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James Joyce

February 13, 2023

This article is about the writer. For other people with the same name, see James Joyce (disambiguation).

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novel Ulysses (1922) is a landmark in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularly stream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism.

James Joyce
Joyce in Zürich, c. 1918
Born(1882-02-02)2 February 1882
Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland
Died13 January 1941(1941-01-13) (aged 58)
Zürich, Switzerland
OccupationNovelist, poet
Notable worksDubliners (1914), A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), Ulysses (1922), Finnegans Wake (1939)
SpouseNora Barnacle
ChildrenGiorgio, Lucia

Joyce was born in Dublin into a middle-class family. He attended the Jesuit Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers-run O'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the Jesuit Belvedere College and graduated from University College Dublin in 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife Nora Barnacle and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked in Pula and then moved to Trieste in Austria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poems Chamber Music and his short story collection Dubliners, and he began serially publishing A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the English magazine The Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived in Zürich, Switzerland, and worked on Ulysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940.

Ulysses was first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal. Joyce started his next major work, Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1930. He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter, Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, less than one month before his 59th birthday.

Ulysses frequently ranks high in lists of great books of literature, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use of interior monologue, wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there. Ulysses in particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, "For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal."[1]

Early life

 
Photograph of Joyce aged six, 1888

Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin, Ireland,[2] to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane "May" (née Murray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised with the name James Augustine Joyce[a] according to the rites of the Roman Catholic Church in the nearby St Joseph's Church in Terenure on 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.[b] His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.[7] John Stanislaus Joyce's family came from Fermoy in County Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties in Cork City. Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leader Daniel O'Connell, who had helped secure Catholic emancipation for the Irish in 1829.[8] The Joyce family's purported ancestor, Seán Mór Seoighe was a stonemason from Connemara.[9]

Joyce's father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation in 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town of Bray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelong fear of dogs.[10][c] He later developed a fear of thunderstorms,[12] which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath.[13][d]

In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem "Et Tu, Healy" on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell that his father printed and distributed to friends.[15] The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,[16] who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by the Irish Catholic Church, the Irish Parliamentary Party, and the British Liberal Party that resulted in a collaborative failure to secure Irish Home Rule in the British Parliament.[17] This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art.[18]

That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.[19] John Joyce's name was published in Stubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.[20] In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension.[21]

Joyce began his education in 1888 at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.[22] He studied at home and briefly attended the Christian Brothers O'Connell School on North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priest John Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brother Stanislaus to attend the Jesuits' Dublin school, Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.[23] In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join the Sodality of Our Lady.[24] Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in the Ratio Studiorum (Plan of Studies).[25] He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two years[26] before graduating in 1898.[27]

University years

 
Newman House, Dublin, which was University College in Joyce's time.[28]

Joyce enrolled at University College[e] in 1898 to study English, French and Italian.[31] While there, he was exposed to the scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.[32] He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably, George Clancy, Tom Kettle and Francis Sheehy-Skeffington.[33] Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.[34] His first publication— a laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen's When We Dead Awaken—was printed in The Fortnightly Review in 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegian[35][f] and wrote a play, A Brilliant Career,[38] which he later destroyed.[39][g]

In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) in Clontarf, Dublin.[41] During this year he became friends with Oliver St. John Gogarty,[42] the model for Buck Mulligan in Ulysses.[34] In November, Joyce wrote an article, The Day of the Rabblement, criticising the Irish Literary Theatre for its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen, Leo Tolstoy, and Gerhart Hauptmann.[43] He protested against nostalgic Irish populism and argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.[44] Because he mentioned Gabriele D'Annunzio's novel, Il fuoco (The Flame),[45] which was on the Roman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed. Arthur Griffith decried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaper United Irishman.[46]

Joyce graduated from the Royal University of Ireland in October 1902. He considered studying medicine[47] and began attending lectures at the Catholic University Medical School in Dublin.[48] When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,[49] where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.[50] By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicine[51] but he stayed in Paris, often reading late in the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.[52] He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,[53] appealing for money his family could ill-afford.[54]

Post-university years in Dublin

 
Bust of Joyce on St Stephen's Green, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon

In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dying[h] and immediately returned to Ireland.[61] He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novel Stephen Hero.[62] During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make his confession and to take communion.[63][i] She died on 13 August.[65] Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.[66] John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.[67] Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,[68] and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books.[69]

Joyce's life began to change when he met Nora Barnacle on 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman from Galway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.[70] They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,[j] walking through the Dublin suburb of Ringsend, where Nora masturbated him.[73] This event was commemorated as the date for the action of Ulysses, known in popular culture as "Bloomsday" in honour of the novel's main character Leopold Bloom.[74] This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.[75] Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues,[76] approached a young woman in St Stephen's Green and was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist of Ulysses.[77]

Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.[78][k] On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in the Feis Ceoil,[80] an Irish music competition for promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.[81] In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.[82] He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.[83] For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had to sight read the third, he refused.[84] Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.[l] After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce that Luigi Denza, the composer of the popular song Funiculì, Funiculà who was the judge for the contest,[89] spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.[90] Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.[91] His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.[92]

Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examining aesthetics called A Portrait of the Artist,[93] but it was rejected by the intellectual journal Dana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he called Stephen Hero that he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.[m] He wrote a satirical poem called "The Holy Office",[95] which parodied William Butler Yeats's poem "To Ireland in the Coming Times"[96][n] and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.[99] It too was rejected for publication; this time for being "unholy".[100] He wrote the collection of poems Chamber Music at this time;[101] which was also rejected.[102][o] He did publish three poems, one in Dana [105] and two in The Speaker,[106] and George William Russell[p] published three of Joyce's short stories in the Irish Homestead. These stories—"The Sisters", "Eveline", and "After the Race"—were the beginnings of Dubliners.[109]

In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into a Martello tower near Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.[110] Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.[111] With the help of funds from Lady Gregory and a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later.[112]

1904–1906: Zürich, Pola and Trieste

Zürich and Pola

In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.[113] They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds[114] before heading on to Zürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at the Berlitz Language School there, but when he arrived there was no position.[115] The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.[116] The director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste,[117] which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War.[q] There was no vacancy there either.[r] The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him in Pola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,[s] where he mainly taught English to naval officers.[119] Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.[120] Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,[121] and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.[122] Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story for Dubliners, "Clay", and worked on his novel Stephen Hero.[123] He disliked Pola, calling it a "back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia",[124] and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste.[125][t]

 
The Caffè Stella Polare in Trieste was often visited by Joyce.[127]
 
Joyce's statue in Trieste

First stay in Trieste

When 23 year-old Joyce first moved to Trieste in March 1905, he immediately started teaching English at the Berlitz school.[128] By June, Joyce felt financially secure enough to have his satirical poem "Holy Office" printed and asked Stanislaus to distribute copies to his former associates in Dublin.[129] After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,[u] on 27 July 1905,[131] Joyce convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and got a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived in October, and most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.[132] In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis.[133]

Joyce kept writing despite all these changes. He completed 24 chapters of Stephen Hero[134] and all but the final story of Dubliners.[135] But he was unable to get Dubliners in press. Though the London publisher Grant Richards had contracted with Joyce to publish it, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial because English law could hold them liable if they were brought to court for indecent language.[136] Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's sense of artistic integrity. As they continued to negotiate, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement.[137]

Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.[138] Although he would temporarily leave the city—briefly staying in Rome, travelling to Dublin, and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for him[139] and played an important role in his development as a writer.[140][v] He completed Dubliners, reworked Stephen Hero into A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published play Exiles, and decided to make Ulysses a full-length novel as he created his notes and jottings for the work.[142] He worked out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.[143] Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,[144] and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced by Futurism.[145][w] There are even words of the Triestine dialect in Finnegans Wake.[147]

1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin

Rome

 
Monument to Giordano Bruno at the Campo de' Fiori by Ettore Ferrari. Joyce admired Bruno[148] and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome.[149]

In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.[150] Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for Dubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.[151] He was hired for the position, and went to Rome at the end of July.[152]

Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,[153] but it had a large impact on his writing.[154] Though his new job took up most of his time, he revised the Dubliners and worked on Stephen Hero.[155] Rome was the birthplace of the idea for "The Dead", which would become the final story of Dubliners,[156] and for Ulysses,[157] which was originally conceived as a short story.[x] His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for Exiles.[159] While there, he read the socialist historian Guglielmo Ferrero in depth.[160] Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews[161] would find their way into Ulysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.[162] In London, Elkin Mathews published Chamber Music on the recommendation of the British poet Arthur Symons.[163] Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.[164] He left Rome after only seven months.[165]

Second stay in Trieste

 
Trieste circa 1907

Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.[166] The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen name Italo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.[167] Joyce learned much of what he knew about Judaism from him.[168] The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.[169] Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block with A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.[170] Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaper Piccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian irredentists in Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.[171] Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures on Ireland and the arts at Trieste's Università Popolare.[172] In May, Joyce was struck by an attack of rheumatic fever,[173] which left him incapacitated for weeks.[y] The illness exacerbated eye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life.[179] While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.[180][z] During his convalescence, he was able to finish "The Dead", the last story of Dubliners.[182]

Although a heavy drinker,[183] Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.[184] He reworked Stephen Hero as the more concise and interior A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by April[185] and translated John Millington Synge's Riders to the Sea into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.[186] He even took singing lessons again.[187] Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for Dubliners but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned by George Roberts.[188]

Visits to Dublin

 
Dublin in 1909

In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family (his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway).[189] He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his alma mater, which had become University College Dublin.[190] He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing the Dubliners.[191] He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.[192] Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine business men and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, the Volta Cinematograph.[193] It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.[194] He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.[195][aa]

From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.[199] In 1912, Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the University of Padua.[200] He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.[201] While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication of Dubliners[202] came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.[ab] When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, "Gas from a Burner".[204] He never went to Dublin again.[205]

Publication of Dubliners and A Portrait

Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish Dubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,[206] eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.[207] Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate in Ezra Pound, who was living in London.[ac] On the advice of Yeats,[209] Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from Chamber Music, "I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land" in the journal Des Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized.[210]

After Pound persuaded Dora Marsden to serially publish A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the London literary magazine The Egoist,[211] Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completed A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by 1914;[212] resumed Exiles, completing it in 1915;[213] started the novelette Giacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;[214] and began drafting Ulysses.[215]

In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,[216] and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland.[217]

1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste

Zürich

 
Zürich, Switzerland where Joyce lived 1915–1919

Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.[218] To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.[219] During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services.[220]

Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from the Royal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the British civil list the following year.[221] Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editor Harriet Shaw Weaver, who operated The Egoist, and the psychotherapist Edith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying under Carl Jung.[222] Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.[223] Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;[224] the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.[225] However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as "nervous breakdowns"[226] and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.[227]

Ulysses

During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,[228] where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptor August Suter[229] and the painter Frank Budgen.[230] He often used the time spent with them as material for Ulysses.[231] He made the acquaintance of the writer Stefan Zweig,[232] who organised the premiere of Exiles in Munich in August 1919.[233] He became aware of Dada, which was coming into its own at the Cabaret Voltaire.[234][ad] He may have even met the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon,[236] a place they both frequented.[237]

Joyce kept up his interest in music. He met Ferruccio Busoni,[238] staged music with Otto Luening, and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach.[239] Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into Ulysses, particularly the "Sirens" section.[240]

Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained a strict neutrality.[241] He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,[242] he disagreed with its violence.[243][ae] He stayed intently focused on Ulysses[245] and the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of "The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" in The Egoist had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published by B. W. Huebsch in 1916.[246] In 1918, Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazine The Little Review, to publish Ulysses serially.[247]

The English Players

 
The Pfauen in Zürich. Joyce's preferred hangout was the cafe, which used to be on the right corner. The theatre staged the English Players.[248]

Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,[249] and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such as Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.[250] For Synge's Riders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,[251] which he did again when Robert Browning's In a Balcony was staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play, Exiles,[252] but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of the Great Influenza epidemic of 1918, though the company continued until 1920.[253]

Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit. Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in The Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.[254] The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich.[255]

Third stay in Trieste

By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,[256] and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.[257] Eight months after his return, Joyce went to Sirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.[258] Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920.[259]

1920–1941: Paris and Zürich

Paris

 
James Joyce in a September 1922 issue of Shadowland photographed by Man Ray

When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.[260] For the first four months, he stayed with Ludmila Savitzky [fr][261] and met Sylvia Beach, who ran the Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company.[262] Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,[263] and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.[264] Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the international modernist artist community.[265] Joyce met Valery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the French[266][267] and supervised the French translation of Ulysses.[268] Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long.[269]

Publication of Ulysses

Joyce finished writing Ulysses near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn,[270][af] Margaret Anderson and her co-editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in The Little Review in March 1918[271] but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.[272] In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the "Nausicaa" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.[270] The trial proceedings continued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenity[273] and ordered to cease publishing Ulysses.[274] Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.[275] Weaver was unable to find an English printer,[276] and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.[277]

 
Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses

Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printing Ulysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.[278] She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.[279] Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.[280] They were then smuggled into both countries.[281][ag] Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, "bootleg" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisher Samuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a court enjoined publication.[283] Ulysses was not legally published in the United States until 1934 after Judge John M. Woolsey ruled in United States v. One Book Called Ulysses that the book was not obscene.[284]

