 298 299 Although he no longer called for the separation of Black people from White people Malcolm X continued to advocate Black nationalism which he defined as self determination for the African American community 300 In the last months of his life however Malcolm X began to reconsider his support for Black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who to all appearances were White 301 After his Hajj Malcolm X articulated a view of White people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam In a famous letter from Mecca he wrote that his experiences with White people during his pilgrimage convinced him to rearrange his thinking about race and toss aside some of his previous conclusions 302 In a conversation with Gordon Parks two days before his assassination Malcolm said L istening to leaders like Nasser Ben Bella and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism I realized racism isn t just a Black and White problem It s brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another Brother remember the time that White college girls came into the restaurant the one who wanted to help the Black Muslims and the Whites get together and I told her there wasn t a ghost of a chance and she went away crying Well I ve lived to regret that incident In many parts of the African continent I saw White students helping Black people Something like this kills a lot of argument I did many things as a Black Muslim that I m sorry for now I was a zombie then like all Black Muslims I was hypnotized pointed in a certain direction and told to march Well I guess a man s entitled to make a fool of himself if he s ready to pay the cost It cost me 12 years That was a bad scene brother The sickness and madness of those days I m glad to be free of them 303 Purported bisexualityIn recent years some researchers have alleged that Malcolm X was bisexual These claims are founded upon the work of late Columbia University historian Manning Marable and his controversial 2011 book Malcolm X A Life of Reinvention In the book Marable asserted that Malcolm X had exaggerated his early criminal career and had engaged in an early homosexual relationship with a White businessman 304 Scholar Christopher Phelps agreed with Marable in the Journal of American Studies Malcolm Little did take part in sex acts with male counterparts If set in the context of the 1930s and 1940s these acts position him not as a homosexual lover as has been asserted but in the pattern of straight trade heterosexual men open to sex with homosexuals an understanding that in turn affords insights into the Black revolutionary s mature masculinity 305 Malcolm X s family has rejected these allegations about his personal life His daughter Ilyasah Shabazz said she would have known about these encounters before abruptly walking out on an interview on NPR Shabazz said I think the things that I take issue with are the fact that he said my father engaged in a bisexual relationship a homo you know he had a gay lover who was an elder White businessman I think in his late 50s when my father was in his teens And you know my father was an open book And we actually have four of the missing chapters from the autobiography And you know he is very clear in his activities which nothing included being gay And certainly he didn t have anything against gay he was for human rights human justice you know So if he had a gay encounter he likely would ve talked about it And what he did talk about was someone else s encounter 306 LegacyMalcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history 307 308 309 He is credited with raising the self esteem of Black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage 310 He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the Black community in the United States 311 312 313 Many African Americans especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than did the mainstream civil rights movement 117 118 One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration Malcolm X made clear the price that White America would have to pay if it did not accede to Black America s legitimate demands 314 In the late 1960s increasingly radical Black activists based their movements largely on Malcolm X and his teachings The Black Power movement 73 315 the Black Arts Movement 73 316 and the widespread adoption of the slogan Black is beautiful 317 can all trace their roots to Malcolm X In 1963 Malcolm X began a collaboration with Alex Haley on his life story The Autobiography of Malcolm X 146 He told Haley If I m alive when this book comes out it will be a miracle 318 Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination 319 During the late 1980s and early 1990s there was a resurgence of interest in his life among young people Hip hop groups such as Public Enemy adopted Malcolm X as an icon 320 and his image was displayed in hundreds of thousands of homes offices and schools 321 as well as on T shirts and jackets 322 In 1986 Ella Little Collins merged the Organization of Afro American Unity with the African American Defense League 323 In 1992 the film Malcolm X was released 324 an adaptation of The Autobiography of Malcolm X In 1998 Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century 325 Malcolm X was an inspiration for several fictional characters The Marvel Comics writer Chris Claremont confirmed that Malcolm X was an inspiration for the X Men character Magneto while Martin Luther King was an inspiration for Professor X 326 327 328 Malcolm X also inspired the character Erik Killmonger in the film Black Panther 329 330 Memorials and tributes Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City The house that once stood at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha Nebraska was the first home of Malcolm Little with his birth family The house was torn down in 1965 by new owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X 331 The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 332 333 334 In Lansing Michigan a Michigan Historical Marker was erected