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Ibn Taymiyya

April 10, 2024

Ibn Taymiyya [a] (Arabic: ٱبْن تَيْمِيَّة; 22 January 1263 – 26 September 1328)[11] was a Sunni Muslim scholar,[12][13][14] jurist,[15][16] traditionist, ascetic, and proto-Salafi[b] and iconoclastic theologian.[17][14] He is known for his diplomatic involvement with the Ilkhanid ruler Ghazan Khan at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar, which ended the Mongol invasions of the Levant.[18] A legal jurist of the Hanbali school, Ibn Taymiyya's condemnation of numerous folk practices associated with saint veneration and visitation of tombs made him a contentious figure with many rulers and scholars of the time, which caused him to be imprisoned several times as a result.[19]

Imam
Ibn Taymiyya
ٱبْن تَيْمِيَّة
TitleShaykh al-Islam ('Shaykh of Islam')
Personal
Born22 January 1263 CE
10 Rabi' al-Awwal 661 AH
Harran, Mamluk Sultanate (modern-day Harran, Şanlıurfa, Turkey)
Died26 September 1328 CE (aged 64–65)
20 Dhu al-Qa'da 728 AH
Damascus, Mamluk Sultanate (modern-day Syria)
ReligionIslam
Era
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceHanbali[1][2]
CreedAthari[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Notable work(s)
  • Minhaj al-Sunna al-Nabawiyya
  • al-Aqida al-Wasitiyya
  • al-Sarim al-Maslul ala Shatim al-Rasul
Alma materMadrasa Dar al-Hadith al-Sukariyya
Arabic name
Personal
(Ism)		Aḥmad
أَحْمَد
Patronymic
(Nasab)		Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Khiḍr ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Khiḍr ibn Ibrāhīm ibn ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd Allāh
ٱبْن عَبْد ٱلْحَلِيم بْن عَبْد ٱلسَّلَام بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن ٱلْخِضْر بْن مُحَمَّد بْن ٱلْخِضْر بْن إِبْرَاهِيم بْن عَلِيّ بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه
Teknonymic
(Kunya)		Abū al-ʿAbbās
أَبُو ٱلْعَبَّاس
Epithet
(Laqab)		Taqī al-Dīn
تَقِيّ ٱلدِّين
Toponymic
(Nisba)		Al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī[9][page needed]
ٱلنُّمَيْرِيّ ٱلْحَرَّانِيّ
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced

A polarizing figure in his own times and the centuries that followed,[20][21] Ibn Taymiyya has emerged as one of the most influential medieval scholars in late modern Sunni Islam.[19] He is also noteworthy for engaging in fierce religious polemics that attacked various schools of speculative theology, primarily Ash'arism and Maturidism, while defending the doctrines of Atharism. This prompted rival clerics and state authorities to accuse Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples of anthropomorphism, which eventually led to the censoring of his works and subsequent incarceration.[22][23][24]

Nevertheless, Ibn Taymiyya's numerous treatises that advocate for al-salafiyya al-iʿtiqādiyya (creedal Salafism), based on his scholarly interpretations of the Quran and prophetic way, constitute the most popular classical reference for later Salafi movements.[25] Throughout his treatises, Ibn Taymiyya asserted there is no contradiction between reason and revelation,[26] and denounced the usage of philosophy as a pre-requisite in seeking religious truth.[27] As a cleric who viewed Shiasm as a source of corruption in Muslim societies, Ibn Taymiyya was also known for virulent anti-Shia polemics throughout treatises such as Minhaj al-Sunna, wherein he denounced the Imami Shia creed as heretical. He issued a ruling to wage jihad against the Shias of Kisrawan and personally fought in the Kisrawan campaigns himself, accusing Shias of acting as the fifth-columnists of the Frank Crusaders and Mongol Ilkhanids.[28]

Within recent history, Ibn Taymiyya has been widely regarded as a major scholarly influence in revolutionary Islamist movements, such as Salafi jihadism.[29][30][31] Major aspects of his teachings, such as upholding the pristine monotheism of the early Muslim generations and campaigns to uproot what he regarded as polytheism, had a profound influence on Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of the Wahhabism reform movement formed in Arabian Peninsula, as well as other later Sunni scholars.[2][32] Lebanese Salafi theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida, one of the major modern proponents of Ibn Taymiyya's works, designated him as the renewer of the 7th Islamic century.[33][34] Ibn Taymiyya's doctrinal positions, such as his excommunication of the Mongol Ilkhanids and allowing jihad against other self-professed Muslims, were referenced by later Islamist political movements, including the Muslim Brotherhood, Hizb ut-Tahrir, al-Qaeda, and Islamic State, to justify social uprisings against the contemporary governments of the Muslim world.[35][36][37]

Name and lineage edit

Ibn Taymiyya's full name is Taqī al-Din Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Khiḍr ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Khiḍr ibn Ibrāhīm ibn ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī (Arabic: تَقِيّ ٱلدِّين أَبُو ٱلْعَبَّاس أَحْمَد بْن عَبْد ٱلْحَلِيم بْن عَبْد ٱلسَّلَام بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن ٱلْخِضْر بْن مُحَمَّد بْن ٱلْخِضْر بْن إِبْرَاهِيم بْن عَلِيّ بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه ٱلنُّمَيْرِيّ ٱلْحَرَّانِيّ).[9]

Biography edit

Early years edit

Family edit

Ibn Taymiyya was born in Harran, Mamluk Sultanate to a family of traditional Hanbali scholars. He had Arab and Kurdish lineages by way of his Arab father and Kurdish mother.[38][39] His father, Shihab al-Din Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyya, held the Hanbali chair in Harran and later at the Umayyad Mosque. At the time, Harran was a part of the Mamluk Sultanate, near what is today the border of Syria and Turkey, currently in the Şanlıurfa Province.[40] At the beginning of the Islamic period, Harran was located in Diyar Mudar, the land of the Mudar tribe.[41] Before its destruction by the Mongols, Harran was also well-known since the early days of Islam for its tradition of adhering to the Hanbali school,[42] to which Ibn Taymiyya's family belonged.[40] His grandfather, Majd al-Din ibn Taymiyya, and his uncle, Fakhr al-Din, were both reputable scholars of the Hanbali school, and their scholarly achievements well-known.[19]

Education edit

In 1269, Ibn Taymiyya, aged seven, left Harran together with his father and three brothers; however, the city was completely destroyed by the ensuing Mongol invasion.[43][19] Ibn Taymiyya's family moved and settled in Damascus, Syria, which was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate at the time.

In Damascus, his father served as the director of the Sukkariyya Madrasa, a place where Ibn Taymiyya also received his early education.[44] He acquainted himself with the religious and secular sciences of his time. His religious studies began in his early teens when he committed the entire Quran to memory, and later came to learn the disciplines of the Quran.[43] From his father, he learnt the religious science of jurisprudence and its principles.[43] Ibn Taymiyya studied the works of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Abu Bakr al-Khallal, and Ibn Qudama, as well as the works of his own grandfather, Majd al-Din.[19] His study of jurisprudence was not limited to the Hanbali tradition, as he also studied the other schools of jurisprudence.[19]

The number of scholars under which he studied hadith is said to number more than two-hundred,[45][43][46] four of whom were women.[47] Those who are known by name amount to forty hadith teachers, as recorded by Ibn Taymiyya in his work titled Arba'un Haditha.[48] Serajul Haque says, based on this, Ibn Taymiyya started to hear hadith from the age of five.[48] One of Ibn Taymiyya's teachers was the first Hanbali Chief Justice of Syria, Shams al-Din al-Maqdisi, who held the newly created position instituted by Baibars as part of a reform of the judiciary.[19] Al-Maqdisi later came to give Ibn Taymiyya permission to issue legal verdicts, making him a judge at the age of seventeen.[45][49][50]

Ibn Taymiyya's secular studies led him to devote attention to the Arabic language and literature by studying Arabic grammar and lexicography under Ali ibn Abd al-Qawi al-Tufi.[43][51] He went on to master the famous book of Arabic grammar al-Kitab, written by the grammarian Sibawayhi.[43] He also studied mathematics, algebra, calligraphy, speculative theology, philosophy, history, and heresiography.[45][49][19][52] With the knowledge he gained from history and philosophy, he set to refute the prevalent philosophical discourses of his time, one of which was Aristotelianism.[45] Ibn Taymiyya also learnt about Sufism and stated he had reflected on the works of Sahl al-Tustari, al-Junayd al-Baghdadi, Abu Talib al-Makki, Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, Shihab al-Din Umar al-Suhrawardi, and Ibn Arabi.[19] In 1282, Ibn Taymiyya completed his education at the age of 20.[53]

Life as a scholar edit

 
The Umayyad Mosque pictured in 1895, where Ibn Taymiyya used to give lessons.[49]

After his father died in 1284, he took up the then vacant post as the head of the Sukkariyya madrasa and began giving lessons on Hadith.[49][19][54] A year later he started giving lessons, as chair of the Hanbali Zawiya on Fridays at the Umayyad Mosque, on the subject of tafsir (exegesis of Qur'an).[49][51][55] In November 1292, Ibn Taymiyya performed the Hajj and after returning 4 months later, he wrote his first book aged twenty nine called Manasik al-Hajj (Rites of the Pilgrimage), in which he criticized and condemned the religious innovations he saw take place there.[19][44] Ibn Taymiyya represented the Hanbali school of thought during this time. The Hanbali school was seen as the most traditional school out of the four legal systems (Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi'i) because it was "suspicious of the Hellenist disciplines of philosophy and speculative theology."[44] He remained faithful throughout his life to this school, whose doctrines he had mastered, but he nevertheless called for ijtihad (independent reasoning by one who is qualified) and discouraged taqlid.[53]

Possible influences edit

Ibn Taymiyya was taught by scholars who were renowned in their time;[56] however, there is no evidence any of them had a significant influence on him.[56]

A strong influence on Ibn Taymiyya was the founder of the Hanbali school itself, Ahmad ibn Hanbal.[56] Ibn Taymiyya was trained in his school by studying Ahmad's Musnad in great detail, having studied it multiple times.[57] Though he spent much of his life following this school, he renounced blind-following near the end of his life.[53]

His work was most influenced by the sayings and actions of the first three generations of Muslims (salaf), which is displayed in his works where he would give preference to their opinions over those of his contemporaries.[56] The modern Salafi movement derives its name from these generations.[56]

Relationship with the authorities edit

Ibn Taymiyya's emergence in the public and political spheres began in 1293 when he was 30 years old, when the authorities asked him to issue a fatwa (legal verdict) on Assaf al-Nasrani, a Christian cleric who was accused of insulting Muhammad.[58][19][59] He accepted the invitation and delivered his fatwa, calling for the man to receive the death penalty.[58] Despite the fact that public opinion was very much on Ibn Taymiyya's side,[44] the Governor of Syria attempted to resolve the situation by asking Assaf to accept Islam in return for his life, to which he agreed.[44] This resolution was not acceptable to Ibn Taymiyya who then, together with his followers, protested against it outside the governor's palace, demanding that Assaf be put to death,[44] on the grounds that any person—Muslim or non-Muslim—who insults Muhammad must be killed.[49][44] His unwillingness to compromise, coupled with his attempt to protest against the governor's actions, resulted in him being punished with a prison sentence, the first of many such imprisonments which were to come.[19] The French orientalist Henri Laoust says that during his incarceration, Ibn Taymiyya "wrote his first great work, al-Ṣārim al-maslūl ʿalā shātim al-Rasūl (The Drawn Sword against those who insult the Messenger)."[19] Ibn Taymiyya, together with the help of his disciples, continued with his efforts against what, "he perceived to be un-Islamic practices" and to implement what he saw as his religious duty of commanding good and forbidding wrong.[49][60] Yahya Michot says that some of these incidences included: "shaving children's heads", leading "an anti-debauchery campaign in brothels and taverns", hitting an atheist before his public execution, destroying what was thought to be a sacred rock in a mosque, attacking astrologers and obliging "deviant Sufi Shaykhs to make public acts of contrition and adhere to the Sunnah."[49] Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples used to condemn wine sellers and they would attack wine shops in Damascus by breaking wine bottles and pouring them onto the floor.[55]