Finnegans Wake

In 1923, Joyce began his next work, an experimental novel that eventually became Finnegans Wake.[285][ah] It would take sixteen years to complete.[287] At first, Joyce called it Work in Progress, which was the name Ford Madox Ford used in April 1924 when he published its "Mamalujo" episode in his magazine, The Transatlantic Review. In 1926, Eugene and Maria Jolas serialised the novel in their magazine, transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—[288] wrote negatively about it,[289] and it was criticised by writers like Seán Ó Faoláin, Wyndham Lewis, and Rebecca West.[290] In response, Joyce and the Jolas organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titled Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings by Samuel Beckett and William Carlos Williams.[291] An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to market Work in Progress to a larger audience.[292] Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title as Finnegans Wake in 1939,[293] the same year he completed it. It was published in London by Faber and Faber[294] with the assistance of T. S. Eliot.[295][ai]

 
Shakespeare and Company in Paris, where Sylvia Beach agreed to first publish Ulysses

Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,[297] but his vision severely declined.[298] By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.[299] He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.[300] At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finish Finnegans Wake, asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if something should happen.[301]

His financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.[302] Despite these issues, he published Pomes Penyeach in 1927, a collection of thirteen poems he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris.[303]

Marriage in London

 
1966 drawing of Joyce by Adolf Hoffmeister

In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,[304] primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.[305] Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on the electoral roll, and became liable for jury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at the Register Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931.[306] Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England.[307]

In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery[aj] or for treatment for Lucia,[309] who was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[310] Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written that Ulysses was similar to schizophrenic writing.[311][ak] Jung suggested that she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was sinking.[313] In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death.[314]

Final return to Zürich

In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.[315] As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.[316] After the fall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time.[317]

Death

 
Grave of James Joyce in Zürich-Fluntern; sculpture by Milton Hebald

On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for a perforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, less than a month before his 59th birthday.[318]

His body was buried in the Fluntern Cemetery in Zürich. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang "Addio terra, addio cielo" from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the burial service.[319] Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all his life and only the British consul attended the funeral. Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, neither attended Joyce's funeral. When Joseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins, chargé d'affaires at Bern, Walshe responded, "Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral."[320] Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent "honour grave", with a seated portrait statue by American artist Milton Hebald nearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.[320]

After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,[321] despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomat John J. Slocum.[320] In October 2019, a motion was put to Dublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.[322] The proposal immediately became controversial, with the Irish Times commenting: " ... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read".[323]

Joyce and politics

 
1934 portrait of James Joyce by Jacques-Émile Blanche

Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politics[324] and in its relationship to British colonialism.[325] He studied socialism[326] and anarchism.[327][al] He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced by Benjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay "The Soul of Man Under Socialism".[331] He described his opinions as "those of a socialist artist".[332] Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.[333] After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,[334] but his later works still reflect his commitment.[335] He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical toward coercive ideologies such as nationalism.[336][am] His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.[339] Ulysses has been read as a novel critiquing the effect of English colonialism on the Irish people.[340] Finnegans Wake has been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,[341] the interrelationship between colonialism and race,[342] and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism.[343]

Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of English occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.[344] In 1907, he expressed his support for the early Sinn Féin movement before Irish independence.[345] However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.[346] When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,[347][an] and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to more easily leave Vichy France.[349] His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,[350] his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,[351] and his dismay with the Irish Free State's political relationship with the church.[352][ao]

Joyce and religion

 
The interior of the Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò in Trieste, where Joyce occasionally attended services[354]

Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.[355] Early in life, he lapsed from Roman Catholicism.[356] First-hand statements by himself,[ap] Stanislaus[aq] and Nora[ar] attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic. Nevertheless, his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.[360] In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.[361][as] Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Friday[363][at] or occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better.[365]

A number of Catholic critics suggest that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,[366] wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.[367] They argue that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are expressions of a Catholic sensibility,[368] insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by Stephen, the protagonist of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses, do not represent the views of Joyce the author.[369]

Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted Catholic tradition and another who maintained his allegiance to it.[370] It has alternatively been described as a dialectic that is both affirming and denying. For example, Stephen Dedalus's statement in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man "non-serviam (I will not serve)"[371] is qualified—"I will not serve that which I no longer believe",[372] and that the non-serviam will always be balanced by Stephen's "I am ... [a] servant too"[373] and the "yes" of Molly Bloom's final soliloquy[374] in Ulysses.[375] Some critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,[376] a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life and personal development.[377] He has been compared to the medieval episcopi vagantes [wandering bishops], who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.[378]

Joyce's own responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion of Ulysses, Joyce was asked "When did you leave the Catholic Church". He answered, "That's for the Church to say."[379]

Major works

Dubliners

Main article: Dubliners
 
First edition of Dubliners, 1914

Dubliners is a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,[380] that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.[381][au] The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters in Dubliners later appear in minor roles in Joyce's novel Ulysses.[383] The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity.[384]

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

Main article: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero. It is a Künstlerroman, a kind of coming-of-age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.[385] It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.[386] Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such as stream of consciousness, interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel.[387]

Exiles and poetry

Main articles: Chamber Music (poetry collection) and Pomes Penyeach

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to The Dead (the final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.[388]

He published three books of poetry.[389] The first full-length collection was Chamber Music (1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas from a Burner" (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927), and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems (1936).[390]

Ulysses

Main article: Ulysses (novel)
 
First edition of Ulysses published by Shakespeare & Company, 1922

The action of Ulysses starts on 16 June 1904 at 8 am and ends sometime after 2 am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.[391] Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode in Homer's Odyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.[av] Ulysses sets the characters and incidents of Homer's Odyssey in 1904 Dublin, representing Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope, and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humor,[394] including parody, satire and comedy, to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles[395] so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure.[396]

Ulysses can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.[397] To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.[398] Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition of Thom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.[399] This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and an exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature.[400]

Finnegans Wake

Main article: Finnegans Wake

Finnegans Wake is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness[401] and literary allusions[402] to their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the word play stems from the work being written in a peculiar and obscure English, based mainly on complex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky[403] and draws on a wide range of languages.[404] The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream.[405][aw]

The metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola, who Joyce had read in his youth,[406] plays an important role in Finnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.[407] Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history (in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos) structures the text's narrative,[408] as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book: Finnegans Wake opens with the words "riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs"[ax] and ends "A way a lone a last a loved a long the".[409] In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle.[410]

Legacy

 
Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon

Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.[411][ay] Ulysses is a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations in the power of language.[400] Its emphasis on the details of everyday life have opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.[412] It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.[413] Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,[414] and Finnegans Wake has become one of the key texts for French post-structuralism.[415] It also provided the name for the quark, one of the elementary particles proposed by physicist Murray Gell-Mann.[416][az]

The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keep them open to constant reinterpretation.[418] They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.[419]

In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.[420]

Museums and study centres

The National Library of Ireland holds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.[421] A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, the Museum of Literature Ireland (branded MoLI in homage to Molly Bloom),[422] the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include "Copy No. 1" of Ulysses.[423] Dedicated centres in Dublin include the James Joyce Centre in North Great George's Street, the James Joyce Tower and Museum in Sandycove (the Martello tower where Joyce once lived, and the setting for the opening scene in Ulysses), and the Dublin Writers Museum.[424] University College London holds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce’s major works, most other early and later editions (including translations), as well as critical and background literature.[425]

Further viewing

  • "Anjelica Huston on James Joyce: A Shout in the Street". BBC Four. 15 January 2018.[426][427]

Bibliography

Prose

Posthumous publications and drafts

Fiction

Non-Fiction

  • The Critical Writings of James Joyce (Eds. Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann, 1959)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 1 (Ed. Stuart Gilbert, 1957)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 2 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 3 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
  • Selected Letters of James Joyce (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1975)