in 1975 on Malcolm Little s childhood home 335 The city is also home to El Hajj Malik El Shabazz Academy a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus The school is located in the building where Little attended elementary school 336 In cities across the United States Malcolm X s birthday May 19 is commemorated as Malcolm X Day The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington D C in 1971 337 The city of Berkeley California has recognized Malcolm X s birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979 338 Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X In 1987 New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard 339 The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn New York was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985 340 341 Brooklyn also has El Shabazz Playground that was named after him 342 New Dudley Street in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard in the 1990s 343 In 1997 Oakland Avenue in Dallas Texas was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard 344 Main Street in Lansing Michigan was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010 345 In 2016 Ankara Turkey renamed the street on which the U S is building its new embassy after Malcolm X 346 347 Q Dozens of schools have been named after Malcolm X including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark New Jersey 349 Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison Wisconsin 350 Malcolm X College in Chicago Illinois 351 and El Hajj Malik El Shabazz Academy in Lansing Michigan 352 Malcolm X Liberation University based on the Pan Africanist ideas of Malcolm X was founded in 1969 in North Carolina 353 In 1996 the first library named after Malcolm X was opened the Malcolm X Branch Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system 354 The U S Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999 355 In 2005 Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom where Malcolm X was assassinated 356 Collections of Malcolm X s papers are held by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W Woodruff Library 357 358 359 After a community led initiative Conrad Grebel University College in Canada affiliated with the University of Waterloo launched the Malcolm X Peace and Conflict Studies Scholarship in 2021 to support Black and Indigenous students enrolled in their Master of Peace and Conflict Studies program 360 361 Portrayal in film in television and on stage Portrait of Malcolm X by Robert Templeton from the collection Lest We Forget Images of the Black Civil Rights Movement Arnold Perl and Marvin Worth attempted to create a drama film based on The Autobiography of Malcolm X but when people close to the subject declined to talk to them they decided to make a documentary instead The result was the 1972 documentary film Malcolm X Denzel Washington played the title role in the 1992 motion picture Malcolm X 362 Critic Roger Ebert and film director Martin Scorsese included the film among their lists as one of the ten best films of the 1990s 363 Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 Off Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost 364 Other portrayals include James Earl Jones in the 1977 film The Greatest 365 Dick Anthony Williams in the 1978 television miniseries King 366 and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting 367 Al Freeman Jr in the 1979 television miniseries Roots The Next Generations 368 Morgan Freeman in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet 369 Ben Holt in the 1986 opera X The Life and Times of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera 370 Gary Dourdan in the 2000 television movie King of the World 371 Joe Morton in the 2000 television movie Ali An American Hero 372 Mario Van Peebles in the 2001 film Ali 373 Lindsay Owen Pierre in the 2013 television movie Betty amp Coretta 374 Francois Battiste in the stage play One Night in Miami first performed in 2013 375 Nigel Thatch in the 2014 film Selma 376 and the 2019 television series Godfather of Harlem 377 Kingsley Ben Adir in the 2020 film One Night in Miami based on the play of the same name 378 Published works The Autobiography of Malcolm X first edition The Autobiography of Malcolm X With the assistance of Alex Haley New York Grove Press 1965 OCLC 219493184 Malcolm X Speaks Selected Speeches and Statements George Breitman ed New York Merit Publishers 1965 OCLC 256095445 Malcolm X Talks to Young People New York Young Socialist Alliance 1965 OCLC 81990227 Two Speeches by Malcolm X New York Pathfinder Press 1965 OCLC 19464959 Malcolm X on Afro American History New York Merit Publishers 1967 OCLC 78155009 The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard Archie Epps ed New York Morrow 1968 OCLC 185901618 By Any Means Necessary Speeches Interviews and a Letter by Malcolm X George Breitman ed New York Pathfinder Press 1970 OCLC 249307 The End of White World Supremacy Four Speeches by Malcolm X Benjamin Karim ed New York Monthly Review Press 1971 OCLC 149849 The Last Speeches Bruce Perry ed New York Pathfinder Press 1989 ISBN 978 0 87348 543 2 Malcolm X Talks to Young People Speeches in the United States Britain and Africa Steve Clark ed New York Pathfinder Press 1991 ISBN 978 0 87348 962 1 February 1965 The Final Speeches Steve Clark ed New York Pathfinder Press 1992 ISBN 978 0 87348 749 8 The Diary of Malcolm X 1964 Herb Boyd and Ilyasah Shabazz eds Chicago Third World Press 2013 ISBN 978 0 88378 351 1 Explanatory notes 1634 1699 McCusker J J 1997 How Much Is That in Real Money A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States Addenda et Corrigenda PDF American Antiquarian Society 1700 1799 McCusker J J 1992 How Much Is That in Real Money A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States PDF American Antiquarian Society 1800 present Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Consumer Price Index estimate 1800 Retrieved April 16 2022 The accuracy of these accounts has been questioned by some people who met