A few years later in 1296, he took over the position of one of his teachers (Zayn al-Din Ibn al-Munadjdjaal), taking the post of professor of Hanbali jurisprudence at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, the oldest such institution of this tradition in Damascus.[19][44][61] This is seen by some to be the peak of his scholarly career.[44] The year when he began his post at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, was a time of political turmoil. The Mamluk sultan Al-Adil Kitbugha was deposed by his vice-sultan Al-Malik al-Mansur Lajin who then ruled from 1297 to 1299.[62] Lajin desired to commission an expedition against the Christians of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who formed an alliance with the Mongol Empire and participated in the military campaign which lead to the destruction of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, and the destruction of Harran, the birthplace of Ibn Taymiyya, for that purpose, he urged Ibn Taymiyya to call the Muslims to Jihad.[19][44]

In 1298, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his explanation for the ayat al-mutashabihat (the unclear verses of the Qur'an) titled Al-`Aqidat al-Hamawiyat al-Kubra (The creed of the great people of Hama).[63][64] The book is about divine attributes and it served as an answer to a question from the city of Hama, Syria.[63][64] At that particular time Ash'arites held prominent positions within the Islamic scholarly community in both Syria and Egypt, and they held a certain position on the divine attributes of God.[63] Ibn Taymiyya in his book strongly disagreed with their views and this heavy opposition to the common Ash'ari position, caused considerable controversy.[63]

Once more, Ibn Taymiyya collaborated with the Mamluks in 1300, when he joined the punitive expedition against the Alawites and Shiites, in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains.[58][19] Ibn Taymiyya believed that the Alawites were "more heretical than Jews and Christians",[65][66] and according to Carole Hillenbrand, the confrontation with the Alawites occurred because they "were accused of collaborating with Christians and Mongols."[58] Ibn Taymiyya had further active involvements in campaigns against the Mongols and their alleged Alawite allies.[44]

In 1305, Ibn Taymiyya took part in a second military offensive against the Alawites and the Isma`ilis[67] in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains where they were defeated.[19][65][68] The majority of the Alawis and Ismailis eventually converted to Twelver Shiism and settled in south Lebanon and the Bekaa valley, with a few Shia pockets that survived in the Lebanese mountains.[69][70]

Involvement in the Mongol invasions edit

Further information: Mongol invasions of the Levant and Ilkhanate empire

First invasion edit

See also: Mongol campaign of 1299-1300 and Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar

The first invasion took place between December 1299 and April 1300 due to the military campaign by the Mamluks against the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who were allied with the Mongols.[71] Due to the Mongol legal system that neglected sharia and implemented Yassa; Ibn Taymiyya had declared Takfir upon the Ilkhanid regime and its armies for ruling by man-made laws, despite these laws being rarely enforced in Muslim majority regions in an extensive manner.[72][73] Openly rejecting Ghazan Khan's claim to "pādishāh al-islām" (King of Islam), a title which Ghazan took to legitimise his military campaigns, Ibn Taymiyya denounced him as an "infidel king" and issued numerous fatwas condemning the political order of the Tatars.[74] The Ilkhanate army managed to defeat the Mamluk Sultanate in The Third Battle of Homs and reach Damascus by the end of December 1299. Fearful of Mongol atrocities, many scholars, intellectuals and officers began to flee Damascus in panic. Ibn Taymiyya was one of those clerics who stood firm alongside the vulnerable Damascus citizens and called for an uncompromising and heroic resistance to the Tatar invaders. Ibn Taymiyya drew parallels of their crisis with the Riddah wars (Apostate wars) fought by the first Muslim Caliph, Abu Bakr, against the renegade Arabian tribes that abandoned sharia. Ibn Taymiyya severely rebuked those Muslims escaping in the face of Mongol onslaught and compared their state to the withdrawal of Muslims in the Battle of Uhud.[71][75] In a passionate letter to the commander of the Damascene Citadel, Ibn Taymiyya appealed:

"Until there stands even a single rock, do everything in your power to not surrender the castle. There is great benefit for the people of Syria. Allah declared it a sanctuary for the people of Shām—where it will remain a land of faith and sunna until the descent of the Prophet Jesus."[76]

Despite political pressure, Ibn Taymiyya's directives were heeded by the Mamluk officer and Mongol negotiations to surrender the Citadel stalled. Shortly after, Ibn Taymiyya and a number of his acolytes and pupils took part in a counter-offensive targeting various Shia tribes allied to the Mongols in the peripheral regions of the city; thereby repelling the Mongol attack.[76] Ibn Taymiyya went with a delegation of Islamic scholars to talk to Ghazan Khan, who was the Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate of Iran, to plead clemency.[71][77] By early January 1300, the Mongol allies, the Armenians and Georgians, had caused widespread damage to Damascus and they had taken Syrian prisoners.[71] The Mongols effectively occupied Damascus for the first four months of 1303.[60] Most of the military had fled the city, including most of the civilians.[60] Ibn Taymiyya however, stayed and was one of the leaders of the resistance inside Damascus and he went to speak directly to the Ilkhan, Mahmud Ghazan, and his vizier Rashid al-Din Tabib.[49][60] He sought the release of Muslim and dhimmi prisoners which the Mongols had taken in Syria, and after negotiation, secured their release.[49][44]

 
An artist illustrated of Ghazan Khan, a historical figure harshly rebuked by Ibn Taymiyya, mainly due to his constant state of hostility towards the Mamluks of Egypt.

Second invasion edit

The second invasion lasted between October 1300 and January 1301.[71] Ibn Taymiyya at this time began giving sermons on jihad at the Umayyad mosque.[71] As the civilians began to flee in panic; Ibn Taymiyya pronounced fatwas declaring the religious duty upon Muslims to fight the Mongol armies to death, inflict a massive defeat and expel them from Syria in its entirety.[78] Ibn Taymiyya also spoke to and encouraged the Governor of Damascus, al-Afram, to achieve victory over the Mongols.[71] He became involved with al-Afram once more, when he was sent to get reinforcements from Cairo.[71] Narrating Ibn Taymiyya's fierce stance on fighting the Mongols, Ibn Kathir reports:

even if you see me on their side with a Qurʾan on my side, kill them immediately!

— Ibn Taymiyya, in Ismail Ibn Kathir, al-Bidāya wa-l-Nihāya, vol. 14, 7–8, [79]

Third invasion and Takfir of Ilkhanate Allies edit

See also: Excommunication in Islam, Takfirism, and Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)

The year 1303 saw the third Mongol invasion of Syria by Ghazan Khan.[80][81] What has been called Ibn Taymiyya's "most famous" fatwā[82] was his third fatwa issued against the Mongols in the Mamluk's war. Ibn Taymiyya declared that jihad against the Mongol attack on the Malmuk sultanate was not only permissible, but obligatory.[54] The reason being that the Mongols could not, in his opinion, be true Muslims despite the fact that they had converted to Sunni Islam because they ruled using what he considered 'man-made laws' (their traditional Yassa code) rather than Islamic law or Sharia, whilst believing that the Yassa code was better than the Sharia law. Because of this, he reasoned they were living in a state of jahiliyyah, or pre-Islamic pagan ignorance.[29] Not only were Ilkhanate political elites and its military disbelievers in the eyes of Ibn Taymiyya; but anybody who joined their ranks were as guilty of riddah (apostasy) as them:

"Whoever joins them—meaning the Tatars—among commanders of the military and non-commanders, their ruling is the same as theirs, and they have apostatized from the laws [sharāʾiʿ]. If the righteous forbears [salaf] have called the withholders from charity apostates despite their fasting, praying, and not fighting the Muslims, how about those who became murderers of the Muslims with the enemies of Allah and His Messenger?"

— Ibn Taymiyya, in Majmu’ al-fatawa, vol. 28, 530, [83]

The fatwa broke new Islamic legal ground because "no jurist had ever before issued a general authorization for the use of lethal force against Muslims in battle", and would later influence modern-day Jihadists in their use of violence against other Muslims whom they deemed as apostates.[18] In his legal verdicts issued to inform the populace, Ibn Taymiyya classified the Tatars and their advocates into four types:

  • Kaafir Asli (i.e, those original non-Muslims fighting in Tatar armies and who never embraced Islam)
  • Muslims of other ethnicities who became apostates due to their alliance with Mongols
  • Irreligious Muslims aligned with Ilkhanids whom Ibn Taymiyya analogized with renegade Arabian tribes of the Riddah wars
  • Personally pious Muslims affiliated with the Mongol armies. Ibn Taymiyya harshly rebuked these people as the "most evil" faction; and argued that their piety was useless because of their decision to ally with non-Muslims who ruled by man-made laws. This rationale was also expanded to excommunicate those "court scholars" who vindicated the Tatar authorities[84]

Ibn Taymiyya called on the Muslims to jihad once again and personally participated in the Battle of Marj al-Saffar against the Ilkhanid army; leading his disciples in the field with a sword.[58][80][78] The battle began on April 20 of that year.[80] On the same day, Ibn Taymiyya declared a fatwa which exempted Mamluk soldiers from fasting during Ramadan so that they could preserve their strength.[58][19][80] Within two days the Mongols were severely crushed and the battle was won; thus ending Mongol control of Syria. These incidents greatly increased the scholarly prestige and social stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst the masses, despite opposition from the establishment clergy. He would soon be appointed as the chief professor of the elite scholarly institute "Kāmiliyya Dār al-Haḍīth."[80][78]

Contemporary Impact edit

Ibn Taymiyya's three unprecedented fatwas (legal verdicts) that excommunicated the Ilkhanid authorities and their supporters as apostates over their neglect to govern by Sharia (Islamic law) and preference of the traditional Mongol imperial code of Yassa; would form the theological basis of 20th century Islamist and Jihadist scholars and ideologues. Reviving Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas during the late 20th-century, Jihadist ideologues like Sayyid Qutb, Abd al-Salam al-Faraj, Abdullah Azzam, Usama bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, etc. made public Takfir (excommunication) of contemporary governments of the Muslim world and called for their revolutionary overthrowal through armed Jihad.[85]

Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism edit

Ibn Taymiyya was a fervent polemicist who zealously launched theological refutations against various religious sects such as the Sufis, Jahmites, Ash'arites, Shias, Falsafa, etc., labelling them as heretics responsible for the crisis of Mongol invasions across the Islamic World.[86] He was imprisoned several times for conflicting with the prevailing opinions of the jurists and theologians of his day. A judge from the city of Wasit, Iraq, requested that Ibn Taymiyya write a book on creed. His subsequent creedal work, Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah, caused him trouble with the authorities.[87][51] Ibn Taymiyya adopted the view that God should be described as he was literally described in the Qur'an and in the hadith,[51] and that all Muslims were required to believe this because according to him it was the view held by the early Muslim community (salaf).[87] Within the space of two years (1305–1306) four separate religious council hearings were held to assess the correctness of his creed.[87]

The first hearing was held with Ash'ari scholars who accused Ibn Taymiyya of anthropomorphism.[87] At the time Ibn Taymiyya was 42 years old. He was protected by the then Governor of Damascus, Aqqush al-Afram, during the proceedings.[87] The scholars suggested that he accept that his creed was simply that of the Hanbalites and offered this as a way out of the charge.[87] However, if Ibn Taymiyya ascribed his creed to the Hanbali school of law then it would be just one view out of the four schools which one could follow rather than a creed everybody must adhere to.[87] Uncompromising, Ibn Taymiyya maintained that it was obligatory for all scholars to adhere to his creed.[87]

Two separate councils were held a year later on January 22 and 28, 1306.[87][19] The first council was in the house of the Governor of Damascus Aqqush al-Afram, who had protected him the year before when facing the Shafii scholars.[19] A second hearing was held six days later where the Indian scholar Safi al-Din al-Hindi found him innocent of all charges and accepted that his creed was in line with the "Qur'an and the Sunnah".[87][19] Regardless, in April 1306 the chief Islamic judges of the Mamluk state declared Ibn Taymiyya guilty and he was incarcerated.[87] He was released four months later in September.[87]

After his release in Damascus, the doubts regarding his creed seemed to have resolved but this was not the case.[19] A Shafii scholar, Ibn al-Sarsari, was insistent on starting another hearing against Ibn Taymiyya which was held once again at the house of the Governor of Damascus, Al-Afram.[19] His book Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah was still not found at fault.[19] At the conclusion of this hearing, Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Sarsari were sent to Cairo to settle the problem.