Poetry collections

Play

Notes

  1. ^ Joyce was named for his paternal grandfather,[3] but his middle name was mistakenly registered as Augusta at the time of his birth.[4]
  2. ^ Joyce acquired his saint's name Aloysius at his confirmation[5] in 1891.[6]
  3. ^ Joyce's fear of dogs may have been exaggerated.[11]
  4. ^ According to Irish artist Arthur Power, Joyce, who sometimes took his children and Power on a ride, once ordered the driver to turn home when a storm broke out. When Power asked "Why are you so afraid of thunder? Your children don't mind it." Joyce answered "Ah, they have no religion."[14]
  5. ^ University College was part of the Royal University of Ireland.[29] It became University College Dublin, one of three colleges in the new National University of Ireland, in 1908. The others were University College Galway and University College Cork.[30]
  6. ^ Ibsen did not reply to the fan letter,[36] but he had previously asked the Scottish critic William Archer to thank Joyce for his "very benevolent" review.[37]
  7. ^ Joyce's dedicatory page to the play is all that is left: "To My own Soul I dedicate the first true work of my life."[40]
  8. ^ Joyce's mother was initially diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver;[55] Ellmann says that it became apparent she was actually dying of cancer.[56] This may reflect what Joyce's family came to believe,[57] but Gorman's 1939 biography of Joyce, which was edited by Joyce,[58] states that she died of cirrhosis,[59] as does her death certificate.[60]
  9. ^ Gorman writes: "Mary Jane Joyce was dying in the sanctity of the bosom of her Church ... and her eldest son could only grieve that the two wills could not meet and mix. He was incapable of bending his knee to the powerful phantom, that once acknowledged, would devour him as it had devoured so many about him and half a civilisation as well."[64]
  10. ^ Though there is substantial circumstantial evidence supporting that date,[71] there is no direct documentary evidence confirming that Joyce and Nora's walk on the Ringsend actually occurred on this day.[72]
  11. ^ Composer Otto Luening, who knew Joyce in Trieste, described his voice as being "mellow and pleasant ... a nice Irish-Italian tenor ... very good for Italian operas of the 17th and 18th centuries".[79]
  12. ^ The details of what happened immediately after the contest are unclear.[85] For example, Oliver Gogarty claims Joyce threw his medal into the Liffey,[86] but Joyce apparently gave the medal to his Aunt Josephine,[87] and it ended up being bought by the choreographer Michael Flatley at an auction in 2004.[88]
  13. ^ Stephen Hero was published after Joyce's death in 1944.[94]
  14. ^ Though Joyce parodied Yeats in "Holy Office", he admired two short stories Yeats had written, "Tables of the Law" and "Adoration of the Magi". The former he memorised by heart and references to both were integrated into Joyce's "Stephen Hero".[97] Joyce admired Yeats's 1899 play The Countess Cathleen as well, which he translated into Italian in 1911.[98]
  15. ^ The title Chamber Music had been suggested by Stanislaus,[103] but Joyce accepted it as a double entendre, implying both the sound of chamber music and the sound of urine falling in a chamber pot.[104]
  16. ^ According to Stanislaus, Russell and Joyce became acquainted through a common interest in theosophy, which he briefly explored after his mother's death.[107] Joyce's knowledge of theosophy appears in his later writing, particularly Finnegans Wake.[108]
  17. ^ Trieste is now in Italy.
  18. ^ After less than an hour in Trieste, Joyce found himself arrested and jailed when he got into the middle of an altercation between three sailors of the Royal Navy and Austro-Hungarian police. He had to be released by the British Vice-Consul.[118]
  19. ^ It is now called Pula and is in Croatia.
  20. ^ It was later rumoured that Joyce had been evicted from Pola when the Austrians—having discovered an espionage ring in the city—expelled all aliens, but the evidence suggests that he moved because the position in Trieste was better.[126]
  21. ^ Joyce's son was named Giorgio when he was born, but later preferred to be called George.[130]
  22. ^ Joyce's Triestine colleague, the writer Italo Svevo states that with the exception of some stories of Dubliners and the "songs" of Chamber Music, "All his other works down to Ulysses were born in Trieste".[141]
  23. ^ Regarding the role of Trieste on the creation of Ulysses, Svevo states "To the Irish critic [Earnest] Boyd, who asserted that Ulysses was merely the product of pre-war thought in Ireland, Valery Larbaud replied 'Yes, in so far as it came to maturity in Trieste'."[146]
  24. ^ In October, Joyce wrote "I have a new story for Dubliners in my head. It deals with Mr. [Alfred] Hunter", the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904. In November, he first mentioned the title of the story as "Ulysses", and in Feb 1907, he mentioned "Ulysses" along with "The Dead" and three other stories that never appeared.[158]
  25. ^ Following Richard Ellmann's biography, a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever,[174] but evidence suggests that syphilis may have been the cause.[175] It may have been the cause of Joyce's eye problems too.[176] The physician J. B. Lyons makes a case that the cause was Reiter's syndrome,[177] though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection.[178]
  26. ^ Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight.[181]
  27. ^ Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year,[196] but Eileen stayed on the continent, eventually marrying a Czech bank cashier, Frantisek Schaurek.[197] The Irish actor Paddy Joyce is their son.[198]
  28. ^ It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man into a stove fire, only to have it rescued by Eileen.[203]
  29. ^ The literary critic Mary Colum, who was personally well-acquainted with Joyce, reports him as saying: "Pound took me out of the gutter."[208]
  30. ^ In 1920, Joyce wrote that the Irish press reported him as the founder of Dada.[235]
  31. ^ Budgen wrote: "Joyce, if asked, what he did during the Great War, could reply: 'I wrote Ulysses.'"[244]
  32. ^ Quinn was an early supporter of Joyce's work in the United States. (cf., Quinn 1917)
  33. ^ Ernest Hemingway became involved in smuggling copies of Ulysses into the United States from Canada.[282]
  34. ^ In March 1923, Joyce wrote "Yesterday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots."[286]
  35. ^ Joyce met T. S. Eliot in Paris in 1923. Eliot became a strong advocate of Joyce's work, arranging publication of parts of Work in Progress, the first complete edition of Finnegans Wake with Faber and Faber and editing the first anthology of Joyce's work the year after his death.[296]
  36. ^ He still retained his sense of humor and appreciation of music during these difficult times. For example, Joyce heard the composer Othmar Schoeck's Song Cycle based on the poems of Gottfried Keller, Lebendig begraben [Buried Alive] while visiting Zürich in 1935. Afterwards, he went to Schoeck's house unannounced and dressed as a tramp to introduce himself to him. Afterwards he obtained Gottfried Keller's poems and began to translate them.[308]
  37. ^ Jung also states: "It would never occur to me to class Ulysses as a product of schizophrenia ... Ulysses is no more a pathological product than modern art as a whole."[312]
  38. ^ A footnote that Joyce allowed in Gorman's biography,[328] which was written in the 1930s,[329] states: "Among the many whose works he [Joyce] had read may be mentioned Most, Malatesta, Stirner, Bakunin, Élisée Reclus, Spencer and Benjamin Tucker".[330]
  39. ^ In 1918, he declared himself "against every state"[337] and later in the 1930s, he said of the defeated multi-ethnic Hapsburg Empire : "They called the Empire a ramshackle empire, I wish to God there were more such empires."[338]
  40. ^ When Joyce had to renew his passport while residing in Paris during 1935, he wrote Georgio afterwards: "Giorni fa dovevo far rinnovare il mio passaporto. L'impiegato mi disse che aveva ordinin di mandare gente come me alla legazione irlandese. Insistetti ed ottenni un altro." [A few days ago I had to have my [British] passport renewed. The clerk told me that he had orders to send people like me to the Irish legation. I insisted and got another one.][348]
  41. ^ Svevo writes: "He is twice a rebel, against England and against Ireland. He hates England and would like to transform Ireland. Yet he belongs so much to England that like a great many of his Irish predecessors he will fill pages of English literary history".[353]
  42. ^ In 1904 Joyce declared to Nora, who he had just recently met: "My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity—home, the recognised virtues, classes of life and religious doctrines ... Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hating it most fervently. I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar, but I retained my pride. Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do."[357]
  43. ^ Stanislaus wrote: "It has become a fashion with some of my brother's critics ... to represent him as a man pining for the ancient Church he had abandoned, and at a loss for moral support without the religion in which he was bred. Nothing could be further from the truth. I am convinced that there was never any crisis of belief. The vigor of life within him drove him out of the church".[358]
  44. ^ When a Catholic priest offered to perform a religious service for Joyce's burial, Nora declined, saying, "I couldn't do that to him."[359]
  45. ^ Colum states: "I have never known anyone with a mind so fundamentally Catholic in structure as Joyce's own, or one on whom the Church, its ceremonies, symbols, and theological declarations had made such an impress".[362]
  46. ^ Joyce told Stanislaus "The Mass on Good Friday seems to me a very great drama."[364]
  47. ^ Svevo writes that "what is fundamental in Joyce can be found entire in [Dubliners]".[382]
  48. ^ This structure was not part of the original conception of Ulysses,[392] but by 1921, Joyce was circulating two versions of this structure, known as the Linati schema and Gilbert schema.[393]
  49. ^ Attridge 2013 also critiques interpreting Finnegans Wake as a dream narrative.
  50. ^ "vicus" is a pun on Vico.
  51. ^ See TMO n.d. and Nastasi 2014 for examples of various authors' responses to Joyce.
  52. ^ Quark comes from the phrase in Finnegans Wake, "Three Quarks for Muster Mark".[417] Gell-Mann states that "the number three fitted perfectly with the way quarks occur in nature".[416]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 505: Cited from Power, Arthur (n.d.). From an Old Waterford House. London. pp. 63–64.
  2. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 19.
  3. ^ Costello 1992, p. 53.
  4. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 21.
  5. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 30.
  6. ^ Costello 1992, p. 81.
  7. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 19; Ellmann 1982, p. 23.
  8. ^ Jackson & Costello 1998, p. 20.
  9. ^ Jackson & Costello 1998, pp. 6–7.
  10. ^ Beach 1959, p. 37; Joyce 1958, p. 4.
  11. ^ Spielberg 1964, pp. 42–44.
  12. ^ Beach 1959, p. 43; Gorman 1939, p. 328; Joyce 1958, p. 18.
  13. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 25; Costello 1992, pp. 63–64.
  14. ^ Ellmann 1982, pp. 513–514: Vignette cited from Power, Arthur (n.d.). From an Old Waterford House. London. p. 71.
  15. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 38; Ellmann 1982, p. 33; Joyce 1958, pp. 44–45.
  16. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 33; Jackson & Costello 1998, p. 170.
  17. ^ McCaffrey 2006, pp. 198–199.
  18. ^ McCaffrey 2006, p. 200.
  19. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 34–35; Jackson & Costello 1998, pp. 172–173.
  20. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 38; Jackson & Costello 1998, p. 173.
  21. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 34; Jackson & Costello 1998, p. 176.
  22. ^ Ellmann 1982, pp. 27, 32, 34.
  23. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 35.
  24. ^ Costello 1992, p. 132; McCourt 1999a, p. 22.
  25. ^ Sullivan 1958, pp. 9–10.
  26. ^ Sullivan 1958, p. 105.
  27. ^ Manglaviti 2000, p. 215.
  28. ^ NIAH n.d.
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  37. ^ Joyce 1959, p. 47: "Ibsen's New Drama"
  38. ^ Costello 1992, p. 158; Joyce 1950, p. 115.
  39. ^ Beja 1992, p. 27.
  40. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 78.
  41. ^ NAI n.d.
  42. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 77; Ellmann 1982, p. 77; O'Connor 1970, p. 76.
  43. ^ Joyce 1901, pp. 7–8.
  44. ^ Fogarty 2014, p. xv.
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  148. ^ JJC 2014.
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  159. ^ Beja 1992, p. 50; Costello 1992, p. 270.
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  178. ^ Lyons 2000, p. 306: "The iritis may have been caused by ... Reiter's disease. This follows a chlamydial infection; This may have been acquired during a carousal ... on his return from to Trieste from Rome."
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  204. ^ Joyce 1959, pp. 242–245: "Gas from a Burner"
  205. ^ Bowker 2012, pp. 204–205.
  206. ^ Bowker 2012, p. 212.
  207. ^ Hutton 2003, pp. 495–496.
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  322. ^ Horgan-Jones 2019.
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  351. ^ Davies 1982, pp. 298–299; de Sola Rodstein 1998, p. 146; Seidel 2008, p. 10.
  352. ^ Lernout 2010, p. 210: "To the dismay of Joyce and other intellectuals, the Irish Free State of 1922 adopted the catholic culture that had already been dominant in the powerful coalition between the bishops and the nationalist party".
  353. ^ Svevo 1927, pp. 15–16 .
  354. ^ McCourt 2000, p. 50.
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  359. ^ Ellmann 1982, p. 742: citing a 1953 interview with Giorgio Joyce.
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  372. ^ Joyce 1916b, p. 291.
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  374. ^ Joyce 1922, p. 732.
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  378. ^ Eco 1982, p. 4.
  379. ^ Davison 1998, p. 78.
  380. ^ Osteen 1995b, pp. .
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  383. ^ Groden n.d.
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  402. ^ Atherton 1960, p. 22–23.
  403. ^ Attridge 2007, pp. 85–86.
  404. ^ Schotter 2010, p. 89.
  405. ^ Attridge 2013, p. 195-197.
  406. ^ Downes 2003, pp. 37–38; Gorman 1939, pp. 332–333; Rabaté 1989, p. 31.
  407. ^ Atherton 1960, pp. 36–37; Beckett 1929, p. 17.
  408. ^ Atherton 1960, pp. 29–31; Beckett 1929, p. 17; Gorman 1939, pp. 332–333.
  409. ^ Atherton 1960, p. 29.
  410. ^ Shockley 2009, p. 104.
  411. ^ Attridge 1997, p. 1.
  412. ^ Attridge 1997, p. 1.
  413. ^ Mullin 2014.
  414. ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 390–391.
  415. ^ Attridge 2007, p. 4; Chun 2015, p. 75; Lernout 1992, p. 19.
  416. ^ a b Gell-Mann 1994, p. 180.
  417. ^ Joyce 1939, p. .
  418. ^ Attridge 1997, p. 3.
  419. ^ Latham 2009, p. 148.
  420. ^ Murphy 2014.
  421. ^ Killeen 2012.
  422. ^ Harnett 2019.
  423. ^ MoLI n.d.
  424. ^ Biggers 2015, pp. 215–221.
  425. ^ UCL (23 August 2018). "James Joyce Collection". Library Services. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  426. ^ "Anjelica Huston on James Joyce - A Shout In The Street". RTÉ. 11 December 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  427. ^ "Tonight's TV: Anjelica Huston on James Joyce and the Undateables look for romance". The National (Scotland). 15 January 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2022.