Malcolm X later in life or never knew him including Ta Nehisi Coates 30 Maulana Karenga 31 Ilyasah Shabazz 32 and Raymond Winbush 33 For further information see Phelps 34 Polk 35 and Street et al 36 Nation of Islam Temples were numbered according to the order in which they were established 66 Attallah Shabazz has said she was not named after Attila rather her name is Arabic for the gift of God 80 81 People have to understand the Autobiography of Malcolm X was written at a time when indeed African Americans were likening themselves to warriors to underscore our revolutionary fervor And Attallah was close to Attila the Hun the warrior But I m named Attallah which in Arabic means Gift of God I ve never been Attila 82 Some sources including The Autobiography of Malcolm X give the name Johnson Hinton but Benjamin Karim one of Malcolm X s top aides and former Newsweek editor and Malcolm X biographer Peter Goldman both give the name Hinton Johnson 89 90 King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X He is very articulate but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views I don t want to seem to sound self righteous or that I think I have the only truth the only way Maybe he does have some of the answer I have often wished that he would talk less of violence because violence is not going to solve our problem And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive creative alternative I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice U rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence as he has done can reap nothing but grief 110 Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty five thousand active temple people 129 The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers Those who know aren t saying and those who say don t know was typical of the attitude of the leadership 131 Turning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life I wish I d been able to tell Malcolm that I was sorry that he was right about so many things But he was killed before I got the chance I might never have become a Muslim if it hadn t been for Malcolm If I could go back and do it over again I would never have turned my back on him 135 There was no time for substantive discussions between the two They were photographed greeting each other warmly smiling and shaking hands 153 Camera shutters clicked The next day the Chicago Sun Times the New York World Telegram and Sun and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands 154 In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X Haley wrote that Malcolm X said Hold it Hold it Don t get excited Let s cool it brothers p 499 According to a transcript of an audio recording Malcolm s only words were Hold it repeated ten times DeCaro p 274 I ll be honest with you Malcolm X said to me Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me It is absolutely impossible for us to differ 282 On a radio program in December 1964 Malcolm X said all of my former statements were prefaced by the Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches thus and so They weren t my statements they were his statements and I was repeating them 283 Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah 289 On another occasion he said We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet 290 English language sources disagreed whether the street was being renamed Malcolm X Road 346 or Malcolm X Avenue 347 perhaps because of translation issues The state media agency s English language announcement said merely that the street will bear the name of Malcolm X 348 ReferencesCitations Harrison Isheka N July 2010 Malcolm X s Grandson Working on Memoirs in Miami South Florida Times Retrieved June 9 2016 a b c Perry 1991 p 115 a b c Lomax 1963 p 57 Krutzsch Brett April 5 2021 Malcolm X Why El Hajj Malik El Shabazz Matters The Revealer Retrieved March 9 2023 Definition of hajj Dictionary com www dictionary com Retrieved March 9 2023 Krutzsch Brett April 5 2021 Malcolm X Why El Hajj Malik El Shabazz Matters The Revealer Retrieved March 9 2023 Angelo Gomez Michael 2005 Black Crescent The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas Cambridge University Press p 367 Watson Clarence Akhtar Salman 2012 Ideology and Identity Malcolm X In Akhtar Salman ed The African American Experience Psychoanalytic Perspectives Lanham Maryland Jason Aronson p 120 ISBN 978 0 7657 0835 9 Marable 2011 pp 20 30 Perry 1991 pp 2 3 Vincent Ted March April 1989 The Garveyite Parents of Malcolm X The Black Scholar 20 2 10 13 doi 10 1080 00064246 1989 11412923 JSTOR 41067613 Malcolm X 1992 pp 3 4 DeCaro 1996 pp 43 44 Natambu 2002 p 3 Natambu 2002 p 4 Marable 2011 p 29 a b Marable 2011 p 32 Natambu 2002 p 10 Marable 2011 p 35 Marable 2011 pp 35 36 265 Perry 1991 pp 33 34 331 Dozier Vickki February 21 2015 How Malcolm X s murder rippled through his hometown Lansing State Journal Lansing Michigan a b Perry 1991 p 42 Timeline of Malcolm X s Life PBS Archived from the original on November 9 2020 Retrieved December 31 2020 Natambu pp 21 29 55 56 Perry 1991 pp 32 48 58 61 Perry 1991 pp 62 81 Marable 2011 pp 65 66 Perry 1991 pp 77 82 83 Coates 2011 online Karenga Maulana The Meaning and Measure of Malcolm X Critical Remembrance and Rightful Reading Boyd et al 2012 p 18 Martin Michel April 20 2011 Malcolm X s Daughter Disputes Claims in New Bio on Father Tell Me More NPR Retrieved September 7 2017 Winbush Raymond A Speculative Nonfiction Manning Marable s Malcolm X Ball amp Burroughs 2012 pp 105 117 Phelps Christopher August 2017 The Sexuality of Malcolm X PDF Journal of American Studies 51 3 659 690 doi 10 1017 S0021875816001341 S2CID 147843832 Archived from the original PDF on December 12 2019 Retrieved July 11 2019 Polk Khary Summer 2013 Malcolm X Sexual Hearsay and Masculine Dissemblance Biography 36 3 568 584 doi 10 1353 bio 2013 0029 JSTOR 24570210 S2CID 161615221 Street Joe Washington Margaret Hall Simon McLaughlin Malcolm Bailey Peter February 2013 Roundtable Manning Marable Malcolm X A Life of Reinvention Journal of American