Life in Egypt edit

His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment edit

On the arrival of Ibn Taymiyya and the Shafi'ite scholar in Cairo in 1306, an open meeting was held.[68] The Mamluk sultan at the time was Al-Nasir Muhammad and his deputy attended the open meeting.[68] Ibn Taymiyya was found innocent.[68] Despite the open meeting, objections regarding his creed continued and he was summoned to the Citadel in Cairo for a munazara (legal debate), which took place on April 8, 1306. During the munazara, his views on divine attributes, specifically whether a direction could be attributed to God, were debated by the Indian scholar Safi al-Din al-Hindi, in the presence of Islamic judges.[88][19] Ibn Taymiyya failed to convince the judges of his position and so was incarcerated for the charge of anthropomorphism on the recommendation of al-Hindi.[88][19] Thereafter, he together with his two brothers were imprisoned in the Citadel of the Mountain (Qal'at al-Jabal), in Cairo until September 25, 1307.[89][19][88] He was freed due to the help he received from two amirs; Salar and Muhanna ibn Isa, but he was not allowed to go back to Syria.[19] He was then again summoned for a legal debate, but this time he convinced the judges that his views were correct and he was allowed to go free.[88]

His trial for intercession and his imprisonment edit

 
Citadel of Cairo, the place where Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned for 18 months

Ibn Taymiyya continued to face troubles for his views which were found to be at odds with those of his contemporaries. His strong opposition to what he believed to be religious innovations, caused upset among the prominent Sufis of Egypt including Ibn Ata Allah and Karim al-Din al-Amuli, and the locals who started to protest against him.[19] Their main contention was Ibn Taymiyya's stance on tawassul (intercession).[19] In his view, a person could not ask anyone other than God for help except on the Day of Judgement when intercession in his view would be possible. At the time, the people did not restrict intercession to just the Day of Judgement but rather they said it was allowed in other cases. Due to this, Ibn Taymiyya, now aged 45, was ordered to appear before the Shafi'i judge Badr al-Din in March 1308 and was questioned on his stance regarding intercession.[19] Thereafter, he was incarcerated in the prison of the judges in Cairo for some months.[19] After his release, he was allowed to return to Syria, should he so wish.[19] Ibn Taymiyya however stayed in Egypt for a further five years.

House arrest in Alexandria edit

1309, the year after his release, saw a new Mamluk sultan accede to the throne, Baibars al-Jashnakir. His reign, marked by economical and political unrest, only lasted a year.[19] In August 1309, Ibn Taymiyya was taken into custody and placed under house arrest for seven months in the new sultan's palace in Alexandria.[19] He was freed when al-Nasir Muhammad retook the position of sultan on March 4, 1310.[19] Having returned to Cairo a week later, he was received by al-Nasir.[19] The sultan would sometimes consult Ibn Taymiyya on religious affairs and policies during the rest of his three-year stay in Cairo.[49][19] During this time he continued to teach and wrote his famous book Al-Kitab al-Siyasa al-shar'iyya (Treatise on the Government of the Religious Law), a book noted for its account of the role of religion in politics.[19][90][91]

Return to Damascus and later years edit

He spent his last fifteen years in Damascus. Aged 50, Ibn Taymiyya returned to Damascus via Jerusalem on February 28, 1313.[19] Damascus was now under the governorship of Tankiz. There, Ibn Taymiyya continued his teaching role as professor of Hanbali fiqh. This is when he taught his most famous student, Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, who went on to become a noted scholar in Islamic history.[19] Ibn Qayyim was to share in Ibn Taymiyya's renewed persecution.

Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyya became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims.[19] An agreement had been made in 1316 between the amir of Mecca and the Ilkhanid ruler Öljaitü, brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in the city.[19] Around the same time the Shia theologian Al-Hilli, who had played a crucial role in the Mongol ruler's decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia,[92][93] wrote the book Minhaj al-Karamah (The Way of Charisma'),[49] which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the Imamate and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the caliphate.[94] In response, Ibn Taymiyya wrote his famous book, Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah, as a refutation of Al-Hilli's work.[95]

His fatwa on divorce and imprisonment edit

In 1318, Ibn Taymiyya wrote a treatise that would curtail the ease with which a Muslim man could divorce his wife. Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on divorce was not accepted by the majority of scholars of the time and this continued into the Ottoman era.[96] However, almost every modern Muslim nation-state has come to adopt Ibn Taymiyya's position on this issue of divorce.[96] At the time he issued the fatwa, Ibn Taymiyya revived an edict by the sultan not to issue fatwas on this issue but he continued to do so, saying, "I cannot conceal my knowledge".[19][97] As in previous instances, he stated that his fatwa was based on the Qur'an and hadith. His view on the issue was at odds with the Hanbali position.[19] This proved controversial among the people in Damascus as well as the Islamic scholars who opposed him on the issue.[98]

According to the scholars of the time, an oath of divorce counted as a full divorce and they were also of the view that three oaths of divorce taken under one occasion counted as three separate divorces.[98] The significance of this was, that a man who divorces the same partner three times is no longer allowed to remarry that person until and if that person marries and divorces another person.[98] Only then could the man, who took the oath, remarry his previous wife.[98] Ibn Taymiyya accepted this but rejected the validity of three oaths taken under one sitting to count as three separate divorces as long as the intention was not to divorce.[98] Moreover, Ibn Taymiyya was of the view that a single oath of divorce uttered but not intended, also does not count as an actual divorce.[19] He stated that since this is an oath much like an oath taken in the name of God, a person must expiate for an unintentional oath in a similar manner.[98]

Due to his views and also by not abiding to the sultan's letter two years before forbidding him from issuing a fatwa on the issue, three council hearings were held, in as many years (1318, 1319 and 1320), to deal with this matter.[19] The hearing were overseen by the Viceroy of Syria, Tankiz.[19] This resulted in Ibn Taymiyya being imprisoned on August 26, 1320, in the Citadel of Damascus.[19] He was released about five months and 18 days later,[97] on February 9, 1321, by order of the Sultan Al-Nasir.[19] Ibn Taymiyya was reinstated as teacher of Hanbali law and he resumed teaching.[97]

His risāla on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment edit

In 1310, Ibn Taymiyya had written a risāla (treatise) called Ziyārat al-Qubūr[19] or according to another source, Shadd al-rihal.[97] It dealt with the validity and permissibility of making a journey to visit the tombs of prophets and saints.[97] It is reported that in the book "he condemned the cult of saints"[19] and declared that traveling with the sole purpose of visiting Muhammad's grave was a blameworthy religious innovation.[99] For this, Ibn Taymiyya, was imprisoned in the Citadel of Damascus sixteen years later on July 18, 1326, aged 63, along with his student Ibn Qayyim.[97] The sultan also prohibited him from issuing any further fatwas.[19][97] Hanbali scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al-Maqdisi accused Ibn Taymiyya of apostasy over the treatise.[100]

His life in prison edit

 
The Citadel of Damascus, the prison which Ibn Taymiyya died in

Ibn Taymiyya referred to his imprisonment as "a divine blessing".[49] During his incarceration, he wrote that, "when a scholar forsakes what he knows of the Book of God and of the sunnah of His messenger and follows the ruling of a ruler which contravenes a ruling of God and his messenger, he is a renegade, an unbeliever who deserves to be punished in this world and in the hereafter."[49]

During his imprisonment, he encountered opposition from the Maliki and Shafi'i Chief Justices of Damascus, Taḳī al-Dīn al-Ikhnāʾī.[19] He remained in prison for over two years and ignored the sultan's prohibition, by continuing to deliver fatwas.[19] During his incarceration Ibn Taymiyya wrote three works which are extant; Kitāb Maʿārif al-wuṣūl, Rafʿ al-malām, and Kitāb al-Radd ʿala 'l-Ikhnāʾī (The response to al-Ikhnāʾī).[19] The last book was an attack on Taḳī al-Dīn al-Ikhnāʾī and explained his views on saints (wali).[19]

When the Mongols invaded Syria in 1300, he was among those who called for a Jihad against them and he ruled that even though they had recently converted to Islam, they should be considered unbelievers. He went to Egypt in order to acquire support for his cause and while he was there, he got embroiled in religious-political disputes. Ibn Taymiyya's enemies accused him of advocating anthropomorphism, a view that was objectionable to the teachings of the Ash'ari school of Islamic theology, and in 1306, he was imprisoned for more than a year. Upon his release, he condemned popular Sufi practices and he also condemned the influence of Ibn Arabi (d. 1240), causing him to earn the enmity of leading Sufi shaykhs in Egypt and causing him to serve another prison sentence. In 1310, he was released by the Egyptian Sultan.

In 1313, the Sultan allowed Ibn Taymiyya to return to Damascus, where he worked as a teacher and a jurist. He had supporters among the powerful, but his outspokenness and his nonconformity to traditional Sunni doctrines and his denunciation of Sufi ideals and practices continued to draw the wrath of the religious and political authorities in Syria and Egypt. He was arrested and released several more times, but while he was in prison, he was allowed to write Fatwas (advisory opinions on matters of law) in defense of his beliefs. Despite the controversy that surrounded him, Ibn Taymiyya's influence grew and it spread from Hanbali circles to members of other Sunni legal schools and Sufi groups. Among his foremost students were Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), a leading medieval historian and a Quran commentator, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya (d. 1350), a prominent Hanbali jurist and a theologian who helped spread his teacher's influence after his teacher's death in 1328. Ibn Taymiyya died while he was a prisoner in the citadel of Damascus and he was buried in the city's Sufi cemetery.[101]

Death edit

He fell ill in early September 1328 and died at the age of 65, on September 26 of that year, whilst in prison at the Citadel of Damascus.[19] Once this news reached the public, there was a strong show of support for him from the people.[102] After the authorities had given permission, it is reported that thousands of people came to show their respects.[102] They gathered in the Citadel and lined the streets up to the Umayyad Mosque.[102] The funeral prayer was held in the citadel by scholar Muhammad Tammam, and a second was held in the mosque.[102] A third and final funeral prayer was held by Ibn Taymiyya's brother, Zain al-Din.[102] He was buried in Damascus, in Maqbara Sufiyya ("the cemetery of the Sufis"). His brother Sharafuddin had been buried in that cemetery before him.[103][104][105]

Oliver Leaman says that being deprived of the means of writing led to Ibn Taymiyya's death.[51] It is reported that two hundred thousand men and fifteen to sixteen thousand women attended his funeral prayer.[55][106] Ibn Kathir says that in the history of Islam, only the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal received a larger attendance.[55] This is also mentioned by Ibn `Abd al-Hadi.[55] Caterina Bori says that, "In the Islamic tradition, wider popular attendance at funerals was a mark of public reverence, a demonstration of the deceased's rectitude, and a sign of divine approbation."[55]

Ibn Taymiyya is said to have "spent a lifetime objecting to tomb veneration, only to cast a more powerful posthumous spell than any of his Sufi contemporaries."[107] On his death, his personal effects were in such demand "that bidders for his lice-killing camphor necklace pushed its price up to 150 dirhams, and his skullcap fetched a full 500."[107][108] A few mourners sought and succeeded in "drinking the water used for bathing his corpse."[107][108] His tomb received "pilgrims and sightseers" for 600 years.[107] His resting place is now "in the parking lot of a maternity ward", though as of 2009 its headstone was broken, according to author Sadakat Kadri.[109][110]

Views edit

Further information: Views of Ibn Taymiyya

Students edit

Several of Ibn Taymiyya's students became notable scholars in their own right.[19] His students came from different backgrounds and belonged to various different schools of thought.[111] The most well-known of them are Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya and Ibn Kathir,[112] while his other students include:[19][51][111][113]

