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Nation of Islam

March 06, 2023

Not to be confused with Islamic state or Islamic State.
For the pan-Islamic concept of the Muslim nation, see Ummah.

The Nation of Islam (NOI) is a religious and political organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930. A black nationalist organization, the NOI focuses its attention on the African diaspora, especially on African Americans. While it identifies itself as promoting a form of Islam, its beliefs differ considerably from mainstream Islamic traditions. Scholars of religion characterize it as a new religious movement. It operates as a centralized and hierarchical organization.

Nation of Islam
AbbreviationNOI
FormationJuly 4, 1930; 92 years ago (1930-07-04)
FounderWallace Fard Muhammad
Founded atDetroit, Michigan, U.S.
TypePolitical and religious movement
Legal statusActive
HeadquartersMosque Maryam, Chicago, Illinois
Location
  • United States
Membership (2007 estimate)
c. 50,000[1]
Official language
English
Leader
Louis Farrakhan
Key people
Subsidiaries
Websitewww.noi.org

The Nation teaches that there has been a succession of mortal gods, each a black man named Allah, of whom Fard Muhammad is the most recent. It claims that the first Allah created the earliest humans, the Arabic-speaking, dark-skinned Tribe of Shabazz, whose members possessed inner divinity and from whom all people of color are descended. It maintains that a scientist named Yakub then created the white race. The whites lacked inner divinity, and were intrinsically violent; they overthrew the Tribe of Shabazz and achieved global dominance. Setting itself against the white-dominated society of the United States, the NOI campaigns for the creation of an independent African American nation-state, and calls for African Americans to be economically self-sufficient and separatist. A millenarian tradition, it maintains that Fard Muhammad will soon return aboard a spaceship, the "Mother Plane" or "Mother Ship," to wipe out the white race and establish a utopia. Members worship in buildings called mosques or temples. Practitioners are expected to live disciplined lives, adhering to strict dress codes, specific dietary requirements, and patriarchal gender roles.

Wallace Fard Muhammad established the Nation of Islam in Detroit. He drew on various sources, including Noble Drew Ali's Moorish Science Temple of America, black nationalist trends like Garveyism, and black-oriented forms of Freemasonry. After Fard Muhammad disappeared in 1934, the leadership of the NOI was assumed by Elijah Muhammad. He expanded the NOI's teachings and declared Fard Muhammad to be the latest Allah. Attracting growing attention in the late 1950s and 1960s, the NOI's influence expanded through high-profile members such as the black nationalist activist Malcolm X and the boxer Muhammad Ali. Deeming it a threat to domestic security, the Federal Bureau of Investigation worked to undermine the group. Following Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, his son Warith Deen Mohammed took over the organization, moving it towards Sunni Islam and renaming it the World Community of Islam in the West. Members seeking to retain Elijah Muhammad's teachings re-established the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan's leadership in 1977. Farrakhan has continued to develop the NOI's beliefs, for instance by drawing connections with Dianetics, and expanding its economic and agricultural operations.

Based in the United States, the Nation of Islam has also established a presence abroad, with membership open only to people of color. In 2007, it was estimated to have 50,000 members. The Nation has proven to be particularly successful at converting prisoners. The Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League have accused it of being a black supremacist hate group that promotes racial prejudice towards white people, anti-semitism, and anti-LGBT rhetoric. Muslim critics accuse it of promoting teachings that are not authentically Islamic.

Definition

 
The flag of the Nation of Islam is a white crescent moon and star on a red background.[2] The group calls this flag, which is based on that of Turkey, "the national".[3]

The Nation of Islam is a new religious movement,[4][5] an "ethno-religious movement",[6] and a social movement.[7] Scholars of religion have also classified it as resembling UFO religions,[8] with UFOs featuring in its ideas about the forthcoming end of the world.[9] Although employing the same name, the Nation of Islam has represented two distinct organizations: the first was established by Wallace Fard Muhammad in the 1930s and lasted until 1975, and the second then created by Louis Farrakhan in the late 1970s.[10]

The Nation draws heavily on both Christianity and Islam, although it interprets the Bible and Quran differently from Christians or mainstream Muslims.[11] A black nationalist religion[12] and an African American religion,[13] it seeks to reclaim what it regards as the historic Islamic identity of African Americans.[14] Its members have been called "Black Muslims,"[15] and its second leader, Elijah Muhammad, stated that "Islam is the natural religion of the Black Nation."[16] Islamic elements in its practices include the use of the Arabic language, prayers five times a day, and the adoption of a flag based on that of Islamic-majority Turkey.[3] A Muslim identity appealed to the NOI as it offered an alternative to mainstream, Christian-dominated American culture.[17] The Nation denigrates Christianity,[14] regarding it as a tool of white supremacy,[18] and claims that it lacks the rational and scientific basis of its own teachings.[19]

The religion promoted by the Nation has been described as "Fardian Islam,"[20] "nontraditional Islam,"[21] and "quasi-Islamic".[22] The Nation sees itself as part of the Islamic world,[3] although it has little in common with mainstream forms of Islam.[23] Herbert Berg commented that it had only a "superficial relationship to other Islams" such as the Sunni, Shi'ite and Sufi traditions,[24] while Jason Eric Fishman and Ana Belén Soage observed that although the Nation uses many standard Islamic terms, it gives them "profoundly different meanings" to those understood by most Muslims.[25] The Nation's views differ from the Five Pillars, which are typically seen as central to Islamic belief and practice;[26] its claims that Allah (God) takes anthropomorphic form and that there is no afterlife differ fundamentally from standard Islam.[27] Unlike most forms of Islam, the NOI does not teach that the 6th/7th century Arabian religious leader Muhammad was the final nor the most important messenger of God,[28] instead treating its first two leaders, Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad, as being more important.[28] From mainstream Islamic perspectives, its teachings are heretical,[29] with its theology being shirk (blasphemy).[30] Mainstream Muslims view it as "a religious movement which has selectively adopted some Islamic beliefs and concepts," but which is not "truly Islamic."[31]

The Nation is a highly centralized, hierarchical movement,[32] and has been described as authoritarian.[33] Unlike practitioners of Rastafari, a contemporary of the NOI which shares many of its key concerns, members of the Nation do not exhibit considerable variation in their approach to the religion, displaying a high degree of uniformity and conformity among followers.[34] However, there is no specific holy text produced by the NOI,[35] and its teachings have not remained static, but have changed throughout its history.[36] Over the course of its history it has for instance adopted additional elements from mainstream Islam,[3] and Farrakhan's second Nation also bears some distinct differences from its predecessor.[10]

Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam

Theology

God is a man and we just cannot make Him other than a man, lest we make Him an inferior one; for man's intelligence has no equal in other than man. His wisdom is infinite; capable of accomplishing anything that His brain can conceive.

Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Black Man, 1965[37]

The sociologist of religion David V. Barrett noted that the Nation's theology is "very distinct" and "extremely detailed."[38] The Nation provides conflicting statements about its theology; although it professes commitment to the monotheistic idea of a single God, its discourse refers to multiple gods,[39] meaning that it can be interpreted as polytheistic.[25] These gods are described as being anthropomorphic, taking human form.[40]

The NOI teaches that history can be divided into distinct cycles, each ruled by a new god who takes over from his predecessor.[41] The Nation teaches that none of these gods are immortal, but all die,[42] at which a new god will take their place.[43] A central tenet of its theology is the portrayal of Allah as a black man,[44] and Nation members believe that this was the form that the first god consciously took.[45] Each god has different abilities and degrees of power.[40] The Nation regards its founder, Fard Muhammad, as the latest of these gods,[46] or "God in person".[40] They believe that he is the first god to have the same powers as the inaugural god, namely the ability to return the universe to its primordial darkness and then recreate it,[46] for he has developed the divine capacity innate to black people to the maximum degree.[43] It teaches that although this founder disappeared in 1934, he had secretly moved to Mecca and would live for another 409 years.[25] For the Nation, he takes on the traditional roles of God, the Mahdi, and the Messiah.[47]

The Nation promotes the idea that "God is man and man is God, that God has a presence inside human individuals."[48] It teaches that the black race, in its natural state, is divine;[49] collectively, the black race is God,[50] or a "nation of Gods".[40] Elijah Muhammad said that "all Muslims are Allahs."[51] According to its teachings, "knowledge of self" is key for black people to realize their inner divinity.[52] The NOI thus teaches that by following its teachings, one can recognize one's inner Godliness.[53]

Fishman and Soage highlighted that the Nation's "core theological principles are completely divorced from the traditional Islamic faith."[54] The Nation's theology differs from the mainstream Islamic belief in a fundamental ontological divide between humanity and God;[49] in mainstream Islam, Allah is always portrayed as eternal and non-anthropomorphic, which is at odds with the theology of the NOI.[40] Also conflicting with mainstream Islam is the NOI's claim that there is no afterlife;[55] Elijah Muhammad wrote that "when you are dead, you are DEAD."[56] He taught that there is no spiritual realm, with the material universe being all that exists,[57] although he also stated that humans could develop parapsychological powers and that he personally had telepathic abilities.[58]

Cosmogony and the Tribe of Shabazz

The Nation teaches that in the beginning there was nothing but darkness. Then, 76 trillion years ago, the first god willed himself into being, taking 6 million years to form into his desired appearance; that of a black man.[45] In this account, this god chose his skin color in reference to the blackness from which he had emerged.[45] According to the Nation, the first god then created the Sun and the planets.[45] As his helpers, he created more black men and took his place on a council of 24 imams; 12 greater and 12 lesser.[59] Each of these imams takes a turn being god for one cycle each.[41] 15,000 years ago, these ancient scientists—who had knowledge of the future—wrote their knowledge down in a text, the Mother Book. Parts of this, the NOI claims, have been given to humanity as the Torah, Gospels, and Quran.[46]

 
Young male members of the Nation of Islam in San Francisco, California in 1994

The Nation holds that the moon was created when one of the scientists tried to destroy the Earth with explosives, resulting in a chunk of the Earth's mass being forced into orbit.[60] The Nation also alleges that Asia and Africa were once a single continent.[61] In endorsing a form of creationism, the Nation rejects evolution and believes that the existence of dinosaurs is a hoax perpetrated by members of the white race.[62] The NOI promotes numerology, the belief that numbers possess hidden meanings;[63] it believes that the number 19 is key to decoding scriptures such as the Quran,[64] and takes the view that it is meaningful that the names of both Elijah Muhammad and Louis Farrakhan have 14 letters in them.[65]

The Nation teaches that the first humans were the "Original" or "Asiatic" race, whom it describes as members of the Tribe of Shabazz.[66] It claims that this Tribe inhabited Egypt's Nile Valley as well as the area around Mecca in the Arabian peninsula;[67] Elijah Muhammad claimed that Mecca was the Tribe's original home and "the ONLY HOLY SPOT on our planet".[68] He claimed that the Tribe were Muslim and that their language was Arabic.[69] In the Nation's discourse, these early humans are labelled "black",[48] described as having dark skin as well as smooth, straight hair, closely resembling dark-complexioned Arabians or South Asians rather than Sub-Saharan Africans.[68] Elijah Muhammad claimed that some of this Original Race were later given Afro-textured hair to assist their lives in the "jungles of East Asia", by which he meant Africa.[70]

The NOI's conception of race differs from that of most Americans.[68] For the Nation, everyone not of West European genetic origin is a descendant of the Original Asiatic Race.[71] In the group's discourse, "black" does not simply mean those of Sub-Saharan African genetic descent, but all people of color, including Asians, North Africans, and Native Americans; only light-skinned people of West European descent are excluded.[72] Elijah Muhammad for instance referred to "black, brown, yellow [and] red" people as collectively constituting "black mankind", which he then juxtaposed against the "white race".[68] He considered some East Europeans, such as Albanians, to be descendants of the Original Asiatic Race.[73] The Nation teaches that all descendants of the Original Race were Muslims by their intrinsic nature, but that many created heretical deviations such as Hinduism;[74] some of those who broke Islamic rules were exiled from Asia-Africa to North America, where they became the continent's native population.[75]

The myth of Yakub and the white race

 
Nation of Islam members at Speakers' Corner in Hyde Park, London, March 1999.

The NOI promotes a story called the myth of Yakub,[17] which received its fullest exposition in Elijah Muhammad's 1965 book Message to the Blackman.[70] Yakub is presented as a black scientist who was a child prodigy; by the age of 18 he had learned everything that Mecca's universities had to teach him.[76] He attracted a following but caused trouble, leading the Meccan authorities to exile him and his 6000 followers to Pelan, the Mediterranean island of Patmos.[76]

There, the NOI claims, Yakub engaged in a selective breeding program to create the white race. This entailed breeding new children, with those who were too dark being killed at birth and their bodies being fed to wild animals or incinerated. Over two centuries, Yakub's experiments created a group of blonde, light-skinned people, the white race.[77] The myth of Yakub presents the white race as being degenerate,[28] sub-human,[78] and bereft of divinity.[79] Because of this, the NOI teaches that white people are intrinsically prone to lying, violence, and brutality.[80] Elijah Muhammad repeatedly referred to the white man as the devil.[81] The NOI’s ideas regarding white people have been labelled both racist[82] and racialist.[9]

According to the Nation's teachings, Yakub's newly created white race sowed discord among the black race, and thus were exiled to live in the caves of Europe.[83] In this narrative, it was in Europe that the white race engaged in bestiality and degenerated, resulting in the emergence of apes and monkeys.[84] Aware of their role in the future, Allah sent Moses to teach the white race to cook and wear clothes.[84] According to the Nation, Jesus of Nazareth was also sent to try and civilise the white race;[85] Farrakhan's NOI has taught that Jesus was not the Messiah, as Christians believe, but that he instead pointed to the later coming of the true messiah, Elijah Muhammad.[86] They reject the Christian belief that Jesus was God, that he was the product of a virgin birth, or that he was crucified and resurrected.[87]

God say you're the real devil. And you damn sure are. Ain't another devil nowhere else. Ain't no use you get mad with me, white people. You are the devil. The only hell-raiser on the earth. I'm not sayin' that you are responsible, 'cause you are made devil. But I'm not gonna make a mistake in thinkin' that you can be made better through love.

Louis Farrakhan’s views on white people being the devil [88]

In the Nation's teachings, Allah permitted the white race to rule the Earth for 6000 years, a period that is almost at an end.[89] The NOI teaches that the white race spread out from Europe and began to dominate the world.[84] It conquered and enslaved the Tribe of Shabazz, shipping many of them to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[90] It claims that most of these enslaved blacks forgot their true names, their Arabic language, and their Muslim identity, instead embracing Christianity, the religion of the white oppressor.[90] In this enslaved state, the black people lost their morality, engaging in sinful behaviour such as fornication and drinking alcohol.[90] The Nation teaches that Allah allowed all this to happen so that the black race would realise humanity's inner potential for evil and discover how to defeat it, thus enabling them to realize their divine capacity and become Gods.[91]

The subjugation of African Americans is thus seen as part of an ancient white conspiracy.[78] According to the NOI, most whites are unaware of their true origins, but that senior Freemasons have this knowledge.[92] It interprets opposition to the Nation from the U.S. government and white society as evidence of this.[93] The United States is equated with the city of Babylon as presented in the Bible.[94] According to the Nation, 1914 marked the end of the 6000 years of white rule.[95]

The Nation interprets many of the problems facing the African American community in this light, for instance, Farrakhan has claimed that the white establishment has encouraged a black gang culture to provide an excuse for the police killing of black youths,[96] and that they are also responsible for flooding black-majority urban areas with drugs.[97] Both Farrakhan and senior NOI spokesperson Abdul Alim Muhammad have claimed that the white establishment created the AIDS virus to exterminate black people.[98] The Nation is openly critical of U.S. aggression towards countries with non-white majorities, especially when those countries also have Muslim majorities.[99] In keeping with its anti-Western ethos, it has also adopted a consistently anti-Israel position,[100] being both anti-Zionist and anti-imperialist.[101]

Christianity is seen as "white man's religion."[102] It is regarded as having perpetuated white domination and furthered the oppression of the African diaspora in the Americas;[103] it is also associated with slavery and colonialism in the Nation of Islam's discourse.[104] The religion is treated with suspicion out of the belief that the oppressed (African Americans) and the oppressors (European Americans) cannot share the same God.[105]

During the time when Malcolm X was a member and leader of the Nation of Islam, he preached that black people were genetically superior to white people but were dominated by a system of white supremacy:

Thoughtful white people know they are inferior to Black people. Even [Senator James] Eastland knows it. Anyone who has studied the genetic phase of biology knows that white is considered recessive and black is considered dominant. The entire American economy is based on white supremacy. Even the religious philosophies, in essence, white supremacy. A white Jesus. A white Virgin. White angels. White everything. But a black Devil, of course. The "Uncle Sam" political foundation is based on white supremacy, relegating nonwhites to second-class citizenship. It goes without saying that the social philosophy is strictly white supremacist. And the educational system perpetuates white supremacy.[106]

Eschatology and the Mother Plane

The NOI is millenarian,[107] believing that humanity is living in end times.[108] It propounds a distinct eschatology drawing on the Book of Revelation.[78] Central to its view of the apocalypse is a large spaceship, known as the Wheel, the Mother Plane, or the Mother Ship.[109] Members usually refer to it with female pronouns.[110] Elijah Muhammad described this as "a small human planet,"[20] claiming that it is half a mile by half a mile in diameter.[111] The Nation teaches that this vessel is the Merkabah that appears in the Book of Ezekiel (1: 4–28).[112] It teaches that Allah and many of his scientists live in a magnificent city on the Mother Plane, from which they monitor humanity;[113] Farrakhan has claimed that Elijah Muhammad never died but is resident aboard this ship.[114] The Nation teaches that there are also smaller vessels, "baby planes," docked inside the Mother Ship and that these travel to visit Earth.[115]

The Nation teaches that a period of deteriorating inter-racial tensions will culminate in the apocalypse.[116] NOI members have repeatedly claimed that this apocalypse is imminent; Farrakhan for instance predicted that the Gulf War of 1990 would spark it,[117] while Tynetta Muhammad predicted it would occur in 2001.[64] According to Nation teaching, the Mother Plane will appear above the Earth and transport the righteous to live upon it.[118] It will then use the baby planes to place bombs beneath the Earth's surface, which will explode and wipe out the old, white-dominated order.[119] The Earth's atmosphere will then burn for 390 years and spend another 610 cooling down.[118]

Once the Earth has returned to a habitable state, Allah will return the righteous to live there, in a new black paradise.[120] In his book The Supreme Wisdom, Elijah Muhammad claimed that after the apocalypse, "Peace, joy and happiness will have no end."[121] Those living in this perfect society will eat the finest food and wear clothes of silk interwoven with gold.[20] The NOI has taught that the white ruling elite are aware of this forthcoming apocalypse and that the U.S. exploration of space and the Strategic Defense Initiative are futile attempts to protect themselves against the Mother Plane.[122]

Black nationalism and separatism

Ideologically, the NOI is black nationalist,[123] and has sometimes been perceived as a Black Power political organization.[124] Scholar of religion Mattias Gardell commented that the idea of black unity is "at the very core of the NOI ideology."[125] It seeks to empower black people by giving them a positive self-identity,[126] purging ideas of white superiority, and black inferiority, from its followers.[126] In the Nation's view, black liberation requires a religious dimension.[105] It regards African Americans, or black people more broadly, as the Chosen People,[127] espousing a cosmology in which the black race is superior and the white race inferior.[128]

We want our people in America whose parents or grandparents are descendants from slaves to be allowed to establish a separate state or territory of their own, either on this continent or elsewhere. We believe that our former slave masters are obligated to provide such land and that the area must be fertile and minerally rich.