Studies 47 1 23 47 doi 10 1017 S0021875812002605 S2CID 232254323 Marable 2011 pp 51 52 a b Malcolm X 1992 p 124 a b Carson p 108 a b Lord Thornton amp Bodipo Memba 1992 p 5 Natambu 2002 pp 106 109 Perry 1991 p 99 Marable 2011 pp 67 68 Malcolm X 1992 p 181 Natambu 2002 p 131 Malcolm X 1992 p 199 Natambu 2002 p 121 Malcolm X Autobiography p 178 ellipsis in original Perry 1991 pp 108 110 118 Natambu pp 127 128 132 138 Natambu 2002 pp 128 129 Perry 1991 p 113 Natambu 2002 pp 134 135 Perry 1991 pp 104 106 Natambu 2002 p 136 a b Natambu pp 138 139 Malcolm X 1992 p 196 Perry 1991 p 116 Marable 2011 p 95 Marable 2011 p 96 Natambu 2002 pp 139 140 Malcolm X 1992 p 229 Marable 2011 p 98 Perry 1991 pp 142 144 145 Natambu 2002 p 168 Perry 1991 pp 141 142 Perry 1991 p 147 Perry 1991 p 152 Perry 1991 p 153 Perry 1991 pp 161 164 Carson 1991 p 95 Marable 2011 pp 122 123 a b c d Marable 2009 p 301 Lincoln 1961 p 189 Rickford 2003 pp 36 45 50 51 Rickford 2003 pp 61 63 Shabazz Betty Malcolm X as a Husband and Father Clarke 1990 pp 132 134 Rickford 2003 pp 73 74 Rickford 2003 pp 109 110 Hopkins Ellen November 30 1989 Yolanda King and Attallah Shabazz Their Fathers Daughters Rolling Stone Retrieved June 19 2016 Miller Russell November 23 1992 X Patriot New York Retrieved June 19 2016 Barboza 1994 pp 205 206 Rickford 2003 p 122 Rickford 2003 p 123 Assensoh amp Alex Assensoh 2016 p xxi Rickford 2003 p 197 Malikah Shabazz daughter of Malcolm X found dead at her home in New York The Washington Post November 22 2021 Rickford 2003 p 286 Karim 1992 pp 47 48 Abdullah Zain Autumn 2012 Narrating Muslim Masculinities The Fruit of Islam and the Quest for Black Redemption Spectrum A Journal on Black Men 1 1 169 doi 10 2979 spectrum 1 1 141 S2CID 162371130 a b c d Marable 2011 p 127 a b Perry 1991 p 164 a b Perry 1991 p 165 a b c d Marable 2011 p 128 Perry 1991 p 166 Marable 2011 p 132 Marable 2011 pp 134 135 Marable 2011 pp 135 193 a b Perry 1991 pp 174 179 Natambu 2002 pp 231 233 Marable 2011 p 172 Lincoln 1961 p 18 a b Lomax 1963 p 55 Lomax 1963 p 181 Natambu 2002 p 260 Marable 2011 p 162 Natambu 2002 pp 215 216 Lomax 1963 pp 79 80 Perry 1991 p 203 Haley Alex January 1965 The Playboy Interview Martin Luther King Playboy Archived from the original on June 19 2018 Retrieved June 19 2018 Cone 1991 p 113 Timeline Malcolm X Make It Plain American Experience PBS May 19 2005 Archived from the original on May 26 2005 Retrieved November 11 2017 a b Lomax 1963 pp 149 152 a b Malcolm X amp Karim 1989 p 78 a b Lomax 1963 pp 173 174 Natambu 2002 p 182 a b Cone 1991 pp 99 100 a b West Cornel 1984 The Paradox of the Afro American Rebellion In Sayres Sohnya Stephanson Anders Aronowitz Stanley Jameson Fredric eds The 60s Without Apology Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press p 51 ISBN 978 0 8166 1336 6 Lomax 1963 p 172 Moore 1987 p 198 Pollack 2013 p 4 Marable amp Felber 2013 p 492 Norwood amp Pollack 2020 p 157 158 Pollack 2013 p 30 35 Pollack 2022 p 5 16 Heer Jeet May 11 2016 Farrakhan s Grand Illusion The New Republic Retrieved June 26 2019 Norwood 2013 p 245 Cone 1991 p 91 Lomax 1963 pp 15 16 Marable 2011 p 123 Clegg III 1997 p 115 Natambu 2002 pp 296 297 Remnick David 1999 1998 King of the World Muhammed Ali and the Rise of an American Hero New York Vintage Books p 165 ISBN 978 0 375 70229 7 Rickford 2003 p 165 Ali 2004 p 85 Marable 2011 page needed Marsh 2000 p 101 Marsh 2000 pp 58 59 67 a b c d Branch 1998 pp 3 20 a b c d Marable 2011 pp 205 210 Perry 1991 pp 230 234 Malcolm X Exposes Elijah Muhammad YouTube Retrieved August 24 2022 a b Malcolm X Scores U S and Kennedy The New York Times December 2 1963 p 21 Retrieved June 19 2018 Natambu 2002 pp 288 290 Perry 1991 p 242 a b Perry 1991 p 214 a b Handler M S March 9 1964 Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad The New York Times p 1 Retrieved June 19 2018 Brown DeNeen L January 18 2014 Martin Luther King Jr met Malcolm X just once The photo still haunts us with what was lost The Washington Post Retrieved October 31 2020 Perry 1991 pp 251 252 MMalcolm X 1990 pp 18 22 Perry 1991 pp 294 296 Malcolm X amp Breitman 1989 pp 33 67 Cone 1991 p 2 Perry 1991 p 255 Perry 1991 pp 257 259 Malcolm X 1990 pp 23 44 Marable 2011 pp 300 301 Perry 1991 p 261 Perry 1991 pp 262 263 DeCaro 1996 p 204 Perry 1991 pp 263 265 Perry 1991 p 267 Malcolm X Autobiography pp 388 393 quote from pp 390 391 Lomax 1963 p 62 Natambu 2002 p 303 Carson 1991 p 305 Natambu 2002 pp 304 305 Marable 2011 pp 360 362 a b Natambu p 308 Perry 1991 p 269 Malcolm X 1992 p 403 Tuck 2014 pp 155 156 a b c d Tuck 2014 p 157 Bethune Lebert Malcolm X in Europe Clarke 1990 pp 226 231 Malcolm X amp Breitman 1989 pp 113 126 a b Tuck 2014 pp 157 158 Tuck 2014 p 157 amp 159 Perlstein Rick August 2008 1964 Republican Convention Revolution from the Right Smithsonian Magazine Retrieved June 20 2015 Bethune Malcolm X in Europe Clarke 1990 pp 231 233 Malcolm X December 3 1964 Malcolm X Oxford Debate Malcolm X A Research Site Retrieved October 2 2014 a b Tuck 2014 p 154 a b Tuck 2014 p 158 Tuck 2014 pp 158 159 a b c Tuck 2014 p 159 Carson 1991 p 349 Perry 1991 p 351 Natambu 2002 p 312 Kundnani Arun February 10 2005 Black British History Remembering Malcolm s Visit to Smethwick Independent Race and Refugee News Network Institute of Race Relations Retrieved October 2 2014 Jeffries Stuart October 15 2014 Britain s Most Racist Election The Story of Smethwick 50 Years On The Guardian Retrieved April 17 2016 Terrill 2004 p 9 Karim 1992 p 128 a b Perry 1991 pp 277 278 Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities June 2 1964 Malcolm X Who Speaks for the Negro Retrieved March 11 2015 The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University www columbia edu Retrieved December 13 2019 Karim 1992 pp 159 160 Kondo 1993 p 170 Friedly 1992 p 169 Majied Eugene April 10 1964 On My Own Muhammad Speaks Nation of Islam Retrieved October 2 2014 Carson 1991 p 473 Carson 1991 p 324 Perry 1991 pp 290 292 Perry 1991 pp 352 356 a b c Lomax 1987 p 198 Evanzz 1992 p 248 Evanzz 1992 p 264 