Influence in his time edit

In the 21st century, Ibn Taymiyya is one of the most cited medieval authors and his treatises are regarded to be of central intellectual importance by several Islamic revivalist movements. Ibn Taymiyya's disciples, consisting of both Hanbalis and non-Hanbalis, were attracted to his advocacy of ijtihad outside the established boundaries of the madhabs and shared his taste for activism and religious reform. Some of his unorthodox legal views in the field of Fiqh were also regarded as a challenge by mainstream Fuqaha.[114] Many scholars have argued that Ibn Taymiyya did not enjoy popularity among the intelligentsia of his day.[115] Yossef Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed assert that he was a minority figure in his own times and the centuries that followed.[21] Caterina Bori goes further, arguing that despite popularity Ibn Taymiyya may have enjoyed among the masses, he appears to have been not merely unpopular among the scholars of his day, but somewhat of an embarrassment.[116] Khalid El-Rouayheb notes similarly that Ibn Taymiyya had "very little influence on mainstream Sunni Islam until the nineteenth century"[117] and that he was "a little-read scholar with problematic and controversial views."[118] He also comments "the idea that Ibn Taymiyya had an immediate and significant impact on the course of Sunni Islamic religious history simply does not cohere with the evidence that we have from the five centuries that elapsed between his death and the rise of Sunni revivalism in the modern period."[119] It was only since the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries that the scholarly influence of Ibn Taymiyya has come to acquire an unprecedented prominence in Muslim societies, due to the efforts of Islamic revivalists like Rashid Rida.[120] On the other hand, Prof. Al-Matroudi of SOAS university says that Ibn Taymiyya, "was perhaps the most eminent and influential Hanbali jurist of the Middle Ages and one of the most prolific among them. He was also a renowned scholar of Islam whose influence was felt not only during his lifetime but extended through the centuries until the present day."[45] Ibn Taymiyya's followers often deemed him as Sheikh ul-Islam, an honorific title with which he is sometimes still termed today.[121][122][123]

In the pre-modern era, Ibn Taymiyya was considered a controversial figure within Sunni Islam and had a number of critics during his life and in the centuries thereafter.[118] The Shafi'i scholar Ibn Hajar al-Haytami stated that,

Make sure you do not listen to what is in the books of Ibn Taymiyya and his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya and other such people who have taken their own whim as their God, and who have been led astray by God, and whose hearts and ears have been sealed, and whose eyes have been covered by Him... May God forsake the one who follows them, and purify the earth of their likes.[124]

He also stated that,

Ibn Taymiyya is a servant whom God has forsaken, led astray, made blind and deaf, and degraded. Such is the explicit verdict of the leading scholars who have exposed the rottenness of his ways and the errors of his statements.[125]

Taqi al-Din al-Hisni condemned Ibn Taymiyya in even stronger terms by referring to him as the "heretic from Harran"[125] and similarly, Munawi considered Ibn Taymiyya to be an innovator though not an unbeliever.[126] Taqi al-Din al-Subki criticised Ibn Taymiyya for "contradicting the consensus of the Muslims by his anthropomorphism, by his claims that accidents exist in God, by suggesting that God was speaking in time, and by his belief in the eternity of the world."[127] Ibn Battūta (d. 770/1369) famously wrote a work questioning Ibn Taymiyya's mental state.[128] The possibility of psychological abnormalities not with-standing, Ibn Taymiyya's personality, by multiple accounts, was fiery and oftentimes unpredictable.[129][130] The historian Al-Maqrizi said, regarding the rift between the Sunni Ash'ari's and Ibn Taymiyya, "People are divided into two factions over the question of Ibn Taymiyya; for until the present, the latter has retained admirers and disciples in Syria and Egypt."[19] Both his supporters and rivals grew to respect Ibn Taymiyya because he was uncompromising in his views.[58] Dhahabi's views towards Ibn Taymiyya were ambivalent.[131][132] His praise of Ibn Taymiyya is invariably qualified with criticism and misgivings[131] and he considered him to be both a "brilliant Shaykh"[45][60] and also "cocky" and "impetuous".[131][133] The Hanafi-Maturidi scholar 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari said that anyone that gives Ibn Taymiyya the title Shaykh al-Islām is a disbeliever.[134][135] As a reaction, his contemporary Nasir ad-Din ad-Dimashqi wrote a refutation in which he quoted the 85 greatest scholars, from Ibn Taymiyya's till his time, who called Ibn Taymiyya with the title Shaykh al-Islam.

Despite the prevalent condemnations of Ibn Taymiyya outside Hanbali school during the pre-modern period, many prominent non-Hanbali scholars such as Ibrahim al-Kurrani (d.1690), Shāh Walī Allāh al-Dihlawi (d. 1762), Mehmet Birgiwi (d. 1573), Ibn al-Amīr Al-San'ani (d. 1768), Muḥammad al-Shawkānī (d. 1834), etc. would come to the defense of Ibn Taymiyya and advocate his ideas during this era.[136] In the 18th century, influential South Asian Islamic scholar and revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi would become the most prominent advocate of the doctrines of Ibn Taymiyya, and profoundly transformed the religious thought in South Asia. His seminary, Madrasah-i-Rahimya, became a hub of intellectual life in the country, and the ideas developed there quickly spread to wider academic circles.[137] Making a powerful defense of Ibn Taymiyya and his doctrines, Shah Waliullah wrote:

Our assessment of Ibn Taimiyya after full investigation is that he was a scholar of the 'Book of God' and had full command over its etymological and juristic implications. He remembered by heart the traditions of the prophet and accounts of elders (salaf)... He excelled in intelligence and brilliance. He argued in defence of Ahl al-Sunnah with great eloquence and force. No innovation or irreligious act is reported about him... there is not a single matter on which he is without his defence based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah. So it is difficult to find a man in the whole world who possesses the qualities of Ibn Taimiyya. No one can come anywhere near him in the force of his speech and writing. People who harassed him [and got him thrown in prison] did not possess even one-tenth of his scholarly excellence...[137]

The reputation and stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst non-Ḥanbalī Sunni scholars would significantly improve between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries. From a little-read scholar considered controversial by many, he would become one of the most popular scholarly figures in the Sunni religious tradition. The nineteenth-century Iraqi scholar Khayr al-Dīn al-Ālūsī (d. 1899) wrote an influential treatise titled Jalā’ al-‘aynayn fi muḥākamat al-Aḥmadayn in defense of Ibn Taymiyya. The treatise would make great impact on major scholars of the Salafiyya movement in Syria and Egypt, such as Jamāl al-Dīn al-Qāsimī (d. 1914) and Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (d. 1935). Praising Ibn Taymiyya as a central and heroic Islamic figure of the classical era, Rashid Rida wrote:

...after the power of the Ash‘aris reigned supreme in the Middle Ages (al-qurūn al-wusṭā) and the ahl al-ḥadīth and the followers of the salaf were weakened, there appeared in the eighth century [AH, fourteenth century AD] the great mujaddid, Shaykh al-Islam Aḥmad Taqī al-Dīn Ibn Taymiyya, whose like has not been seen in mastery of both the traditional and rational sciences and in the power of argument. Egypt and India have revived his books and the books of his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, after a time when they were only available in Najd. Now, they have spread to both east and west, and will become the main support of the Muslims of the earth.[138]

Ibn Taymiyya's works served as an inspiration for later Muslim scholars and historical figures, who have been regarded as his admirers or disciples.[19] In the contemporary world, he may be considered at the root of Wahhabism, the Senussi order and other later reformist movements.[9][139] Ibn Taymiyya has been noted to have influenced Rashid Rida, Abul A`la Maududi, Sayyid Qutb, Hassan al-Banna, Abdullah Azzam, and Osama bin Laden.[140][54][141][142][143] The terrorist organization Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant used a fatwa of Ibn Taymiyya to justify the burning alive of Jordanian pilot Muath al-Kasasbeh.[144] After the Iranian revolution, conservative Sunni ulema robustly championed Ibn Taymiyya's anti-Shia polemics across the Islamic World since the 1980s; and vast majority of Sunni intellectual circles adopted Ibn Taymiyya's rhetoric against Shi'ism.[145]

Influence in the modern period edit

Salafism edit

See also: Salafiyya Movement

Ibn Taymiyya's appeals to the precedence of the Qur’an and the Sunna over the authority of the madh'hab system has inspired a wide range of Islamic reform movements over the last few centuries, and especially the Salafiyya reform movement that differ from other Sunnis who adhere to the four legal schools of Fiqh (jurisprudence). These include the 17th century Kadizadeli movement, 18th century Wahhabi movement as well as the Islamic reformist movement of Ibn al-Amīr Al-San’ani (d. 1768) and Muḥammad al-Shawkānī (d. 1834) in Yemen. In the nineteenth century, Taymiyyan tradition would expand across the Islamic World; influencing the Ahl-i Hadith movement in South Asia and the Salafiyya movement in Iraq, Syria and Egypt.[146][147]

Ibn Taymiyya adamantly insisted that his theological doctrines constituted the original creed of the Salaf, as well as that of Abul Hasan al-Ash'ari; the eponym of the Ash'arite school. He also believed that Sharia (Islamic law) was best preserved through the teachings and practices of the Salaf, the earliest three generations of Muslims. Modern Islamic revivalist movements salute Ibn Taymiyya as "the architect of Salafism", which symbolises the concept of reviving the traditions and values of the Golden Age of the prophet. For Salafiyya movements across the Islamic World, Ibn Taymiyya is their exemplar scholar who revived the methodology of the Salaf, and also a social reformer who defiantly stood against foreign occupation. Today, Salafi Muslims constitute the most avid readers and promoters of the works of Ibn Taymiyya.[148][60]

Modern Islamism edit

See also: Islamism, Jihadism, Salafi Jihadism, Muslim Brotherhood, Al Qaeda, and ISIL

Various concepts within modern Islamist movements can be attributed to Ibn Taymiyya.[49] Ibn Taymiyya is highly revered in contemporary militant Islamist and Jihadist circles for his 1303 Fatwa of Takfir (excommunication) against Mongol Ilkhanate rulers (who were recent converts to Islam) and his assertion that it became obligatory for "true Muslims" to wage Jihad against the apostate Mongol leaders and Muslim citizens who accepted the Yassa code. Influenced by Ibn Taymiyya, Sayyid Qutb would take up Ibn Taymiyya's anti-Mongol fatwa and apply it on contemporary regimes across the Islamic World. Ibn Taymiyya's other major theological mission was to re-assert the primacy of armed jihad in Islamic faith, which played a major role in shaping future militant interpretations of Islam. Along with total, literal adherence to Sharia, he held that waging martial jihad was an Islamic religious obligation for all Muslims, when under foreign invasion. These ideas would be readily embraced in the 20th century by various militant Islamist movements and underpinned the theological justification for militancy of groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, etc.[149] Scholars like Yahya Michot have noted that Ibn Taymiyya "has thus become a sort of forefather of al-Qaeda."[49]

One of main arguments put forth by Ibn Taymiyya was his categorising the world into distinct territories: the domain of Islam (dar al-Islam), where the rule is of Islam and sharia law is enforced; the domain of unbelief (dar-al-kufr) ruled by unbelievers; and the domain of war (dar al-harb) which is territory under the rule of unbelievers who are involved in an active or potential conflict with the domain of Islam.[49][150] (Ibn Taymiyya included a fourth. When the Mongols, whom he considered unbelievers, took control of the city of Mardin[151] the population included many Muslims. Believing Mardin was neither the domain of Islam, as Islam was not legally applied with an armed forces consisting of Muslims, nor the domain of war because the inhabitants were Muslim,[151] Ibn Taymiyya created a new "composite" category, known as dar al-`ahd.[49][152]) A second concept is making a declaration of apostasy (takfir) against a Muslim who does not obey Islam.[49] But at the same time Ibn Taymiyya maintained that no one can question anothers faith and curse them as based on one's own desire, because faith is defined by God and the prophet.[49] He said, rather than cursing or condemning them, an approach should be taken where they are educated about the religion.[49]

Another concept attributed to Ibn Taymiyya is, "the duty to oppose and kill Muslim rulers who do not implement the revealed law (shari'a).[49] Based on this doctrine, Ibn Taymiyya excommunicated the Ilkhanid state for not ruling by Sharia (Islamic law); despite officially professing Islam. Ibn Taymiyya issued various fatwas obliging all Muslims to fight the Mongols; declaring them as mushrikun (polytheists) similar to the people from the age of Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic ignorance). Thus, he is widely regarded as the "spiritual forefather" of the Salafi-Jihadist thought. 20th century Islamist ideologues like Muhammad Rashid Rida, Sayyid Qutb, Abd al Salam Faraj, Usama bin Laden, etc. drew upon these revolutionary ideas to justify armed Jihad against the contemporary nation-states.[153][154][155][156] Ibn Taymiyya's fatwa on Alawites as "more infidel than Christians and Jews" has been recited by Muslim Brotherhood affiliated scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi.[157][158]