Sources

Books
  • Atherton, James S. (1960). Books at the Wake: A Study of Literary allusions in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake. Viking Press. ISBN 9780809306879. OCLC 1148024288.
  • Attridge, Derek (1997). "Reading Joyce". In Attridge, Derek (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–30. ISBN 0521376734. OCLC 1148222842.
  • Attridge, Derek (2007). How to Read Joyce. Granta Books. ISBN 9781862079120. OCLC 1149525874.
  • Beja, Morris (1992). James Joyce: A Literary Life. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814205984. OCLC 964127996.
  • Beckett, Samuel (1961) [1929]. "Dante... Bruno. Vico.. Joyce". Our Exagmination Round his Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress. Faber and Faber. pp. 1–22. OCLC 1150935903.
  • Biggers, Shirley Hoover (2015). British Author House Museums and Other Memorials: A Guide to Sites in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. McFarland. ISBN 9781476600222. OCLC 606882695.
  • Birmingham, Kevin (2014). The Most dangerous book: The Battle for James Joyce Ulysses. Head of Zeus. ISBN 9781784080723. OCLC 894758831.
  • Bowker, Gordon (2012). James Joyce: A New Biography. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9780374178727. OCLC 802264865.
  • Boyle, Robert (1978). James Joyce's Pauline Vision : A Catholic Exposition. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0809308614. OCLC 1150108528.
  • Bulson, Eric (2006). The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 1879373300. OCLC 442719108.
  • Caraher, Brian G. (2009). "Irish and European politics: nationalism, socialism, empire". In McCourt, John (ed.). James Joyce in Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 285–298. ISBN 9780801825439. OCLC 1150093431.
  • Cheng, Vincent John (1995). Joyce, Race, and Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521431182. OCLC 1150121186.
  • Coolahan, John (2010). "Higher Education, 1908-84". In Hill, J. R. (ed.). A New History of Ireland Volume VII: Ireland, 1921-84. Oxford University Press. pp. 758–759. ISBN 9780199592821. OCLC 701552783.
  • Cope, Jackson I. (1981). Joyce's Cities: Archaeologies of the Soul. Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 9780521886628. OCLC 900420355.
  • Costello, Peter (1992). James Joyce: The Years of Growth. Roberts Rineheart. ISBN 1879373300. OCLC 856717658.
  • Davies, Stan Gébler (1982). James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist. Granada. ISBN 9780586056394. OCLC 1194438647.
  • Davison, Neil R. (1998). James Joyce, Ulysses, and the Construction of Jewish Identity: Culture, Biography, and 'the Jew' in Modernist Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511581830. OCLC 939797702.
February 13, 2023
james, joyce, this, article, about, writer, other, people, with, same, name, disambiguation, james, augustine, aloysius, joyce, february, 1882, january, 1941, irish, novelist, poet, literary, critic, contributed, modernist, avant, garde, movement, regarded, mo. This article is about the writer For other people with the same name see James Joyce disambiguation James Augustine Aloysius Joyce 2 February 1882 13 January 1941 was an Irish novelist poet and literary critic He contributed to the modernist avant garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century Joyce s novel Ulysses 1922 is a landmark in which the episodes of Homer s Odyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles particularly stream of consciousness Other well known works are the short story collection Dubliners 1914 and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 1916 and Finnegans Wake 1939 His other writings include three books of poetry a play letters and occasional journalism James JoyceJoyce in Zurich c 1918Born 1882 02 02 2 February 1882Rathgar Dublin IrelandDied13 January 1941 1941 01 13 aged 58 Zurich SwitzerlandOccupationNovelist poetNotable worksDubliners 1914 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 1916 Ulysses 1922 Finnegans Wake 1939 SpouseNora BarnacleChildrenGiorgio LuciaJoyce was born in Dublin into a middle class family He attended the Jesuit Clongowes Wood College in County Kildare then briefly the Christian Brothers run O Connell School Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father s unpredictable finances he excelled at the Jesuit Belvedere College and graduated from University College Dublin in 1902 In 1904 he met his future wife Nora Barnacle and they moved to mainland Europe He briefly worked in Pula and then moved to Trieste in Austria Hungary working as an English instructor Except for an eight month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin Joyce resided there until 1915 In Trieste he published his book of poems Chamber Music and his short story collection Dubliners and he began serially publishing A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the English magazine The Egoist During most of World War I Joyce lived in Zurich Switzerland and worked on Ulysses After the war he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920 which became his primary residence until 1940 Ulysses was first published in Paris in 1922 but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid 1930s when publication finally became legal Joyce started his next major work Finnegans Wake in 1923 publishing it sixteen years later in 1939 Between these years Joyce travelled widely He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1930 He made a number of trips to Switzerland frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter Lucia When France was occupied by Germany during World War II Joyce moved back to Zurich in 1940 He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer less than one month before his 59th birthday Ulysses frequently ranks high in lists of great books of literature and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing Many writers film makers and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations such as his meticulous attention to detail use of interior monologue wordplay and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development Though most of his adult life was spent abroad his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members enemies and friends from his time there Ulysses in particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city Joyce is quoted as saying For myself I always write about Dublin because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world In the particular is contained the universal 1 Contents 1 Early life 2 University years 3 Post university years in Dublin 4 1904 1906 Zurich Pola and Trieste 4 1 Zurich and Pola 4 2 First stay in Trieste 5 1906 1915 Rome Trieste and sojourns to Dublin 5 1 Rome 5 2 Second stay in Trieste 5 2 1 Visits to Dublin 5 2 2 Publication of Dubliners and A Portrait 6 1915 1920 Zurich and Trieste 6 1 Zurich 6 1 1 Ulysses 6 1 2 The English Players 6 2 Third stay in Trieste 7 1920 1941 Paris and Zurich 7 1 Paris 7 1 1 Publication of Ulysses 7 1 2 Finnegans Wake 7 1 3 Marriage in London 7 2 Final return to Zurich 8 Death 9 Joyce and politics 10 Joyce and religion 11 Major works 11 1 Dubliners 11 2 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 11 3 Exiles and poetry 11 4 Ulysses 11 5 Finnegans Wake 12 Legacy 12 1 Museums and study centres 13 Further viewing 14 Bibliography 14 1 Prose 14 2 Posthumous publications and drafts 14 2 1 Fiction 14 2 2 Non Fiction 14 3 Poetry collections 14 4 Play 15 Notes 16 References 17 External linksEarly life Edit Photograph of Joyce aged six 1888 Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square Rathgar Dublin Ireland 2 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane May nee Murray He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings He was baptised with the name James Augustine Joyce a according to the rites of the Roman Catholic Church in the nearby St Joseph s Church in Terenure on 5 February 1882 by Rev John O Mulloy b His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann 7 John Stanislaus Joyce s family came from Fermoy in County Cork where they owned a small salt and lime works Joyce s paternal grandfather James Augustine married Ellen O Connell daughter of John O Connell a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties in Cork City Ellen s family claimed kinship with the political leader Daniel O Connell who had helped secure Catholic emancipation for the Irish in 1829 8 The Joyce family s purported ancestor Sean Mor Seoighe was a stonemason from Connemara 9 Joyce s father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation in 1887 The family moved to the fashionable small town of Bray 12 miles 19 km from Dublin Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time leading to his lifelong fear of dogs 10 c He later developed a fear of thunderstorms 12 which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God s wrath 13 d In 1891 nine year old Joyce wrote the poem Et Tu Healy on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell that his father printed and distributed to friends 15 The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce 16 who was angry at Parnell s apparent betrayal by the Irish Catholic Church the Irish Parliamentary Party and the British Liberal Party that resulted in a collaborative failure to secure Irish Home Rule in the British Parliament 17 This sense of betrayal particularly by the church left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art 18 That year his family began to slide into poverty worsened by his father s drinking and financial mismanagement 19 John Joyce s name was published in Stubbs Gazette a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts in November 1891 and he was temporarily suspended from work 20 In January 1893 he was dismissed with a reduced pension 21 Joyce began his education in 1888 at Clongowes Wood College a Jesuit boarding school near Clane County Kildare but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees 22 He studied at home and briefly attended the Christian Brothers O Connell School on North Richmond Street Dublin Joyce s father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priest John Conmee who knew the family Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brother Stanislaus to attend the Jesuits Dublin school Belvedere College without fees starting in 1893 23 In 1895 Joyce now aged 13 was elected by his peers to join the Sodality of Our Lady 24 Joyce spent five years at Belvedere his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in the Ratio Studiorum Plan of Studies 25 He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two years 26 before graduating in 1898 27 University years Edit Newman House Dublin which was University College in Joyce s time 28 Joyce enrolled at University College e in 1898 to study English French and Italian 31 While there he was exposed to the scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life 32 He participated in many of Dublin s theatrical and literary circles His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation most notably George Clancy Tom Kettle and Francis Sheehy Skeffington 33 Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work 34 His first publication a laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen s When We Dead Awaken was printed in The Fortnightly Review in 1900 Inspired by Ibsen s works Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegian 35 f and wrote a play A Brilliant Career 38 which he later destroyed 39 g In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19 year old Irish and English speaking unmarried student living with his parents six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace now Inverness Road in Clontarf Dublin 41 During this year he became friends with Oliver St John Gogarty 42 the model for Buck Mulligan in Ulysses 34 In November Joyce wrote an article The Day of the Rabblement criticising the Irish Literary Theatre for its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen Leo Tolstoy and Gerhart Hauptmann 43 He protested against nostalgic Irish populism and argued for an outward looking cosmopolitan literature 44 Because he mentioned Gabriele D Annunzio s novel Il fuoco The Flame 45 which was on the Roman Catholic list of prohibited books his college magazine refused to print it Joyce and Sheehy Skeffington who had also had an article rejected had their essays jointly printed and distributed Arthur Griffith decried the censorship of Joyce s work in his newspaper United Irishman 46 Joyce graduated from the Royal University of Ireland in October 1902 He considered studying medicine 47 and began attending lectures at the Catholic University Medical School in Dublin 48 When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris 49 where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics chemistry and biology at the Ecole de Medecine 50 By the end of January 1903 he had given up plans to study medicine 51 but he stayed in Paris often reading late in the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve 52 He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water the cold weather and his change of diet 53 appealing for money his family could ill afford 54 Post university years in Dublin Edit Bust of Joyce on St Stephen s Green Dublin by Marjorie Fitzgibbon In April 1903 Joyce learned his mother was dying h and immediately returned to Ireland 61 He would tend to her reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novel Stephen Hero 62 During her final days she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make his confession and to take communion 63 i She died on 13 August 65 Afterwards Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside 66 John Joyce s drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death and the family began to fall apart 67 Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues 68 and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books 69 Joyce s life began to change when he met Nora Barnacle on 10 June 1904 She was a twenty year old woman from Galway city who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid 70 They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904 j walking through the Dublin suburb of Ringsend where Nora masturbated him 73 This event was commemorated as the date for the action of Ulysses known in popular culture as Bloomsday in honour of the novel s main character Leopold Bloom 74 This began a relationship that continued for thirty seven years until Joyce died 75 Soon after this outing Joyce who had been carousing with his colleagues 76 approached a young woman in St Stephen s Green and was beaten up by her companion He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father s Alfred H Hunter who took him into his home to tend to his injuries Hunter who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife became one of the models for Leopold Bloom the protagonist of Ulysses 77 Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer 78 k On 8 May 1904 he was a contestant in the Feis Ceoil 80 an Irish music competition for promising composers instrumentalists and singers 81 In the months before the contest Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O Brien 82 He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books 83 For the contest Joyce had to sing three songs He did well with the first two but when he was told he had to sight read the third he refused 84 Joyce won the third place medal anyway l After the contest Palmieri wrote Joyce that Luigi Denza the composer of the popular song Funiculi Funicula who was the judge for the contest 89 spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight reading and lack of sufficient training 90 Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards Joyce refused the lessons but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year 91 His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora s devotion to him 92 Throughout 1904 Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examining aesthetics called A Portrait of the Artist 93 but it was rejected by the intellectual journal Dana He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he called Stephen Hero that he