Lord Thornton amp Bodipo Memba 1992 p 3 Massaquoi Hans J September 1964 Mystery of Malcolm X Ebony pp 38 40 42 44 46 Retrieved April 4 2017 Ross Janell May 19 2016 Google Commemorates a Very Controversial Civil Rights Figure Yuri Kochiyama The Washington Post Retrieved May 20 2016 Karim 1992 p 191 a b Evanzz 1992 p 295 a b Kihss 1965 p 1 Marable 2011 pp 436 437 Perry 1991 p 366 Marable 2011 p 450 Payne Les Payne Tamara 2020 The Dead Are Arising The Life of Malcolm X New York Liveright pp 477 478 ISBN 978 1 63149 166 5 Perry 1991 pp 366 367 Talese Gay February 22 1965 Police Save Suspect From the Crowd The New York Times p 10 Retrieved June 19 2018 Kondo 1993 p 97 Buckley Thomas March 11 1966 Malcolm X Jury Finds 3 Guilty The New York Times p 1 Retrieved June 19 2018 Roth Jack April 15 1966 3 Get Life Terms in Malcolm Case The New York Times p 36 Retrieved June 19 2018 Kondo 1993 p 110 Leland John February 6 2020 Who Really Killed Malcolm X The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on February 6 2020 Retrieved February 27 2020 Nutt Amy Ellis Barry Carter April 4 2011 Muslim Man Denies Author s Claim That He Killed Malcolm X HuffPost Retrieved February 27 2020 Bush Roderick 1999 We Are Not What We Seem Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century New York New York University Press p 179 ISBN 978 0 8147 1317 4 Friedly 1992 pp 112 129 Malcolm X Killer Heads Mosque BBC News March 31 1998 Retrieved October 2 2014 Jacobson Mark October 1 2007 The Man Who Didn t Shoot Malcolm X New York Retrieved October 2 2014 Marable 2011 p 474 Fanelli James May 18 2008 Quiet Life of an X Assassin The New York Post Retrieved June 20 2018 Rickford 2003 p 489 Marable 2011 pp 474 475 Southall Ashley Bromwich Jonah E November 17 2021 2 Men Convicted of Killing Malcolm X Will Be Exonerated Decades Later The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on December 28 2021 Retrieved November 17 2021 Southall Ashley July 14 2022 Man Exonerated in Malcolm X Murder Sues New York City After Talks Fail The New York Times Retrieved July 15 2022 Perry 1991 p 374 Alex Haley in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X says 22 000 p 519 a b Rickford 2003 p 252 DeCaro 1996 p 291 a b Arnold Martin February 28 1965 Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites The New York Times p 1 Retrieved June 19 2018 DeCaro 1996 p 290 Davis Ossie February 27 1965 Malcolm X s Eulogy The Official Website of Malcolm X Retrieved August 9 2016 Rickford 2003 p 255 Rickford 2003 pp 261 262 a b King Martin Luther Jr February 26 1965 Telegram from Martin Luther King Jr to Betty al Shabazz The Martin Luther King Jr Research and Education Institute Archived from the original on February 1 2016 Retrieved May 28 2018 Evanzz 1992 p 301 Clegg III 1997 p 232 DeCaro 1996 p 285 Rickford 2003 p 247 Malcolm X The New York Times February 22 1965 p 20 Retrieved June 19 2018 Death and Transfiguration Time March 5 1965 Retrieved October 2 2014 a b Rickford 2003 p 248 Evanzz 1992 p 305 Kenworthy E W February 26 1965 Malcolm Called a Martyr Abroad The New York Times p 15 Retrieved June 19 2018 a b How World Saw Malcolm X s Death PDF New York Amsterdam News March 13 1965 Retrieved January 15 2018 Evanzz 1992 p 306 King Martin Luther Jr March 13 1965 The Nightmare of Violence PDF New York Amsterdam News Retrieved January 15 2018 Perry 1991 p 371 Marable 2009 pp 305 306 Perry 1991 p 372 Grant Earl The Last Days of Malcolm X Clarke 1990 p 96 Kondo 1993 pp 7 39 Evanzz 1992 p 294 Rickford 2003 pp 437 492 495 Evanzz 1992 pp 298 299 Friedly 1992 p 253 Kondo 1993 pp 182 183 193 194 Marable 2009 p 305 Rickford 2003 p 492 Wartofsky Alona February 17 1995 Brother Minister The Martyrdom of Malcolm X The Washington Post Retrieved October 2 2014 Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X 60 Minutes CBS News May 14 2000 Retrieved October 2 2014 Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks The Final Call May 15 2000 Retrieved October 2 2014 Natambu 2002 pp 315 316 Release Government Files on Malcolm X Assassination The Boston Globe January 10 2015 Retrieved November 11 2017 Jackman Tom January 25 2019 Kennedy King Malcolm X relatives and scholars seek new assassination probes The Washington Post Retrieved January 26 2019 Simkin John January 2019 Kennedy and King Family Members and Advisors Call for Congress to Reopen Assassination Probes Spartacus Educational Retrieved January 26 2019 Laughland Oliver February 21 2021 Malcolm X family says letter shows NYPD and FBI conspired in his murder The Guardian Archived from the original on February 21 2021 Retrieved February 21 2021 The arrests kept the two men from managing door security at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights on the day of the shooting according to the letter Meminger Dean February 21 2021 Daughter of Former NYPD Officer Says Malcolm X Assassination Letter is Fake NY1 Retrieved February 26 2021 Malcolm X s family plans 100M wrongful death lawsuit against CIA FBI National Globalnews ca globalnews ca Retrieved February 23 2023 Kelley Robin D G 1999 Malcolm X Africana The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience New York Basic Civitas Books p 1233 Terrill 2004 pp 15 16 X Malcolm God s Judgement of White America www malcolm x org Archived from the original on April 8 2016 Retrieved April 2 2016 a b Lomax 1963 pp 80 81 Terrill 2004 p 184 Lomax 1963 p 91 Malcolm X amp Perry 1989 p 104 Lomax 1963 p 67 Lomax 1963 p 171 Lomax 1963 pp 24 137 138 Malcolm X 1991 p 119 DeCaro 1996 pp 166 167 Lomax 1963 p 80 Malcolm X amp Perry 1989 p 46 Lincoln 1961 p 95 Lincoln 1961 p 96 Malcolm X The Negro s Fight The Egyptian Gazette August 25 1964 Reprinted as Racism The Canver That Is Destroying America in Clarke 1990 pp 302 306 Malcolm X 1990 pp 33 35 Malcolm X amp Breitman 1989 pp 43 47 Malcolm X 1990 p 90 Malcolm X 1990 p 117 a b Cone 1991 p 284 Perry 1991 p 277 Malcolm X 1990 pp 38 41 Malcolm X 1990 pp 212 213 Malcolm X 1992 p 391 Parks Gordon Malcolm X The Minutes of Our Last Meeting Clarke 1990 