Ibn Taymiyya's role in the Islamist movements of the twentieth and twenty first century have also been noted by the previous Coordinator for Counterterrorism at the United States Department of State, Daniel Benjamin, who labels the chapter on the history of modern Islamic movements in his book The Age of Sacred Terror, as "Ibn Taymiyya and His children".[60][159] Yossef Rapoport, a reader in Islamic history at Queen Mary, however, says this is not a probable narrative.[60] Ibn Taymiyya's intellectual tradition and ideas such as his emphasis on the revival of pristine ideals and practices of early generations also made an intense impact on the leading ideologue of revolutionary Islamism in South Asia, Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi (1903–1979 C.E/ 1321–1399 A.H).[160]

Mardin fatwas and the Mardin Conference edit

One of Ibn Taymiyya's most famous fatwas are regarding the Mongols who had conquered and destroyed the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 and had then converted to Islam.[152] Once they were in control the town of Mardin, they behaved unjustly with their subjects so the people of Mardin asked Ibn Taymiyya for a legal verdict regarding the classification of the territory under which they live.[152] He categorized the territory as dar al-`ahd which in some ways is similar to dar al-kufr (domain of unbelievers).[152] Included in his verdict was declaring the Mongol ruler Ghazan and other Mongols who did not accept shari'a in full, as unbelievers.[161][162] He was also asked whether Muslims living in Mardin had to emigrate (Hijrah) to Islamic territories on account of implementation of man-made laws. Ibn Taymiyya responded in a detailed fatwa:

"If he who resides in (Mārdīn) is unable to practice his religion, then he must emigrate. If this is not the case, then it remains preferable but not mandatory. The helping of the enemies of the Muslims with their lives and wealth is prohibited upon them and it is required to abstain from that from whatever route possible.. if that is not possible except by undertaking migration, then it is obligatory... It is not of the category of the Dar al-Islam nor of the category of Dar al-Harb. It is a third division by which the Muslim is treated according to what he deserves, and outsiders are dealt with as they deserve."

— Ibn Taymiyya, in Majmu’ al-fatawa, vol. 28: 240-41, [163][164][165]

According to Nettler and Kéchichian, Ibn Taymiyya affirmed that Jihad against the Mongols, "was not only permissible but obligatory because the latter ruled not according to Sharīʿah but through their traditional, and therefore manmade, Yassa code. This essentially meant that Mongols were living in a state of jāhilīyah (ignorance)."[54] The authors further state that his two famous students, Ibn Qayyim and Ibn Kathir, agreed with this ruling.[54] He called for a defensive jihad to mobilize the people to kill the Mongol rulers and any one who supported them, Muslim or non-Muslim.[49][161] Ibn Taymiyya when talking about those who support the Mongols said, "Everyone who is with them (Mongols) in the state over which they rule has to be regarded as belonging to the most evil class of men. He is either an atheist (zindīq) or a hypocrite who does not believe in the essence of the religion of Islam. This means that he (only) outwardly pretends to be Muslim or he belongs to the worst class of all people who are the people of the bida` (heretical innovations)."[166] Yahya Mochet says that, Ibn Taymiyya's call to war was not simply to cause a "rebellion against the political power in place" but to repel an "external enemy".[49]

In another series of fatwas, Ibn Taymiyya reiterated the religious obligation of Muslims to fight the Ilkhanids on account of their negligence of Islamic laws. He also took issue with their non-religious approach to dealing with various communities such as Christians, Jews, Buddhists, etc. and employing a large chunk of their armies with non-Muslims.[167][168] Citing these and various other reasons, Ibn Taymiyya pronounced:

"Fighting them [the Tatars] is obligatory by consensus of the Muslims.. If fighting against the Kurds and the Arabs and others from the Bedouins who do not adhere to the Law of Islam is obligated even if they are not of harm to the people living in the cities, then how about these people? Yes, it is required to exhibit the laws in fighting them.. They call to the religion of Islam and praise the religion of these disbelievers over the religion of the Muslims,.. and they legislate in what they dispute between themselves with the legislation of the time of ignorance, not with the legislation of Allah and His Messenger. Such is the case of the elders among their viziers and others who put the religion of Islam similar to the religion of the Jews and Christians, and claiming that these are all ways to Allah.. Then among them are those who choose the religion of the Jews or Christians, and those who choose the religion of the Muslims. This phenomenon is increasing in great number among them, even in their jurists and worshippers, especially the Jahmites from the Pharaonic Atheists and the like, as philosophy has overtaken their thought... The viziers who spread the views of their leader ultimately lead them into the aforementioned class [i.e., they leave Islam], they become these Philosopher Jews, ascribing to Islam what they have of their Judaism and philosophy."

— Ibn Taymiyya, in Majmu’ al-fatawa, vol. 28: 501-506, 521-524, [167]

In 2010, a group of Islamic Scholars at the Mardin conference argued that Ibn Taymiyya's famous fatwa about the residents of Mardin when it was under the control of the Mongols was misprinted into an order to "fight" the people living under their territory, whereas the actual statement is, "The Muslims living therein should be treated according to their rights as Muslims, while the non-Muslims living there outside of the authority of Islamic Law should be treated according to their rights."[169] They have based their understanding on the original manuscript in the Al-Zahiriyah Library, and the transmission by Ibn Taymiyya's student Ibn Muflih.[170] The participants of the Mardin conference also rejected the categorization of the world into different domains of war and peace, stating that the division was a result of the circumstances at the time.[152] The participants further stated that the division has become irrelevant with the existence of nation states.[152]

Opinions about him edit

Pre-modern opinions edit

Modern opinions edit

Islamic scholarship edit

Ibn Taymiyya is widely regarded as an anti-rationalist "hater of logic" and a strict literalist who was responsible for the demise of rationalist tendencies within the classical Sunni tradition. Through his polemical treatises such as al-Radd ‘ala al-mantiqiyyın (Refutation of the Rationalists); Ibn Taymiyya zealously denounced syllogism, which provided the rational foundations for both Kalam (speculative theology) and Falsafa.[171][172]

According to Lebanese philosopher Majid Fakhry, "Ibn Taymiyah protests against the abuses of philosophy and theology and advocates a return to the orthodox ways of the ancients (al-salaf)... in his religious zeal he is determined to abolish centuries of religious truth as they had been long before they became troubled by theological and philosophical controversies."[173]

Jamaat-e Islami leader Abdul Haq Ansari contends the ubiquitous notion that Ibn Taymiyya rejected Sufism outright as erroneous. While "the popular image of Ibn Taymiyya [is] ... that he [criticized] Sufism indiscriminately ... [was] deadly against the Sufis, and ... [saw] no place for Sufism in Islam,"[174] it is historically known, according to the same scholar, that Ibn Taymiyya actually considered Tasawwuf to be a significant discipline of Islam. "Far from saying [Sufism] has no place in Islam", Ibn Taymiyya was on the whole "sympathetic"[174] towards what everyone at the time considered an important aspect of Islamic life.[174] Various scholars have also asserted that Ibn Taymiyya had a deep reverence and appreciation for the works of such major Sufi Awliyaa (saints) such as Junayd, Sahl al-Tustari, Abu Talib al-Makki, Bayazid Bastami,[19] etc., and was part of the Qadiriyya Sufi order himself.[5][6][7][8] Saudi scholar Hatem al-Awni has criticised Ibn Taymiyya over his sectarian discourse against Ash'arite and Maturidite schools as well as his creedal beliefs like three-fold classification of Tawhid (monotheism).[23]

Western scholarship edit

Scholars like Ignac Goldziher described Ibn Taymiyya as a "Hanbalite zealot" who harshly denounced various practices as bid'ah (religious innovations) and rejected all forms of philosophical influences, speculative theology, Sufism and pantheistic doctrines like Wahdat al-Wujud.[175]

Others such as the French scholar Henri Laoust (1905-1983) have argued that such portrayals of Ibn Taymiyya are flawed inasmuch as they are often borne of a limited reading of the theologian's substantial corpus of works,[19] many of which have not yet been translated from the original Arabic According to Laoust, Ibn Taymiyya wanted to reform the practice of medieval Sufism as part of his wider aim to reform Sunni Islam (of which Sufism was a major aspect at the time) by divesting both these traditions of what he perceived as heretical innovations within them.[19]

According to James Pavlin, Professor of theology at Rutgers University: "Ibn Taymiyya remains one of the most controversial Islamic thinkers today because of his supposed influence on many fundamentalist movements. The common understanding of his ideas have been filtered through the bits and pieces of his statements that have been misappropriated by alleged supporters and avowed critics alike."[176]

Works edit

Ibn Taymiyya left behind a considerable body of work, ranging from 350 (according to his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya)[177] to 500 (according to his student al-Dhahabi).[54][178] Oliver Leaman says Ibn Taymiyya produced some 700 works in the field of Islamic sciences.[51] His scholarly output has been described as immense with a wide scope and its contents "bear the marks of brilliant insights hastily jotted down".[60] In his early life, his work was mostly based on theology and the use of reason in interpretation of scriptural evidences, with later works focusing on refutation of Greek logic, questioning the prevalent practices of the time, and anti-Christian and anti-Shia polemics.[60] Ibn Taymiyya's total works have not all survived and his extant works of 35 volumes are incomplete.[60] The ascendancy of scholastic interest in his medieval treatises would recommence through the gradual efforts by 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Salafi theologians of Syria, Iraq, and Egypt of the late 19th and early 20th centuries would edit, publish, and mass-circulate many of his censured manuscripts among the Muslim public, making Ibn Taymiyya the most-read classical Islamic theologian in the world; however, as his scholarly impact increased, dissensions and altercations over Ibn Taymiyya's viewpoints continue to escalate.[179]

Extant books and essays edit

  • Majmu' al-Fatawa al-Kubra – collected centuries after his death, and contains several of the works mentioned below; 36 volumes.
  • Minhaj al-Sunna al-Nabawiyya – four volumes; in modern critical editions it amounts to more than 2,000 pages.[180]
  • Al-Aqida al-Wasitiyya
  • Al-Jawab al-Sahih li-man Baddala Din al-Masih – a response to Christianity; seven volumes; in modern critical editions it amounts to more than 2,000 pages.[181]
  • Dar Ta'arud al-Aql wa-l-Naql[182] (also called al-Muwafaqa) – 11 volumes; in modern critical editions it amounts to some 4,000 pages.[183]
  • Al-Aqida al-Hamawiyya
  • Al-Asma' wa-l-Sifat – two volumes
  • Kitab al-Iman
  • Kitab al-Safadiyya – a refutation of the philosophers who claim the miracles of Muhammad are merely manifestations of the strength of inherent faculties, and who claim the universe is eternal
  • Al-Sarim al-Maslul ala Shatim al-Rasul — written in response to an incident in which Ibn Taymiyya heard a Christian insulting Muhammad
  • Fatawa al-Kubra
  • Fatawa al-Misriyya
  • Al-Radd ala al-Mantiqiyyin[49]
  • Naqd al-Ta'sis
  • Al-Ubudiyya
  • Iqtida' al-Sirat al-Mustaqim
  • Al-Siyasa al-Shar'iyya[49]
  • Risala fi al-Ruh wa-l-Aql
  • Al-Tawassul wa-l-Wasila
  • Sharh Futuh al-Ghayb – a commentary on Futuh al-Ghayb by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani
  • Al-Hisba fi al-Islam – a book on Islamic economics[49]

English translations edit

  • The Friends of Allah and the Friends of Shaytan
  • Kitab al-Iman: The Book of Faith
  • Diseases of the Hearts and their Cures
  • The Relief from Distress
  • Fundamentals of Enjoining Good & Forbidding Evil
  • The Concise Legacy
  • The Goodly Word
  • The Madinan Way
  • Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek Logicians
  • Muslims Under Non-Muslim Rule