Elijah Muhammad, 1965[129]

The Nation is black separatist,[130] rejecting the integration of the black and white races.[131] It called for the creation of a separate and sovereign African American nation-state in the southern part of what is currently the United States,[132] portraying this as compensation for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors.[133] Farrakhan has also suggested that the countries of Africa should set aside land on that continent for the African diaspora, characterising this as a reparation for the complicity of West African states in the Atlantic slave trade.[134]

It cites the formation of Israel as a state for the Jewish people in 1948 as a precedent for the establishment of such a state.[135] Gardell suggested that any such black state formed under the Nation's leadership would be theocratic, authoritarian, and totalitarian.[136] In his view, the Nation's political stance incorporated elements associated with both the right and left, and in doing so was similar to the stance of the far-right Third Position.[137]

The Nation's racial separatism was at odds with the mainstream civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.[138] The Nation was critical of African American activists who promoted racial integration, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People,[2] regarding them as "Uncle Tom Negroes."[139] In contrast to King's calls for non-violent protest against segregation and racial violence, the Nation maintained it was a moral obligation for African Americans to defend their community from attack.[140] As a NOI spokesman, Malcolm X claimed that while they would not instigate violence, the Nation would use it to defend themselves.[141]

Unlike the Garveyites and Rastafari who strongly emphasise links between the African diaspora and Africa itself, Elijah Muhammad and the NOI have instead focused their attention on the African diaspora in the Americas,[142] rejecting a specifically Pan-African ideology.[143] Elijah Muhammad stated that "where as the Black man in Africa is our brother, our central responsibility is with the Black man here in the wilderness of North America."[144] Rather than treating Africa as a homeland, the Nation's origin myths present Mecca in Saudi Arabia as the original home of African Americans;[145] Africa itself was often portrayed in Nation writings as the least desirable of the Original Asiatic lands.[146]

Gender and sexuality issues

 
Women members of the NOI at a Saviour's Day meeting in 1974. A women's outfit incorporating a headpiece and full-length garment covering the arms and legs was introduced in the 1930s, intended to preserve the wearer's modesty.[147]

The NOI's teachings on gender issues are conservative and patriarchal,[148] promoting strict gender roles for men and women.[27] Emphasis is placed on the family unit;[149] the Nation maintains that the security of the black family unit is ensured when its members adhere to their gendered duties and responsibilities.[150]

Seeking to restore black manhood,[151] the Nation expresses great concern regarding the emasculation of black men, attributing this attitude to the failure of black men to prevent the sexual assault of black women by white men over the centuries.[152] It expects men to be providers for their family.[153] Women are expected to act as caretakers of the household and the children,[154] and are cautioned from forming friendships with men.[155] Outsiders often perceive the Nation's women as being victims of male oppression and control.[156]

The group's leadership is overwhelmingly male,[149] although several women rose to senior positions during the 1990s;[157] in 1998 the Nation appointed its first woman minister, Ava Muhammad, as head of Mosque Number 15 in Georgia.[158] In various cases, Nation women still play an active role in their communities,[159] sometimes challenging established gender norms in the organization.[160]

The NOI strictly enforces heterosexual monogamy among its members and encourages sexual abstinence prior to marriage.[161] Members seeking to court another are expected to inform the captain of their local FOI or MGT about their intentions.[162] Men found to have beaten their wives are temporarily suspended from Nation membership.[163] Divorce is frowned upon, but not forbidden.[156] Children are expected to study hard, avoid street culture, and respect their elders.[164] Farrakhan was initially highly critical of rap music because he argued it promoted sexual promiscuity.[165]

Although Nation members are allowed to marry non-members,[162] the group stipulates that they should only marry other black people,[166] claiming that sex with white women emasculates black men.[167] Birth control methods are criticised as an attempt by the white establishment to lower the black birthrate,[168] although Farrakhan stated support for abortion in cases of rape or incest or where the woman's life is endangered by the pregnancy.[169] Same-sex relationships are condemned as immoral;[170] Farrakhan for instance banned gay men from his Million Man March, bringing accusations of homophobia against him and the Nation.[171]

Practices

Services, prayer, and celebration

 
A Nation of Islam mosque in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States, 2005.

During the 1960s, the NOI's places of worship were called both temples and mosques.[172] As well as serving a religious function, these can also be used as a community center, bank, school, and child-care facility.[173]

Those attending meetings will sometimes be searched by members of the Fruit of Islam (FOI) or the Muslim Girl's Training group, who look both for weapons and for objects like cosmetics and cigarettes which are disapproved of.[174] After this, the attendees are seen to their seats,[174] usually rows of benches.[175] The sexes are segregated during worship, women on the right and men on the left.[176] The tone of Nation services is sombre and quiet.[174] Services typically begin with the statement "As-salamu alaykum" (peace be upon you), with the congregation responding "Wa 'alaikum As-salam" (and also upon you).[177] Meetings at the mosque are both opened and closed with prayers,[174] and the Nation's "national anthem" may be played.[175] A lecture will be provided by one of the ministers.[178] The minister may read out verses selected from either the Bible or Qur'an.[174]

In the late 1950s, Elijah Muhammad published a prayer manual outlining how his followers should pray five times a day; this involved an ablution beforehand.[179] He stipulated that these prayers should be in English, although commented that in future he would explain how to do so in Arabic.[179] In later articles, he explained that his followers should face towards Mecca as they pray, symbolising their journey toward the restoration of black greatness.[180]

The most important date in the Nation's year is February 26, Saviours' Day, which is believed to be the birthday of Fard Muhammad.[181] This is the date on which the organization holds its annual national convention.[182] Under Farrakhan, the Nation has also held a second Saviour's Day each year, on October 7, to mark the birth of Elijah Muhammad.[183]

Members are encouraged to make the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca;[184] Elijah Muhammad himself did so three times.[185]

Lifestyle

The Nation requests that new members change any names inherited from slave-owners who owned their ancestors as a declaration of mental emancipation.[186] This is not considered necessary if the new member has a name that is already African in origin.[187] During the mid-20th century it began encouraging the use of "X" as a surname, symbolising what they regarded as African American identity as an "ex-slave" and also as a marker for their lost ancestral name.[188] As this results in many individuals having the same name, numbers are added before the X to differentiate members (i.e. "Charles 2X," "Charles 3X").[188]

 
Bean pies, which are among the food produced by the Nation

The NOI encourages its followers to live highly disciplined lifestyles, revolving around structure and order;[145] these conservative and ascetic approaches have led to followers being called "Black Puritans."[189] They are encouraged to obey the law,[190] to seek gainful employment,[191] to always be punctual,[161] to avoid buying on credit,[192] and to not gamble.[193] It is typical for male members to cut their hair very short, sometimes shaving the head entirely, and to not wear a beard.[194]

This signifies their willingness to abide to the strict rules of the organisation and their renunciation of much personal choice.[195] They are expected to wear suits with either ties or bowties;[196] those who are part of the Fruit of Islam guards wear military-style uniforms.[197] Women are commanded to dress modestly;[164] they are not permitted to wear trousers and are encouraged to cover their heads, although the latter is deemed optional.[197]

The NOI teaches that practitioners should seek to keep fit and maintain a healthy diet.[198] Vegetarianism is encouraged among members, although not obligatory,[199] with Elijah Muhammad writing that "meat was never intended for man to eat."[199] In How to Eat How to Live, Elijah Muhammad urged his followers to subsist primarily on fruit, vegetables, and certain grains, and to choose lamb if they must eat meat.[139] Discouraged foods include dried fruits,[199] white flour,[161] additives,[161] and fast food.[199] Although its own produce is not wholly organic, the Nation is supportive of organic food and the avoidance of genetically modified crops, insecticides, and pesticides.[200]

The NOI also encourages followers to avoid foods associated with the slave culture of the U.S., such as cornbread, catfish, and collard greens, deeming this cuisine to be undignified.[161] Concerned about obesity and diabetes among African Americans, Elijah Muhammad urged his followers to restrict their caloric intake, ideally by eating only one meal a day.[201] He claimed that this would extend the human lifespan and that those who ate only once every 24 hours would live for 150 years and that those who ate once every seven days would live for 1,050 years.[161] Members are also encouraged to conduct regular three-day fasts,[199] and to fast during the daylight for the entirety of December.[199] The NOI also prohibits the use of alcohol,[202] tobacco,[203] and other recreational drugs,[204] and has recommended the avoidance of vaccines for children.[205]

Economic and educational independence

 
The interior of a Nation-owned bakery in Oakland, California

Espousing economic nationalism,[206] the Nation follows the ideas of earlier thinkers like Booker T. Washington and Marcus Garvey in emphasizing the construction of black infrastructure as a means of community empowerment.[207] The Nation has created many companies,[206] including the Salaam restaurant chain, the Shabazz bakeries, the Fashahnn Islamic clothing range, the Clean 'N Fresh skin and haircare products, Abundant Life Clinics, and in Chicago it owns a mall.[207]

It owns various clothing stores and food markets.[207] Since the 1980s, it has also sought government contracts,[208] and in 1988, it established the Security Agency Incorporated, which provided FOI patrols for clients.[209] In 1985 it launched its POWER (People Organized and Working for Economic Rebirth) project, designed to redirect black purchasing power toward black-owned businesses.[210] It also seeks the collective economic advancement of African Americans through individual achievement;[211] various women members created their own businesses, sometimes run from the home.[212]

Some of its African American left-wing, anti-capitalist critics have derisively dismissed the Nation's approach to economics as black capitalism;[213] Farrakhan has responded that while socialism appeals to him, capitalism is the only feasible road to economic empowerment for African Americans.[125]

The Nation prioritises land ownership to increase food production and autonomy for African Americans;[200] a commonly used slogan among the NOI is that "The farm is the engine of our national life."[214] By the early 1970s, it had 20,000 acres of farm land in Michigan, Alabama, and Georgia,[215] while in 1994 Farrakhan's Nation purchased 1,556 acres of rural South Georgia near Bronwood, naming it Muhammad Farms.[216] Much of the produce grown here is distributed to NOI mosques around the country.[217] NOI members also own urban gardens in various U.S. cities.[218]

In 1991, the Nation launched its Three Year Economic Savings Plan, asking followers to send them $10 a month over the three years, money that would collectively allow the group to buy more farmland.[219] For the Nation, acquiring land and growing food is regarded as a means of building self-determination for African Americans.[218] It hopes to establish a system of black-owned farms through which to feed 40 million black people,[218] with the stated aim of providing at least one healthy meal a day for every African American.[217]

The NOI is highly critical of the U.S. school system, believing that, by being Eurocentric in its focus and concealing the achievement of non-white societies, it perpetuates white supremacy. To this end, the Nation has established its own educational system.[220] Across the U.S. it has established Muhammad Universities of Islam; most of these are elementary schools, although a few also offer secondary education.[221] These emphasize science, mathematics, black history, Arabic, and NOI doctrine;[164]

Farrakhan has said that they need to provide black children with "an education to make them Gods."[136] In these schools, boys and girls are taught separately;[222] pupils are only given two weeks of vacation each year.[164] Combating the idea that academic achievement entails "acting white," the Nation has sought to associate hard work in school with pride in being black.[223] As well as African American pupils, some of these schools have also accepted students from Latino, Asian, and Pacific Island communities.[224]

Civic engagement

The Nation also has a longstanding record of involvement in civic, economic, and political activities outside the strictly religious arena.[173] In some economically deprived areas, they have played a role in providing services that the public institutions have not.[225] In some areas with high African American populations, it has for instance engaged in door-to-door campaigns to raise awareness about local pollution,[226] or used the FOI to patrol neighborhoods as a community watchdog,[226] especially to stop drug-dealing.[227] The Nation has also urged African Americans not to rely on state welfare payments, arguing that this undermines the community's ability to be self-sufficient.[228]

Edward E. Curtis IV stated that the Nation is "both highly religious and political at the same time",[229] while Gardell noted that it "formulated emphatic political demands".[230] However, the NOI has urged its members to avoid mainstream electoral politics;[231] in 1961, it was observed that its members rarely voted.[232] Elijah Muhammad refused to support any African Americans campaigning for election, although Louis Farrakhan backed Jesse Jackson's 1984 campaign to become the Democratic Party's presidential candidate,[233] and in 1990 three NOI candidates stood for election in the U.S.[234]

Many people have presumed the NOI to be a revolutionary movement,[235] however, it has not sought to foment political revolution or violent social change, instead focusing its emphasis on shifting the consciousness of its members, encouraging them to focus on personal moral improvement, family building, and economic activity.[236] Its members avoided involvement in the race riots of the 1960s.[237]

History

Background

 
The Moorish Science Temple of America, whose members are pictured here in 1928, was a key influence on the Nation of Islam

Islam had a presence in North America prior to the formation of the United States. African Muslims were among the Spanish expeditions that explored the continent during the early modern period, and were also among the many enslaved people transported there via the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries.[238] It is estimated that, at the time of the American Revolution in the 1760s–80s, approximately 15 percent of enslaved Africans and African Americans in the new United States were Muslim.[239] Although Islam probably died out among the African American community over subsequent generations,[240] the notion that Islam was a religion historically associated with African Americans influenced the emergence of groups like the NOI in the early 20th century.[241]

The early NOI's theology was informed by various sources, including older forms of black nationalism, Garveyism, the Moorish Science Temple of America, the Jehovah's Witnesses, and Black Freemasonry.[28] The Nation was significantly influenced by Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican-born black nationalist who lived in the U.S. from 1916 to 1927, and who formed the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA);[242] Zoe Coley commented that "UNIA provided the cultural bedrock for the NOI".[243] Garvey's economic nationalism, whereby he called for African American economic self-sufficiency and enterprise, was a particular influence.[244]

The Moorish Science Temple, an organization also promoting an idiosyncratic religion that described its teachings as Islam, would also be a key influence on the Nation.[245] This had been established by the North Carolina-born African American Noble Drew Ali in Newark, New Jersey, in 1913.[246] Drew Ali claimed that he was the reincarnation of both Jesus and Muhammad,[247] and maintained that African Americans should refer to themselves as "Moorish Americans," reflecting what he believed were their connections to the Islamic Moors of North Africa.[248] The Nation then emerged in the context of the 1930s, when large numbers of African Americans were migrating from southern states to the cities of the north;[249] most of its early members were southern migrants who had settled in Detroit.[250]

Wallace Fard Muhammad

The Nation of Islam was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad, who appeared in Detroit in July 1930, when he began preaching his ideas among the city's African Americans.[251] Fard Muhammad claimed that he was an Arab from Mecca who had come to the United States on a mission to the African American people, whom he called the "Nation of Islam," to restore them to their original faith.[252] The Nation has since taught that he was born in Mecca on February 26, 1877, the son of a black father and white mother; in their view, he was Allah himself.[253]

My name is W. D. Fard, and I come from the Holy City of Mecca. More about myself I will not tell you yet, for the time has not yet come. I am your brother. You have not yet seen me in my royal robes.

A message from Fard Muhammad, as reported by an early follower[254]

Outside of the Nation, various theories have been proposed as to the true identity of Fard Muhammad.[255] The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) later noted that Fard Muhammad's fingerprints matched those of Wallie D. Ford, a white man who had a record of arrests and had served a three-year sentence in San Quentin Prison for drugs charges. Ford had been released in May 1929, a year before the appearance of Fard Muhammad.[256] The NOI reject the identification of Fard Muhammad as Ford, claiming that the FBI forged the fingerprint evidence.[256] Another allegation is that Fard had been a member of the Moorish Science Temple of America, David Ford-el, and had tried to claim its leadership by proclaiming himself to be the reincarnation of founder Noble Drew Ali but failed.[257][258]

Fard Muhammad's following grew rapidly.[259] Around 7000 to 8000 people attended his meetings, which were held three days a week.[259] Some of those attracted to it had previously been members of the Moorish Science Temple.[260] He wrote two manuals, the Secret Ritual of the Nation of Islam and the Teaching for the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way.[261] He also urged his followers to listen to the radio sermons of the Watch Tower Society and Baptist fundamentalists.[262] He established a bureaucratic administration within the Nation, its own system of schools, and the Fruit of Islam (FOI) paramilitary wing for men and the Muslim Girls Training School for women.[263]

In 1931, an African American man named Elijah Poole became a disciple of Fard Muhammad.[264] He had been born to a poor family in Bold Springs, Georgia in 1897; his father was a sharecropper and Baptist preacher.[265] In 1923, Poole and his wife Clara relocated to Detroit, where they settled in the black ghetto of Paradise Valley.[266] There, he joined Garvey's UNIA,[267] and worked in industrial plants before becoming unemployed amid the Great Depression.[264] On joining the Nation of Islam, Fard Muhammad gave Poole the new name of Elijah Karriem.[268]

In 1932 the Detroit Police Department arrested an NOI member for a murder which they claimed was a human sacrifice. This led to headline news which often identified the NOI as a "Voodoo cult".[269] The police then raided the Nation's headquarters and arrested Fard Muhammad. He was soon released; the killer was declared insane.[270] After this incident, Fard Muhammad gave Elijah Poole increasing powers, declaring him Supreme Minister of the Nation and renaming him Elijah Muhammad.[271] In 1933, Elijah Muhammad then set up a new temple on Chicago's South Side.[272] Fard Muhammad was arrested several further times; in September 1933 he was arrested for disorderly conduct in Chicago, which is his last known verified whereabouts.[272] In 1934, Fard Muhammad disappeared without notifying his followers or designating a successor.[273][274] Rumours spread that he had moved to Europe or that he had been killed, either by the police or by ex-followers of his.[275]

Elijah Muhammad's leadership

 
Elijah Muhammad, who formulated many of the Nation's key ideas

With Fard Muhammad gone, Elijah Muhammad took over as head of the Nation.[276][277] It was under his leadership "that the NOI's theology crystallized".[278] Elijah Muhammad claimed that Fard Muhammad had been the latest Allah and that he had now returned to his own realm, with Elijah Muhammad remaining on Earth as his messenger.[279] His wife Clara took on the identity of Khadija.[272] Under Elijah Muhammad's leadership, the NOI relocated its headquarters to Chicago.[280] He then spent the following seven years traveling around the United States, mostly along the East Coast, promoting his religion to African Americans.[272] Under his leadership, the Nation grew in size and influence.[281]

During the Second World War, the FBI started monitoring the Nation;[282] FBI informants reported pro-Japanese sentiment being expressed at its meetings.[283] Many Nation members refused the military draft,[283] and in September 1942, the FBI arrested 65 NOI members, including Elijah Muhammad, who was incarcerated for refusing to register for the draft.[284] He was released in August 1946,[285] at which point he found the Nation's membership had declined.[286] He lived at a villa named The Palace in Chicago's Hyde Park area, and in winter moved to a large ranch outside Phoenix, Arizona.[182] Increasingly exposed to Sunni Islam, Elijah Muhammad drew more elements from it into the Nation,[287] and also undertook the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca three times, in 1959, 1967, and 1971.[185]

During the latter part of the 1950s, the group's membership grew.[288] In 1959, the FBI encouraged the media to attack the Nation, hoping to discredit it.[289] It was in this year that a documentary about the group, The Hate that Hate Produced, was screened.[290] This press criticism backfired, giving the group significant attention and assisting its recruitment.[291] The NOI became a foil for the civil rights movement, which presented the group as evidence for the harmful effect that poor race relations were having in the U.S.[292] In 1962, Los Angeles police raided one of the Nation's temples; one member was killed and seven injured, attracting national press attention.[293] In 1963, a schism in the Nation's Temple Number 7 in Harlem led to the creation of a new group, the Five Percent Nation of Islam.[294]

 
 
During the early 1960s, Malcolm X (left) and Muhammad Ali (right) helped raise the profile of the Nation.