labored over for years but eventually abandoned m He wrote a satirical poem called The Holy Office 95 which parodied William Butler Yeats s poem To Ireland in the Coming Times 96 n and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival 99 It too was rejected for publication this time for being unholy 100 He wrote the collection of poems Chamber Music at this time 101 which was also rejected 102 o He did publish three poems one in Dana 105 and two in The Speaker 106 and George William Russell p published three of Joyce s short stories in the Irish Homestead These stories The Sisters Eveline and After the Race were the beginnings of Dubliners 109 In September 1904 Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into a Martello tower near Dublin which Gogarty was renting 110 Within a week Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate Dermot Chenevix Trench fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce s bed 111 With the help of funds from Lady Gregory and a few other acquaintances Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later 112 1904 1906 Zurich Pola and Trieste EditZurich and Pola Edit In October 1904 Joyce and Nora went into self imposed exile 113 They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds 114 before heading on to Zurich Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at the Berlitz Language School there but when he arrived there was no position 115 The couple stayed in Zurich for a little over a week 116 The director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste 117 which was part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the First World War q There was no vacancy there either r The director of the school in Trieste Almidano Artifoni secured a position for him in Pola then Austria Hungary s major naval base s where he mainly taught English to naval officers 119 Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland Nora had already become pregnant 120 Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni the director of the school at Pola 121 and his wife Clothilde By the beginning of 1905 both families were living together 122 Joyce kept writing when he could He completed a short story for Dubliners Clay and worked on his novel Stephen Hero 123 He disliked Pola calling it a back of God speed place a naval Siberia 124 and soon as a job became available he went to Trieste 125 t The Caffe Stella Polare in Trieste was often visited by Joyce 127 Joyce s statue in Trieste First stay in Trieste Edit When 23 year old Joyce first moved to Trieste in March 1905 he immediately started teaching English at the Berlitz school 128 By June Joyce felt financially secure enough to have his satirical poem Holy Office printed and asked Stanislaus to distribute copies to his former associates in Dublin 129 After Nora gave birth to their first child Giorgio u on 27 July 1905 131 Joyce convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and got a position for him at the Berlitz school Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived in October and most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce s family 132 In February 1906 the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis 133 Joyce kept writing despite all these changes He completed 24 chapters of Stephen Hero 134 and all but the final story of Dubliners 135 But he was unable to get Dubliners in press Though the London publisher Grant Richards had contracted with Joyce to publish it the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial because English law could hold them liable if they were brought to court for indecent language 136 Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce s sense of artistic integrity As they continued to negotiate Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house s reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement 137 Trieste was Joyce s main residence until 1920 138 Although he would temporarily leave the city briefly staying in Rome travelling to Dublin and emigrating to Zurich during World War I it became a second Dublin for him 139 and played an important role in his development as a writer 140 v He completed Dubliners reworked Stephen Hero into A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man wrote his only published play Exiles and decided to make Ulysses a full length novel as he created his notes and jottings for the work 142 He worked out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste 143 Many of the novel s details were taken from Joyce s observation of the city and its people 144 and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced by Futurism 145 w There are even words of the Triestine dialect in Finnegans Wake 147 1906 1915 Rome Trieste and sojourns to Dublin EditRome Edit Monument to Giordano Bruno at the Campo de Fiori by Ettore Ferrari Joyce admired Bruno 148 and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome 149 In late May 1906 the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on 150 Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for Dubliners Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary 151 He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July 152 Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome 153 but it had a large impact on his writing 154 Though his new job took up most of his time he revised the Dubliners and worked on Stephen Hero 155 Rome was the birthplace of the idea for The Dead which would become the final story of Dubliners 156 and for Ulysses 157 which was originally conceived as a short story x His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for Exiles 159 While there he read the socialist historian Guglielmo Ferrero in depth 160 Ferrero s anti heroic interpretations of history arguments against militarism and conflicted attitudes toward Jews 161 would find their way into Ulysses particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom 162 In London Elkin Mathews published Chamber Music on the recommendation of the British poet Arthur Symons 163 Nonetheless Joyce was dissatisfied with his job had exhausted his finances and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again 164 He left Rome after only seven months 165 Second stay in Trieste Edit Trieste circa 1907 Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907 but was unable to find full time work He went back to being an English instructor working part time for Berlitz and giving private lessons 166 The author Ettore Schmitz better known by pen name Italo Svevo was one of his students Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom 167 Joyce learned much of what he knew about Judaism from him 168 The two became lasting friends and mutual critics 169 Svevo supported Joyce s identity as an author helping him work through his writer s block with A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man 170 Roberto Prezioso editor of the Italian newspaper Piccolo della Sera was another of Joyce s students He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian irredentists in Trieste He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule 171 Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures on Ireland and the arts at Trieste s Universita Popolare 172 In May Joyce was struck by an attack of rheumatic fever 173 which left him incapacitated for weeks y The illness exacerbated eye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life 179 While Joyce was still recovering from the attack Lucia was born on 26 July 1907 180 z During his convalescence he was able to finish The Dead the last story of Dubliners 182 Although a heavy drinker 183 Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908 184 He reworked Stephen Hero as the more concise and interior A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man He completed the third chapter by April 185 and translated John Millington Synge s Riders to the Sea into Italian with the help of Nicolo Vidacovich 186 He even took singing lessons again 187 Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for Dubliners but was unable to find one so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher Maunsel and Company owned by George Roberts 188 Visits to Dublin Edit Dublin in 1909 In July 1909 Joyce received a year s advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family his own in Dublin and Nora s in Galway 189 He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his alma mater which had become University College Dublin 190 He met with Roberts who seemed positive about publishing the Dubliners 191 He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva who helped Nora run the home 192 Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin which unlike Trieste had none He quickly got the backing of some Triestine business men and returned to Dublin in October launching Ireland s first cinema the Volta Cinematograph 193 It was initially well received but fell apart after Joyce left 194 He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister Eileen 195 aa From 1910 to 1912 Joyce still lacked a reliable income This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus who was frustrated with lending him money to their peak 199 In 1912 Joyce once more lectured at the Universita Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the University of Padua 200 He performed very well on the qualification tests but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university In 1912 Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer 201 While there his three year long struggle with Roberts over the publication of Dubliners 202 came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets ab When Joyce returned to Trieste he wrote an invective against Roberts Gas from a Burner 204 He never went to Dublin again 205 Publication of Dubliners and A Portrait Edit Joyce s fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish Dubliners It was issued on 15 June 1914 206 eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him 207 Around the same time he found an unexpected advocate in Ezra Pound who was living in London ac On the advice of Yeats 209 Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from Chamber Music I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land in the journal Des Imagistes They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s Pound became Joyce s promoter helping ensure that Joyce s works were both published and publicized 210 After Pound persuaded Dora Marsden to serially publish A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the London literary magazine The Egoist 211 Joyce s pace of writing increased He completed A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by 1914 212 resumed Exiles completing it in 1915 213 started the novelette Giacomo Joyce which he eventually abandoned 214 and began drafting Ulysses 215 In August 1914 World War I broke out Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom which was now at war with Austria Hungary they remained in Trieste Even when Stanislaus who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists was interned at the beginning of January 1915 Joyce chose to stay In May 1915 Italy declared war on Austria Hungary 216 and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zurich in neutral Switzerland 217 1915 1920 Zurich and Trieste EditZurich Edit Zurich Switzerland where Joyce lived 1915 1919 Joyce arrived in Zurich as a double exile he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria Hungary 218 To get to Switzerland he had to promise the Austro Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste 219 During the war he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro Hungarian secret services 220 Joyce s first concern was earning a living One of Nora s relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from the Royal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the British civil list the following year 221 Eventually Joyce received large regular sums from the editor Harriet Shaw Weaver who operated The Egoist and the psychotherapist Edith Rockefeller McCormick who lived in Zurich studying under Carl Jung 222 Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral 223 Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919 Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well 224 the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian speaking region of Switzerland 225 However health problems remained a constant issue During their time in Zurich both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as nervous breakdowns 226 and he had to undergo many eye surgeries 227 Ulysses Edit During the war Zurich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community Joyce s regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen 228 where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time including the sculptor August Suter 229 and the painter Frank Budgen 230 He often used the time spent with them as material for Ulysses 231 He made the acquaintance of the writer Stefan Zweig 232 who organised the premiere of Exiles in Munich in August 1919 233 He became aware of Dada which was coming into its own at the Cabaret Voltaire 234 ad He may have even met the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon 236 a place they both frequented 237 Joyce kept up his interest in music He met Ferruccio Busoni 238 staged music with Otto Luening and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach 239 Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into Ulysses particularly the Sirens section 240 Joyce avoided public discussion of the war s politics and maintained a strict neutrality 241 He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement 242 he disagreed with its violence 243 ae He stayed intently focused on Ulysses 245 and the ongoing struggle to get his work published Some of the serial instalments of The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The Egoist had been censored by the printers but the entire novel was published by B W Huebsch in 1916 246 In 1918 Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson the owner and editor of the New York based literary magazine The Little Review to publish Ulysses serially 247 The English Players Edit The Pfauen in Zurich Joyce s preferred hangout was the cafe which used to be on the right corner The theatre staged the English Players 248 Joyce co founded an acting company the English Players and became its business manager The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort 249 and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights such as Oscar Wilde George Bernard Shaw and John Millington Synge 250 For Synge s Riders to the Sea Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage 251 which he did again when Robert Browning s In a Balcony was staged He hoped the company would eventually stage his play Exiles 252 but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of the Great Influenza epidemic of 1918 though the company continued until 1920 253 Joyce s work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit Henry Wilfred Carr a wounded war veteran and British consul accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in The Importance of Being Earnest Carr sued for compensation Joyce countersued for libel The cases were resolved in 1919 with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel 254 The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zurich 255 Third stay in Trieste Edit By 1919 Joyce was in financial straits again McCormick stopped paying her stipend partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung 256 and Zurich had become expensive to live in after the war Furthermore he was becoming isolated as the city s emigres returned home In October 1919 Joyce s family moved back to Trieste but it had changed The Austro Hungarian empire had ceased to exist and Trieste was now an Italian city in post war recovery 257 Eight months after his return Joyce went to Sirmione Italy to meet Pound who made arrangements for him to move to Paris 258 Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920 259 1920 1941 Paris and Zurich EditParis Edit James Joyce in a September 1922 issue of