Lost works edit

Many of Ibn Taymiyya's books are thought to be lost. Their existence is only known through various reports written by scholars throughout history as well as some treatises written by Ibn Taymiyya himself.[184] One particularly notable lost work is al-Bahr al-Muhit, which was 40 volumes of Quranic exegesis that Ibn Taymiyya wrote in the prison of Damascus. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani mentions the existence of this work in his work, al-Durar al-Kamina.[184]

References edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Full name Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī (Arabic: تَقِيّ ٱلدِّين أَبُو ٱلْعَبَّاس أَحْمَد بْن عَبْد ٱلْحَلِيم بْن عَبْد ٱلسَّلَام بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه ٱلنُّمَيْرِيّ ٱلْحَرَّانِيّ); he is also known by the title Shaykh al-Islam ('Shaykh of Islam').
  2. ^ Sources describing Ibn Taymiyya as a proto-Salafi theologian:
    • James Fromherz, Allen; Samin, Nadav (2021). Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. The Netherlands: Brill. p. 182. ISBN 978-90-04-43952-8. The circle surrounding the paradigmatic proto-Salafi scholar Ibn Taymiyya and his influential disciple Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d. 751/1350) played a central role among them. Ibn Taymiyya's theology,.. passionately opposed and polemicized against the Murjiʾite views of other Sunnis, particularly Hanafis and the followers of Ashʿarite speculative theology (kalam)
    • Medoff, Louis Abraham (2007). Ijtihad and Renewal in Qurʼanic Hermeneutics. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California. p. 33. Ibn Taymiyah lives up to his reputation as a fiercely polemical proto-Salafi
    • Wainscott, Ann Marie (2017). Bureaucratizing Islam: Morocco and the War on Terror. Liberty Plaza, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-316-51049-0. the medieval theologian and proto-Salafi Ibn Taymiyya was a critic of Ash'arism. He argued that the approach relied too heavily on philosophy. Instead, he advocated an approach that looked to the Salaf for guidance on correct beliefs.
    • Haynes, Jeffrey; Sheikh, Naveed S. (2022). "Making Sense of Salafism: Theological foundations, ideological iterations and political manifestations". The Routledge handbook of Religion, Politics and Ideology. New York, USA: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-367-41782-6. What might be referred to as 'proto-Salafism', or creedal Salafism (al-salafiyya al iʿtiqādīyya), became emblematic in the scholarship of the fourteenth-century imam Taqi al-Din Ahmad Ibn 'Abd al-Halim al-Harrani

Citations edit

  1. ^ Ibn Taymiyya, Ahmad ibn ʻAbd al-Ḥalīm (1999). Kitab Al-Iman. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust. ISBN 978-967-5062-28-5. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
  2. ^ a b "Ibn Taymiyya". Encyclopædia Britannica. from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2015.
  3. ^ Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). Theology and Creed wahabi Islam. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-230-10279-8.
  4. ^ Spevack, Aaron (2014). The Archetypal Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al-Bajuri. State University of New York Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4384-5370-5.
  5. ^ a b Makdisi, ', American Journal of Arabic Studies 1, part 1 (1973), pp. 118–28
  6. ^ a b Spevack, Aaron (2014). The Archetypal Sunni: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al-Bajuri. State University of New York Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1438453712.
  7. ^ a b Rapoport & Ahmed 2010, p. 334
  8. ^ a b Halverson, Jeffry R. (2010). Theology and Creed in Wahabi Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Wahabism. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0230102798.
  9. ^ a b c Haque 1982
  10. ^ Hoover, J. (2018). Ibn Taymiyya's use of Ibn Rushd to refute the incorporealism of Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī. In A. Al Ghouz (Ed.), Islamic Philosophy from the 12th till the 14th Century (469-492). Goettingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht
  11. ^ Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 December 20, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Yahya An Najmi, Shaykh Ahmad. Explanation Of Al-Qasidah Al-Lamiyah (PDF). Philadelphia: Hikmah Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9781495196805.
  13. ^ Woodward, Mark. The Garebeg Malud: Veneration of the Prophet as Imperial Ritual. p. 170.
  14. ^ a b Ghobadzdeh, Naser; Akbarzadeh, Shahram (May 18, 2015). "Sectarianism and the prevalence of 'othering' in Islamic thought". Third World Quarterly. 36 (4): 691–704. doi:10.1080/01436597.2015.1024433. S2CID 145364873. Retrieved June 6, 2020. Yet Ibn Taymiyya remained unconvinced and issued three controversial fatwas to justify revolt against mongol rule.
  15. ^ Nadvi, Syed Suleiman (2012). "Muslims and Greek Schools of Philosophy". Islamic Studies. 51 (2): 218. JSTOR 23643961. All his works are full of condemnation of philosophy and yet he was a great philosopher himself.
  16. ^ Kokoschka, Alina (2013). Islamic Theology, Philosophy and Law: Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya. De Gruyter. p. 218. Identifying him, especially in regards to his comprehensive view, as a true philosopher, they describe him as an equal to or even superseding the most famous medieval Muslim philosophers.
  17. ^ Nettler, R. and Kéchichian, J.A., 2009. Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, 2, pp.502–4.
  18. ^ a b Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ... macmillan. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-09-952327-7. from the original on July 1, 2020. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn Laoust 2012.
  20. ^ Tim Winter The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology Cambridge University Press, May 22, 2008 ISBN 978-0-521-78058-2 p. 84
  21. ^ a b Rapoport & Ahmed 2010, p. 6.
  22. ^ Haynes, Jeffrey; S. Sheikh, Naveed (2022). "Making Sense of Salafism: Theological foundations, ideological iterations and political manifestations". The Routledge handbook of Religion, Politics and Ideology. New York, USA: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-367-41782-6. His denouncement of both the (high-church) ʿulamāʾ‎ of the rival theological schools—particularly the Ash'aris, even as he muddied the waters by calling them anachronistic names such as 'Jahmis' after the heterodox theologian Jahm Ibn Safwan (d. 745)—and (low-church) folk religion steeped in local understandings of Sufism, earned him the authorities' wrath. He was imprisoned on charges of corporealism (tajsīm) and likening the attributes of God to those of His creation (tashbīḥ), a dual charge that his followers from Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) onwards have also faced.
  23. ^ a b Sinani, Besnik (April 10, 2022). "Post-Salafism: Religious Revisionism in Contemporary Saudi Arabia". Religions. 13 (4): 344. doi:10.3390/rel13040340. A key aspect of the legacy of Ibn Taymiyya is his opposition to the two dominant schools of Sunni theology (kalam), Ashaʿrism and Maturidism
  24. ^ Nettler, Ronald L. (2009). "Ibn Taymīyah, Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad". In L. Esposito, John (ed.). . Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135. Archived from the original on November 1, 2022. He incurred the wrath of some Shāfiʿī and other ʿulamāʿ (religious scholars) and theologians for some of his teachings on theology and law. He was persecuted and imprisoned in Syria and Egypt, for his tashbīh (anthropomorphism), several of his rulings derived through ijtihād (independent reason), and his idiosyncratic legal judgments
  25. ^ Haynes, Jeffrey; S. Sheikh, Naveed (2022). "Making Sense of Salafism: Theological foundations, ideological iterations and political manifestations". The Routledge handbook of Religion, Politics and Ideology. New York, USA: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-367-41782-6. What might be referred to as 'proto-Salafism', or creedal Salafism (al-salafiyya al-iʿtiqādīyya), became emblematic in the scholarship of the fourteenth-century imam Taqi al-Din Ahmad Ibn 'Abd al-Halim al-Harrani (1263–1328)—better known by his matronymic Ibn Taymiyya—the most important medieval reference for contemporary Salafism
  26. ^ El-Tobgui, Carl Sharif (2022). Ibn Taymiyya on reason and revelation : a study of Darʾ ta'āruḍ al-ʻaql wa-l-naql. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-51101-9. OCLC 1296947160.
  27. ^ "Atheism and Radical Skepticism: Ibn Taymiyya's Epistemic Critique". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved March 21, 2023. The most voluminous and vociferous intellectual opposition to the use of philosophical argumentation to establish religious doctrine was to come in the writings of Shaykh al-Islām Ibn Taymīyyah..
  28. ^ al-Jamil, Tariq (2010). . In Ahmed, Shahab; Rapoport, Yossef (eds.). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 229–241. ISBN 9780199402069. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021.
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  35. ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din Ahmad (d. 1328)... Tied Islam to politics and state formation... Issued fatwas against the Mongols as unbelievers at heart despite public claims to be Muslim... His authority has been used by some twentieth-century Islamist groups to declare jihad against ruling governments.
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Sources edit

  • Haque, Serajul (1982). Imam Ibn Taimiya and his projects of reform. Islamic Foundation Bangladesh.
  • Hoover, Jon (2007). Ibn Taymiyya's Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism. Brill. ISBN 978-9004158474.
  • Hoover, Jon (2016). . Islamic History and Civilization. 119: 208–237. Archived from the original on November 29, 2016. Retrieved November 29, 2016.
  • Hoover, Jon (2019). Makers of the Muslim World: Ibn Taymiyya. London: One World Publications. ISBN 978-1-78607-689-2.
  • Laoust, H. (2012). "Ibn Taymiyya". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_sim_3388.
  • Linhoff, Josef (2020). "III: Love, saints and shirk: Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328)". 'Associating with God in Islamic Thought': A Comparative Study of Muslim interpretations of shirk. University of Edinburgh. doi:10.7488/era/236. hdl:1842/36935.
  • Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (January 1, 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195478341.
  • Reynolds, Gabrield Said (2012). The Emergence of Islam: Classical traditions in contemporary perspective. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 9780800698591.

Further reading edit

  • Little, Donald P. "Did Ibn Taymiyya have a screw loose?", Studia Islamica, 1975, Number 41, pp. 93–111.
  • Makdisi, G. "Ibn Taymiyya: A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order", American Journal of Arabic Studies, 1973
  • Michot, Yahya. Ibn Taymiyya: Against Extremisms. Texts translated, annotated and introduced. With a foreword by Bruce B. LAWRENCE. Beirut & Paris: Albouraq, 2012, xxxii & 334 p. — ISBN 9782841615551.
  • Michot, Yahya. Ibn Taymiyya: Muslims under Non-Muslim Rule. Texts translated, annotated and presented in relation to six modern readings of the Mardin fatwa. Foreword by James Piscatori. Oxford & London: Interface Publications, 2006. ISBN 0-9554545-2-2.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Ibn Taymiyya's 'New Mardin Fatwa'. Is genetically modified Islam (GMI) carcinogenic?" in The Muslim World, 101/2, April 2011, pp. 130–181.
  • Michot, Yahya. "From al-Ma'mūn to Ibn Sab'īn, via Avicenna: Ibn Taymiyya's Historiography of Falsafa", in F. OPWIS & D. REISMAN (eds.), Islamic Philosophy, Science, Culture, and Religion. Studies in Honor of Dimitri Gutas (Leiden – Boston: Brill, 2012), pp. 453–475.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Between Entertainment and Religion: Ibn Taymiyya's Views on Superstition", in The Muslim World, 99/1, January 2009, pp. 1–20.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Misled and Misleading… Yet Central in their Influence: Ibn Taymiyya's Views on the Ikhwān al-Safā'", in The Ikhwān al-Safā' and their Rasā'il. An Introduction. Edited by Nader EL-BIZRI. Foreword by Farhad DAFTARY (Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, Epistles of the Brethren of Purity), 2008, pp. 139–179.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Ibn Taymiyya's Commentary on the Creed of al-Hallâj", in A. SHIHADEH (ed.), Sufism and Theology (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2007), pp. 123–136.
  • Michot, Yahya. "A Mamlûk Theologian's Commentary on Avicenna's Risāla Aḍḥawiyya. Being a Translation of a Part of the Dar' al-Ta'āruḍ of Ibn Taymiyya, with Introduction, Annotation, and Appendices, Part I", in Journal of Islamic Studies, 14:2, Oxford, 2003, pp. 149–203.
  • Michot, Yahya. "A Mamlûk Theologian's Commentary on Avicenna's Risāla Aḍḥawiyya. Being a Translation of a Part of the Dar' al-Ta'āruḍ of Ibn Taymiyya, with Introduction, Annotation, and Appendices, Part II", in Journal of Islamic Studies, 14:3, Oxford, 2003, pp. 309–363.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Ibn Taymiyya on Astrology. Annotated Translation of Three Fatwas", in Journal of Islamic Studies, 11/2, Oxford, May 2000, pp. 147–208.
  • Michot, Yahya. "Ibn Taymiyya's Critique of Shī'ī Imāmology. Translation of Three Sections of his Minhāj al-Sunna", in The Muslim World, 104/1–2, Hartford, Jan–April 2014, pp. 109–149.
  • Michot, Yahya. "An Important Reader of al-Ghazālī: Ibn Taymiyya", in The Muslim World, 103/1, Hartford, January 2013, pp. 131–160.