p 122 Manning Marable s Reinvention of Malcolm X All Things Considered NPR April 5 2011 Retrieved November 18 2021 Phelps Christopher August 2017 The Sexuality of Malcolm X Journal of American Studies Cambridge University 51 3 659 690 doi 10 1017 S0021875816001341 S2CID 147843832 Malcolm X s Daughter Disputes Claims in New Bio on Father Tell Me More NPR April 20 2011 Retrieved November 18 2021 Asante Molefi Kete 2002 100 Greatest African Americans A Biographical Encyclopedia Amherst New York Prometheus Books p 333 ISBN 978 1 57392 963 9 Marable Manning Frazier Nishani McMillian John Campbell 2003 Freedom on My Mind The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience New York Columbia University Press p 251 ISBN 978 0 231 10890 4 Salley Columbus 1999 The Black 100 A Ranking of the Most Influential African Americans Past and Present New York Citadel Press p 88 ISBN 978 0 8065 2048 3 Cone 1991 pp 291 292 Nasr Seyyed Hossein 2002 The Heart of Islam Enduring Values for Humanity New York HarperCollins p 97 ISBN 978 0 06 073064 2 Perry 1991 p 379 Turner Richard Brent 2004 Islam in the African American Experience In Bobo Jacqueline Hudley Cynthia Michel Claudine eds The Black Studies Reader New York Routledge p 445 ISBN 978 0 415 94554 7 Perry 1991 p 380 Sales 1994 p 187 Woodard Komozi 1999 A Nation Within a Nation Amiri Baraka LeRoi Jones amp Black Power Politics Chapel Hill North Carolina University of North Carolina Press p 62 ISBN 978 0 8078 4761 9 Cone 1991 p 291 Haley Epilogue Autobiography p 471 Perry 1991 p 375 Sales 1994 p 5 Marable 2009 pp 301 302 Sales 1994 p 3 Millere Mauricelm Lei 2021 Malcolm X and The Organization of Afro American Unity African American Defense League A2DL OAAU online Kindle Books p 5 ASIN B097YR2SBH Sales 1994 p 4 Gray Paul June 8 1998 Required Reading Nonfiction Books Time Retrieved March 28 2016 Young Paul March 30 2014 Real Life Inspirations Behind Some of the Best Comic Book Villains Screen Rant Hanks Henry June 3 2011 The secret to X Men s success CNN Darowski Joseph J The Ages of the X Men Essays on the Children of the Atom in Changing Times p 71 Eells Josh February 18 2018 The Black Panther Revolution Rolling Stone Archived from the original on February 25 2018 Retrieved March 2 2018 Ramos Dino Ray N Duka Amanda January 9 2019 New Hollywood Podcast Michael B Jordan Talks How Black Panther Shifted Hollywood s Idea Of Representation Deadline Hollywood Retrieved October 2 2019 McMorris Robert March 11 1989 Empty Lot Holds Dreams for Rowena Moore Omaha World Herald Retrieved October 2 2014 National Register of Historic Places Nebraska Douglas County National Register of Historic Places Retrieved October 2 2014 NRHP Malcolm X House Site Nebraska State Historical Society Retrieved June 20 2018 Nebraska Historical Marker Malcolm X Nebraska State Historical Society Archived from the original on October 28 2019 Retrieved June 20 2018 Malcolm X Homesite Michigan Historical Markers Archived from the original on August 5 2020 Retrieved June 20 2018 Yancey Patty 2000 We Hold on to Our Kids We Hold on Tight Tandem Charters in Michigan In Fuller Bruce ed Inside Charter Schools The Paradox of Radical Decentralization Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press p 67 ISBN 978 0 674 00325 5 Gay Kathlyn 2007 African American Holidays Festivals and Celebrations Detroit Omnigraphics p 284 ISBN 978 0 7808 0779 2 Thaai Walker May 20 2005 Berkeley Honors Controversial Civil Rights Figure San Jose Mercury News Rickford 2003 p 443 Rickford 2003 p 419 Barron James January 18 2009 Not Much of a Block but It s Named for a King The New York Times Archived from the original on January 22 2009 Retrieved June 19 2018 El Shabazz Playground NYC Parks New York City Department of Parks and Recreation Retrieved February 21 2020 DeCosta Klipa Nik September 19 2019 Boston residents will get to vote on changing the name of Dudley Square Here s why Boston com Retrieved October 4 2019 Scoville Jen December 1997 The Big Beat Texas Monthly Archived from the original on December 29 2004 Retrieved October 2 2014 Vela Susan September 14 2010 Malcolm X Cesar Chavez Get Nods for Lansing Street Plaza Names Lansing State Journal a b Harvey Benjamin October 14 2018 Turkey Names Street Leading to U S Embassy Malcolm X Road Bloomberg com Bloomberg News Retrieved October 23 2018 a b Kent Lauren October 15 2018 Turkey renames street of new US Embassy to Malcolm X Avenue CNN Retrieved October 23 2018 Calik Burcu October 13 2018 Turkey New US Embassy street to be named Malcolm X Anadolu Agency Retrieved October 23 2018 Lee Felicia R May 15 1993 Newark Students Both Good and Bad Make Do The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Hunt Lori Bona February 26 1991 Malcolm X s Widow Sees Signs of Hope Milwaukee Journal Witkowsky Kathy Spring 2000 A Day in the Life National CrossTalk Retrieved October 2 2014 Home Shabazz Public School Academy Retrieved February 27 2023 Belvin Brent October 6 2004 Master s Thesis Malcolm X Liberation University An Experiment in Independent Black Education Thesis North Carolina State University Retrieved October 2 2014 Flynn Pat January 7 1996 Big Crowd Welcomes New Library Warmly The San Diego Union Tribune Marable 2009 pp 303 304 Malcolm X and Dr Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center Launches Columbia University May 17 2005 Retrieved October 2 2014 Marable 2011 p 564 Hendrick Bill September 2 1999 A Revelation in Letters Educated Tender Malcolm X The Atlanta Journal Constitution ProQuest 413815431 Eakin Emily January 8 2003 Malcolm X Trove to Schomburg Center The New York Times Archived from the original on May 25 2013 Retrieved June 19 2018 New MPACS Scholarship Honours Malcolm X s Legacy University of Waterloo June 28 2021 Retrieved February 24 2022 Peace Incubator participant helps establish new Malcolm X PACS Scholarship University of Waterloo June 28 2021 Retrieved February 24 2022 Canby Vincent November 18 1992 Malcolm X as Complex as Its Subject The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Anderson