One of the Nation's most significant members at this time was Malcolm X. Born Malcolm Little, he discovered the Nation while in prison; following his release in 1952 he rose swiftly through its hierarchy.[295] In 1960, he launched the newspaper Muhammad Speaks, which reached a circulation of over 600,000.[296] In 1963, he became the Nation's first National Representative.[297] He also travelled internationally; in Britain, he met with Michael de Freitas, who converted to the Nation and created a British branch.[298] Another prominent NOI member was the boxer Muhammad Ali. Born Cassius Clay, he encountered the Nation in 1961 and received significant media criticism after announcing his membership of the group in 1964.[299]

Malcolm X went on the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, where he came across white Muslims, an experience that shifted him from his total hostility to white people.[300] Immediately prior to this, he also began ideologically distancing himself from NOI by declaring Black Nationalism his political philosophy.[301] This was directly in violation of Elijah Muhammad's vision, in which the Nation was apolitical.[301] In light of these experiences, in March 1964 he left the Nation and became a Sunni Muslim.[302] He began denouncing Elijah Muhammad for his extramarital affairs and accused the Nation of holding back the revolutionary potential of African Americans.[303] In February 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated in New York.[304] The following year, three members of the NOI were convicted of the killing.[305][306][307][308] There was press speculation that the Nation's leaders were complicit,[305] something which damaged the group's reputation;[297] recruitment declined in the latter half of the 1960s.[215] As the Black Power movement emerged in the late 1960s, many observers saw the Nation as its forerunner and a vanguard,[309] with the Nation claiming that it had inspired the movement.[310]

In 1972, the NOI bought the St. Constantine Greek Orthodox Church in Chicago and transformed it into their headquarters temple, Mosque Maryam,[182] and by 1974 it had either temples or study groups in every U.S. state and the District of Columbia.[182] Relations with law enforcement remained strained; in 1972, a New York City policeman was shot and killed during a search of a NOI Mosque in Harlem.[311] It had continued to face opposition from the FBI, who engaged in a renewed counterintelligence project to destabilise it from the late 1960s.[312] This included sowing discord between the Nation and the Black Panther Party, encouraging several incidents in which Black Panthers attacked NOI newspaper sellers.[313] The NOI also engaged in recurring conflicts with other Islamic groups that had predominantly black memberships.[314] It argued with Hamaas Abdul Khaalis' Hanafi Muslim group, and in 1973 a group of Nation of Islam members killed seven Hanafi Muslims, five of them children. The Nation's leadership denied sanctioning this attack.[315]

Wallace Muhammad and the NOI's transition to Sunni Islam

In 1975, Elijah Muhammad died and was succeeded by his son, Wallace Muhammad.[316] Wallace Muhammad had had a strained relationship with his father and his father's teachings; while imprisoned in the early 1960s he had moved closer to Sunni Islam and had left the Nation on several occasions during the 1960s and 1970s, having re-joined in 1974.[317] As leader, Wallace Muhammad launched what he called a "Second Resurrection" in the movement.[318]

He increasingly aligned the group with Sunni Islam, rejecting many of the Nation's idiosyncratic teachings,[319] including its claim that Fard was God, that Elijah Muhammad had been a prophet, the Myth of Yakub, and the claims about the Mother Plane. He retained the Nation's themes of black pride, healthy diets, sexual modesty, and economic self-determination.[318] "Temples" were renamed "mosques," while "ministers" were renamed "imams."[320] The FOI was disbanded, with Wallace calling it a "hooligan outfit."[321] Black nationalism was abandoned,[322] and the ban on white people joining the Nation was lifted.[323]

In November 1976, the Nation was renamed the World Community of al-Islam in the West, and in April 1978, it was renamed the American Muslim Mission.[324] Wallace Muhammad also renamed himself, first to Warith Deen and then to Warithuddin Muhammad.[325] Wallace Muhammad claimed that these changes were in accordance with his father's intentions;[326] he claimed to be in contact with Fard Muhammad, and that the founder had established the NOI's idiosyncratic beliefs as a means of gradually introducing Islamic teachings to African Americans, with the ultimate intention of bringing them to mainstream Sunni Islam.[327]

He claimed that the Nation's old belief that the white man was the Devil referred to mental whiteness, a state that is rebelling against Allah, rather than light-skinned people themselves.[328] Most mosques remained with Wallace Muhammad during these reforms but some mosques rejected them, seeking to return to the group's original teachings;[318] small splinter groups emerged in Detroit, Atlanta, and Baltimore.[329] In 1985, Wallace Muhammad disbanded the organization, telling his followers to affiliate instead with their local mosques.[330][331]

Louis Farrakhan's revival

 
Louis Farrakhan, who re-established the Nation of Islam after leaving Wallace Muhammad's group in 1977

The leading figure in rejecting Wallace Muhammad's reforms was Louis Farrakhan, who, with other disaffected members began to rebuild the Nation of Islam in 1977.[332] Born in the Bronx to Caribbean migrants, Farrakhan had been a nightclub singer prior to joining the original Nation in 1955.[333] In 1964 he had become minister of the NOI's Harlem Temple and in 1967 a national representative of Elijah Muhammad.[334] Under Wallace Muhammad's leadership, Farrakhan was relocated to Chicago, widely seen as a demotion.[335]

Farrakhan presented himself as Elijah Muhammad's true successor;[336] his followers described Wallace Muhammad's leadership as "the Fall."[337] Farrakhan's NOI spent the first several years focusing on rebuilding;[338] the Fruit of Islam was re-established.[339] In 1979, Farrakhan established a newspaper, The Final Call,[340] which by 1994 had a circulation of 500,000.[341] In 1981, Farrakhan's Nation held its first convention,[342] and its membership began to increase rapidly in the mid-1980s.[343] It was able to buy much of the property owned by its predecessor, including the Chicago Palace and the Stoney Island Mosque.[344]

Farrakhan claimed that in 1985, at Tepotzotlán in Mexico, he was teleported aboard the Mother Plane and there was given advice on the future of the Nation.[345] Masonic elements and numerology came to play an important part in Farrakhan's speeches.[318] Farrakhan's Nation expanded its international network, including building links in Africa; particularly strong links were built between Farrakhan and Ghanaian President Jerry Rawlings.[346] Under Farrakhan, the NOI adopted more elements of mainstream Islamic practice, although not to the extent of Wallace Muhammad.[347]

Although Farrakhan was critical of the heavy use of themes such as sex, violence, and drugs in rap and hip hop music,[348] during the 1980s and 1990s artists influenced by the Nation who were active in these genres played a role in spreading the Nation's message.[349] Farrakhan had grown concerned by the growth of gang violence, especially among African American youths, and in 1989 launched his "Stop the Killing" campaign to combat it.[350] He played a key role in getting two of the country's largest gangs, the Bloods and the Crips, to sign a ceasefire in May 1992.[351] Later in the 1990s, Farrakhan's NOI opened its first mosques in Britain.[352]

Farrakhan organized the Million Man March through Washington DC in 1995 which united a range of African American groups to counter negative portrayals of black manhood; it was the largest black demonstration in U.S. history.[353] In 2010, Farrakhan announced his embrace of Dianetics and has actively encouraged NOI members to undergo auditing from the Church of Scientology.[354][355] Farrakhan praised L. Ron Hubbard, founder of Dianetics and Scientology, stating that his ideas were "exceedingly valuable to every Caucasian person on this Earth".[354][355][356][357] NOI Sister Charlene Muhammad received the "Dianetics Auditor of the Year" Award 2018.[358]

Organization

Leadership and financing

Family ties are an important element of the NOI's senior ranks; various members of Elijah Muhammad's family were for instance married to members of Farrakhan's family.[359]

As of 2020, the Nation consisted of ten ministries: for Spiritual Development, Agriculture, Education, Information, Health, Trade and Commerce, Defense, Justice, Arts and Culture, and Science and Technology.[101] It also established a shadow ministry, forming the prototype for the governance of the future state it hopes to lead.[360]

The Fruit of Islam is an elite group of men within the NOI, tasked with adhering to its rules more strictly than other members. The FOI members are trained in military protocol, wrestling, boxing, and judo.[178] They are charged with protecting the temples.[178] The Nation has also established Muslim Girls' Training for women, teaching them domestic skills, self defense tactics, and other life skills.[178]

The NOI explains that its finances come primarily from donations and its businesses.[361] At the start of the 1960s, it was reported that members were expected to donate a set part of their earnings to the group each year; as of 1952, this reportedly constituted a third of a member's annual income.[192] In 1976, Wallace Muhammad estimated the Nation's net worth to be $46 million, although revealed it had a severe cash flow problem, owed millions in back taxes to the Internal Revenue Service, and was making a loss with its agricultural operations.[362] Although the Nation does not reveal the extent of its financial resources,[363] in the 1990s its assets were estimated to total $80,000,000.[364]

Press and media

From its early days, the Nation used print media to promote its ideas, including the magazines Muhammad Speaks (1961–75) and The Final Call.[365] Muhammad Speaks included contributions not only from Nation members, but also from leftist and progressive writers in the African American community.[366] Members were encouraged to sell these magazines on street corners or sometimes door-to-door in African American-majority areas.[367] These sellers were given sales quotas to fulfil and were sometimes punished if they failed to meet them.[368] The Nation's first magazine aimed at women, Righteous Living, appeared in the early 1990s.[369] As well as running shows on radio stations,[370] and distributing videos,[371] the Nation has also established websites and a presence across many social media outlets.[372]

Domestic and international affiliations

 
Gaddafi was the Nation's most prominent international supporter; Farrakhan stated that "we will always love him, admire and respect him and stand up and speak on his behalf".[373]

In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nation had links with Satokata Takahashi, a Japanese man who was promoting pro-Japanese sentiment among African American groups.[374] Takahashi lived with an officer of the Nation for a time and also married a former member.[375] Elijah Muhammad declared that Takahashi was teaching African Americans that "the Japanese were brothers and friends of the American Negroes".[374] During the Second World War, in which the U.S. fought against Japan, many Nation members expressed pro-Japanese sentiment and refused the draft to fight against the Japanese military, stating that they would not fight people whom they regarded as fellow members of the Original Asiatic Race.[374]

Under Elijah Muhammad, the Nation established relations with various Muslim countries,[376] regarded as strategic allies in its conflict with the U.S. government.[377] In 1957, Malcolm X organized a conference on colonialism attended by delegates from Egypt, Iraq, Sudan, and Morocco,[378] while Elijah Muhammad met with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1959 and the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in 1972.[379] On taking control, Farrakhan also pursued links with various Muslim-majority countries,[380] visiting Ghana and Libya in 1985.[381] For many years, Gaddafi was the Nation's most prominent international supporter and offered them assistance in various forms.[382] His government gave the Nation a $3 million interest-free loan in 1972 to purchase its Chicago South Side centre,[383] and another $5 million interest-free loan in 1985 to fund its black enterprise program.[384] It later offered Farrakhan's Nation $1 billion, which the U.S. government sought to block.[385][386][387][388] In 1996, Farrakhan embarked on a tour of Africa and the Middle East, meeting with leaders including Gaddafi, Ghana's Jerry Rawlings, Nigeria's Sani Abacha, South Africa's Nelson Mandela, and Iraq's Saddam Hussein.[389] On that tour, he also attended annual celebrations of the Iranian Revolution in Tehran;[390] he visited Iran again in 2018.[391]

Like Garvey's UNIA before them, the Nation has also built links with white nationalist and other far-right white groups on the basis of their shared belief in racial separatism.[392] Malcolm X revealed that the Nation had held meetings with representatives of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and the American Nazi Party (ANP).[393] The ANP's leader George Lincoln Rockwell attended an NOI rally in Washington DC in 1961 and then spoke at the Nation's St Saviour's Day rally in Chicago in 1962.[394] Links with the white far-right continued under Farrakhan's Nation, with Tom Metzger of the White Aryan Resistance donating money to the Nation in 1985 and expressing approval of its separatist aims.[395] During the 1980s, the Nation also had a supportive relationship with the British National Front as the latter's Strasserite leadership were endorsing a united front against multi-racial society.[396] During the 1990s, the Nation collaborated with members of the far-right LaRouche movement as part of their shared opposition to the U.S.-led Gulf War.[397] These links have not prevented some white far-right opposition to the NOI; in 1993 the Fourth Reich Skinheads were revealed to have plotted to kill Farrakhan.[398]

Conversion and demographics

 
Members of the Fruit of Islam photographed in 1974

Since its early years, the NOI has sought to recruit disenfranchised African American Christians,[78] and unemployed, disenchanted black youth.[399] Its process of seeking converts is termed "fishing for the dead."[182] To this end, the Nation holds regular open meetings, mass rallies, street-corner lectures, and prison outreach.[182] Young "brothers" seek new recruits in "jails and penitentiaries, pool halls and barbershops, college campuses and street corners."[400] It has also utilized books by Elijah Muhammad, radio broadcasts, and audio-recorded speeches to promote its message.[188]

In its early decades, the Nation's appeal was strongest in poor African American neighborhoods.[401] Colley thought that in these areas, it offered men living in poverty the "opportunity to reclaim their manhood and sense of pride", thus partly explaining its appeal.[402] Although originating as a largely lower-class movement, over the course of the 20th century it became increasingly middle-class.[403] Gardell suggested that this was partly due to the Nation's focus on hard work and rigid morality, which helped improve the economic situation of its members, coupled with the broader growth of the African American middle-class in this period.[404] He also believed that the changing class composition, and with it a less hostile attitude to white-dominant American society, assisted the shift to Sunnism under Wallace Muhammad in the 1970s.[33]

 
A crowd of Muslims applaud during Elijah Muhammad's annual Saviors' Day message in Chicago in 1974

The group's recruitment efforts have proved particularly effective among drug addicts and incarcerated criminals,[405] operating in areas where the African American Christian churches lack a strong presence.[406] The Nation was active in prison ministry by the 1950s, with its numbers of imprisoned followers rising steadily in the latter part of that decade;[407] many of its members, including Malcolm X, were recruited while in prison.[408] Farrakhan stepped up the Nation's prison ministry in the 1980s in response to the increasing incarceration of young black men under the Reagan administration.[409] By the early 1960s, prison authorities were raising concerns that the NOI was exacerbating racial tensions in prisons;[410] the availability of NOI material in prisons has raised concerns in the U.S. government, with Peter King and Frank Wolf expressing concern about its potential role in the radicalization of inmates.[371] Some incarcerated members have claimed to have experienced discriminatory treatment from prison authorities because of their religion.[411]

Prior to 1975, only a small number of Hispanic American and Native American individuals were members of the NOI, although under Farrakhan the Nation began putting greater efforts into recruiting among these groups.[412] The number of Latinos in the Nation is not known, although their presence in the group is much higher under Farrakhan than it was under Elijah Muhammad.[409] Not all members are likely to believe every teaching of the Nation implicitly,[413] and there are reports of members who privately break the Nation's rules, for instance by listening to jazz records and smoking marijuana.[414]

The Nation does not publicly reveal its membership numbers,[1] and in the past it had a high turnover among its members, some eventually evolving into becoming conventional Sunni Muslims.[155] Under Fard Muhammad's leadership, it reached a total of approximately 8000 members.[415] By 1960, its membership was being estimated at between 30,000 and 100,000;[281] in his 1961 study of the group, the scholar C. Eric Lincoln suggested the higher estimate.[141] In 2007, the scholar of religion Lawrence A. Mamiya suggested that there were then around 50,000 members of the Nation.[1] While based in the U.S., the Nation has also established either a presence or influence in all parts of the world where there is a dense clustering of the African diaspora.[416] In 2006, Nuri Tinaz suggested that the Nation "may have" up to 2,000 members and sympathisers in the United Kingdom.[417]

Accusations of prejudice

Main article: Nation of Islam and antisemitism
Further information: Antisemitism in Islam

While the NOI and Farrakhan have been portrayed in dominant white society and mainstream media as being militant, racist, separatist, dangerous, bigot, the prophet of hate and anti-Semitic; among significant sections of the black press, and among African Americans and African Caribbeans, the movement and its leader and members have been highly respected and regarded as role models for the youth and as the vocal voice, savior and spokesmen of oppressed people.