External links edit

 
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Ibn Taymiyyah

April 10, 2024
taymiyya, arabic, ٱب, january, 1263, september, 1328, sunni, muslim, scholar, jurist, traditionist, ascetic, proto, salafi, iconoclastic, theologian, known, diplomatic, involvement, with, ilkhanid, ruler, ghazan, khan, battle, marj, saffar, which, ended, mongo. Ibn Taymiyya a Arabic ٱب ن ت ي م ي ة 22 January 1263 26 September 1328 11 was a Sunni Muslim scholar 12 13 14 jurist 15 16 traditionist ascetic and proto Salafi b and iconoclastic theologian 17 14 He is known for his diplomatic involvement with the Ilkhanid ruler Ghazan Khan at the Battle of Marj al Saffar which ended the Mongol invasions of the Levant 18 A legal jurist of the Hanbali school Ibn Taymiyya s condemnation of numerous folk practices associated with saint veneration and visitation of tombs made him a contentious figure with many rulers and scholars of the time which caused him to be imprisoned several times as a result 19 ImamIbn Taymiyyaٱب ن ت ي م ي ةTitleShaykh al Islam Shaykh of Islam PersonalBorn22 January 1263 CE10 Rabi al Awwal 661 AHHarran Mamluk Sultanate modern day Harran Sanliurfa Turkey Died26 September 1328 CE aged 64 65 20 Dhu al Qa da 728 AHDamascus Mamluk Sultanate modern day Syria ReligionIslamEraLate High Middle Ages Crisis of the Late Middle AgesDenominationSunniJurisprudenceHanbali 1 2 CreedAthari 3 4 5 6 7 8 Notable work s Minhaj al Sunna al Nabawiyya al Aqida al Wasitiyya al Sarim al Maslul ala Shatim al RasulAlma materMadrasa Dar al Hadith al SukariyyaArabic namePersonal Ism Aḥmadأ ح م دPatronymic Nasab Ibn ʿAbd al Ḥalim ibn ʿAbd al Salam ibn ʿAbd Allah ibn al Khiḍr ibn Muḥammad ibn al Khiḍr ibn Ibrahim ibn ʿAli ibn ʿAbd Allahٱب ن ع ب د ٱل ح ل يم ب ن ع ب د ٱلس ل ام ب ن ع ب د ٱلل ه ب ن ٱل خ ض ر ب ن م ح م د ب ن ٱل خ ض ر ب ن إ ب ر اه يم ب ن ع ل ي ب ن ع ب د ٱلل هTeknonymic Kunya Abu al ʿAbbasأ ب و ٱل ع ب اسEpithet Laqab Taqi al Dinت ق ي ٱلد ينToponymic Nisba Al Numayri al Ḥarrani 9 page needed ٱلن م ي ر ي ٱل ح ر ان ي Muslim leaderInfluenced by Ahmad ibn Hanbal Ibn Hazm Abd al Qadir al Jilani Ibn Qudama Malik ibn Anas al Barbahari Abd al Ghani al Maqdisi Ibn Rushd 10 Influenced Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya Ibn Rajab Ibn Muflih al Dhahabi Ibn Kathir Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab Abdur Rahman al Mu allimee al Yamani Sayyid Qutb Yusuf al Qaradawi Abu al A la al Mawdudi later traditionists later Hanbali school Ahl i Hadith movement Salafi movementA polarizing figure in his own times and the centuries that followed 20 21 Ibn Taymiyya has emerged as one of the most influential medieval scholars in late modern Sunni Islam 19 He is also noteworthy for engaging in fierce religious polemics that attacked various schools of speculative theology primarily Ash arism and Maturidism while defending the doctrines of Atharism This prompted rival clerics and state authorities to accuse Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples of anthropomorphism which eventually led to the censoring of his works and subsequent incarceration 22 23 24 Nevertheless Ibn Taymiyya s numerous treatises that advocate for al salafiyya al iʿtiqadiyya creedal Salafism based on his scholarly interpretations of the Quran and prophetic way constitute the most popular classical reference for later Salafi movements 25 Throughout his treatises Ibn Taymiyya asserted there is no contradiction between reason and revelation 26 and denounced the usage of philosophy as a pre requisite in seeking religious truth 27 As a cleric who viewed Shiasm as a source of corruption in Muslim societies Ibn Taymiyya was also known for virulent anti Shia polemics throughout treatises such as Minhaj al Sunna wherein he denounced the Imami Shia creed as heretical He issued a ruling to wage jihad against the Shias of Kisrawan and personally fought in the Kisrawan campaigns himself accusing Shias of acting as the fifth columnists of the Frank Crusaders and Mongol Ilkhanids 28 Within recent history Ibn Taymiyya has been widely regarded as a major scholarly influence in revolutionary Islamist movements such as Salafi jihadism 29 30 31 Major aspects of his teachings such as upholding the pristine monotheism of the early Muslim generations and campaigns to uproot what he regarded as polytheism had a profound influence on Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab the founder of the Wahhabism reform movement formed in Arabian Peninsula as well as other later Sunni scholars 2 32 Lebanese Salafi theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida one of the major modern proponents of Ibn Taymiyya s works designated him as the renewer of the 7th Islamic century 33 34 Ibn Taymiyya s doctrinal positions such as his excommunication of the Mongol Ilkhanids and allowing jihad against other self professed Muslims were referenced by later Islamist political movements including the Muslim Brotherhood Hizb ut Tahrir al Qaeda and Islamic State to justify social uprisings against the contemporary governments of the Muslim world 35 36 37 Contents 1 Name and lineage 2 Biography 2 1 Early years 2 1 1 Family 2 1 2 Education 2 2 Life as a scholar 2 2 1 Possible influences 2 2 2 Relationship with the authorities 2 3 Involvement in the Mongol invasions 2 3 1 First invasion 2 3 2 Second invasion 2 3 3 Third invasion and Takfir of Ilkhanate Allies 2 3 4 Contemporary Impact 2 4 Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism 2 5 Life in Egypt 2 5 1 His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment 2 5 2 His trial for intercession and his imprisonment 2 5 3 House arrest in Alexandria 2 6 Return to Damascus and later years 2 6 1 His fatwa on divorce and imprisonment 2 6 2 His risala on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment 2 6 3 His life in prison 2 7 Death 3 Views 4 Students 5 Influence in his time 6 Influence in the modern period 6 1 Salafism 6 2 Modern Islamism 6 3 Mardin fatwas and the Mardin Conference 7 Opinions about him 7 1 Pre modern opinions 7 2 Modern opinions 7 2 1 Islamic scholarship 7 2 2 Western scholarship 8 Works 8 1 Extant books and essays 8 2 English translations 8 3 Lost works 9 References 9 1 Notes 9 2 Citations 9 3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksName and lineage editIbn Taymiyya s full name is Taqi al Din Abu al ʿAbbas Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al Ḥalim ibn ʿAbd al Salam ibn ʿAbd Allah ibn al Khiḍr ibn Muḥammad ibn al Khiḍr ibn Ibrahim ibn ʿAli ibn ʿAbd Allah al Numayri al Ḥarrani Arabic ت ق ي ٱلد ين أ ب و ٱل ع ب اس أ ح م د ب ن ع ب د ٱل ح ل يم ب ن ع ب د ٱلس ل ام ب ن ع ب د ٱلل ه ب ن ٱل خ ض ر ب ن م ح م د ب ن ٱل خ ض ر ب ن إ ب ر اه يم ب ن ع ل ي ب ن ع ب د ٱلل ه ٱلن م ي ر ي ٱل ح ر ان ي 9 Biography editEarly years edit Family edit Ibn Taymiyya was born in Harran Mamluk Sultanate to a family of traditional Hanbali scholars He had Arab and Kurdish lineages by way of his Arab father and Kurdish mother 38 39 His father Shihab al Din Abd al Halim ibn Taymiyya held the Hanbali chair in Harran and later at the Umayyad Mosque At the time Harran was a part of the Mamluk Sultanate near what is today the border of Syria and Turkey currently in the Sanliurfa Province 40 At the beginning of the Islamic period Harran was located in Diyar Mudar the land of the Mudar tribe 41 Before its destruction by the Mongols Harran was also well known since the early days of Islam for its tradition of adhering to the Hanbali school 42 to which Ibn Taymiyya s family belonged 40 His grandfather Majd al Din ibn Taymiyya and his uncle Fakhr al Din were both reputable scholars of the Hanbali school and their scholarly achievements well known 19 Education edit In 1269 Ibn Taymiyya aged seven left Harran together with his father and three brothers however the city was completely destroyed by the ensuing Mongol invasion 43 19 Ibn Taymiyya s family moved and settled in Damascus Syria which was ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate at the time In Damascus his father served as the director of the Sukkariyya Madrasa a place where Ibn Taymiyya also received his early education 44 He acquainted himself with the religious and secular sciences of his time His religious studies began in his early teens when he committed the entire Quran to memory and later came to learn the disciplines of the Quran 43 From his father he learnt the religious science of jurisprudence and its principles 43 Ibn Taymiyya studied the works of Ahmad ibn Hanbal Abu Bakr al Khallal and Ibn Qudama as well as the works of his own grandfather Majd al Din 19 His study of jurisprudence was not limited to the Hanbali tradition as he also studied the other schools of jurisprudence 19 The number of scholars under which he studied hadith is said to number more than two hundred 45 43 46 four of whom were women 47 Those who are known by name amount to forty hadith teachers as recorded by Ibn Taymiyya in his work titled Arba un Haditha 48 Serajul Haque says based on this Ibn Taymiyya started to hear hadith from the age of five 48 One of Ibn Taymiyya s teachers was the first Hanbali Chief Justice of Syria Shams al Din al Maqdisi who held the newly created position instituted by Baibars as part of a reform of the judiciary 19 Al Maqdisi later came to give Ibn Taymiyya permission to issue legal verdicts making him a judge at the age of seventeen 45 49 50 Ibn Taymiyya s secular studies led him to devote attention to the Arabic language and literature by studying Arabic grammar and lexicography under Ali ibn Abd al Qawi al Tufi 43 51 He went on to master the famous book of Arabic grammar al Kitab written by the grammarian Sibawayhi 43 He also studied mathematics algebra calligraphy speculative theology philosophy history and heresiography 45 49 19 52 With the knowledge he gained from history and philosophy he set to refute the prevalent philosophical discourses of his time one of which was Aristotelianism 45 Ibn Taymiyya also learnt about Sufism and stated he had reflected on the works of Sahl al Tustari al Junayd al Baghdadi Abu Talib al Makki Abd al Qadir al Jilani Shihab al Din Umar al Suhrawardi and Ibn Arabi 19 In 1282 Ibn Taymiyya completed his education at the age of 20 53 Life as a scholar edit nbsp The Umayyad Mosque pictured in 1895 where Ibn Taymiyya used to give lessons 49 After his father died in 1284 he took up the then vacant post as the head of the Sukkariyya madrasa and began giving lessons on Hadith 49 19 54 A year later he started giving lessons as chair of the Hanbali Zawiya on Fridays at the Umayyad Mosque on the subject of tafsir exegesis of Qur an 49 51 55 In November 1292 Ibn Taymiyya performed the Hajj and after returning 4 months later he wrote his first book aged twenty nine called Manasik al Hajj Rites of the Pilgrimage in which he criticized and condemned the religious innovations he saw take place there 19 44 Ibn Taymiyya represented the Hanbali school of thought during this time The Hanbali school was seen as the most traditional school out of the four legal systems Hanafi Maliki and Shafi i because it was suspicious of the Hellenist disciplines of philosophy and speculative theology 44 He remained faithful throughout his life to this school whose doctrines he had mastered but he nevertheless called for ijtihad independent reasoning by one who is qualified and discouraged taqlid 53 Possible influences edit Ibn Taymiyya was taught by scholars who were renowned in their time 56 however there is no evidence any of them had a significant influence on him 56 A strong influence on Ibn Taymiyya was the founder of the Hanbali school itself Ahmad ibn Hanbal 56 Ibn Taymiyya was trained in his school by studying Ahmad s Musnad in great detail having studied it multiple times 57 Though he spent much of his life following this school he renounced blind following near the end of his life 53 His work was most influenced by the sayings and actions of the first three generations of Muslims salaf which is displayed in his works where he would give preference to their opinions over those of his contemporaries 56 The modern Salafi movement derives its name from these generations 56 Relationship with the authorities edit Ibn Taymiyya s emergence in the public and political spheres began in 1293 when he was 30 years old when the authorities asked him to issue a fatwa legal verdict on Assaf al Nasrani a Christian cleric who was accused of insulting Muhammad 58 19 59 He accepted the invitation and delivered his fatwa calling for the man to receive the death penalty 58 Despite the fact that public opinion was very much on Ibn Taymiyya s side 44 the Governor of Syria attempted to resolve the situation by asking Assaf to accept Islam in return for his life to which he