Shadowland photographed by Man Ray When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920 their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London 260 For the first four months he stayed with Ludmila Savitzky fr 261 and met Sylvia Beach who ran the Rive Gauche bookshop Shakespeare and Company 262 Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce s life providing financial support 263 and becoming one of Joyce s publishers 264 Through Beach and Pound Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the international modernist artist community 265 Joyce met Valery Larbaud who championed Joyce s works to the French 266 267 and supervised the French translation of Ulysses 268 Paris became the Joyces regular residence for twenty years though they never settled into a single location for long 269 Publication of Ulysses Edit Joyce finished writing Ulysses near the end of 1921 but had difficulties getting it published With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn 270 af Margaret Anderson and her co editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in The Little Review in March 1918 271 but in January and May 1919 two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive 272 In September 1920 an unsolicited instalment of the Nausicaa episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice leading to an official complaint 270 The trial proceedings continued until February 1921 when both Anderson and Healy defended by Quinn were fined 50 each for publishing obscenity 273 and ordered to cease publishing Ulysses 274 Huebsch who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States decided against it after the trial 275 Weaver was unable to find an English printer 276 and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922 where it was blacklisted until 1936 277 Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printing Ulysses Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop 278 She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy Weaver mailed books from Beach s plates to subscribers in England 279 Soon the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books 280 They were then smuggled into both countries 281 ag Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time bootleg versions appeared including pirate versions from publisher Samuel Roth who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a court enjoined publication 283 Ulysses was not legally published in the United States until 1934 after Judge John M Woolsey ruled in United States v One Book Called Ulysses that the book was not obscene 284 Finnegans Wake Edit In 1923 Joyce began his next work an experimental novel that eventually became Finnegans Wake 285 ah It would take sixteen years to complete 287 At first Joyce called it Work in Progress which was the name Ford Madox Ford used in April 1924 when he published its Mamalujo episode in his magazine The Transatlantic Review In 1926 Eugene and Maria Jolas serialised the novel in their magazine transition When parts of the novel first came out some of Joyce s supporters like Stanislaus Pound and Weaver 288 wrote negatively about it 289 and it was criticised by writers like Sean o Faolain Wyndham Lewis and Rebecca West 290 In response Joyce and the Jolas organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titled Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress which included writings by Samuel Beckett and William Carlos Williams 291 An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to market Work in Progress to a larger audience 292 Joyce publicly revealed the novel s title as Finnegans Wake in 1939 293 the same year he completed it It was published in London by Faber and Faber 294 with the assistance of T S Eliot 295 ai Shakespeare and Company in Paris where Sylvia Beach agreed to first publish Ulysses Joyce s health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years He had over a dozen eye operations 297 but his vision severely declined 298 By 1930 he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly 299 He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection 300 At one point Joyce became worried that he could not finish Finnegans Wake asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if something should happen 301 His financial problems continued Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties his spending habits often left him without available money 302 Despite these issues he published Pomes Penyeach in 1927 a collection of thirteen poems he wrote in Trieste Zurich and Paris 303 Marriage in London Edit 1966 drawing of Joyce by Adolf Hoffmeister In 1930 Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more 304 primarily to assure that Giorgio who had just married Helen Fleischmann would have his inheritance secured under British law 305 Joyce moved to London obtained a long term lease on a flat registered on the electoral roll and became liable for jury service After living together for twenty seven years Joyce and Nora got married at the Register Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931 306 Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness He planned to return but never did and later became disaffected with England 307 In later years Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery aj or for treatment for Lucia 309 who was diagnosed with schizophrenia 310 Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung who had previously written that Ulysses was similar to schizophrenic writing 311 ak Jung suggested that she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was sinking 313 In spite of Joyce s attempts to help Lucia she remained permanently institutionalised after his death 314 Final return to Zurich Edit In the late 1930s Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism 315 As early as 1938 Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution 316 After the fall of France in 1940 Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation returning to Zurich a final time 317 Death Edit Grave of James Joyce in Zurich Fluntern sculpture by Milton Hebald On 11 January 1941 Joyce underwent surgery in Zurich for a perforated duodenal ulcer He fell into a coma the following day He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941 and asked a nurse to call his wife and son They were en route when he died 15 minutes later less than a month before his 59th birthday 318 His body was buried in the Fluntern Cemetery in Zurich Swiss tenor Max Meili sang Addio terra addio cielo from Monteverdi s L Orfeo at the burial service 319 Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all his life and only the British consul attended the funeral Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time neither attended Joyce s funeral When Joseph Walshe secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin was informed of Joyce s death by Frank Cremins charge d affaires at Bern Walshe responded Please wire details of Joyce s death If possible find out did he die a Catholic Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral 320 Buried originally in an ordinary grave Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent honour grave with a seated portrait statue by American artist Milton Hebald nearby Nora whom he had married in 1931 survived him by 10 years She is buried by his side as is their son Giorgio who died in 1976 320 After Joyce s death the Irish government declined Nora s request to permit the repatriation of Joyce s remains 321 despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomat John J Slocum 320 In October 2019 a motion was put to Dublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin subject to his family s wishes 322 The proposal immediately became controversial with the Irish Times commenting it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating even mercantile aspect to contemporary Ireland s relationship to its great writers whom we are often more keen to celebrate and if possible monetise than read 323 Joyce and politics Edit 1934 portrait of James Joyce by Jacques Emile Blanche Throughout his life Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politics 324 and in its relationship to British colonialism 325 He studied socialism 326 and anarchism 327 al He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced by Benjamin Tucker s philosophy and Oscar Wilde s essay The Soul of Man Under Socialism 331 He described his opinions as those of a socialist artist 332 Joyce s direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste when he submitted newspaper articles gave lectures and wrote letters advocating for Ireland s independence from British rule 333 After leaving Trieste Joyce s direct involvement in politics waned 334 but his later works still reflect his commitment 335 He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical toward coercive ideologies such as nationalism 336 am His novels address socialist anarchist and Irish nationalist issues 339 Ulysses has been read as a novel critiquing the effect of English colonialism on the Irish people 340 Finnegans Wake has been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics 341 the interrelationship between colonialism and race 342 and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism 343 Joyce s politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport He wrote about the negative effects of English occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it 344 In 1907 he expressed his support for the early Sinn Fein movement before Irish independence 345 However throughout his life Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one 346 When he had a choice he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State 347 an and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to more easily leave Vichy France 349 His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally 350 his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics 351 and his dismay with the Irish Free State s political relationship with the church 352 ao Joyce and religion Edit The interior of the Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolo in Trieste where Joyce occasionally attended services 354 Joyce had a complex relationship with religion 355 Early in life he lapsed from Roman Catholicism 356 First hand statements by himself ap Stanislaus aq and Nora ar attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic Nevertheless his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism 360 In particular his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education 361 as Even after he left Ireland he sometimes went to church When living in Trieste he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Friday 363 at or occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services stating that he liked the ceremonies better 365 A number of Catholic critics suggest that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith 366 wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it 367 They argue that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are expressions of a Catholic sensibility 368 insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by Stephen the protagonist of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses do not represent the views of Joyce the author 369 Joyce s attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces a modern one who resisted Catholic tradition and another who maintained his allegiance to it 370 It has alternatively been described as a dialectic that is both affirming and denying For example Stephen Dedalus s statement in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man non serviam I will not serve 371 is qualified I will not serve that which I no longer believe 372 and that the non serviam will always be balanced by Stephen s I am a servant too 373 and the yes of Molly Bloom s final soliloquy 374 in Ulysses 375 Some critics have suggested that Joyce s apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation 376 a criticism of the Church s adverse impact on spiritual life and personal development 377 He has been compared to the medieval episcopi vagantes wandering bishops who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought 378 Joyce s own responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous For example during an interview after the completion of Ulysses Joyce was asked When did you leave the Catholic Church He answered That s for the Church to say 379 Major works EditDubliners Edit Main article Dubliners First edition of Dubliners 1914 Dubliners is a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914 380 that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle class life in and around the city in the early 20th century The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland 381 au The stories centre on Joyce s idea of an epiphany a moment when a character experiences a life changing self understanding or illumination Many of the characters in Dubliners later appear in minor roles in Joyce s novel Ulysses 383 The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people This aligns with Joyce s tripartite division of the collection into childhood adolescence and maturity 384 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Edit Main article A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man published in 1916 is a shortened rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero It is a Kunstlerroman a kind of coming of age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self consciousness 385 It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist 386 Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works such as stream of consciousness interior monologue and references to a character s psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel 387 Exiles and poetry Edit Main articles Chamber Music poetry collection and Pomes Penyeach Despite early interest in the theatre Joyce published only one play Exiles begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918 A study of a husband and wife relationship the play looks back to The Dead the final story in Dubliners and forward to Ulysses which Joyce began around the time of the play s composition 388 He published three books of poetry 389 The first full length collection was Chamber Music 1907 which consisted of 36 short lyrics It led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology edited by Ezra Pound a champion of Joyce s work Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes Gas from a Burner 1912 Pomes Penyeach 1927 and Ecce Puer written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father These were published by the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems 1936 390 Ulysses Edit Main article Ulysses novel First edition of Ulysses published by Shakespeare amp Company 1922 The action of Ulysses starts on 16 June 1904 at 8 am and ends sometime after 2 am the following morning Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue dialogue and soliloquy The novel consists of 18 episodes each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style 391 Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode in Homer s Odyssey as well as a specific colour a particular art or science and a bodily organ av Ulysses sets the characters and incidents of Homer s Odyssey in 1904 Dublin representing Odysseus Ulysses Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus It uses humor 394 including parody satire and comedy to contrast the novel s characters with their Homeric models Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles 395 so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure 396 Ulysses can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904 exploring various aspects of the city s life dwelling on its squalor and monotony Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe it could be rebuilt using his work as a model 397 To achieve this sense of detail he relied on his memory what he heard other people remember and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail 398 Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition of Thom s Directory a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city