Nuri Tinaz, 2006[418]

Having been criticised by both blacks and non-blacks,[419] the Nation has repeatedly been accused of stirring up racial hatred against white people.[420] It has been called a hate group by African American civil rights activists including the NAACP's Roy Wilkins,[421] as well as by the Southern Poverty Law Center, which claims that the NOI teaches a "theology of innate black superiority over whites".[422][423] The Associated Press described the Nation as having, in the past, favored black supremacist views.[424] In a 1993 speech at Kean College, the NOI representative Khalid Abdul Muhammad stated that White South Africans should be given 24 hours to leave their country, and all of those whites who are still in South Africa after that point should be killed;[425] Farrakhan censured him for the tone of this speech.[426] The Nation has also been accused of anti-LGBT rhetoric.[422]

The NOI has repeatedly been accused of antisemitism, an accusation that it has denied.[427][428][429] Accusations of antisemitism have also been levelled at Malcolm X[430] and Farrakhan. In the 1980s, Farrakhan referred to Judaism as a "dirty religion"[431] and described Adolf Hitler as a "very great man" who "raised Germany up from nothing".[432] He dismissed the claim that the Jews are God's Chosen People as "ridiculous", insisting that this role is taken by the black race.[433] At his Kean College speech, Khalid Mohammad had referred to the "Jew-nited Nations" in "Jew York City" and stated that the Jewish people deserved Hitler.[425]

In 1991, the NOI published an anonymously authored book, The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews; this book generated controversy for arguing that Jews had a disproportionately high level of involvement in the Atlantic slave trade.[434] David W. Leinweber of Emory University asserts that the Nation of Islam engages in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust, and that they exaggerate the role of Jews in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.[435]

Accusations of antisemitism have come from the Anti-Defamation League (ADL),[436][437] a U.S.-based Jewish organization which has referred to Farrakhan as "Black Hitler."[438] The ADL has engaged in surveillance of the Nation, anti-NOI political lobbying, and attempts to block its enterprises.[439] Farrakhan has stated, "The ADL ... uses the term 'anti-Semitism' to stifle all criticism of Zionism and the Zionist policies of the State of Israel and also to stifle all legitimate criticism of the errant behavior of some Jewish people toward the non-Jewish population of the earth."[440] Other Jewish groups have also been critical of the NOI; four Jewish organizations withdrew their sponsorship of the Parliament of World Religions when it invited Farrakhan to speak,[441] while Jewish student groups have sought to prevent Farrakhan giving speeches on university campuses, picketing these speeches when they have occurred.[439] Far-right Jewish groups have gone further; the Jewish Defense League organized a "Death to Farrakhan" march in 1985, while the Jewish Defense Organization was found to have Farrakhan as the top name on its list of individuals it sought to kill.[442]

The NOI Health Minister Abdul Alim Muhammad accused Jewish doctors of injecting blacks with the AIDS virus;[443][444] in 2020 Ishmael Muhammad claimed that Jewish people were receiving different vaccines for COVID-19 from other people.[445]

Reception and influence

 
The logo of the Nation on its property in Indianapolis

The Nation of Islam became the largest black nationalist organization in the United States,[446] having cultivated a sense of pride among many African Americans and made a noted effort to improve their education and welfare.[420] At the start of the 21st century, Barrett called the NOI "one of the most visible and controversial black religions,"[447] while in the 1990s Gardell termed it the "most renowned and controversial" of the African American Muslim groups.[448]

African American studies scholar, Priscilla McCutcheon noted that although the NOI remained a comparatively small religion, it had "a wide discursive reach",[129] while in 1996 Gardell commented that its influence among black youth "far exceeds" its membership.[449] The Nation's role in confronting gang violence, drugs, and poverty among African American communities has earned them respect.[450] The sociologist A.A. Akom opined that the NOI had a reputation even among non-Muslim African Americans of "speaking truth to power,"[451] with a 1994 Time/CNN poll found that two-thirds of African Americans who knew of Farrakhan had favorable views of him.[452] Similarly positive assessments of the Nation's efforts have been observed among black communities in Britain.[399]

The Nation's teachings have influenced other groups, such as the Ansaaru Allah Community, which formed in 1970,[453] and the Word of Faith movement, a type of Christianity which emerged in areas of the U.S. where the NOI had a pre-existing presence.[454] The Nation has also influenced a range of hip hop and rap artists, including Public Enemy, Ice Cube, Kam, The Skinny Boys, Sister Souljah, and Prince Akeem,[349] with various gangsta rap artists supporting the Nation.[455]

The NOI has been the subject of much scholarly attention.[456] Initial research was largely undertaken by historians and sociologists in the late 1950s and 1960s and was often hostile or dismissive; research influenced by disciplines like religious studies and gender studies followed later.[457] During the 20th century, most studies on the NOI relied on secondary sources due to the group's general unwillingness to open itself up to study.[458] Those outside the movement have often seen its teachings as illogical and irrational.[189] Various historical and scientific errors have been identified in the claims of its leaders;[459] mainstream scientists, and much of the wider public, regard its mythological accounts as being pseudo-scientific.[8]

Mainstream Islamic groups maintain that the Nation's members are not really Muslim.[460] This is the view taken by groups like the Federation of Islamic Associations of the United States and Canada, which have distanced themselves from the Nation.[461] The Ahmadiyya, an Islamic group whose legitimacy is also often rejected by mainstream Muslim communities, similarly does not recognise the NOI as Islamic.[462] Elijah Muhammad dismissed these objections by claiming that the "Old Islam" of his critics was "led by white people",[26] while Farrakhan has responded to such criticisms with his own critique of the mainstream Islamic world, accusing it of racism, of being obedient to the U.S. government, of engaging in sectarian violence, and of excessively relying on the hadith rather than the Quran.[463] The Nation's views that white people lack inner divinity contrasts with the mainstream Islamic view that all humans are equal under God.[47]

See also

References

Citations

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Further reading

  • Berg, H. (2009). Elijah Muhammad and Islam. New York: New York University Press.
  • Damak, S. (2019). The Nation of Islam's Cautious Return to Americanity in the 2010s: A Cultural Studies Inquiry. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
  • Lee, M. F. (1996). The Nation of Islam: An American Millenarian Movement. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press.
  • Sahib, Hatim A. (1951). "The Nation of Islam". Contributions in Black Studies (published 1995). 13: 48–160. from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  • Singh, R. S. (1997). The Farrakhan Phenomenon: Race, Reaction, and the Paranoid Style in American Politics. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nation of Islam.
  • Nation of Islam profile at the World Religion and Spirituality Project (WRSP)
  • Nation of Islam-affiliated Final Call newspaper website
  • Official Website of the United Kingdom Branch of the Nation of Islam
  • FBI file on the Nation of Islam