Jeffrey M The Best Films of the 1990s Combustible Celluloid Archived from the original on January 24 2001 Retrieved November 11 2017 Rich Frank July 15 1981 The Stage Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Canby Vincent May 21 1977 Ali s Latest Victory Is The Greatest The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 O Connor John J February 9 1978 TV 6 Hour King Drama of Civil Rights Drive The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Goodman Walter May 3 1989 An Imaginary Meeting of Dr King and Malcolm X The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Maslin Janet February 25 1979 TV End of Roots II Delineates 60 s The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 The Deification of Morgan Freeman An Incomplete Filmography The New York Times August 28 2011 Retrieved June 19 2018 Henahan Donal September 29 1986 Opera Anthony Davis s X The Life and Times of Malcolm X The New York Times Retrieved June 19 2018 Romano Frederick V 2004 The Boxing Filmography American Features 1920 2003 Jefferson North Carolina McFarland amp Company pp 138 139 ISBN 978 0 7864 1793 3 Gallo Phil August 30 2000 Review Ali An American Hero Variety Retrieved June 9 2016 Mitchell Elvis December 25 2001 Master of the Boast King of the Ring Vision of the Future The New York Times Archived from the original on April 24 2009 Retrieved June 19 2018 Lowry Brian January 30 2013 Review Betty amp Coretta Variety Retrieved June 9 2016 Verini Bob August 5 2013 L A Legit Review One Night in Miami Archived from the original on June 28 2017 Retrieved March 18 2012 Scott A O December 24 2014 A 50 Mile March Nearly 50 Years Later The New York Times Archived from the original on December 24 2014 Retrieved June 19 2018 Petski Denise September 21 2018 Godfather Of Harlem Nigel Thatch To Star As Malcolm X In Epix Drama Series Deadline Retrieved December 18 2019 Fleming Mike Jr January 7 2020 Regina King Directing Debut One Night In Miami Underway With Kingsley Ben Adir Eli Goree Aldis Hodge amp Leslie Odom Jr As 60s Icons Deadline Hollywood Retrieved January 7 2020 Works cited Ali Muhammad 2004 The Soul of a Butterfly Reflections on Life s Journey with Hana Yasmeen Ali New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 7432 5569 1 Assensoh A B Alex Assensoh Yvette M 2016 Malcolm X and Africa Amherst New York Cambria Press ISBN 978 1 60497 924 4 Ball Jared A Burroughs Todd Steven eds 2012 A Lie of Reinvention Correcting Manning Marable s Malcolm X Baltimore Black Classic Press ISBN 978 1 57478 049 9 Barboza Steven 1994 American Jihad Islam After Malcolm X New York Image Books ISBN 978 0 385 47694 2 Boyd Herb Daniels Ron Karenga Maulana Madhubuti Haki R eds 2012 By Any Means Necessary Malcolm X Real Not Reinvented Chicago Third World Press ISBN 978 0 88378 336 8 Branch Taylor 1998 Pillar of Fire America in the King Years 1963 65 New York Simon amp Schuster ISBN 978 0 684 80819 2 Carson Clayborne 1991 Malcolm X The FBI File New York Carroll amp Graf ISBN 978 0 88184 758 1 Clarke John Henrik ed 1990 1969 Malcolm X The Man and His Times Trenton New Jersey Africa World Press ISBN 978 0 86543 201 7 Clegg III Claude Andrew 1997 An Original Man The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad New York St Martin s Griffin ISBN 978 0 312 18153 6 Coates Ta Nehisi April 11 2011 The Sexuality of Malcolm X The Atlantic Retrieved September 7 2017 Cone James H 1991 Martin amp Malcolm amp America A Dream or a Nightmare Maryknoll New York Orbis Books ISBN 978 0 88344 721 5 DeCaro Louis A 1996 On the Side of My People A Religious Life of Malcolm X New York New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 1864 3 Evanzz Karl 1992 The Judas Factor The Plot to Kill Malcolm X New York Thunder s Mouth Press ISBN 978 1 56025 049 4 Friedly Michael 1992 Malcolm X The Assassination New York One World ISBN 978 0 345 40010 9 Karim Benjamin 1992 Remembering Malcolm with Peter Skutches and David Gallen New York Carroll amp Graf ISBN 978 0 88184 881 6 Kihss Peter February 22 1965 Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here The New York Times p 1 Retrieved June 19 2018 Kondo Zak A 1993 Conspiracys Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X Washington D C Nubia Press OCLC 28837295 Lincoln C Eric 1961 The Black Muslims in America Boston Beacon Press OCLC 422580 Lomax Louis E 1963 When the Word Is Given A Report on Elijah Muhammad Malcolm X and the Black Muslim World Cleveland World Publishing OCLC 1071204 Lomax Louis E 1987 1968 To Kill a Black Man The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr Los Angeles Holloway House ISBN 978 0 87067 731 1 Lord Lewis Thornton Jeannye Bodipo Memba Alejandro November 15 1992 The Legacy of Malcolm X U S News amp World Report p 5 Archived from the original on January 14 2012 Retrieved March 20 2018 Malcolm X Haley Alex 1992 1965 The Autobiography of Malcolm X New York One World ISBN 978 0 345 37671 8 Citations in this article refer to this edition of the many that have been published Malcolm X 1989 1970 Breitman George ed By Any Means Necessary Speeches Interviews and a Letter by Malcolm X New York Pathfinder Press ISBN 978 0 87348 150 2 Malcolm X 1989 1971 Karim Benjamin ed The End of White World Supremacy Four Speeches by Malcolm X New York Arcade ISBN 978 1 55970 006 1 Malcolm X 1989 Perry Bruce ed The Last Speeches New York Pathfinder Press ISBN 978 0 87348 543 2 Malcolm X 1990 1965 Malcolm X Speaks Selected Speeches and Statements George Breitman ed New York Grove Weidenfeld ISBN 978 0 8021 3213 0 Malcolm X 1991 1968 The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard Archie Epps ed New York Paragon House ISBN 978 1 55778 479 7 Marable Manning 2011 Malcolm X A Life of Reinvention New York Viking ISBN 978 0 670 02220 5 Marable Manning 2009 Rediscovering Malcolm s Life A Historian s Adventures in Living History In Marable Manning Aidi Hishaam D eds Black Routes to Islam New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 4039 8400 5 Marable Manning Felber Garrett January 16 2013 