to ensure his descriptions were accurate 399 This combination of kaleidoscopic writing reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative and an exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book s major contributions to the development of 20th century modernist literature 400 Finnegans Wake Edit Main article Finnegans Wake Finnegans Wake is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness 401 and literary allusions 402 to their extremes Although the work can be read from beginning to end Joyce s writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay allowing the book to be read nonlinearly Much of the word play stems from the work being written in a peculiar and obscure English based mainly on complex multilevel puns This approach is similar to but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky 403 and draws on a wide range of languages 404 The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream 405 aw The metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola who Joyce had read in his youth 406 plays an important role in Finnegans Wake as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed 407 Giambattista Vico s cyclical view of history in which civilisation rises from chaos passes through theocratic aristocratic and democratic phases and then lapses back into chaos structures the text s narrative 408 as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book Finnegans Wake opens with the words riverrun past Eve and Adam s from swerve of shore to bend of bay brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs ax and ends A way a lone a last a loved a long the 409 In other words the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence turning the narrative into one great cycle 410 Legacy Edit Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street Dublin by Marjorie Fitzgibbon Joyce s work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture 411 ay Ulysses is a model for fiction writers particularly its explorations in the power of language 400 Its emphasis on the details of everyday life have opened up new possibilities of expression for authors painters and film makers 412 It retains its prestige among readers often ranking high on Great Book lists 413 Joyce s innovations extend beyond English literature his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers 414 and Finnegans Wake has become one of the key texts for French post structuralism 415 It also provided the name for the quark one of the elementary particles proposed by physicist Murray Gell Mann 416 az The open ended form of Joyce s novels keep them open to constant reinterpretation 418 They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics Joyce studies based on a relatively small canon of three novels a small short story collection one play and two small books of poems have generated over 15 000 articles monographs theses translations and editions 419 In popular culture the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June known as Bloomsday in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide 420 Museums and study centres Edit The National Library of Ireland holds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks much of it available online 421 A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin the Museum of Literature Ireland branded MoLI in homage to Molly Bloom 422 the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work has both a small permanent Joyce related collection and borrows from its parent institutions its displays include Copy No 1 of Ulysses 423 Dedicated centres in Dublin include the James Joyce Centre in North Great George s Street the James Joyce Tower and Museum in Sandycove the Martello tower where Joyce once lived and the setting for the opening scene in Ulysses and the Dublin Writers Museum 424 University College London holds the only major research collection of Joyce s work in the United Kingdom including first editions of all of Joyce s major works most other early and later editions including translations as well as critical and background literature 425 Further viewing Edit Anjelica Huston on James Joyce A Shout in the Street BBC Four 15 January 2018 426 427 Bibliography EditProse Edit Dubliners short story collection 1914 A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man novel 1916 Ulysses novel 1922 Finnegans Wake novel 1939 restored 2012 Posthumous publications and drafts Edit Fiction Edit Stephen Hero precursor to A Portrait written 1904 06 published 1944 The Cat and the Devil London Faber and Faber 1965 The Cats of Copenhagen Ithys Press 2012 Finn s Hotel Ithys Press 2013 Non Fiction Edit The Critical Writings of James Joyce Eds Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann 1959 Letters of James Joyce Vol 1 Ed Stuart Gilbert 1957 Letters of James Joyce Vol 2 Ed Richard Ellmann 1966 Letters of James Joyce Vol 3 Ed Richard Ellmann 1966 Selected Letters of James Joyce Ed Richard Ellmann 1975 Poetry collections Edit Chamber Music poems Elkin Mathews 1907 Giacomo Joyce written 1907 published by Faber and Faber 1968 Pomes Penyeach poems Shakespeare and Company 1927 Collected Poems poems Black Sun Press 1936 which includes Chamber Music Pomes Penyeach and other previously published works Play Edit Exiles play 1918 Notes Edit Joyce was named for his paternal grandfather 3 but his middle name was mistakenly registered as Augusta at the time of his birth 4 Joyce acquired his saint s name Aloysius at his confirmation 5 in 1891 6 Joyce s fear of dogs may have been exaggerated 11 According to Irish artist Arthur Power Joyce who sometimes took his children and Power on a ride once ordered the driver to turn home when a storm broke out When Power asked Why are you so afraid of thunder Your children don t mind it Joyce answered Ah they have no religion 14 University College was part of the Royal University of Ireland 29 It became University College Dublin one of three colleges in the new National University of Ireland in 1908 The others were University College Galway and University College Cork 30 Ibsen did not reply to the fan letter 36 but he had previously asked the Scottish critic William Archer to thank Joyce for his very benevolent review 37 Joyce s dedicatory page to the play is all that is left To My own Soul I dedicate the first true work of my life 40 Joyce s mother was initially diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver 55 Ellmann says that it became apparent she was actually dying of cancer 56 This may reflect what Joyce s family came to believe 57 but Gorman s 1939 biography of Joyce which was edited by Joyce 58 states that she died of cirrhosis 59 as does her death certificate 60 Gorman writes Mary Jane Joyce was dying in the sanctity of the bosom of her Church and her eldest son could only grieve that the two wills could not meet and mix He was incapable of bending his knee to the powerful phantom that once acknowledged would devour him as it had devoured so many about him and half a civilisation as well 64 Though there is substantial circumstantial evidence supporting that date 71 there is no direct documentary evidence confirming that Joyce and Nora s walk on the Ringsend actually occurred on this day 72 Composer Otto Luening who knew Joyce in Trieste described his voice as being mellow and pleasant a nice Irish Italian tenor very good for Italian operas of the 17th and 18th centuries 79 The details of what happened immediately after the contest are unclear 85 For example Oliver Gogarty claims Joyce threw his medal into the Liffey 86 but Joyce apparently gave the medal to his Aunt Josephine 87 and it ended up being bought by the choreographer Michael Flatley at an auction in 2004 88 Stephen Hero was published after Joyce s death in 1944 94 Though Joyce parodied Yeats in Holy Office he admired two short stories Yeats had written Tables of the Law and Adoration of the Magi The former he memorised by heart and references to both were integrated into Joyce s Stephen Hero 97 Joyce admired Yeats s 1899 play The Countess Cathleen as well which he translated into Italian in 1911 98 The title Chamber Music had been suggested by Stanislaus 103 but Joyce accepted it as a double entendre implying both the sound of chamber music and the sound of urine falling in a chamber pot 104 According to Stanislaus Russell and Joyce became acquainted through a common interest in theosophy which he briefly explored after his mother s death 107 Joyce s knowledge of theosophy appears in his later writing particularly Finnegans Wake 108 Trieste is now in Italy After less than an hour in Trieste Joyce found himself arrested and jailed when he got into the middle of an altercation between three sailors of the Royal Navy and Austro Hungarian police He had to be released by the British Vice Consul 118 It is now called Pula and is in Croatia It was later rumoured that Joyce had been evicted from Pola when the Austrians having discovered an espionage ring in the city expelled all aliens but the evidence suggests that he moved because the position in Trieste was better 126 Joyce s son was named Giorgio when he was born but later preferred to be called George 130 Joyce s Triestine colleague the writer Italo Svevo states that with the exception of some stories of Dubliners and the songs of Chamber Music All his other works down to Ulysses were born in Trieste 141 Regarding the role of Trieste on the creation of Ulysses Svevo states To the Irish critic Earnest Boyd who asserted that Ulysses was merely the product of pre war thought in Ireland Valery Larbaud replied Yes in so far as it came to maturity in Trieste 146 In October Joyce wrote I have a new story for Dubliners in my head It deals with Mr Alfred Hunter the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904 In November he first mentioned the title of the story as Ulysses and in Feb 1907 he mentioned Ulysses along with The Dead and three other stories that never appeared 158 Following Richard Ellmann s biography a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever 174 but evidence suggests that syphilis may have been the cause 175 It may have been the cause of Joyce s eye problems too 176 The physician J B Lyons makes a case that the cause was Reiter s syndrome 177 though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection 178 Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight 181 Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year 196 but Eileen stayed on the continent eventually marrying a Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek 197 The Irish actor Paddy Joyce is their son 198 It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man into a stove fire only to have it rescued by Eileen 203 The literary critic Mary Colum who was personally well acquainted with Joyce reports him as saying Pound took me out of the gutter 208 In 1920 Joyce wrote that the Irish press reported him as the founder of Dada 235 Budgen wrote Joyce if asked what he did during the Great War could reply I wrote Ulysses 244 Quinn was an early supporter of Joyce s work in the United States cf Quinn 1917 Ernest Hemingway became involved in smuggling copies of Ulysses into the United States from Canada 282 In March 1923 Joyce wrote Yesterday I wrote two pages the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses Having found a pen with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio the Italians say The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice or the leopard cannot change his spots 286 Joyce met T S Eliot in Paris in 1923 Eliot became a strong advocate of Joyce s work arranging publication of parts of Work in Progress the first complete edition of Finnegans Wake with Faber and Faber and editing the first anthology of Joyce s work the year after his death 296 He still retained his sense of humor and appreciation of music during these difficult times For example Joyce heard the composer Othmar Schoeck s Song Cycle based on the poems of Gottfried Keller Lebendig begraben Buried Alive while visiting Zurich in 1935 Afterwards he went to Schoeck s house unannounced and dressed as a tramp to introduce himself to him Afterwards he obtained Gottfried Keller s poems and began to translate them 308 Jung also states It would never occur to me to class Ulysses as a product of schizophrenia Ulysses is no more a pathological product than modern art as a whole 312 A footnote that Joyce allowed in Gorman s biography 328 which was written in the 1930s 329 states Among the many whose works he Joyce had read may be mentioned Most Malatesta Stirner Bakunin Elisee Reclus Spencer and Benjamin Tucker 330 In 1918 he declared himself against every state 337 and later in the 1930s he said of the defeated multi ethnic Hapsburg Empire They called the Empire a ramshackle empire I wish to God there were more such empires 338 When Joyce had to renew his passport while residing in Paris during 1935 he wrote Georgio afterwards Giorni fa dovevo far rinnovare il mio passaporto L impiegato mi disse che aveva ordinin di mandare gente come me alla legazione irlandese Insistetti ed ottenni un altro A few days ago I had to have my British passport renewed The clerk told me that he had orders to send people like me to the Irish legation I insisted and got another one 348 Svevo writes He is twice a rebel against England and against Ireland He hates England and would like to transform Ireland Yet he belongs so much to England that like a great many of his Irish predecessors he will fill pages of English literary history 353 In 1904 Joyce declared to Nora who he had just recently met My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity home the recognised virtues classes of life and religious doctrines Six years ago I left the Catholic church hating it most fervently I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me By doing this I made myself a beggar but I retained my pride Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do 357 Stanislaus wrote It has become a fashion with some of my brother s critics to represent him as a man pining for the ancient Church he had abandoned and at a loss for moral support without the religion in which he was bred Nothing could be further from the truth I am convinced that there was never any crisis of belief The vigor of life within him drove him out of the church 358 When a Catholic priest offered to perform a religious service for Joyce s burial Nora declined saying I couldn t do that to him 359 Colum states I have never known anyone with a mind so fundamentally Catholic in structure as Joyce s own or one on whom the Church its ceremonies symbols and theological declarations had made such an impress 362 Joyce told Stanislaus The Mass on Good Friday seems to me a very great drama 364 Svevo writes that what is fundamental in Joyce can be found entire in Dubliners 382 This structure was not part of the original conception of Ulysses 392 but by 1921 Joyce was circulating two versions of this structure known as the Linati schema and Gilbert schema 393 Attridge 2013 also critiques interpreting Finnegans Wake as a dream narrative vicus is a pun on Vico See TMO n d and Nastasi 2014 for examples of various authors responses to Joyce Quark comes from the phrase in Finnegans Wake Three Quarks for Muster Mark 417 Gell Mann states that the number three fitted perfectly with the way quarks occur in nature 416 References EditCitations Ellmann 1982 p 505 Cited from Power Arthur n d From an Old Waterford House London pp 63 64 Bowker 2012 p 19 Costello 1992 p 53 Ellmann 1982 p 21 Ellmann 1982 p 30 Costello 1992 p 81 Bowker 2012 p 19 Ellmann 1982 p 23 Jackson amp Costello 1998 p 20 Jackson amp Costello 1998 pp 6 7 Beach 1959 p 37 Joyce 1958 p 4 Spielberg 1964 pp 42 44 Beach 1959 p 43 Gorman 1939 p 328 Joyce 1958 p 18 Bowker 2012 p 25 Costello 1992 pp 63 64 Ellmann 1982 pp 513 514 Vignette cited from Power Arthur n d From an Old Waterford House London p 71 Bowker 2012 p 38 Ellmann 1982 p 33 Joyce 1958 pp 44 45 Ellmann 1982 p 33 Jackson amp Costello 1998 p 170 McCaffrey 2006 pp 198 199 McCaffrey 2006 p 200 Ellmann 1982 p 34 35 Jackson amp Costello 1998 pp 172 173 Bowker 2012 p 38 Jackson amp Costello 1998 p 173 Ellmann 1982 