March 06, 2023
nation, islam, confused, with, islamic, state, islamic, state, islamic, concept, muslim, nation, ummah, religious, political, organization, founded, united, states, wallace, fard, muhammad, 1930, black, nationalist, organization, focuses, attention, african, d. Not to be confused with Islamic state or Islamic State For the pan Islamic concept of the Muslim nation see Ummah The Nation of Islam NOI is a religious and political organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930 A black nationalist organization the NOI focuses its attention on the African diaspora especially on African Americans While it identifies itself as promoting a form of Islam its beliefs differ considerably from mainstream Islamic traditions Scholars of religion characterize it as a new religious movement It operates as a centralized and hierarchical organization Nation of IslamAbbreviationNOIFormationJuly 4 1930 92 years ago 1930 07 04 FounderWallace Fard MuhammadFounded atDetroit Michigan U S TypePolitical and religious movementLegal statusActiveHeadquartersMosque Maryam Chicago IllinoisLocationUnited StatesMembership 2007 estimate c 50 000 1 Official languageEnglishLeaderLouis FarrakhanKey peopleElijah Muhammad Wallace Muhammad Malcolm XSubsidiariesFruit of Islam Muhammad University of Islam Muslim Girls Training Star Chamber AcademyWebsitewww wbr noi wbr orgThe Nation teaches that there has been a succession of mortal gods each a black man named Allah of whom Fard Muhammad is the most recent It claims that the first Allah created the earliest humans the Arabic speaking dark skinned Tribe of Shabazz whose members possessed inner divinity and from whom all people of color are descended It maintains that a scientist named Yakub then created the white race The whites lacked inner divinity and were intrinsically violent they overthrew the Tribe of Shabazz and achieved global dominance Setting itself against the white dominated society of the United States the NOI campaigns for the creation of an independent African American nation state and calls for African Americans to be economically self sufficient and separatist A millenarian tradition it maintains that Fard Muhammad will soon return aboard a spaceship the Mother Plane or Mother Ship to wipe out the white race and establish a utopia Members worship in buildings called mosques or temples Practitioners are expected to live disciplined lives adhering to strict dress codes specific dietary requirements and patriarchal gender roles Wallace Fard Muhammad established the Nation of Islam in Detroit He drew on various sources including Noble Drew Ali s Moorish Science Temple of America black nationalist trends like Garveyism and black oriented forms of Freemasonry After Fard Muhammad disappeared in 1934 the leadership of the NOI was assumed by Elijah Muhammad He expanded the NOI s teachings and declared Fard Muhammad to be the latest Allah Attracting growing attention in the late 1950s and 1960s the NOI s influence expanded through high profile members such as the black nationalist activist Malcolm X and the boxer Muhammad Ali Deeming it a threat to domestic security the Federal Bureau of Investigation worked to undermine the group Following Elijah Muhammad s death in 1975 his son Warith Deen Mohammed took over the organization moving it towards Sunni Islam and renaming it the World Community of Islam in the West Members seeking to retain Elijah Muhammad s teachings re established the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan s leadership in 1977 Farrakhan has continued to develop the NOI s beliefs for instance by drawing connections with Dianetics and expanding its economic and agricultural operations Based in the United States the Nation of Islam has also established a presence abroad with membership open only to people of color In 2007 it was estimated to have 50 000 members The Nation has proven to be particularly successful at converting prisoners The Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti Defamation League have accused it of being a black supremacist hate group that promotes racial prejudice towards white people anti semitism and anti LGBT rhetoric Muslim critics accuse it of promoting teachings that are not authentically Islamic Contents 1 Definition 2 Beliefs 2 1 Theology 2 2 Cosmogony and the Tribe of Shabazz 2 3 The myth of Yakub and the white race 2 4 Eschatology and the Mother Plane 2 5 Black nationalism and separatism 2 6 Gender and sexuality issues 3 Practices 3 1 Services prayer and celebration 3 2 Lifestyle 3 3 Economic and educational independence 3 4 Civic engagement 4 History 4 1 Background 4 2 Wallace Fard Muhammad 4 3 Elijah Muhammad s leadership 4 4 Wallace Muhammad and the NOI s transition to Sunni Islam 4 5 Louis Farrakhan s revival 5 Organization 5 1 Leadership and financing 5 2 Press and media 5 3 Domestic and international affiliations 6 Conversion and demographics 7 Accusations of prejudice 8 Reception and influence 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Citations 10 2 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External linksDefinition Edit The flag of the Nation of Islam is a white crescent moon and star on a red background 2 The group calls this flag which is based on that of Turkey the national 3 The Nation of Islam is a new religious movement 4 5 an ethno religious movement 6 and a social movement 7 Scholars of religion have also classified it as resembling UFO religions 8 with UFOs featuring in its ideas about the forthcoming end of the world 9 Although employing the same name the Nation of Islam has represented two distinct organizations the first was established by Wallace Fard Muhammad in the 1930s and lasted until 1975 and the second then created by Louis Farrakhan in the late 1970s 10 The Nation draws heavily on both Christianity and Islam although it interprets the Bible and Quran differently from Christians or mainstream Muslims 11 A black nationalist religion 12 and an African American religion 13 it seeks to reclaim what it regards as the historic Islamic identity of African Americans 14 Its members have been called Black Muslims 15 and its second leader Elijah Muhammad stated that Islam is the natural religion of the Black Nation 16 Islamic elements in its practices include the use of the Arabic language prayers five times a day and the adoption of a flag based on that of Islamic majority Turkey 3 A Muslim identity appealed to the NOI as it offered an alternative to mainstream Christian dominated American culture 17 The Nation denigrates Christianity 14 regarding it as a tool of white supremacy 18 and claims that it lacks the rational and scientific basis of its own teachings 19 The religion promoted by the Nation has been described as Fardian Islam 20 nontraditional Islam 21 and quasi Islamic 22 The Nation sees itself as part of the Islamic world 3 although it has little in common with mainstream forms of Islam 23 Herbert Berg commented that it had only a superficial relationship to other Islams such as the Sunni Shi ite and Sufi traditions 24 while Jason Eric Fishman and Ana Belen Soage observed that although the Nation uses many standard Islamic terms it gives them profoundly different meanings to those understood by most Muslims 25 The Nation s views differ from the Five Pillars which are typically seen as central to Islamic belief and practice 26 its claims that Allah God takes anthropomorphic form and that there is no afterlife differ fundamentally from standard Islam 27 Unlike most forms of Islam the NOI does not teach that the 6th 7th century Arabian religious leader Muhammad was the final nor the most important messenger of God 28 instead treating its first two leaders Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad as being more important 28 From mainstream Islamic perspectives its teachings are heretical 29 with its theology being shirk blasphemy 30 Mainstream Muslims view it as a religious movement which has selectively adopted some Islamic beliefs and concepts but which is not truly Islamic 31 The Nation is a highly centralized hierarchical movement 32 and has been described as authoritarian 33 Unlike practitioners of Rastafari a contemporary of the NOI which shares many of its key concerns members of the Nation do not exhibit considerable variation in their approach to the religion displaying a high degree of uniformity and conformity among followers 34 However there is no specific holy text produced by the NOI 35 and its teachings have not remained static but have changed throughout its history 36 Over the course of its history it has for instance adopted additional elements from mainstream Islam 3 and Farrakhan s second Nation also bears some distinct differences from its predecessor 10 Beliefs EditMain article Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam Theology Edit God is a man and we just cannot make Him other than a man lest we make Him an inferior one for man s intelligence has no equal in other than man His wisdom is infinite capable of accomplishing anything that His brain can conceive Elijah Muhammad Message to the Black Man 1965 37 The sociologist of religion David V Barrett noted that the Nation s theology is very distinct and extremely detailed 38 The Nation provides conflicting statements about its theology although it professes commitment to the monotheistic idea of a single God its discourse refers to multiple gods 39 meaning that it can be interpreted as polytheistic 25 These gods are described as being anthropomorphic taking human form 40 The NOI teaches that history can be divided into distinct cycles each ruled by a new god who takes over from his predecessor 41 The Nation teaches that none of these gods are immortal but all die 42 at which a new god will take their place 43 A central tenet of its theology is the portrayal of Allah as a black man 44 and Nation members believe that this was the form that the first god consciously took 45 Each god has different abilities and degrees of power 40 The Nation regards its founder Fard Muhammad as the latest of these gods 46 or God in person 40 They believe that he is the first god to have the same powers as the inaugural god namely the ability to return the universe to its primordial darkness and then recreate it 46 for he has developed the divine capacity innate to black people to the maximum degree 43 It teaches that although this founder disappeared in 1934 he had secretly moved to Mecca and would live for another 409 years 25 For the Nation he takes on the traditional roles of God the Mahdi and the Messiah 47 The Nation promotes the idea that God is man and man is God that God has a presence inside human individuals 48 It teaches that the black race in its natural state is divine 49 collectively the black race is God 50 or a nation of Gods 40 Elijah Muhammad said that all Muslims are Allahs 51 According to its teachings knowledge of self is key for black people to realize their inner divinity 52 The NOI thus teaches that by following its teachings one can recognize one s inner Godliness 53 Fishman and Soage highlighted that the Nation s core theological principles are completely divorced from the traditional Islamic faith 54 The Nation s theology differs from the mainstream Islamic belief in a fundamental ontological divide between humanity and God 49 in mainstream Islam Allah is always portrayed as eternal and non anthropomorphic which is at odds with the theology of the NOI 40 Also conflicting with mainstream Islam is the NOI s claim that there is no afterlife 55 Elijah Muhammad wrote that when you are dead you are DEAD 56 He taught that there is no spiritual realm with the material universe being all that exists 57 although he also stated that humans could develop parapsychological powers and that he personally had telepathic abilities 58 Cosmogony and the Tribe of Shabazz Edit The Nation teaches that in the beginning there was nothing but darkness Then 76 trillion years ago the first god willed himself into being taking 6 million years to form into his desired appearance that of a black man 45 In this account this god chose his skin color in reference to the blackness from which he had emerged 45 According to the Nation the first god then created the Sun and the planets 45 As his helpers he created more black men and took his place on a council of 24 imams 12 greater and 12 lesser 59 Each of these imams takes a turn being god for one cycle each 41 15 000 years ago these ancient scientists who had knowledge of the future wrote their knowledge down in a text the Mother Book Parts of this the NOI claims have been given to humanity as the Torah Gospels and Quran 46 Young male members of the Nation of Islam in San Francisco California in 1994 The Nation holds that the moon was created when one of the scientists tried to destroy the Earth with explosives resulting in a chunk of the Earth s mass being forced into orbit 60 The Nation also alleges that Asia and Africa were once a single continent 61 In endorsing a form of creationism the Nation rejects evolution and believes that the existence of dinosaurs is a hoax perpetrated by members of the white race 62 The NOI promotes numerology the belief that numbers possess hidden meanings 63 it believes that the number 19 is key to decoding scriptures such as the Quran 64 and takes the view that it is meaningful that the names of both Elijah Muhammad and Louis Farrakhan have 14 letters in them 65 The Nation teaches that the first humans were the Original or Asiatic race whom it describes as members of the Tribe of Shabazz 66 It claims that this Tribe inhabited Egypt s Nile Valley as well as the area around Mecca in the Arabian peninsula 67 Elijah Muhammad claimed that Mecca was the Tribe s original home and the ONLY HOLY SPOT on our planet 68 He claimed that the Tribe were Muslim and that their language was Arabic 69 In the Nation s discourse these early humans are labelled black 48 described as having dark skin as well as smooth straight hair closely resembling dark complexioned Arabians or South Asians rather than Sub Saharan Africans 68 Elijah Muhammad claimed that some of this Original Race were later given Afro textured hair to assist their lives in the jungles of East Asia by which he meant Africa 70 The NOI s conception of race differs from that of most Americans 68 For the Nation everyone not of West European genetic origin is a descendant of the Original Asiatic Race 71 In the group s discourse black does not simply mean those of Sub Saharan African genetic descent but all people of color including Asians North Africans and Native Americans only light skinned people of West European descent are excluded 72 Elijah Muhammad for instance referred to black brown yellow and red people as collectively constituting black mankind which he then juxtaposed against the white race 68 He considered some East Europeans such as Albanians to be descendants of the Original Asiatic Race 73 The Nation teaches that all descendants of the Original Race were Muslims by their intrinsic nature but that many created heretical deviations such as Hinduism 74 some of those who broke Islamic rules were exiled from Asia Africa to North America where they became the continent s native population 75 The myth of Yakub and the white race Edit Nation of Islam members at Speakers Corner in Hyde Park London March 1999 The NOI promotes a story called the myth of Yakub 17 which received its fullest exposition in Elijah Muhammad s 1965 book Message to the Blackman 70 Yakub is presented as a black scientist who was a child prodigy by the age of 18 he had learned everything that Mecca s universities had to teach him 76 He attracted a following but caused trouble leading the Meccan authorities to exile him and his 6000 followers to Pelan the Mediterranean island of Patmos 76 There the NOI claims Yakub engaged in a selective breeding program to create the white race This entailed breeding new children with those who were too dark being killed at birth and their bodies being fed to wild animals or incinerated Over two centuries Yakub s experiments created a group of blonde light skinned people the white race 77 The myth of Yakub presents the white race as being degenerate 28 sub human 78 and bereft of divinity 79 Because of this the NOI teaches that white people are intrinsically prone to lying violence and brutality 80 Elijah Muhammad repeatedly referred to the white man as the devil 81 The NOI s ideas regarding white people have been labelled both racist 82 and racialist 9 According to the Nation s teachings Yakub s newly created white race sowed discord among the black race and thus were exiled to live in the caves of Europe 83 In this narrative it was in Europe that the white race engaged in bestiality and degenerated resulting in the emergence of apes and monkeys 84 Aware of their role in the future Allah sent Moses to teach the white race to cook and wear clothes 84 According to the Nation Jesus of Nazareth was also sent to try and civilise the white race 85 Farrakhan s NOI has taught that Jesus was not the Messiah as Christians believe but that he instead pointed to the later coming of the true messiah Elijah Muhammad 86 They reject the Christian belief that Jesus was God that he was the product of a virgin birth or that he was crucified and resurrected 87 God say you re the real devil And you damn sure are Ain t another devil nowhere else Ain t no use you get mad with me white people You are the devil The only hell raiser on the earth I m not sayin that you are responsible cause you are made devil But I m not gonna make a mistake in thinkin that you can be made better through love Louis Farrakhan s views on white people being the devil 88 In the Nation s teachings Allah permitted the white race to rule the Earth for 6000 years a period that is almost at an end 89 The NOI teaches that the white race spread out from Europe and began to dominate the world 84 It conquered and enslaved the Tribe of Shabazz shipping many of them to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade 90 It claims that most of these enslaved blacks forgot their true names their Arabic language and their Muslim identity instead embracing Christianity the religion of the white oppressor 90 In this enslaved state the black people lost their morality engaging in sinful behaviour such as fornication and drinking alcohol 90 The Nation teaches that Allah allowed all this to happen so that the black race would realise humanity s inner potential for evil and discover how to defeat it thus enabling them to realize their divine capacity and become Gods 91 The subjugation of African Americans is thus seen as part of an ancient white conspiracy 78 According to the NOI most whites are unaware of their true origins but that senior Freemasons have this knowledge 92 It interprets opposition to the Nation from the U S government and white society as evidence of this 93 The United States is equated with the city of Babylon as presented in the Bible 94 According to the Nation 1914 marked the end of the 6000 years of white rule 95 The Nation interprets many of the problems facing the African American community in this light for instance Farrakhan has claimed that the white establishment has encouraged a black gang culture to provide an excuse for the police killing of black youths 96 and that they are also responsible for flooding black majority urban areas with drugs 97 Both Farrakhan and senior NOI spokesperson Abdul Alim Muhammad have claimed that the white establishment created the AIDS virus to exterminate black people 98 The Nation is openly critical of U S aggression towards countries with non white majorities especially when those countries also have Muslim majorities 99 In keeping with its anti Western ethos it has also adopted a consistently anti Israel position 100 being both anti Zionist and anti imperialist 101 Christianity is seen as white man s religion 102 It is regarded as having perpetuated white domination and furthered the oppression of the African diaspora in the Americas 103 it is also associated with slavery and colonialism in the Nation of Islam s discourse 104 The religion is treated with suspicion out of the belief that the oppressed African Americans and the oppressors European Americans cannot share the same God 105 During the time when Malcolm X was a member and leader of the Nation of Islam he preached that black people were genetically superior to white people but were dominated by a system of white supremacy Thoughtful white people know they are inferior to Black people Even Senator James Eastland knows it Anyone who has studied the genetic phase of biology knows that white is considered recessive and black is considered dominant The entire American economy is based on white supremacy Even the religious philosophies in essence white supremacy A white Jesus A white Virgin White angels White everything But a black Devil of course The Uncle Sam political foundation is based on white supremacy relegating nonwhites to second class citizenship It goes without saying that the social philosophy is strictly white supremacist And the educational system perpetuates white supremacy 106 Eschatology and the Mother Plane Edit The NOI is millenarian 107 believing that humanity is living in end times 108 It propounds a distinct eschatology drawing on the Book of Revelation 78 Central to its view of the apocalypse is a large spaceship known as the Wheel the Mother Plane or the Mother Ship 109 Members usually refer to it with female pronouns 110 Elijah Muhammad described this as a small human planet 20 claiming that it is half a mile by half a mile in diameter 111 The Nation teaches that this vessel is the Merkabah that appears in the Book of Ezekiel 1 4 28 112 It teaches that Allah and many of his scientists live in a magnificent city on the Mother Plane from which they monitor humanity 113 Farrakhan has claimed that Elijah Muhammad never died but is resident aboard this ship 114 The Nation teaches that there are also smaller vessels baby planes docked inside the Mother Ship and that these travel to visit Earth 115 The Nation teaches that a period of deteriorating inter racial tensions will culminate in the apocalypse 116 NOI members have repeatedly claimed that this apocalypse is imminent Farrakhan for instance predicted that the Gulf War of 1990 would spark it 117 while Tynetta Muhammad predicted it would occur in 2001 64 According to Nation teaching the Mother Plane will appear above the Earth and transport the righteous to live upon it 118 It will then use the baby planes to place bombs beneath the Earth s surface which will explode and wipe out the old white dominated order 119 The Earth s atmosphere will then burn for 390 years and spend another 610 cooling down 118 Once the Earth has returned to a habitable state Allah will return the righteous to live there in a new black paradise 120 In his book The Supreme Wisdom Elijah Muhammad claimed that after the apocalypse Peace joy and happiness will have no end 121 Those living in this perfect society will eat the finest food and wear clothes of silk interwoven with gold 20 The NOI has taught that the white ruling elite are aware of this forthcoming apocalypse and that the U S exploration of space and the Strategic Defense Initiative are futile attempts to protect themselves against the Mother Plane 122 Black nationalism and separatism Edit Ideologically the NOI is black nationalist 123 and has sometimes been perceived as a Black Power political organization 124 Scholar of religion Mattias Gardell commented that the idea of black unity is at the very core of the NOI ideology 125 It seeks to empower black people by giving them a positive self identity 126 purging ideas of white superiority and black inferiority from its followers 126 In the Nation s view black liberation requires a religious dimension 105 It regards African Americans or black people more broadly as the Chosen People 127 espousing a cosmology in which the black race is superior and the white race inferior 128 We want our people in America whose parents or grandparents are descendants from slaves to be allowed to establish a separate state or territory of their own either on this continent or elsewhere We believe that our former slave masters are obligated to provide such land and that the area must be fertile and minerally rich Elijah Muhammad 1965 129 The Nation is black separatist 130 rejecting the integration of the black and white races 131 It called for the creation of a separate and sovereign African American nation state in the southern part of what is currently the United States 132 portraying this as compensation for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors 133 Farrakhan has also suggested that the countries of Africa should set aside land on that continent for the African diaspora characterising this as a reparation for the complicity of West African states in the Atlantic slave trade 134 It cites the formation of Israel as a state for the Jewish people in 1948 as a precedent for the establishment of such a state 135 Gardell suggested that any such black state formed under the Nation s leadership would be theocratic authoritarian and totalitarian 136 In his view the Nation s political stance incorporated elements associated with both the right and left and in doing so was similar to the stance of the far right Third Position 137 The Nation s racial separatism was at odds with the mainstream civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s 138 The Nation was critical of African American activists who promoted racial integration such as Martin Luther King Jr and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 2 regarding them as Uncle Tom Negroes 139 In contrast to King s calls for non violent protest against segregation and racial violence the Nation maintained it was a moral obligation for African Americans to defend their community from attack 140 As a NOI spokesman Malcolm X claimed that while they would not instigate violence the Nation would use it to defend themselves 141 Unlike the Garveyites and Rastafari who strongly emphasise links between the African diaspora and Africa itself Elijah Muhammad and the NOI have instead focused their attention on the African diaspora in the Americas 142 rejecting a specifically Pan African ideology 143 Elijah Muhammad stated that where as the Black man in Africa is our brother our central responsibility is with the Black man here in the wilderness of North America 144 Rather than treating Africa as a homeland the Nation s origin myths present Mecca in Saudi Arabia as the original home of African Americans 145 Africa itself was often portrayed in Nation writings as the least desirable of the Original Asiatic lands 146 Gender and sexuality issues Edit Women members of the NOI at a Saviour s Day meeting in 1974 A women s outfit incorporating a headpiece and full length garment covering the arms and legs was introduced in the 1930s intended to preserve the wearer s modesty 147 The NOI s teachings on gender issues are conservative and patriarchal 148 promoting strict gender roles for men and women 27 Emphasis is placed on the family unit 149 the Nation maintains that the security of the black family unit is ensured when its members adhere to their gendered duties and responsibilities 150 Seeking to restore black manhood 151 the Nation expresses great concern regarding the emasculation of black men attributing this attitude to the failure of black men to prevent the sexual assault of black women by white men over the centuries 152 It expects men to be providers for their family 153 Women are expected to act as caretakers of the household and the children 154 and are cautioned from forming friendships with men 155 Outsiders often perceive the Nation s women as being victims of male oppression and control 156 The group s leadership is overwhelmingly male 149 although several women rose to senior positions during the 1990s 157 in 1998 the Nation appointed its first woman minister Ava Muhammad as head of Mosque Number 15 in Georgia 158 In various cases Nation women still play an active role in their communities 159 sometimes challenging established gender norms in the organization 160 The NOI strictly enforces heterosexual monogamy among its members and encourages sexual abstinence prior to marriage 161 Members seeking to court another are expected to inform the captain of their local FOI or MGT about their intentions 162 Men found to have beaten their wives are temporarily suspended from Nation membership 163 Divorce is frowned upon but not forbidden 156 Children are expected to study hard avoid street culture and respect their elders 164 Farrakhan was initially highly critical of rap music because he argued it promoted sexual promiscuity 165 Although Nation members are allowed to marry non members 162 the group stipulates that they should only marry other black people 166 claiming that sex with white women emasculates black men 167 Birth control methods are criticised as an attempt by the white establishment to lower the black birthrate 168 although Farrakhan stated support for abortion in cases of rape or incest or where the woman s life is endangered by the pregnancy 169 Same sex relationships are condemned as immoral 170 Farrakhan for instance banned gay men from his Million Man March bringing accusations of homophobia against him and the Nation 171 Practices EditServices prayer and celebration Edit A Nation of Islam mosque in Baton Rouge Louisiana United States 2005 During the 1960s the NOI s places of worship were called both temples and mosques 172 As well as serving a religious function these can also be used as a community center bank school and child care facility 173 Those attending meetings will sometimes be searched by members of the Fruit of Islam FOI or the Muslim Girl s Training group who look both for weapons and for objects like cosmetics and cigarettes which are disapproved of 174 After this the attendees are seen to their seats 174 usually rows of benches 175 The sexes are segregated during worship women on the right and men on the left 176 The tone of Nation services is sombre and quiet 174 Services typically begin with the statement As salamu alaykum peace be upon you with the congregation responding Wa alaikum As salam and also upon you 177 Meetings at the mosque are both opened and closed with prayers 174 and the Nation s national anthem may be played 175 A lecture will be provided by one of the ministers 178 The minister may read out verses selected from either the Bible or Qur an 174 In the late 1950s Elijah Muhammad published a prayer manual outlining how his followers should pray five times a day this involved an ablution beforehand 179 He stipulated that these prayers should be in English although commented that in future he would explain how to do so in Arabic 179 In later articles he explained that his followers should face towards Mecca as they pray symbolising their journey toward the restoration of black greatness 180 The most important date in the Nation s year is February 26 Saviours Day which is believed to be the birthday of Fard Muhammad 181 This is the date on which the organization holds its annual national convention 182 Under Farrakhan the Nation has also held a second Saviour s Day each year on October 7 to mark the birth of Elijah Muhammad 183 Members are encouraged to make the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca 184 Elijah Muhammad himself did so three times 185 Lifestyle Edit The Nation requests that new members change any names inherited from slave owners who owned their ancestors as a declaration of mental emancipation 186 This is not considered necessary if the new member has a name that is already African in origin 187 During the mid 20th century it began encouraging the use of X as a surname symbolising what they regarded as African American identity as an ex slave and also as a marker for their lost ancestral name 188 As this results in many individuals having the same name numbers are added before the X to differentiate members i e Charles 2X Charles 3X 188 Bean pies which are among the food produced by the Nation The NOI encourages its followers to live highly disciplined lifestyles revolving around structure and order 145 these conservative and ascetic approaches have led to followers being called Black Puritans 189 They are encouraged to obey the law 190 to seek gainful employment 191 to always be punctual 161 to avoid buying on credit 192 and to not gamble 193 It is typical for male members to cut their hair very short sometimes shaving the head entirely and to not wear a beard 194 This signifies their willingness to abide to the strict rules of the organisation and their renunciation of much personal choice 195 They are expected to wear suits with either ties or bowties 196 those who are part of the Fruit of Islam guards wear military style uniforms 197 Women are commanded to dress modestly 164 they are not permitted to wear trousers and are encouraged to cover their heads although the latter is deemed optional 197 The NOI teaches that practitioners should seek to keep fit and maintain a healthy diet 198 Vegetarianism is encouraged among members although not obligatory 199 with Elijah Muhammad writing that meat was never intended for man to eat 199 In How to Eat How to Live Elijah Muhammad urged his followers to subsist primarily on fruit vegetables and certain grains and to choose lamb if they must eat meat 139 Discouraged foods include dried fruits 199 white flour 161 additives 161 and fast food 199 Although its own produce is not wholly organic the Nation is supportive of organic food and the avoidance of genetically modified crops insecticides and pesticides 200 The NOI also encourages followers to avoid foods associated with the slave culture of the U S such as cornbread catfish and collard greens deeming this cuisine to be undignified 161 Concerned about obesity and diabetes among African Americans Elijah Muhammad urged his followers to restrict their caloric intake ideally by eating only one meal a day 201 He claimed that this would extend the human lifespan and that those who ate only once every 24 hours would live for 150 years and that those who ate once every seven days would live for 1 050 years 161 Members are also encouraged to conduct regular three day fasts 199 and to fast during the daylight for the entirety of December 199 The NOI also prohibits the use of alcohol 202 tobacco 203 and other recreational drugs 204 and has recommended the avoidance of vaccines for children 205 Economic and educational independence Edit The interior of a Nation owned bakery in Oakland California Espousing economic nationalism 206 the Nation follows the ideas of earlier thinkers like Booker T Washington and Marcus Garvey in emphasizing the construction of black infrastructure as a means of community empowerment 207 The Nation has created many companies 206 including the Salaam restaurant chain the Shabazz bakeries the Fashahnn Islamic clothing range the Clean N Fresh skin and haircare products Abundant Life Clinics and in Chicago it owns a mall 207 It owns various clothing stores and food markets 207 Since the 1980s it has also sought government contracts 208 and in 1988 it established the Security Agency Incorporated which provided FOI patrols for clients 209 In 1985 it launched its POWER People Organized and Working for Economic Rebirth project designed to redirect black purchasing power toward black owned businesses 210 It also seeks the collective economic advancement of African Americans through individual achievement 211 various women members created their own businesses sometimes run from the home 212 Some of its African American left wing anti capitalist critics have derisively dismissed the Nation s approach to economics as black capitalism 213 Farrakhan has responded that while socialism appeals to him capitalism is the only feasible road to economic empowerment for African Americans 125 The Nation prioritises land ownership to increase food production and autonomy for African Americans 200 a commonly used slogan among the NOI is that The farm is the engine of our national life 214 By the early 1970s it had 20 000 acres of farm land in Michigan Alabama and Georgia 215 while in 1994 Farrakhan s Nation purchased 1 556 acres of rural South Georgia near Bronwood naming it Muhammad Farms 216 Much of the produce grown here is distributed to NOI mosques around the country 217 NOI members also own urban gardens in various U S cities 218 In 1991 the Nation launched its Three Year Economic Savings Plan asking followers to send them 10 a month over the three years money that would collectively allow the group to buy more farmland 219 For the Nation acquiring land and growing food is regarded as a means of building self determination for African Americans 218 It hopes to establish a system of black owned farms through which to feed 40 million black people 218 with the stated aim of providing at least one healthy meal a day for every African American 217 The NOI is highly critical of the U S school system believing that by being Eurocentric in its focus and concealing the achievement of non white societies it perpetuates white supremacy To this end the Nation has established its own educational system 220 Across the U S it has established Muhammad Universities of Islam most of these are elementary schools although a few also offer secondary education 221 These emphasize science mathematics black history Arabic and NOI doctrine 164 Farrakhan has said that they need to provide black children with an education to make them Gods 136 In these schools boys and girls are taught separately 222 pupils are only given two weeks of vacation each year 164 Combating the idea that academic achievement entails acting white the Nation has sought to associate hard work in school with pride in being black 223 As well as African American pupils some of these schools have also accepted students from Latino Asian and Pacific Island communities 224 Civic engagement Edit The Nation also has a longstanding record of involvement in civic economic and political activities outside the strictly religious arena 173 In some economically deprived areas they have played a role in providing services that the public institutions have not 225 In some areas with high African American populations it has for instance engaged in door to door campaigns to raise awareness about local pollution 226 or used the FOI to patrol neighborhoods as a community watchdog 226 especially to stop drug dealing 227 The Nation has also urged African Americans not to rely on state welfare payments arguing that this undermines the community s ability to be self sufficient 228 Edward E Curtis IV stated that the Nation is both highly religious and political at the same time 229 while Gardell noted that it formulated emphatic political demands 230 However the NOI has urged its members to avoid mainstream electoral politics 231 in 1961 it was observed that its members rarely voted 232 Elijah Muhammad refused to support any African Americans campaigning for election although Louis Farrakhan backed Jesse Jackson s 1984 campaign to become the Democratic Party s presidential candidate 233 and in 1990 three NOI candidates stood for election in the U S 234 Many people have presumed the NOI to be a revolutionary movement 235 however it has not sought to foment political revolution or violent social change instead focusing its emphasis on shifting the consciousness of its members encouraging them to focus on personal moral improvement family building and economic activity 236 Its members avoided involvement in the race riots of the 1960s 237 History EditBackground Edit The Moorish Science Temple of America whose members are pictured here in 1928 was a key influence on the Nation of Islam Islam had a presence in North America prior to the formation of the United States African Muslims were among the Spanish expeditions that explored the continent during the early modern period and were also among the many enslaved people transported there via the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to 19th centuries 238 It is estimated that at the time of the American Revolution in the 1760s 80s approximately 15 percent of enslaved Africans and African Americans in the new United States were Muslim 239 Although Islam probably died out among the African American community over subsequent generations 240 the notion that Islam was a religion historically associated with African Americans influenced the emergence of groups like the NOI in the early 20th century 241 The early NOI s theology was informed by various sources including older forms of black nationalism Garveyism the Moorish Science Temple of America the Jehovah s Witnesses and Black Freemasonry 28 The Nation was significantly influenced by Marcus Garvey a Jamaican born black nationalist who lived in the U S from 1916 to 1927 and who formed the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League UNIA 242 Zoe Coley commented that UNIA provided the cultural bedrock for the NOI 243 Garvey s economic nationalism whereby he called for African American economic self sufficiency and enterprise was a particular influence 244 The Moorish Science Temple an organization also promoting an idiosyncratic religion that described its teachings as Islam would also be a key influence on the Nation 245 This had been established by the North Carolina born African American Noble Drew Ali in Newark New Jersey in 1913 246 Drew Ali claimed that he was the reincarnation of both Jesus and Muhammad 247 and maintained that African Americans should refer to themselves as Moorish Americans reflecting what he believed were their connections to the Islamic Moors of North Africa 248 The Nation then emerged in the context of the 1930s when large numbers of African Americans were migrating from southern states to the cities of the north 249 most of its early members were southern migrants who had settled in Detroit 250 Wallace Fard Muhammad Edit The Nation of Islam was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad who appeared in Detroit in July 1930 when he began preaching his ideas among the city s African Americans 251 Fard Muhammad claimed that he was an Arab from Mecca who had come to the United States on a mission to the African American people whom he called the Nation of Islam to restore them to their original faith 252 The Nation has since taught that he was born in Mecca on February 26 1877 the son of a black father and white mother in their view he was Allah himself 253 My name is W D Fard and I come from the Holy City of Mecca More about myself I will not tell you yet for the time has not yet come I am your brother You have not yet seen me in my royal robes A message from Fard Muhammad as reported by an early follower 254 Outside of the Nation various theories have been proposed as to the true identity of Fard Muhammad 255 The Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI later noted that Fard Muhammad s fingerprints matched those of Wallie D Ford a white man who had a record of arrests and had served a three year sentence in San Quentin Prison for drugs charges Ford had been released in May 1929 a year before the appearance of Fard Muhammad 256 The NOI reject the identification of Fard Muhammad as Ford claiming that the FBI forged the fingerprint evidence 256 Another allegation is that Fard had been a member of the Moorish Science Temple of America David Ford el and had tried to claim its leadership by proclaiming himself to be the reincarnation of founder Noble Drew Ali but failed 257 258 Fard Muhammad s following grew rapidly 259 Around 7000 to 8000 people attended his meetings which were held three days a week 259 Some of those attracted to it had previously been members of the Moorish Science Temple 260 He wrote two manuals the Secret Ritual of the Nation of Islam and the Teaching for the Lost Found Nation of Islam in a Mathematical Way 261 He also urged his followers to listen to the radio sermons of the Watch Tower Society and Baptist fundamentalists 262 He established a bureaucratic administration within the Nation its own system of schools and the Fruit of Islam FOI paramilitary wing for men and the Muslim Girls Training School for women 263 In 1931 an African American man named Elijah Poole became a disciple of Fard Muhammad 264 He had been born to a poor family in Bold Springs Georgia in 1897 his father was a sharecropper and Baptist preacher 265 In 1923 Poole and his wife Clara relocated to Detroit where they settled in the black ghetto of Paradise Valley 266 There he joined Garvey s UNIA 267 and worked in industrial plants before becoming unemployed amid the Great Depression 264 On joining the Nation of Islam Fard Muhammad gave Poole the new name of Elijah Karriem 268 In 1932 the Detroit Police Department arrested an NOI member for a murder which they claimed was a human sacrifice This led to headline news which often identified the NOI as a Voodoo cult 269 The police then raided the Nation s headquarters and arrested Fard Muhammad He was soon released the killer was declared insane 270 After this incident Fard Muhammad gave Elijah Poole increasing powers declaring him Supreme Minister of the Nation and renaming him Elijah Muhammad 271 In 1933 Elijah Muhammad then set up a new temple on Chicago s South Side 272 Fard Muhammad was arrested several further times in September 1933 he was arrested for disorderly conduct in Chicago which is his last known verified whereabouts 272 In 1934 Fard Muhammad disappeared without notifying his followers or designating a successor 273 274 Rumours spread that he had moved to Europe or that he had been killed either by the police or by ex followers of his 275 Elijah Muhammad s leadership Edit Elijah Muhammad who formulated many of the Nation s key ideas With Fard Muhammad gone Elijah Muhammad took over as head of the Nation 276 277 It was under his leadership that the NOI s theology crystallized 278 Elijah Muhammad claimed that Fard Muhammad had been the latest Allah and that he had now returned to his own realm with Elijah Muhammad remaining on Earth as his messenger 279 His wife Clara took on the identity of Khadija 272 Under Elijah Muhammad s leadership the NOI relocated its headquarters to Chicago 280 He then spent the following seven years traveling around the United States mostly along the East Coast promoting his religion to African Americans 272 Under his leadership the Nation grew in size and influence 281 During the Second World War the FBI started monitoring the Nation 282 FBI informants reported pro Japanese sentiment being expressed at its meetings 283 Many Nation members refused the military draft 283 and in September 1942 the FBI arrested 65 NOI members including Elijah Muhammad who was incarcerated for refusing to register for the draft 284 He was released in August 1946 285 at which point he found the Nation s membership had declined 286 He lived at a villa named The Palace in Chicago s Hyde Park area and in winter moved to a large ranch outside Phoenix Arizona 182 Increasingly exposed to Sunni Islam Elijah Muhammad drew more elements from it into the Nation 287 and also undertook the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca three times in 1959 1967 and 1971 185 During the latter part of the 1950s the group s membership grew 288 In 1959 the FBI encouraged the media to attack the Nation hoping to discredit it 289 It was in this year that a documentary about the group The Hate that Hate Produced was screened 290 This press criticism backfired giving the group significant attention and assisting its recruitment 291 The NOI became a foil for the civil rights movement which presented the group as evidence for the harmful effect that poor race relations were having in the U S 292 In 1962 Los Angeles police raided one of the Nation s temples one member was killed and seven injured attracting national press attention 293 In 1963 a schism in the Nation s Temple Number 7 in Harlem led to the creation of a new group the Five Percent Nation of Islam 294 During the early 1960s Malcolm X left and Muhammad Ali right helped raise the profile of the Nation One of the Nation s most significant members at this time was Malcolm X Born Malcolm Little he discovered the Nation while in prison following his release in 1952 he rose swiftly through its hierarchy 295 In 1960 he launched the newspaper Muhammad Speaks which reached a circulation of over 600 000 296 In 1963 he became the Nation s first National Representative 297 He also travelled internationally in Britain he met with Michael de Freitas who converted to the Nation and created a British branch 298 Another prominent NOI member was the boxer Muhammad Ali Born Cassius Clay he encountered the Nation in 1961 and received significant media criticism after announcing his membership of the group in 1964 299 Malcolm X went on the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca where he came across white Muslims an experience that shifted him from his total hostility to white people 300 Immediately prior to this he also began ideologically distancing himself from NOI by declaring Black Nationalism his political philosophy 301 This was directly in violation of Elijah Muhammad s vision in which the Nation was