The Portable Malcolm X Reader A Man Who Stands for Nothing Will Fall for Anything Penguin ISBN 978 1 101 60294 2 Marsh Clifton E 2000 1996 The Lost Found Nation of Islam in America Lanham Maryland Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 1 57886 008 1 Moore R Laurence 1987 Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 536399 9 Natambu Kofi 2002 The Life and Work of Malcolm X Indianapolis Alpha Books ISBN 978 0 02 864218 5 Norwood Stephen H 2013 Antisemitism and the American Far Left Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 03601 7 Norwood Stephen H Pollack Eunice G 2020 White Devils Satanic Jews The Nation of Islam From Fard to Farrakhan Modern Judaism A Journal of Jewish Ideas and Experience 40 2 137 168 doi 10 1093 mj kjaa006 via Oxford University Press Perry Bruce 1991 Malcolm The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America Barrytown New York Station Hill ISBN 978 0 88268 103 0 Pollack Eunice G 2013 Racializing Antisemitism Black Militants Jews and Israel 1950 present PDF Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism Henrew University of Israel Pollack Eunice G 2022 Black Antisemitism in America Past and Present PDF Institute for National Security Studies Retrieved January 21 2023 Rickford Russell J 2003 Betty Shabazz A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X Naperville Illinois Sourcebooks ISBN 978 1 4022 0171 4 Sales William W 1994 From Civil Rights to Black Liberation Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro American Unity Boston South End Press ISBN 978 0 89608 480 3 Terrill Robert 2004 Malcolm X Inventing Radical Judgment Lansing Michigan Michigan State University Press ISBN 978 0 87013 730 3 Tuck Stephen 2014 The Night Malcolm X Spoke at the Oxford Union A Transatlantic Story of Antiracist Protest Los Angeles University of California Press ISBN 9780520279339 Further readingAbernethy Graeme 2013 The Iconography of Malcolm X Lawrence Kansas University Press of Kansas ISBN 978 0 7006 1920 7 Baldwin James 2007 1973 One Day When I Was Lost A Scenario Based on Alex Haley s The Autobiography of Malcolm X New York Vintage ISBN 978 0 307 27594 3 Bailey A Peter 2013 Witnessing Brother Malcolm X The Master Teacher Plantation Florida Llumina Press ISBN 978 1 62550 039 7 Breitman George 1967 The Last Year of Malcolm X The Evolution of a Revolutionary New York Pathfinder Press ISBN 978 0 87348 004 8 Breitman George Porter Herman Smith Baxter 1991 1976 The Assassination of Malcolm X New York Pathfinder Press ISBN 978 0 87348 632 3 Cleage Albert B Breitman George 1968 Myths About Malcolm X Two Views New York Merit OCLC 615819 Collins Rodnell P with A Peter Bailey 1998 Seventh Child A Family Memoir of Malcolm X Secaucus New Jersey Birch Lane Press ISBN 978 1 55972 491 3 Conyers James L Jr Smallwood Andrew P eds 2008 Malcolm X A Historical Reader Durham North Carolina Carolina Academic Press ISBN 978 0 89089 228 2 DeCaro Louis A 1998 Malcolm and the Cross The Nation of Islam Malcolm X and Christianity New York New York University Press ISBN 978 0 8147 1932 9 Dyson Michael Eric 1995 Making Malcolm The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 509235 6 Gallen David ed 1992 Malcolm X As They Knew Him New York Carroll amp Graf ISBN 978 0 88184 850 2 Goldman Peter 1979 The Death and Life of Malcolm X 2nd ed Urbana Illinois University of Illinois Press ISBN 978 0 252 00774 3 Jamal Hakim A 1972 From The Dead Level Malcolm X and Me New York Random House ISBN 978 0 394 46234 9 Jenkins Robert L 2002 The Malcolm X Encyclopedia Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 29264 4 Kly Yussuf Naim ed 1986 The Black Book The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X El Hajj Malik El Shabazz Atlanta Clarity Press ISBN 978 0 932863 03 4 Leader Edward Roland 1993 Understanding Malcolm X The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy New York Vantage Press ISBN 978 0 533 09520 9 Lee Spike with Ralph Wiley 1992 By Any Means Necessary The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm X New York Hyperion ISBN 978 1 56282 913 1 Marable Manning Felber Garrett eds 2013 The Portable Malcolm X Reader New York Penguin ISBN 978 0 14 310694 4 Payne Les Payne Tamara 2020 The Dead Are Arising The Life of Malcolm X New York Liveright ISBN 978 1 63149 166 5 Roberts Randy Smith Johnny 2016 Blood Brothers The Fatal Friendship Between Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X New York Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 07970 4 Shabazz Ilyasah with Kim McLarin 2002 Growing Up X A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X New York One World ISBN 978 0 345 44495 0 Sherwood Marika 2011 Malcolm X Visits Abroad Hollywood California Tsehai Publishers ISBN 978 1 59907 050 6 Strickland William et al 1994 Malcolm X Make It Plain New York Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 017713 8 Terrill Robert ed 2010 The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 73157 7 T Shaka Oba 1983 The Political Legacy of Malcolm X Richmond California Pan Afrikan Publications ISBN 978 1 878557 01 8 Waldschmidt Nelson Britta 2012 Dreams and Nightmares Martin Luther King Jr Malcolm X and the Struggle for Black Equality Gainesville Florida University Press of Florida ISBN 978 0 8130 3723 3 Wolfenstein Eugene Victor 1989 The Victims of Democracy Malcolm X and the Black Revolution London Free Association Books ISBN 978 1 85343 111 1 Wood Joe ed 1992 Malcolm X In Our Image New York St Martin s Press ISBN 978 0 312 06609 3 External linksOfficial website of the Estate of Malcolm X The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University Malcolm website on the life and legacy of Malcolm X Malcolm Little Malcolm X file at Federal Bureau of Investigation Malcolm X at IMDb Portals United States Biography Civil rights movement Islam Politics Malcolm X at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Malcolm X amp oldid 1143780707, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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