p 34 Jackson amp Costello 1998 p 176 Ellmann 1982 pp 27 32 34 Ellmann 1982 p 35 Costello 1992 p 132 McCourt 1999a p 22 Sullivan 1958 pp 9 10 Sullivan 1958 p 105 Manglaviti 2000 p 215 NIAH n d White 2001 p 5 Coolahan 2010 pp 757 758 Ellmann 1982 pp 58 60 Noon 1957 p 6 Sullivan 1958 p 170 Ellmann 1982 p 61 a b Davies 1982 p 86 Davies 1982 pp 72 73 Ellmann 1982 pp 86 87 Bowker 2012 p 79 Joyce 1959 p 47 Ibsen s New Drama Costello 1992 p 158 Joyce 1950 p 115 Beja 1992 p 27 Ellmann 1982 p 78 NAI n d Bowker 2012 p 77 Ellmann 1982 p 77 O Connor 1970 p 76 Joyce 1901 pp 7 8 Fogarty 2014 p xv Cope 1981 p 34 Jordan 2012 Kenny 2020 p 84 149 Davies 1982 p 91 Bowker 2012 p 90 Ellmann 1982 p 104 Hutchins 1957 p 53 Bowker 2012 pp 92 93 Davies 1982 p 91 Ellmann 1982 pp 104 106 Ellmann 1982 pp 112 113 Bowker 2012 p 100 Davies 1982 p 98 Ellmann 1982 p 100 Bowker 2012 p 100 Costello 1992 p 204 Gorman 1939 p 94 Ellmann 1982 p 113 Ellmann 1982 p 122 O Brien 2000 p 18 Bowker 2012 p 108 Ellmann 1982 p 129 Ellmann 1982 p 129 Costello 1992 p 210 Nadel 1991 pp 90 93 Witemeyer 1995 p 530 Gorman 1939 p 110 Ellmann 1982 p 760 note 26 Bowker 2012 p 111 Costello 1992 p 210 Bowker 2012 p 106 Costello 1992 p 210 Gabler 2018 pp 11 13 Joyce 1966a p 383 Letter from May Joyce 1 September 1916 Bowker 2012 p 108 Gorman 1939 p 100 Ellmann 1982 p 136 Gorman 1939 p 110 Joyce 1958 p 234 Joyce 1958 p 234 O Brien 2000 p 19 Costello 1992 p 212 Ellmann 1982 pp 143 144 O Brien 2000 p 26 Bowker 2012 p 112 Davies 1982 p 112 O Brien 2000 Bowker 2012 p 113 Ellmann 1982 pp 138 139 Maddox 1989 pp 23 24 O Brien 2000 p 36 Sultan 2000 pp 28 29 Froula 1990 pp 857 859 Maddox 1989 p 27 Bowker 2012 pp 122 123 Davies 1982 p 122 Ellmann 1982 p 156 O Brien 2000 pp 37 38 Maddox 1989 p xix Bowker 2012 p 124 Costello 1992 pp 230 231 Bowker 2012 p 124 Davies 1982 pp 191 238 Ellmann 1982 pp 161 162 Witen 2018 p 2 Martin amp Bauerle 1990 pp 43 44 Ruff 1969 p 225 Feis Ceoil n d Joyce 1950 p 15 Hodgart amp Bauerle 1997 p 46 Joyce 1905b p 29 Dowling 2016 p 218 O Callaghan 2020 p 86 Witen 2018 pp 10 11 Gogarty 1948 p 26 Ellmann 1982 p 152 Hutchins 1950 p 88 Parsons 2014 Ellmann 1982 p 152 Joyce 1905b p 37 Hodgart amp Bauerle 1997 p 46 Ruff 1969 p 225 Hodgart amp Bauerle 1997 p 48 Maddox 1989 p 39 Joyce 1904a Mamigonian amp Turner 2003 p 348 Joyce 1904b Ellmann 1950 p 631 see Yeats 1892 Prescott 1954 p 216 Ellmann 1967 pp 448 450 Ellmann 1982 p 166 Bowker 2012 p 127 Costello 1992 p 220 Ellmann 1982 Bowker 2012 p 115 Davies 1982 p 118 Ellmann 1982 p 154 Joyce 1958 Bowker 2012 p 113 Davies 1982 p 118 Costello 1992 p 228 Bowker 2012 p 126 Joyce 1941 p 493 Carver 1978 p 201 Platt 2008 pp 281 282 Costello 1992 p 127 Davies 1982 p 118 Bowker 2012 p 126 Costello 1992 p 229 230 Bowker 2012 p 130 Davies 1982 p 131 Ellmann 1982 p 175 Bowker 2012 pp 130 132 Costello 1992 p 232 Ellmann 1982 pp 178 179 Davies 1982 p 135 O Brien 2000 pp 42 43 Ellmann 1982 pp 183 184 Ellmann 1982 p 184 ZJJF n d Fischer 2021 p 9 Fischer 2021 p 9 Bowker 2011 p 670 Stanzel 2001 p 361 Bowker 2012 p 138 Ellmann 1982 p 186 Maddox 1989 p 57 Francini Bruni 1922 p 4 Ellmann 1982 pp 186 187 Bowker 2012 pp 139 142 Maddox 1989 p 56 Ellmann 1982 p 189 Jackson amp McGinley 1993 p 94 Joyce 1957 p 57 Letter to Mrs William Murray Aunt Josephine New Year s Eve 1904 Bowker 2012 p 142 Costello 1992 p 256 Stanzel 2001 p 363 McCourt 2000 pp 22 23 Stanzel 2001 p 363 McCourt 2000 p 235 McCourt 1999a p 45 Bowker 2012 p 147 Davies 1982 p 147 Fargnoli amp Gillespie 1996 p 118 Ellmann 1982 p 204 McCourt 2000 p 39 Bowker 2012 pp 150 151 Ellmann 1982 pp 211 213 Francini Bruni 1947 pp 39 40 Ellmann 1982 p 214 McCourt 2000 p 76 Ellmann1982 p 207 Groden 1984 pp 80 81 Bowker 2012 Hutton 2003 pp 498 500 Hutton 2003 p 503 McCourt 1999a pp 44 45 Frank 1926 p 74 Hawley amp McCourt 2000 4 13 4 17 Rocco Bergera 1972 pp 342 349 Svevo 1927 p 1 Rocco Bergera 1972 p 344 Hawley amp McCourt 2000 1 20 1 30 Svevo 1927 p 3 del Greco Lobner 1985 p 73 McCourt 1999b p 85 Svevo 1927 pp 3 4 Crise Rocco Bergera amp Dalton 1969 pp 65 69 Zanotti 2001 p 423 JJC 2014 Joyce 1966a p 218 Letter to Stanislaus Joyce 1 March 1907 Bowker 2012 p 222 Ellmann 1982 p 222 Melchiori 1984a pp 9 10 Onorati 1984 p 24 26 Melchiori 1984a pp 10 11 Spoo 1988 pp 481 482 Bowker 2012 pp 160 163 Costello 1992 p 270 Ellmann 1958 pp 509 511 Bowker 2012 p 163 Humphreys 1979 p 252 Joyce 1966a pp 168 190 209 Letters to Stanislaus Joyce 4 October 1906 13 November 1906 6 February 1907 respectively Beja 1992 p 50 Costello 1992 p 270 McCourt 2000 pp 68 69 Nadel 1986 p 302 Bowker 2012 p 230 Humphreys 1979 p 252 Manganiello 1980 p 52 Melchiori 1984b p 43 Bowker 2012 pp 160 162 Melchiori 1984a p 10 Shloss 2005 pp 46 47 Melchiori 1984a p 11 Bowker 2012 p 166 Staley 1964 p 61 Ellmann 1982 p 272 Nadel 1986 p 301 Staley 1963 p 334 Rocco Bergera 1972 p 116 Bowker 2012 p 176 Davison 1994 p 70 Bulson 2006 p 8 Costello 1992 p 271 Gibson 2006 pp 84 85 Mason 1956 p 117 Gibson 2006 pp 84 85 McCourt 2000 p 92 Bowker 2012 p 169 Beja 1992 p 50 Costello 1992 p 274 Davies 1982 p 176 Ellmann 1982 p 262 McCourt 2019 pp 536 537 Schneider 2001 p 469 Birmingham 2014 pp 289 290 Davies 1982 pp 391 392 Ferris 1995 p 5 Hayden 2003 pp 241 242 McCourt 2019 p 537 Lyons 1973 p 205 Lyons 2000 p 306 The iritis may have been caused by Reiter s disease This follows a chlamydial infection This may have been acquired during a carousal on his return from to Trieste from Rome Birmingham 2014 p 256 Ellmann 1982 p 28 Bowker 2012 p 168 Pelaschiar 1999 pp 66 67 Ellmann 1982 p 262 Ellmann 1958 p 512 512 Briggs 2011 p 637 cf Kelly 2011 p 626 Bowker 2012 p 173 Ellmann 1982 p 268 Bowker 2012 p 173 Bollettieri Bosinelli 2013 p 1115 Hodgart amp Bauerle 1997 p 52 Ellmann 1982 p 267 Ellmann 1982 p 276 Bowker 2012 p 181 Hutton 2003 p 495 Davies 1982 pp 195 196 Sicker 2006 pp 99 100 McCourt 2000 pp 146 147 Bowker 2012 pp 180 191 Ellmann 1982 p 310 Delimata 1981 p 45 Ellmann 1982 pp 384 385 Delimata 1981 p 48 62 Ellmann 1982 pp 311 313 Berrone amp Joyce 1976 p 3 Bowker 2012 pp 198 199 Bowker 2012 p 206 Bowker 2012 p 197 Joyce 1959 pp 242 245 Gas from a Burner Bowker 2012 pp 204 205 Bowker 2012 p 212 Hutton 2003 pp 495 496 Colum 1947 p 383 Gibson 2006 p 93 Kelly 1993 p 21 Walkiewicz 1982 p 512 Bowker 2012 p url https archive org details jamesjoycenewbio0000bowk page 211 211 Gabler 1974 p 1 Brivic 1968 p 29 Bowker 2012 p 214 McCourt 2000 pp 196 197 Bowker 2012 p 217 Ellmann 1982 p 389 McCourt 2000 p 246 Spoo 1986 p 137 Beja 1992 p 71 McCourt 2000 pp 245 247 Stanzel 2001 pp 364 365 Bowker 2012 p 217 Ellmann 1982 p 386 Gibson 2006 pp 106 116 Stanzel 2001 p 365 Fischer 2021 p 15 McCourt 1999a p 76 Beja 1992 pp 75 76 McCourt 1999a p 82 Gibson 2006 p 132 McCourt 1999a p 82 Bowker 2012 pp 234 238 Bowker 2012 p 228 Grandt 2003 p 78 Maddox 1989 p 141 Beja 1992 p 78 Gorman 1939 p 232 Gorman 1939 p 233 Maddox 1989 p 142 Borach 1931 p 325 Suter 1926 p 61 Budgen 1934 pp 9 15 Gorman 1939 p 233 Potts 1979 p 59 Ellmann 1982 p 603 Zweig 1941 p 275 Nadel 1989 p 151 Nadel 2008 p 485 Joyce 1966b p 22 Letter to Stanislaus Joyce 14 September 1920 Ellmann 1982 p 409 Gibson 2006 p 116 McCourt 1999a p 74 Ellmann 1982 p 409 Hodgart amp Bauerle 1997 p 55 Grandt 2003 p 75 Grandt 2003 p 77 Luening 1980 p 197 Gibson 2006 pp 107 108 Gorman 1939 pp 233 240 241 Manganiello 1980 p 162 Gorman 1939 Beja 1992 p 71 Manganiello 1980 pp 162 163 Budgen 1934 p 190 McCourt 1999a pp 73 74 Beja 1992 p 60 Bowker 2012 p 241 Gibson 2006 p 132 Fischer 2021 p 190 Gibson 2006 p 111 McCourt 1999a p 78 Beja 1992 p 73 Maddox 1989 p 154 McCourt 1999a p 78 Gorman 1939 p 261 Beja 1992 pp 72 73 Gibson 2006 pp 112 113 Rushing 2000 pp 371 372 Bowker 2012 p 254 Gibson 2006 pp 113 114 Beja 1992 p 75 Bowker 2012 p 257 Gorman 1939 p 264 McCourt 1999a p 85 Bowker 2012 Gibson 2006 p 132 Gorman 1939 p 270 Bowker 2012 pp 273 274 Gibson 2006 p 132 Livak 2012 p 143 Beach 1959 pp 36 38 Bowker 2012 pp 276 277 Gibson 2006 p 134 Bowker 2012 p 292 297 Gorman 1939 p 286 Bowker 2012 p 274 Gibson 2006 pp 134 135 Larbaud Valery April 1922 James Joyce PDF Nouvelle Revue Francaise 103 385 409 Monnier amp Beach 1946 p 430 Beja 1992 p 100 Ellmann 1982 p 499 Gibson 2006 p 133 Harrington 1998 pp 841 842 a b Rainey 1996 p 535 Beja 1992 p 72 Vanderham 1997 pp 6 29 Weir 2000 pp 389 391 392 Anderson 1921 Ellmann 1982 pp 502 503 Bowker 2012 p 286 Ellmann 1982 p 504 Beja 1992 p 83 Bowker 2012 p 286 Medina Casado 2000 p 479 Beach 1959 p 47 Beja 1992 p 85 Bowker 2012 p 288 Ellmann 1982 p 504 Bowker 2012 pp 289 290 Ellmann 1982 pp 504 506 Bowker 2012 p 315 Ellmann 1982 p 506 Beja 1992 p 86 Beja 1992 p 85 Bowker 2012 pp 312 313 Beja 1992 pp 93 94 Medina Casado 2000 pp 93 94 Bowker 2012 p 318 Davies 1982 p 307 Joyce 1957 p 202 Letter to Harriet Shaw Weaver March 1923 Bowker 2012 p 322 Ellmann 1982 p 522 Joyce 1966b p 102 Letter from Stanislaus Joyce 7 August 1924 Pound 1967 p 228 Letter to James Joyce 15 November 1926 Ellmann 1982 p 590 Letter from Weaver 4 February 1927 Beja 1992 p 92 Bulson 2006 p 94 Ellmann 1982 p 613 Ellmann 1982 p 613 Henke 1991 pp 613 615 Dilks 2004 p 720 Weisenfarth 1991 p 100 Beja 1992 p 121 Loukopoulou 2011 pp 699 700 Dalton 1968 p 79 Nadel 1990 pp 512 513 Also see Joyce s note mentioned in Fahy 1993 p 8 regarding the publication date of Finnegans Wake Beja 1992 p 78 Bowker 2012 p 400 Davies 1982 p 334 Ellmann 1982 p 622 Gibson 2006 pp 151 152 Birmingham 2014 p 256 Beja 1992 p 78 Bowker 2012 p 320 Beja 1992 p 93 Bowker 2012 p 364 Gibson 2006 p 149 Ellmann 1982 p 632 Osteen 1995a pp 14 15 Petroski 1974 p 1024 Ellmann 1982 p 622 Maddox 1989 p 255 Bowker 2011 p 673 Ellmann 1982 p 622 Bowker 2012 p 419 Loukopoulou 2011 p 687 Bowker 2011 pp 675 675 Ellmann 1982 p 669 Gerber 2010 p 479 Fischer 2021 pp 22 23 Beja 1992 p 115 Jung 1952 pp 116 117 Shloss 2005 p 278 Jung 1952 p 117 Shloss 2005 p 297 Bowker 2012 Shloss 2005 p 7 Beja 1992 p 122 Bowker 2012 p 500 Nadel 1986 pp 306 308 Gibson 2006 pp 155 156 Ellmann 1982 pp 740 741 Ellmann 1982 p 743 a b c Jordan 2018 Bowker 2012 p 534 Horgan Jones 2019 The Irish Times 2019 Manganiello 1980 p 2 MacCabe 2003 p xv Orr 2008 p 3 Cheng 1995 pp 1 2 Deane 1997 p 32 Gibson 2006 p 32 Kiberd 1996 p 10 Seidel 2008 Fairhall 1993 p 50 Scholes 1992 pp 167 168 Sultan 1987 p 208 Fairhall 1993 p 50 Manganiello 1980 p 72 Rabate 2001 p 27 Nadel 1991 p 91 Gorman 1939 p 183 fn1 Caraher 2009 p 288 Sultan 1987 p 209 Gibson 2006 p 83 MacCabe 2003 p 160 McCourt 2000 p 93 Fairhall 1993 p 50 Scholes 1992 p 165 Gibson 2002 p 13 Segall 1993 p 6 Seidel 2008 pp 7 9 Fairhall 1993 pp 54 55 Caraher 2009 p 288 Fairhall 1993 p 52 Robinson 2001 p 332 Segall 1993 p 6 Ellmann 1977 pp 80 86 Gibson 2002 p 13 Watson 1987 p 41 Gibson 2006 pp 164 165 Nolan 1995 p 143 The Irish Civil War also forms an integral component of the fraternal antagonism between the sons of the Wakean family Cheng 1995 pp 251 252 MacCabe 2003 pp xv xvi Sollers 1978 p 108 de Sola Rodstein 1998 p 155 Gibson 2006 p 82 Pelaschiar 1999 p 64 Davies 1982 p 299 Bowker 2012 p 475 Joyce 1966b pp 353 354 Letter to Georgio Postscript to missing letter about 10 April 1935 Bowker 2012 Ellmann 1982 p 738 Bowker 2011 p 669 Davies 1982 p 299 Davies 1982 pp 298 299 de Sola Rodstein 1998 p 146 Seidel 2008 p 10 Lernout 2010 p 210 To the dismay of Joyce and other intellectuals the Irish Free State of 1922 adopted the catholic culture that had already been dominant in the powerful coalition between the bishops and the nationalist party Svevo 1927 pp 15 16 McCourt 2000 p 50 Van Mierlo 2017 p 3 Ellmann 1982 pp 65 66 Lernout 2010 p 6 Joyce 1966a pp 48 49 Letter to Nora Barnacle 29 August 1904 Joyce 1958 p 130 Ellmann 1982 p 742 citing a 1953 interview with Giorgio Joyce Eco 1982 p 2 Ellmann 1982 p 27 Gorman 1939 p 26 Hederman 1982 p 20 Mahon 2004 p 349 Sullivan 1958 pp 7 8 Colum 1947 p 381 Francini Bruni 1922 pp 35 36 Joyce 1958 p 105 Joyce 1958 p 104 Joyce Schaurek 1963 p 64 Noon 1957 pp 14 15 Strong 1949 pp 11 12 Boyle 1978 pp x xi Strong 1949 pp 158 161 Segall 1993 p 140 Segall 1993 p 160 Gibson 2006 p 41 Joyce 1916b p 134 Joyce 1916b p 291 Joyce 1922 p 11 Joyce 1922 p 732 Hughs 1992 p 122 Ellmann 1982 pp 65 66 Jung 1952 p 120 cf an earlier translation of Jung s statement Jung 1949 p 10 also quoted in Noon 1957 p 15 Morse 1959 pp 3 16 Eco 1982 p 4 Davison 1998 p 78 Osteen 1995b pp 483 484 Gibson 2006 p 73 Joyce 1957 p 62 63 Letter to Grant Richards 23 June 1906 Svevo 1927 p 20 Groden n d Walzl 1977 cf Halper 1979 pp 476 477 Rando 2016 p 47 Riquelme 1983 p 51 Spender 1970 p 749 Clark 1968 p 69 CI n d Doyle 1965 p 90 Kimpel 1975 pp 283 285 Fludernik 1986 p 184 Groden 2007 p 223 Litz 1964 p 34 Emerson 2017 p 55 Kimpel 1975 pp 311 313 Attridge 1997 p 27 Dettmar 1992 p 285 Attridge 1997 p 27 Dettmar 1992 p 285 Wykes 1968 p 305 Budgen 1934 pp 67 68 Ellmann 1982 pp 363 366 Hegglund 2003 pp 168 167 a b Sherry 2004 p 102 Kumar 1957 p 30 Thompson 1964 p 80 Atherton 1960 p 22 23 Attridge 2007 pp 85 86 Schotter 2010 p 89 Attridge 2013 p 195 197 Downes 2003 pp 37 38 Gorman 1939 pp 332 333 Rabate 1989 p 31 Atherton 1960 pp 36 37 Beckett 1929 p 17 Atherton 1960 pp 29 31 Beckett 1929 p 17 Gorman 1939 pp 332 333 Atherton 1960 p 29 Shockley 2009 p 104 Attridge 1997 p 1 Attridge 1997 p 1 Mullin 2014 Levitt 2006 pp 390 391 Attridge 2007 p 4 Chun 2015 p 75 Lernout 1992 p 19 a b Gell Mann 1994 p 180 Joyce 1939 p 383 Attridge 1997 p 3 Latham 2009 p 148 Murphy 2014 Killeen 2012 Harnett 2019 MoLI n d Biggers 2015 pp 215 221 UCL 23 August 2018 James Joyce Collection Library Services Retrieved 12 October 2022 Anjelica Huston on James Joyce A Shout In The Street RTE 11 December 2017 Retrieved 14 September 2022 Tonight s TV Anjelica Huston on James Joyce and the Undateables look for romance The National Scotland 15 January 2018 Retrieved 14 September 2022 Sources BooksAtherton James S 1960 Books at the Wake A Study of Literary allusions in James Joyce sFinnegans Wake Viking Press ISBN 9780809306879 OCLC 1148024288 Attridge Derek 1997 Reading Joyce In Attridge Derek ed The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce Cambridge University Press pp 1 30 ISBN 0521376734 OCLC 1148222842 Attridge Derek 2007 How to Read Joyce Granta Books ISBN 9781862079120 OCLC 1149525874 Beja Morris 1992 James Joyce A Literary Life Ohio State University Press ISBN 0814205984 OCLC 964127996 Beckett Samuel 1961 1929 Dante Bruno Vico Joyce Our Exagmination Round his Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress Faber and Faber pp 1 22 OCLC 1150935903 Biggers Shirley Hoover 2015 British Author House Museums and Other Memorials A Guide to Sites in England Ireland Scotland and Wales McFarland ISBN 9781476600222 OCLC 606882695 Birmingham Kevin 2014 The Most dangerous book The Battle for James Joyce Ulysses Head of Zeus ISBN 9781784080723 OCLC 894758831 Bowker Gordon 2012 James Joyce A New Biography Farrar Straus and Giroux ISBN 9780374178727 OCLC 802264865 Boyle Robert 1978 James Joyce s Pauline Vision A Catholic Exposition Southern Illinois University Press ISBN 0809308614 OCLC 1150108528 Bulson Eric 2006 The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce Cambridge University Press ISBN 1879373300 OCLC 442719108 Caraher Brian G 2009 Irish and European politics nationalism socialism empire In McCourt John ed James Joyce in Context Cambridge University Press pp 285 298 ISBN 9780801825439 OCLC 1150093431 Cheng Vincent John 1995 Joyce Race and Empire Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521431182 OCLC 1150121186 Coolahan John 2010 Higher Education 1908 84 In Hill J R ed A New History of Ireland Volume VII Ireland 1921 84 Oxford University Press pp 758 759 ISBN 9780199592821 OCLC 701552783 Cope Jackson I 1981 Joyce s Cities Archaeologies of the Soul Johns Hopkins University ISBN 9780521886628 OCLC 900420355 Costello Peter 1992 James Joyce The Years of Growth Roberts Rineheart ISBN 1879373300 OCLC 856717658 Davies Stan Gebler 1982 James Joyce A Portrait of the Artist Granada ISBN 9780586056394 OCLC 1194438647 Davison Neil R 1998 James Joyce Ulysses and the Construction of Jewish Identity Culture Biography and the Jew in Modernist Europe Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780511581830 OCLC 939797702 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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