apolitical 301 In light of these experiences in March 1964 he left the Nation and became a Sunni Muslim 302 He began denouncing Elijah Muhammad for his extramarital affairs and accused the Nation of holding back the revolutionary potential of African Americans 303 In February 1965 Malcolm X was assassinated in New York 304 The following year three members of the NOI were convicted of the killing 305 306 307 308 There was press speculation that the Nation s leaders were complicit 305 something which damaged the group s reputation 297 recruitment declined in the latter half of the 1960s 215 As the Black Power movement emerged in the late 1960s many observers saw the Nation as its forerunner and a vanguard 309 with the Nation claiming that it had inspired the movement 310 In 1972 the NOI bought the St Constantine Greek Orthodox Church in Chicago and transformed it into their headquarters temple Mosque Maryam 182 and by 1974 it had either temples or study groups in every U S state and the District of Columbia 182 Relations with law enforcement remained strained in 1972 a New York City policeman was shot and killed during a search of a NOI Mosque in Harlem 311 It had continued to face opposition from the FBI who engaged in a renewed counterintelligence project to destabilise it from the late 1960s 312 This included sowing discord between the Nation and the Black Panther Party encouraging several incidents in which Black Panthers attacked NOI newspaper sellers 313 The NOI also engaged in recurring conflicts with other Islamic groups that had predominantly black memberships 314 It argued with Hamaas Abdul Khaalis Hanafi Muslim group and in 1973 a group of Nation of Islam members killed seven Hanafi Muslims five of them children The Nation s leadership denied sanctioning this attack 315 Wallace Muhammad and the NOI s transition to Sunni Islam Edit In 1975 Elijah Muhammad died and was succeeded by his son Wallace Muhammad 316 Wallace Muhammad had had a strained relationship with his father and his father s teachings while imprisoned in the early 1960s he had moved closer to Sunni Islam and had left the Nation on several occasions during the 1960s and 1970s having re joined in 1974 317 As leader Wallace Muhammad launched what he called a Second Resurrection in the movement 318 He increasingly aligned the group with Sunni Islam rejecting many of the Nation s idiosyncratic teachings 319 including its claim that Fard was God that Elijah Muhammad had been a prophet the Myth of Yakub and the claims about the Mother Plane He retained the Nation s themes of black pride healthy diets sexual modesty and economic self determination 318 Temples were renamed mosques while ministers were renamed imams 320 The FOI was disbanded with Wallace calling it a hooligan outfit 321 Black nationalism was abandoned 322 and the ban on white people joining the Nation was lifted 323 In November 1976 the Nation was renamed the World Community of al Islam in the West and in April 1978 it was renamed the American Muslim Mission 324 Wallace Muhammad also renamed himself first to Warith Deen and then to Warithuddin Muhammad 325 Wallace Muhammad claimed that these changes were in accordance with his father s intentions 326 he claimed to be in contact with Fard Muhammad and that the founder had established the NOI s idiosyncratic beliefs as a means of gradually introducing Islamic teachings to African Americans with the ultimate intention of bringing them to mainstream Sunni Islam 327 He claimed that the Nation s old belief that the white man was the Devil referred to mental whiteness a state that is rebelling against Allah rather than light skinned people themselves 328 Most mosques remained with Wallace Muhammad during these reforms but some mosques rejected them seeking to return to the group s original teachings 318 small splinter groups emerged in Detroit Atlanta and Baltimore 329 In 1985 Wallace Muhammad disbanded the organization telling his followers to affiliate instead with their local mosques 330 331 Louis Farrakhan s revival Edit Louis Farrakhan who re established the Nation of Islam after leaving Wallace Muhammad s group in 1977 The leading figure in rejecting Wallace Muhammad s reforms was Louis Farrakhan who with other disaffected members began to rebuild the Nation of Islam in 1977 332 Born in the Bronx to Caribbean migrants Farrakhan had been a nightclub singer prior to joining the original Nation in 1955 333 In 1964 he had become minister of the NOI s Harlem Temple and in 1967 a national representative of Elijah Muhammad 334 Under Wallace Muhammad s leadership Farrakhan was relocated to Chicago widely seen as a demotion 335 Farrakhan presented himself as Elijah Muhammad s true successor 336 his followers described Wallace Muhammad s leadership as the Fall 337 Farrakhan s NOI spent the first several years focusing on rebuilding 338 the Fruit of Islam was re established 339 In 1979 Farrakhan established a newspaper The Final Call 340 which by 1994 had a circulation of 500 000 341 In 1981 Farrakhan s Nation held its first convention 342 and its membership began to increase rapidly in the mid 1980s 343 It was able to buy much of the property owned by its predecessor including the Chicago Palace and the Stoney Island Mosque 344 Farrakhan claimed that in 1985 at Tepotzotlan in Mexico he was teleported aboard the Mother Plane and there was given advice on the future of the Nation 345 Masonic elements and numerology came to play an important part in Farrakhan s speeches 318 Farrakhan s Nation expanded its international network including building links in Africa particularly strong links were built between Farrakhan and Ghanaian President Jerry Rawlings 346 Under Farrakhan the NOI adopted more elements of mainstream Islamic practice although not to the extent of Wallace Muhammad 347 Although Farrakhan was critical of the heavy use of themes such as sex violence and drugs in rap and hip hop music 348 during the 1980s and 1990s artists influenced by the Nation who were active in these genres played a role in spreading the Nation s message 349 Farrakhan had grown concerned by the growth of gang violence especially among African American youths and in 1989 launched his Stop the Killing campaign to combat it 350 He played a key role in getting two of the country s largest gangs the Bloods and the Crips to sign a ceasefire in May 1992 351 Later in the 1990s Farrakhan s NOI opened its first mosques in Britain 352 Farrakhan organized the Million Man March through Washington DC in 1995 which united a range of African American groups to counter negative portrayals of black manhood it was the largest black demonstration in U S history 353 In 2010 Farrakhan announced his embrace of Dianetics and has actively encouraged NOI members to undergo auditing from the Church of Scientology 354 355 Farrakhan praised L Ron Hubbard founder of Dianetics and Scientology stating that his ideas were exceedingly valuable to every Caucasian person on this Earth 354 355 356 357 NOI Sister Charlene Muhammad received the Dianetics Auditor of the Year Award 2018 358 Organization EditLeadership and financing Edit Family ties are an important element of the NOI s senior ranks various members of Elijah Muhammad s family were for instance married to members of Farrakhan s family 359 As of 2020 the Nation consisted of ten ministries for Spiritual Development Agriculture Education Information Health Trade and Commerce Defense Justice Arts and Culture and Science and Technology 101 It also established a shadow ministry forming the prototype for the governance of the future state it hopes to lead 360 The Fruit of Islam is an elite group of men within the NOI tasked with adhering to its rules more strictly than other members The FOI members are trained in military protocol wrestling boxing and judo 178 They are charged with protecting the temples 178 The Nation has also established Muslim Girls Training for women teaching them domestic skills self defense tactics and other life skills 178 The NOI explains that its finances come primarily from donations and its businesses 361 At the start of the 1960s it was reported that members were expected to donate a set part of their earnings to the group each year as of 1952 this reportedly constituted a third of a member s annual income 192 In 1976 Wallace Muhammad estimated the Nation s net worth to be 46 million although revealed it had a severe cash flow problem owed millions in back taxes to the Internal Revenue Service and was making a loss with its agricultural operations 362 Although the Nation does not reveal the extent of its financial resources 363 in the 1990s its assets were estimated to total 80 000 000 364 Press and media Edit From its early days the Nation used print media to promote its ideas including the magazines Muhammad Speaks 1961 75 and The Final Call 365 Muhammad Speaks included contributions not only from Nation members but also from leftist and progressive writers in the African American community 366 Members were encouraged to sell these magazines on street corners or sometimes door to door in African American majority areas 367 These sellers were given sales quotas to fulfil and were sometimes punished if they failed to meet them 368 The Nation s first magazine aimed at women Righteous Living appeared in the early 1990s 369 As well as running shows on radio stations 370 and distributing videos 371 the Nation has also established websites and a presence across many social media outlets 372 Domestic and international affiliations Edit Gaddafi was the Nation s most prominent international supporter Farrakhan stated that we will always love him admire and respect him and stand up and speak on his behalf 373 In the 1930s and 1940s the Nation had links with Satokata Takahashi a Japanese man who was promoting pro Japanese sentiment among African American groups 374 Takahashi lived with an officer of the Nation for a time and also married a former member 375 Elijah Muhammad declared that Takahashi was teaching African Americans that the Japanese were brothers and friends of the American Negroes 374 During the Second World War in which the U S fought against Japan many Nation members expressed pro Japanese sentiment and refused the draft to fight against the Japanese military stating that they would not fight people whom they regarded as fellow members of the Original Asiatic Race 374 Under Elijah Muhammad the Nation established relations with various Muslim countries 376 regarded as strategic allies in its conflict with the U S government 377 In 1957 Malcolm X organized a conference on colonialism attended by delegates from Egypt Iraq Sudan and Morocco 378 while Elijah Muhammad met with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1959 and the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in 1972 379 On taking control Farrakhan also pursued links with various Muslim majority countries 380 visiting Ghana and Libya in 1985 381 For many years Gaddafi was the Nation s most prominent international supporter and offered them assistance in various forms 382 His government gave the Nation a 3 million interest free loan in 1972 to purchase its Chicago South Side centre 383 and another 5 million interest free loan in 1985 to fund its black enterprise program 384 It later offered Farrakhan s Nation 1 billion which the U S government sought to block 385 386 387 388 In 1996 Farrakhan embarked on a tour of Africa and the Middle East meeting with leaders including Gaddafi Ghana s Jerry Rawlings Nigeria s Sani Abacha South Africa s Nelson Mandela and Iraq s Saddam Hussein 389 On that tour he also attended annual celebrations of the Iranian Revolution in Tehran 390 he visited Iran again in 2018 391 Like Garvey s UNIA before them the Nation has also built links with white nationalist and other far right white groups on the basis of their shared belief in racial separatism 392 Malcolm X revealed that the Nation had held meetings with representatives of the Ku Klux Klan KKK and the American Nazi Party ANP 393 The ANP s leader George Lincoln Rockwell attended an NOI rally in Washington DC in 1961 and then spoke at the Nation s St Saviour s Day rally in Chicago in 1962 394 Links with the white far right continued under Farrakhan s Nation with Tom Metzger of the White Aryan Resistance donating money to the Nation in 1985 and expressing approval of its separatist aims 395 During the 1980s the Nation also had a supportive relationship with the British National Front as the latter s Strasserite leadership were endorsing a united front against multi racial society 396 During the 1990s the Nation collaborated with members of the far right LaRouche movement as part of their shared opposition to the U S led Gulf War 397 These links have not prevented some white far right opposition to the NOI in 1993 the Fourth Reich Skinheads were revealed to have plotted to kill Farrakhan 398 Conversion and demographics Edit Members of the Fruit of Islam photographed in 1974 Since its early years the NOI has sought to recruit disenfranchised African American Christians 78 and unemployed disenchanted black youth 399 Its process of seeking converts is termed fishing for the dead 182 To this end the Nation holds regular open meetings mass rallies street corner lectures and prison outreach 182 Young brothers seek new recruits in jails and penitentiaries pool halls and barbershops college campuses and street corners 400 It has also utilized books by Elijah Muhammad radio broadcasts and audio recorded speeches to promote its message 188 In its early decades the Nation s appeal was strongest in poor African American neighborhoods 401 Colley thought that in these areas it offered men living in poverty the opportunity to reclaim their manhood and sense of pride thus partly explaining its appeal 402 Although originating as a largely lower class movement over the course of the 20th century it became increasingly middle class 403 Gardell suggested that this was partly due to the Nation s focus on hard work and rigid morality which helped improve the economic situation of its members coupled with the broader growth of the African American middle class in this period 404 He also believed that the changing class composition and with it a less hostile attitude to white dominant American society assisted the shift to Sunnism under Wallace Muhammad in the 1970s 33 A crowd of Muslims applaud during Elijah Muhammad s annual Saviors Day message in Chicago in 1974 The group s recruitment efforts have proved particularly effective among drug addicts and incarcerated criminals 405 operating in areas where the African American Christian churches lack a strong presence 406 The Nation was active in prison ministry by the 1950s with its numbers of imprisoned followers rising steadily in the latter part of that decade 407 many of its members including Malcolm X were recruited while in prison 408 Farrakhan stepped up the Nation s prison ministry in the 1980s in response to the increasing incarceration of young black men under the Reagan administration 409 By the early 1960s prison authorities were raising concerns that the NOI was exacerbating racial tensions in prisons 410 the availability of NOI material in prisons has raised concerns in the U S government with Peter King and Frank Wolf expressing concern about its potential role in the radicalization of inmates 371 Some incarcerated members have claimed to have experienced discriminatory treatment from prison authorities because of their religion 411 Prior to 1975 only a small number of Hispanic American and Native American individuals were members of the NOI although under Farrakhan the Nation began putting greater efforts into recruiting among these groups 412 The number of Latinos in the Nation is not known although their presence in the group is much higher under Farrakhan than it was under Elijah Muhammad 409 Not all members are likely to believe every teaching of the Nation implicitly 413 and there are reports of members who privately break the Nation s rules for instance by listening to jazz records and smoking marijuana 414 The Nation does not publicly reveal its membership numbers 1 and in the past it had a high turnover among its members some eventually evolving into becoming conventional Sunni Muslims 155 Under Fard Muhammad s leadership it reached a total of approximately 8000 members 415 By 1960 its membership was being estimated at between 30 000 and 100 000 281 in his 1961 study of the group the scholar C Eric Lincoln suggested the higher estimate 141 In 2007 the scholar of religion Lawrence A Mamiya suggested that there were then around 50 000 members of the Nation 1 While based in the U S the Nation has also established either a presence or influence in all parts of the world where there is a dense clustering of the African diaspora 416 In 2006 Nuri Tinaz suggested that the Nation may have up to 2 000 members and sympathisers in the United Kingdom 417 Accusations of prejudice EditMain article Nation of Islam and antisemitism Further information Antisemitism in Islam While the NOI and Farrakhan have been portrayed in dominant white society and mainstream media as being militant racist separatist dangerous bigot the prophet of hate and anti Semitic among significant sections of the black press and among African Americans and African Caribbeans the movement and its leader and members have been highly respected and regarded as role models for the youth and as the vocal voice savior and spokesmen of oppressed people Nuri Tinaz 2006 418 Having been criticised by both blacks and non blacks 419 the Nation has repeatedly been accused of stirring up racial hatred against white people 420 It has been called a hate group by African American civil rights activists including the NAACP s Roy Wilkins 421 as well as by the Southern Poverty Law Center which claims that the NOI teaches a theology of innate black superiority over whites 422 423 The Associated Press described the Nation as having in the past favored black supremacist views 424 In a 1993 speech at Kean College the NOI representative Khalid Abdul Muhammad stated that White South Africans should be given 24 hours to leave their country and all of those whites who are still in South Africa after that point should be killed 425 Farrakhan censured him for the tone of this speech 426 The Nation has also been accused of anti LGBT rhetoric 422 The NOI has repeatedly been accused of antisemitism an accusation that it has denied 427 428 429 Accusations of antisemitism have also been levelled at Malcolm X 430 and Farrakhan In the 1980s Farrakhan referred to Judaism as a dirty religion 431 and described Adolf Hitler as a very great man who raised Germany up from nothing 432 He dismissed the claim that the Jews are God s Chosen People as ridiculous insisting that this role is taken by the black race 433 At his Kean College speech Khalid Mohammad had referred to the Jew nited Nations in Jew York City and stated that the Jewish people deserved Hitler 425 In 1991 the NOI published an anonymously authored book The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews this book generated controversy for arguing that Jews had a disproportionately high level of involvement in the Atlantic slave trade 434 David W Leinweber of Emory University asserts that the Nation of Islam engages in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and that they exaggerate the role of Jews in the trans Atlantic slave trade 435 Accusations of antisemitism have come from the Anti Defamation League ADL 436 437 a U S based Jewish organization which has referred to Farrakhan as Black Hitler 438 The ADL has engaged in surveillance of the Nation anti NOI political lobbying and attempts to block its enterprises 439 Farrakhan has stated The ADL uses the term anti Semitism to stifle all criticism of Zionism and the Zionist policies of the State of Israel and also to stifle all legitimate criticism of the errant behavior of some Jewish people toward the non Jewish population of the earth 440 Other Jewish groups have also been critical of the NOI four Jewish organizations withdrew their sponsorship of the Parliament of World Religions when it invited Farrakhan to speak 441 while Jewish student groups have sought to prevent Farrakhan giving speeches on university campuses picketing these speeches when they have occurred 439 Far right Jewish groups have gone further the Jewish Defense League organized a Death to Farrakhan march in 1985 while the Jewish Defense Organization was found to have Farrakhan as the top name on its list of individuals it sought to kill 442 The NOI Health Minister Abdul Alim Muhammad accused Jewish doctors of injecting blacks with the AIDS virus 443 444 in 2020 Ishmael Muhammad claimed that Jewish people were receiving different vaccines for COVID 19 from other people 445 Reception and influence Edit The logo of the Nation on its property in Indianapolis The Nation of Islam became the largest black nationalist organization in the United States 446 having cultivated a sense of pride among many African Americans and made a noted effort to improve their education and welfare 420 At the start of the 21st century Barrett called the NOI one of the most visible and controversial black religions 447 while in the 1990s Gardell termed it the most renowned and controversial of the African American Muslim groups 448 African American studies scholar Priscilla McCutcheon noted that although the NOI remained a comparatively small religion it had a wide discursive reach 129 while in 1996 Gardell commented that its influence among black youth far exceeds its membership 449 The Nation s role in confronting gang violence drugs and poverty among African American communities has earned them respect 450 The sociologist A A Akom opined that the NOI had a reputation even among non Muslim African Americans of speaking truth to power 451 with a 1994 Time CNN poll found that two thirds of African Americans who knew of Farrakhan had favorable views of him 452 Similarly positive assessments of the Nation s efforts have been observed among black communities in Britain 399 The Nation s teachings have influenced other groups such as the Ansaaru Allah Community which formed in 1970 453 and the Word of Faith movement a type of Christianity which emerged in areas of the U S where the NOI had a pre existing presence 454 The Nation has also influenced a range of hip hop and rap artists including Public Enemy Ice Cube Kam The Skinny Boys Sister Souljah and Prince Akeem 349 with various gangsta rap artists supporting the Nation 455 The NOI has been the subject of much scholarly attention 456 Initial research was largely undertaken by historians and sociologists in the late 1950s and 1960s and was often hostile or dismissive research influenced by disciplines like religious studies and gender studies followed later 457 During the 20th century most studies on the NOI relied on secondary sources due to the group s general unwillingness to open itself up to study 458 Those outside the movement have often seen its teachings as illogical and irrational 189 Various historical and scientific errors have been identified in the claims of its leaders 459 mainstream scientists and much of the wider public regard its mythological accounts as being pseudo scientific 8 Mainstream Islamic groups maintain that the Nation s members are not really Muslim 460 This is the view taken by groups like the Federation of Islamic Associations of the United States and Canada which have distanced themselves from the Nation 461 The Ahmadiyya an Islamic group whose legitimacy is also often rejected by mainstream Muslim communities similarly does not recognise the NOI as Islamic 462 Elijah Muhammad dismissed these objections by claiming that the Old Islam of his critics was led by white people 26 while Farrakhan has responded to such criticisms with his own critique of the mainstream Islamic world accusing it of racism of being obedient to the U S government of engaging in sectarian violence and of excessively relying on the hadith rather than the Quran 463 The Nation s views that white people lack inner divinity contrasts with the mainstream Islamic view that all humans are equal under God 47 See also Edit Chicago portal United States portal Politics portal Islam portalList of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups African American Jewish relations African American Muslims African diaspora religions Afrocentrism Islam in the African diaspora Islam in the United States List of topics related to the African diaspora Latino Muslims Nation of Gods and Earths a black nationalist movement influenced by Islam which was founded in 1964 Religion of black Americans United Nation of Islam an offshoot of the Nation of Islam which was founded in 1978References EditCitations Edit a b c MacFarquhar Neil February 26 2007 Nation of Islam at a Crossroad as Leader Exits The New York Times Archived from the original on November 23 2020 Retrieved March 21 2021 a b Gardell 1996 p 60 a b c d Austin 2003 p 59 Gardell 1996 p 185 Curtis IV 2002 p 187 Keener amp Usry 2005 p 172 MacGregor 2007 p 87 Oliver 2012 p 28 Curtis IV 2016 p 7 Barker Eileen 2015 New Religious Movements The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology Wiley doi 10 1002 9781405165518 wbeosn020 ISBN 978 1 4051 6551 8 although there were NRMs that attracted converts with different demographic profiles such as the young black males who joined the Rastafarians or the Nation of Islam a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint postscript link Tinaz 2000 p 45 Tinaz 2006 p 151 Barnett 2006 p 891 Izadi et al 2020 p 165 a b Curtis IV 2016 p 7 a b Wojcik 2003 p 280 a b Austin 2003 p 55 Gardell 1996 pp 54 181 Austin 2003 p 59 Barnett 2006 p 882 Soumahoro 2007 p 40 McCutcheon 2013b p 573 Soumahoro 2007 p 39 Fishman amp Soage 2013 pp 59 60 a b Berg 2005 p 686 Lincoln 1961 p iv Tinaz 1996 p 193 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 62 Gardell 1996 p 36 Tinaz 2000 p 46 Tinaz 2006 p 153 a b Soumahoro 2007 p 42 Gardell 1996 p 233 McCutcheon 2013b p 574 Curtis IV 2016 pp 8 9 a b c Tsoukalas 2004 p 456 Akom 2003 pp 307 308 Tinaz 2000 p 50 Barrett 2001 p 252 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 64 Berg 2005 p 700 a b c Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 62 a b Berg 2005 p 699 a b Allen 1996 p 8 a b c d Soumahoro 2007 p 40 Gardell 1996 p 106 Gardell 1996 pp 188 195 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 62 Oliver 2012 p 28 Gardell 1996 pp 109 322 Barnett 2006 p 881 Akom 2007 p 311 a b Gardell 1996 p 117 Barnett 2006 pp 881 882 Gardell 1996 p 169 Tinaz 1996 p 193 Curtis IV 2016 p 13 Barnett 2006 pp 877 878 Barrett 2001 p 252 Gardell 1996 pp 170 171 a b c d e Gardell 1996 p 171 a b Gardell 1996 p 145 Gardell 1996 pp 145 171 Tsoukalas 2004 p 455 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 62 a b Gardell 1996 p 173 Barnett 2006 p 876 Soumahoro 2007 p 40 a b c d Gardell 1996 p 144 a b c Gardell 1996 p 146 a b Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 63 a b Barnett 2006 p 876 a b Gardell 1996 p 134 Tsoukalas 2004 p 455 Gardell 1996 p 172 Gardell 1996 p 174 Barnett 2006 p 877 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 64 Keener amp Usry 2005 p 175 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 64 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Gardell 1996 p 233 Keener amp Usry 2005 p 175 Allen 1996 p 9 Curtis IV 2016 p 13 Curtis IV 2016 p 23 Allen 1996 p 10 Gardell 1996 p 144 Gardell 1996 p 145 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 63 Barnett 2006 p 882 Gardell 1996 pp 175 176 Gardell 1996 p 176 a b Gardell 1996 p 179 Gardell 1996 p 180 Allen 1996 p 10 Austin 2003 p 56 Soumahoro 2007 p 42 Austin 2003 p 57 Barnett 2006 p 882 Soumahoro 2007 p 42 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 63 a b c d Austin 2003 p 57 Austin 2003 p 57 Curtis IV 2016 p 14 a b Curtis IV 2016 p 14 Austin 2003 p 57 Barnett 2006 p 878 Gardell 1996 p 7 Austin 2003 p 57 Austin 2003 p 63 Austin 2003 p 58 Gardell 1996 p 153 a b Gardell 1996 p 147 Curtis IV 2016 p 15 Gardell 1996 p 148 Tsoukalas 2004 pp 453 454 Curtis IV 2016 p 15 a b c d Soumahoro 2007 p 41 Gardell 1996 pp 59 148 Gardell 1996 p 148 Tsoukalas 2004 p 454 Curtis IV 2016 p 22 Taylor 2005 p 61 Curtis IV 2016 p 16 Lincoln 1961 p 4 Gardell 1996 pp 269 348 Gabriel 2003 p 154 Gibson 2012 p 71 Gardell 1996 p 151 Berg 2005 p 692 a b c Gardell 1996 p 152 Gardell 1996 p 235 Curtis IV 2016 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 129 Gardell 1996 p 234 Gardell 1996 p 148 Gardell 1996 pp 59 148 Tinaz 1996 p 197 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 139 a b c Curtis IV 2016 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 150 Gardell 1996 pp 148 149 Knight 2000 p 165 Gardell 1996 p 157 Gardell 1996 p 60 Soumahoro 2007 p 41 Gardell 1996 p 59 16 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 63 Curtis IV 2016 p 16 Gardell 1996 pp 286 287 Gardell 1996 p 301 Gardell 1996 pp 325 327 Izadi et al 2020 p 151 Izadi et al 2020 p 141 a b Izadi et al 2020 p 148 Tinaz 2006 p 160 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 140 Colley 2014 p 400 Barnett 2006 p 882 Soumahoro 2007 p 46 Gardell 1996 p 36 a b Soumahoro 2007 p 39 Alex Haley The Playboy Interview Malcolm X Playboy May 1963 Allen 1996 p 8 Wojcik 2003 p 280 Barnett 2006 p 874 Gardell 1996 p 160 Gardell 1996 p 158 Taylor 2005 p 63 Curtis IV 2016 p 20 Gardell 1996 p 158 Gardell 1996 p 158 Barrett 2001 p 253 Tsoukalas 2004 p 456 Taylor 2005 p 57 Gardell 1996 pp 131 159 Gardell 1996 p 133 Gardell 1996 p 131 Gardell 1996 p 163 Gardell 1996 p 162 a b Gardell 1996 p 164 Gardell 1996 pp 159 164 Curtis IV 2016 pp 19 20 Gardell 1996 pp 59 164 Tsoukalas 2004 p 456 Curtis IV 2016 p 22 Gardell 1996 p 159 Gardell 1996 p 182 Soumahoro 2007 p 40 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 pp 124 147 McCutcheon 2013 p 61 Curtis IV 2016 p 6 Barrett 2001 p 252 Jeffries 2019 p 2 a b Gardell 1996 p 321 a b Barnett 2006 p 874 Barnett 2006 p 875 Austin 2003 p 58 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 142 Boaz 2018 p 24 a b McCutcheon 2013 p 69 Allen 1996 p 4 Gardell 1996 p 60 Soumahoro 2007 p 40 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 145 Haywood 2017 p 12 Gardell 1996 p 60 McCutcheon 2013 p 62 Gardell 1996 p 310 Gardell 1996 p 309 Gardell 1996 p 257 a b Gardell 1996 p 322 Gardell 1996 p 283 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 145 a b McCutcheon 2013 p 65 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 147 a b Lincoln 1961 p 4 Soumahoro 2007 p 42 Barnett 2006 p 882 Austin 2003 p 66 Austin 2003 p 65 Soumahoro 2007 p 42 a b Barnett 2006 p 883 Austin 2003 p 65 Gibson 2017 p 35 Gardell 1996 p 330 Barnett 2006 p 879 Turman 2015 p 140 a b Barnett 2006 p 879 West 1996 p 42 Haywood 2017 p 9 Curtis IV 2002 p 171 Gardell 1996 p 330 Barnett 2006 p 879 Gardell 1996 p 330 West 1996 p 42 Barnett 2006 p 879 Colley 2014 p 409 a b Gibson 2017 p 39 a b Gibson 2017 p 33 Gibson 2012 p 104 Gibson 2017 p 42 Gibson 2012 p 104 West 1996 p 41 Gibson 2017 pp 39 40 a b c d e f Curtis IV 2016 p 18 a b Gibson 2017 p 38 Gardell 1996 p 330 a b c d Gardell 1996 p 61 Gibson 2012 p 103 Gardell 1996 pp 61 335 Curtis IV 2002 pp 171 172 Gardell 1996 p 335 Gibson 2012 p 103 Curtis IV 2016 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 335 Gibson 2012 p 103 Gardell 1996 p 336 Barnett 2006 p 879 Gibson 2012 p 101 Curtis IV 2016 p 10 a b Akom 2007 p 722 a b c d e Curtis IV 2002 p 173 a b Gardell 1996 p 191 Gardell 1996 p 191 Barnett 2006 p 879 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 65 a b c d Curtis IV 2002 p 174 a b Curtis IV 2002 p 183 Curtis IV 2002 pp 183 184 Gardell 1996 p 63 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 60 a b c d e f Gardell 1996 p 63 Gardell 1996 p 137 Gardell 1996 p 192 a b Gardell 1996 pp 189 190 Gardell 1996 p 54 Barnett 2006 p 886 Barnett 2006 p 886 a b c Gardell 1996 p 64 a b Tinaz 1996 p 197 Colley 2014 p 405 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Lincoln 1961 p 17 Curtis IV 2016 p 18 a b Lincoln 1961 p 17 Lincoln 1961 p 17 Gardell 1996 p 61 Barnett 2006 p 888 Barnett 2006 pp 888 889 Gardell 1996 p 61 Barnett 2006 p 889 a b Barnett 2006 p 889 Barnett 2006 p 877 McCutcheon 2013b p 574 a b c d e f Gardell 1996 p 62 a b McCutcheon 2013b p 575 Gardell 1996 p 62 Curtis IV 2016 p 18 Gardell 1996 p 61 McCutcheon 2013b p 575 Colley 2014 p 400 Curtis IV 2016 p 18 Lincoln 1961 p 17 Gardell 1996 p 61 McCutcheon 2013b p 575 Colley 2014 p 400 Curtis IV 2016 p 18 Gardell 1996 p 61 Barnett 2006 p 883 Colley 2014 p 400 Knight 2000 p 153 a b Barnett 2006 p 884 a b c Gardell 1996 p 318 Allen 1996 p 19 Gardell 1996 p 304 Tinaz 1996 pp 202 203 Gardell 1996 p 319 Tinaz 1996 p 201 Akom 2003 p 307 West 1996 p 45 Gardell 1996 p 321 Barnett 2006 p 884 McCutcheon 2013 p 61 a b Allen 1996 p 14 McCutcheon 2013 p 62 McCutcheon 2013b p 572 a b McCutcheon 2013 p 65 McCutcheon 2013b p 575 a b c McCutcheon 2013 p 62 Gardell 1996 p 320 Gardell 1996 pp 61 323 Barnett 2006 p 880 Gardell 1996 p 323 Barnett 2006 p 880 Gardell 1996 pp 61 324 Barnett 2006 p 880 Akom 2003 p 313 Akom 2007 p 721 West 1996 p 45 Akom 2007 p 725 a b Akom 2007 p 723 Gardell 1996 pp 302 303 Gardell 1996 p 319 Curtis IV 2002 pp 167 168 Gardell 1996 p 5 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Lincoln 1961 p 18 Allen 1996 p 4 Gardell 1996 p 250 Gibson 2012 p 89 Gardell 1996 pp 313 314 Barnett 2006 p 891 Barnett 2006 p 891 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Gardell 1996 p 87 Gardell 1996 p 32 Gibson 2012 p 2 Gardell 1996 p 32 Gardell 1996 p 35 Gibson 2012 p 1 Gardell 1996 p 35 Tinaz 2006 p 153 Tsoukalas 2004 p 451 Barnett 2006 p 879 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 p 138 Colley 2014 p 393 Barnett 2006 p 880 Allen 1996 p 7 Gardell 1996 p 31 Tinaz 1996 p 193 Allen 1996 p 7 Gardell 1996 p 37 Tinaz 1996 p 193 Berg 2005 p 689 Gardell 1996 p 38 Gardell 1996 p 37 Tinaz 1996 pp 193 194 Tinaz 1996 p 194 Lincoln 1961 p 21 Lincoln 1961 pp 10 11 Allen Jr 1996 p 8sfnm error no target CITEREFAllen Jr 1996 help Gardell 1996 p 50 Gibson 2012 p 13 Colley 2014 p 397 Gardell 1996 pp 50 51 Gardell 1996 pp 53 155 Lincoln 1961 p 11 Gardell 1996 p 51 a b Gardell 1996 p 53 William David Hart 2016 Malcolm X as Religious Peripatetic In Byrd Dustin J Miri Seyed Javad eds Malcolm X From Political Eschatology to Religious Revolutionary Brill p 13 ISBN 978 90 04 30868 8 Archived from the original on 1 June 2022 Retrieved 25 May 2020 Cormack Margaret 2013 Muslims and Others in Sacred Space OUP USA p 81 ISBN 978 0 19 992506 3 Archived from the original on 15 April 2022 Retrieved 25 May 2020 a b Gardell 1996 p 54 Lincoln 1961 p 13 Lincoln 1961 p 14 Gardell 1996 p 54 Lincoln 1961 p 13 Gardell 1996 p 54 Lincoln 1961 p 14 Gardell 1996 pp 54 55 Tinaz 1996 p 195 a b Gardell 1996 p 50 Gardell 1996 p 47 Gardell 1996 pp 48 49 Gardell 1996 p 49 Lincoln 1961 p 15 Gardell 1996 p 54 Gardell 1996 p 55 Boaz 2017 p 17sfnm error no target CITEREFBoaz2017 help Gardell 1996 pp 55 56 Boaz 2017 pp 23 24sfnm error no target CITEREFBoaz2017 help Gardell 1996 p 57 a b c d Gardell 1996 p 58 Lincoln 1961 p 15 Gardell 1996 p 58 Tinaz 1996 p 195 Gibson A History of the Nation of Islam pp 21 22 Lincoln 1961 p 15 Gardell 1996 p 58 Tinaz 1996 p 195 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 60 Gibson A History of the Nation of Islam pp 28 29 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 60 Lincoln 1961 p 16 Allen Jr 1996 p 10sfnm error no target CITEREFAllen Jr 1996 help Gardell 1996 p 58 Tinaz 1996 p 195 Lincoln 1961 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 58 Tinaz 1996 p 195 a b Colley 2014 p 398 Gardell 1996 p 69 Colley 2014 p 401 a b Gardell 1996 p 70 Colley 2014 p 401 Gardell 1996 pp 58 59 70 71 Colley 2014 p 401 Gardell 1996 pp 59 71 Colley 2014 p 401 Allen 1996 pp 12 13 Allen 1996 p 12 Gardell 1996 p 73 Curtis IV 2002 p 181 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Gardell 1996 pp 63 73 Curtis IV 2002 p 182 Curtis IV 2016 p 17 Knight 1994 p 183 Allen 1996 p 3 Gardell 1996 p 224 Allen 1996 p 11 Gardell 1996 p 65 Tinaz 1996 p 197 Taylor 2005 pp 59 60 Gardell 1996 pp 63 64 Haywood 2017 pp 9 10 a b Gardell 1996 p 66 Tinaz 2006 p 155 Gardell 1996 pp 67 68 Gardell 1996 p 80 Tinaz 1996 p 199 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 63 a b Encyclopedia of African American culture and history Jack Salzman David L Smith Cornel West New York Macmillan Library Reference 1996 ISBN 0 02 897345 3 OCLC 33078959 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link p 1683 Allen 1996 p 14 Gardell 1996 p 80 Gardell 1996 pp 80 81 Gardell 1996 p 76 Tinaz 1996 p 199 a b Gardell 1996 p 77 Buckley Thomas March 11 1966 Malcolm X Jury Finds 3 Guilty The New York Times Archived from the original on June 19 2018 Retrieved October 2 2014 Roth Jack April 15 1966 3 Get Life Terms in Malcolm Case The New York Times Archived from the original on June 19 2018 Retrieved October 2 2014 Quotes Half a century after his death Malcolm X speaks USA Today Archived from the original on 2018 07 16 Retrieved 2017 09 21 Haywood 2017 p 16 Haywood 2017 p 17 Anne Barnard 11 May 2012 Harlem Split on Plan to Honor Officer Killed in Mosque in 72 The New York Times Archived from the original on 30 August 2021 Retrieved 15 May 2012 Gardell 1996 pp 86 89 Gardell 1996 p 90 Gardell 1996 p 189 Allen 1996 pp 15 16 Gardell 1996 p 189 Allen 1996 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 101 Gibson 2012 p 71 Curtis IV 2016 p 24 Gardell 1996 p 102 Gibson 2012 pp 72 74 a b c d Curtis IV 2016 p 25 Allen 1996 p 16 Tinaz 1996 p 199 Gibson 2012 pp 76 77 Curtis IV 2016 p 25 Allen 1996 p 16 Gardell 1996 pp 110 111 Tinaz 1996 p 200 Allen 1996 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 109 Gardell 1996 pp 111 112 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 61 Allen 1996 p 16 Gardell 1996 p 109 Gibson 2012 p 78 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 61 Allen 1996 pp 2 17 Gardell 1996 p 110 Tinaz 1996 p 199 Gibson 2012 p 78 Curtis IV 2016 p 25 Gardell 1996 p 111 Gardell 1996 p 102 Gardell 1996 p 106 Berg 2005 pp 696 697 Gardell 1996 pp 104 105 Gardell 1996 p 113 Tinaz 1996 pp 200 201 Allen 1996 p 18 Gardell 1996 p 113 Buursma Bruce Houston Jack May 3 1985 Main Black Muslim Sect Dissolves As Leader Quits Chicago Tribune Archived from the original on April 7 2022 Retrieved March 26 2021 Gardell 1996 p 123 Gibson 2012 pp 85 86 Curtis IV 2016 p 25 Gardell 1996 pp 119 120 Gardell 1996 p 121 Gibson 2012 p 81 Gardell 1996 p 126 Gardell 1996 p 99 Gardell 1996 pp 135 136 Gardell 1996 pp 141 142 Gardell 1996 p 140 Gibson 2012 p 88 Gardell 1996 p 140 Allen 1996 p 18 Gardell 1996 p 137 Gardell 1996 p 141 Allen 1996 p 20 Gardell 1996 p 138 Gibson 2012 p 108 Allen 1996 p 20 Gardell 1996 pp 131 132 Curtis IV 2016 pp 25 26 Gardell 1996 p 142 Gibson 2012 pp 97 98 Gardell 1996 pp 192 193 Gardell 1996 p 294 a b Gardell 1996 p 295 Gardell 1996 p 288 Gardell 1996 pp 290 291 Tinaz 2006 p 159 Allen 1996 pp 23 24 Gardell 1996 pp 343 345 Tinaz 1996 pp 203 204 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 61 a b Gray Eliza October 5 2012 The Mothership of All Alliances The New Republic Archived from the original on October 12 2012 Retrieved November 19 2012 a b Rossetter Shelley Tobin Thomas C October 18 2012 Louis Farrakhan renews call for self determination among Nation of Islam followers Tampa Bay Times Archived from the original on November 5 2012 Retrieved November 19 2012 Farrakhan Louis March 11 2011 Preparation of the Mind and Qualifications to Act for Christ The Final Call Archived from the original on July 28 2011 Retrieved April 22 2012 The Troubling Connections between Scientology and the Nation of Islam National Review 2018 04 02 Archived from the original on 2018 09 12 Retrieved 2018 11 15 Ortega Tony September 18 2018 Giving Scientology TV a run for its money The Underground Bunker Archived from the original on March 2 2021 Retrieved March 21 2021 Gardell 1996 p 125 Gardell 1996 p 337 Izadi et al 2020 pp 137 138 Allen 1996 p 15 Izadi et al 2020 p 137 Gardell 1996 p 115 Izadi et al 2020 pp 149 150 Austin 2003 p 67 Curtis IV 2002 pp 174 175 Haywood 2017 pp 13 15 Gibson 2017 p 31 Tinaz 2006 p 160 a b Bedard Paul July 5 2011 Farrakhan s Hate Sermons to Prisoners Slammed Archived 2018 01 03 at the Wayback Machine U S News amp World Report retrieved September 5 2012 Izadi et al 2020 pp 144 150 Gardell 1996 p 207 a b c Austin 2003 p 62 Austin 2003 p 62 Paisley 2009 p 23 Tinaz 1996 p 198 Austin 2003 p 64 Izadi et al 2020 p 138 Gardell 1996 p 190 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 64 Izadi et al 2020 p 139 Gardell 1996 p 206 Izadi et al 2020 p 139 Gibson 2012 p 97 Gardell 1996 pp 205 206 Allen 1996 p 15 Gardell 1996 p 207 Fishman amp Soage 2013 p 66 Jeffries 2019 p 6 Gardell 1996 pp 207 319 320 Tinaz 1996 p 201 Izadi et al 2020 p 138 Gaiter Dorothy J August 26 1996 Nation of Islam Tries to Accept Gift of 1 Billion from Libya The Wall Street Journal Archived from the original on March 5 2017 Retrieved March 4 2017 Stevenson Richard W August 28 1996 Officials to Block Qaddafi Gift to Farrakhan The New York Times Archived from the original on March 5 2017 Retrieved March 4 2017 Farrakhan Denied 1 Billion From Libya Los Angeles Times Associated Press August 29 1996 Archived from the original on March 5 2017 Retrieved March 4 2017 Woodford 1996 pp 35 37 Woodford 1996 p 37 Izadi et al 2020 p 141 Izadi et al 2020 p 162 Allen 1996 p 5 Gardell 1996 pp 271 272 Gardell 1996 p 273 Allen 1996 p 5 Gardell 1996 p 274 Allen 1996 p 6 Gardell 1996 p 277 Gardell 1996 pp 274 275 Gardell 1996 pp 278 279 Knight 2000 p 164 Gardell 1996 pp 280 281 a b Tinaz 2006 p 161 Akom 2003 p 311 Colley 2014 p 399 Colley 2014 p 409 Gardell 1996 p 115 Izadi et al 2020 p 140 Gardell 1996 pp 115 116 Gardell 1996 p 306 Akom 2003 p 311 Gardell 1996 p 241 Colley 2014 p 394 Curtis IV 2002 p 181 Colley 2014 pp 393 394 a b Gibson 2012 p 105 Colley 2014 pp 394 405 Gardell 1996 pp 307 308 Colley 2014 pp 404 405 Gibson 2012 pp 104 105 Gardell 1996 pp 169 170 Curtis IV 2002 p 176 Allen 1996 p 11 Tinaz 2006 p 154 Tinaz 2006 p 152 Tinaz 2006 p 162 McCutcheon 2013b p 574 a b Barrett 2001 p 253 Curtis IV 2002 p 182 a b Nation of Islam Montgomery Alabama Southern Poverty Law Center 2020 Archived from the original on 11 October 2019 Retrieved 11 July 2020 Tatum Sophie March 1 2018 Nation of Islam leader Farrakhan delivers anti Semitic speech CNN Archived from the original on March 1 2018 Retrieved March 2 2018 Former Nation of Islam leader dies at 74 NBC News Associated Press September 9 2008 Archived from the original on February 15 2020 Retrieved February 10 2012 a b Gardell 1996 p 264 Gardell 1996 p 265 Tinaz 1996 p 202 Gardell 1996 pp 232 233 Barrett 2001 p 253 Farrakhan and the Jewish Rift A Historic Reference Archived 2007 08 22 at the Wayback Machine Nation of Islam website accessed December 7 2014 Perry Marvin Schweitzer Frederick M 2002 Anti Semitism Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan pp 213 258 ISBN 0 312 16561 7 Archived from the original on 2020 07 26 Retrieved 2020 07 11 Acevado Ordner amp Thompson 2010 pp 143 144 Gardell 1996 p 253 Gibson 2012 p 95 Gardell 1996 p 252 Gardell 1996 pp 258 259 Gardell 1996 pp 260 261 Reid Pharr 1996 pp 140 141 Knight 2000 p 163 Leinweber David Walter An historian critiques the book The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews H Antisemitism Occasional Papers No 1 Archived from the original on November 11 2001 Retrieved January 13 2015 via H Net Humanities and Social Sciences Online Gibson 2012 p 97 Izadi et al 2020 p 159 The Nation of Islam Anti Defamation League Archived from the original on April 2 2021 Retrieved March 23 2021 Gibson 2012 p 94 a b Gardell 1996 p 259 The Final Call February 16 1994 Gardell 1996 p 245 Gardell 1996 p 269 Nation of Islam Archived 2006 04 26 at the Wayback Machine Nation of Islam website accessed December 7 2014 Piven Jerry S 2002 Judaism and Genocide Psychological Undercurrents of History Volume IV Writers Club Press p 10 ISBN 0 595 24086 0 Archived from the original on 2015 09 26 Retrieved 2015 08 13 Senior Nation of Islam official COVID 19 vaccine part of a plot to kill off blacks JNS Jewish News Syndicate 27 December 2020 Archived from the original on 30 December 2020 Retrieved 29 December 2020 Allen 1996 p 2 Gardell 1996 p 98 Barrett 2001 p 250 Gardell 1996 p 4 Gardell 1996 p 285 Gardell 1996 p 316 Akom 2007 p 718 Gardell 1996 p 271 Gardell 1996 pp 226 227 MacGregor 2007 pp 92 93 Knight 2000 p 165 Curtis IV 2016 p 6 Gibson amp Berg 2017 pp 2 3 4 Gardell 1996 p 5 Akom 2003 pp 308 309 Keener amp Usry 2005 p 180 Tinaz 2006 p 164 Gardell 1996 p 188 Curtis IV 2002 pp 182 183 Austin 2003 p 64 Gardell 1996 p 188 Gardell 1996 pp 195 196 Sources Edit Acevado Gabriel A Ordner James Thompson Miriam 2010 Narrative Inversion as a Tactical Framing Device The Ideological Origins of the Nation of Islam Narrative Inquiry 20 1 124 152 doi 10 1075 ni 20 1 07ace Akom A A 2003 Reexamining Resistance as Oppositional Behavior The Nation of Islam and the Creation of a Black Achievement Ideology Sociology of Education 76 4 305 325 doi 10 2307 1519868 JSTOR 1519868 Akom A A 2007 Cities as Battlefields Understanding how the Nation of Islam 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Religion and American Culture A Journal of Interpretation 12 2 167 196 doi 10 1525 rac 2002 12 2 167 JSTOR 10 1525 rac 2002 12 2 167 S2CID 145361488 Fishman Jason Eric Soage Ana Belen 2013 The Nation of Islam and the Muslim World Theologically Divorced and Politically United Religion Compass 7 2 59 68 doi 10 1111 rec3 12032 Gabriel Theodore 2003 The United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors In Partridge Christopher ed UFO Religions London and New York Routledge pp 149 161 ISBN 978 0415263245 Gardell Matthias 1996 In the Name of Elijah Muhammad Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam Durham Duke University Press ISBN 978 0822318453 Gibson Dawn Marie 2012 A History of the Nation of Islam Race Islam and the Quest for Freedom Santa Barbara Praeger ISBN 978 0 313 39807 0 Gibson Dawn Marie 2017 Ebony Muhammad s Hurt2Healing Magazine and Contemporary Nation Women In Gibson Dawn Marie and Herbert Berg ed New Perspectives on the Nation of Islam New York and Abingdon Routledge pp 31 45 ISBN 978 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doi 10 1080 10999940590910041 S2CID 143226936 Tinaz Nuri 1996 The Nation of Islam Historical Evolution and Transformation of the Movement Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 16 2 193 209 doi 10 1080 13602009608716338 Tinaz Nuri 2000 Global Impacts of an Ethno religious Movement The Case of Nation of Islam NOI in Britain Journal of Economic and Social Research 4 2 45 71 Tinaz Nuri 2006 Black Islam in Diaspora The Case of Nation of Islam NOI in Britain Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 26 2 151 170 doi 10 1080 13602000600937580 S2CID 143231871 Tsoukalas Steven 2004 Understanding the Nation of Islam Toward a More Effective Evangelism Missiology An International Review 32 4 449 464 doi 10 1177 009182960403200404 S2CID 158017571 Turman Eboni Marshall 2015 The Greatest Tool of the Devil Mamie Malcolm X and the PolitiX of the Black Madonna in Black Churches and the Nation of Islam in the United States Journal of Africana Religions 3 1 130 150 doi 10 5325 jafrireli 3 1 0130 JSTOR 10 5325 jafrireli 3 1 0130 S2CID 144861867 West Cynthia S thembile 1996 Revisting sic Female Activism in the 1960s The Newark Branch Nation of Islam The Black Scholar 26 3 4 41 48 doi 10 1080 00064246 1996 11430812 Wojcik Daniel 2003 Apocalyptic and Millenarian Aspects of American UFOism In Partridge Christopher ed UFO Religions London and New York Routledge pp 274 300 ISBN 978 0415263245 Woodford Maize 1996 A Chronology Farrakhan s World Friendship Tour to Africa and the Middle East January February 1996 The Black Scholar 26 3 4 35 40 doi 10 1080 00064246 1996 11430811 Further reading EditBerg H 2009 Elijah Muhammad and Islam New York New York University Press Damak S 2019 The Nation of Islam s Cautious Return to Americanity in the 2010s A Cultural Studies Inquiry Newcastle upon Tyne Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lee M F 1996 The Nation of Islam An American Millenarian Movement Syracuse New York Syracuse University Press Sahib Hatim A 1951 The Nation of Islam Contributions in Black Studies published 1995 13 48 160 Archived from the original on 2018 04 23 Retrieved 2018 04 23 Singh R S 1997 The Farrakhan Phenomenon Race Reaction and the Paranoid Style in American Politics Washington D C Georgetown University Press External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nation of Islam Nation of Islam profile at the World Religion and Spirituality Project WRSP Messenger Elijah Muhammad Web Resources Center Online books audio and video Nation of Islam affiliated Final Call newspaper website Official Website of the United Kingdom Branch of the Nation of Islam Federal Bureau of Prisons Technical Reference Manual on Inmate Beliefs and Practices FBI file on the Nation of Islam Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Nation of Islam amp oldid 1141938010, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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