agreed 44 This resolution was not acceptable to Ibn Taymiyya who then together with his followers protested against it outside the governor s palace demanding that Assaf be put to death 44 on the grounds that any person Muslim or non Muslim who insults Muhammad must be killed 49 44 His unwillingness to compromise coupled with his attempt to protest against the governor s actions resulted in him being punished with a prison sentence the first of many such imprisonments which were to come 19 The French orientalist Henri Laoust says that during his incarceration Ibn Taymiyya wrote his first great work al Ṣarim al maslul ʿala shatim al Rasul The Drawn Sword against those who insult the Messenger 19 Ibn Taymiyya together with the help of his disciples continued with his efforts against what he perceived to be un Islamic practices and to implement what he saw as his religious duty of commanding good and forbidding wrong 49 60 Yahya Michot says that some of these incidences included shaving children s heads leading an anti debauchery campaign in brothels and taverns hitting an atheist before his public execution destroying what was thought to be a sacred rock in a mosque attacking astrologers and obliging deviant Sufi Shaykhs to make public acts of contrition and adhere to the Sunnah 49 Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples used to condemn wine sellers and they would attack wine shops in Damascus by breaking wine bottles and pouring them onto the floor 55 A few years later in 1296 he took over the position of one of his teachers Zayn al Din Ibn al Munadjdjaal taking the post of professor of Hanbali jurisprudence at the Hanbaliyya madrasa the oldest such institution of this tradition in Damascus 19 44 61 This is seen by some to be the peak of his scholarly career 44 The year when he began his post at the Hanbaliyya madrasa was a time of political turmoil The Mamluk sultan Al Adil Kitbugha was deposed by his vice sultan Al Malik al Mansur Lajin who then ruled from 1297 to 1299 62 Lajin desired to commission an expedition against the Christians of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who formed an alliance with the Mongol Empire and participated in the military campaign which lead to the destruction of Baghdad the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and the destruction of Harran the birthplace of Ibn Taymiyya for that purpose he urged Ibn Taymiyya to call the Muslims to Jihad 19 44 In 1298 Ibn Taymiyya wrote his explanation for the ayat al mutashabihat the unclear verses of the Qur an titled Al Aqidat al Hamawiyat al Kubra The creed of the great people of Hama 63 64 The book is about divine attributes and it served as an answer to a question from the city of Hama Syria 63 64 At that particular time Ash arites held prominent positions within the Islamic scholarly community in both Syria and Egypt and they held a certain position on the divine attributes of God 63 Ibn Taymiyya in his book strongly disagreed with their views and this heavy opposition to the common Ash ari position caused considerable controversy 63 Once more Ibn Taymiyya collaborated with the Mamluks in 1300 when he joined the punitive expedition against the Alawites and Shiites in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains 58 19 Ibn Taymiyya believed that the Alawites were more heretical than Jews and Christians 65 66 and according to Carole Hillenbrand the confrontation with the Alawites occurred because they were accused of collaborating with Christians and Mongols 58 Ibn Taymiyya had further active involvements in campaigns against the Mongols and their alleged Alawite allies 44 In 1305 Ibn Taymiyya took part in a second military offensive against the Alawites and the Isma ilis 67 in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains where they were defeated 19 65 68 The majority of the Alawis and Ismailis eventually converted to Twelver Shiism and settled in south Lebanon and the Bekaa valley with a few Shia pockets that survived in the Lebanese mountains 69 70 Involvement in the Mongol invasions edit Further information Mongol invasions of the Levant and Ilkhanate empire First invasion edit See also Mongol campaign of 1299 1300 and Battle of Wadi al KhaznadarThe first invasion took place between December 1299 and April 1300 due to the military campaign by the Mamluks against the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who were allied with the Mongols 71 Due to the Mongol legal system that neglected sharia and implemented Yassa Ibn Taymiyya had declared Takfir upon the Ilkhanid regime and its armies for ruling by man made laws despite these laws being rarely enforced in Muslim majority regions in an extensive manner 72 73 Openly rejecting Ghazan Khan s claim to padishah al islam King of Islam a title which Ghazan took to legitimise his military campaigns Ibn Taymiyya denounced him as an infidel king and issued numerous fatwas condemning the political order of the Tatars 74 The Ilkhanate army managed to defeat the Mamluk Sultanate in The Third Battle of Homs and reach Damascus by the end of December 1299 Fearful of Mongol atrocities many scholars intellectuals and officers began to flee Damascus in panic Ibn Taymiyya was one of those clerics who stood firm alongside the vulnerable Damascus citizens and called for an uncompromising and heroic resistance to the Tatar invaders Ibn Taymiyya drew parallels of their crisis with the Riddah wars Apostate wars fought by the first Muslim Caliph Abu Bakr against the renegade Arabian tribes that abandoned sharia Ibn Taymiyya severely rebuked those Muslims escaping in the face of Mongol onslaught and compared their state to the withdrawal of Muslims in the Battle of Uhud 71 75 In a passionate letter to the commander of the Damascene Citadel Ibn Taymiyya appealed Until there stands even a single rock do everything in your power to not surrender the castle There is great benefit for the people of Syria Allah declared it a sanctuary for the people of Sham where it will remain a land of faith and sunna until the descent of the Prophet Jesus 76 Despite political pressure Ibn Taymiyya s directives were heeded by the Mamluk officer and Mongol negotiations to surrender the Citadel stalled Shortly after Ibn Taymiyya and a number of his acolytes and pupils took part in a counter offensive targeting various Shia tribes allied to the Mongols in the peripheral regions of the city thereby repelling the Mongol attack 76 Ibn Taymiyya went with a delegation of Islamic scholars to talk to Ghazan Khan who was the Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate of Iran to plead clemency 71 77 By early January 1300 the Mongol allies the Armenians and Georgians had caused widespread damage to Damascus and they had taken Syrian prisoners 71 The Mongols effectively occupied Damascus for the first four months of 1303 60 Most of the military had fled the city including most of the civilians 60 Ibn Taymiyya however stayed and was one of the leaders of the resistance inside Damascus and he went to speak directly to the Ilkhan Mahmud Ghazan and his vizier Rashid al Din Tabib 49 60 He sought the release of Muslim and dhimmi prisoners which the Mongols had taken in Syria and after negotiation secured their release 49 44 nbsp An artist illustrated of Ghazan Khan a historical figure harshly rebuked by Ibn Taymiyya mainly due to his constant state of hostility towards the Mamluks of Egypt Second invasion edit The second invasion lasted between October 1300 and January 1301 71 Ibn Taymiyya at this time began giving sermons on jihad at the Umayyad mosque 71 As the civilians began to flee in panic Ibn Taymiyya pronounced fatwas declaring the religious duty upon Muslims to fight the Mongol armies to death inflict a massive defeat and expel them from Syria in its entirety 78 Ibn Taymiyya also spoke to and encouraged the Governor of Damascus al Afram to achieve victory over the Mongols 71 He became involved with al Afram once more when he was sent to get reinforcements from Cairo 71 Narrating Ibn Taymiyya s fierce stance on fighting the Mongols Ibn Kathir reports even if you see me on their side with a Qurʾan on my side kill them immediately Ibn Taymiyya in Ismail Ibn Kathir al Bidaya wa l Nihaya vol 14 7 8 79 Third invasion and Takfir of Ilkhanate Allies edit See also Excommunication in Islam Takfirism and Battle of Marj al Saffar 1303 The year 1303 saw the third Mongol invasion of Syria by Ghazan Khan 80 81 What has been called Ibn Taymiyya s most famous fatwa 82 was his third fatwa issued against the Mongols in the Mamluk s war Ibn Taymiyya declared that jihad against the Mongol attack on the Malmuk sultanate was not only permissible but obligatory 54 The reason being that the Mongols could not in his opinion be true Muslims despite the fact that they had converted to Sunni Islam because they ruled using what he considered man made laws their traditional Yassa code rather than Islamic law or Sharia whilst believing that the Yassa code was better than the Sharia law Because of this he reasoned they were living in a state of jahiliyyah or pre Islamic pagan ignorance 29 Not only were Ilkhanate political elites and its military disbelievers in the eyes of Ibn Taymiyya but anybody who joined their ranks were as guilty of riddah apostasy as them Whoever joins them meaning the Tatars among commanders of the military and non commanders their ruling is the same as theirs and they have apostatized from the laws sharaʾiʿ If the righteous forbears salaf have called the withholders from charity apostates despite their fasting praying and not fighting the Muslims how about those who became murderers of the Muslims with the enemies of Allah and His Messenger Ibn Taymiyya in Majmu al fatawa vol 28 530 83 The fatwa broke new Islamic legal ground because no jurist had ever before issued a general authorization for the use of lethal force against Muslims in battle and would later influence modern day Jihadists in their use of violence against other Muslims whom they deemed as apostates 18 In his legal verdicts issued to inform the populace Ibn Taymiyya classified the Tatars and their advocates into four types Kaafir Asli i e those original non Muslims fighting in Tatar armies and who never embraced Islam Muslims of other ethnicities who became apostates due to their alliance with Mongols Irreligious Muslims aligned with Ilkhanids whom Ibn Taymiyya analogized with renegade Arabian tribes of the Riddah wars Personally pious Muslims affiliated with the Mongol armies Ibn Taymiyya harshly rebuked these people as the most evil faction and argued that their piety was useless because of their decision to ally with non Muslims who ruled by man made laws This rationale was also expanded to excommunicate those court scholars who vindicated the Tatar authorities 84 Ibn Taymiyya called on the Muslims to jihad once again and personally participated in the Battle of Marj al Saffar against the Ilkhanid army leading his disciples in the field with a sword 58 80 78 The battle began on April 20 of that year 80 On the same day Ibn Taymiyya declared a fatwa which exempted Mamluk soldiers from fasting during Ramadan so that they could preserve their strength 58 19 80 Within two days the Mongols were severely crushed and the battle was won thus ending Mongol control of Syria These incidents greatly increased the scholarly prestige and social stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst the masses despite opposition from the establishment clergy He would soon be appointed as the chief professor of the elite scholarly institute Kamiliyya Dar al Haḍith 80 78 Contemporary Impact edit Ibn Taymiyya s three unprecedented fatwas legal verdicts that excommunicated the Ilkhanid authorities and their supporters as apostates over their neglect to govern by Sharia Islamic law and preference of the traditional Mongol imperial code of Yassa would form the theological basis of 20th century Islamist and Jihadist scholars and ideologues Reviving Ibn Taymiyya s fatwas during the late 20th century Jihadist ideologues like Sayyid Qutb Abd al Salam al Faraj Abdullah Azzam Usama bin Laden Ayman al Zawahiri etc made public Takfir excommunication of contemporary governments of the Muslim world and called for their revolutionary overthrowal through armed Jihad 85 Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism edit Ibn Taymiyya was a fervent polemicist who zealously launched theological refutations against various religious sects such as the Sufis Jahmites Ash arites Shias Falsafa etc labelling them as heretics responsible for the crisis of Mongol invasions across the Islamic World 86 He was imprisoned several times for conflicting with the prevailing opinions of the jurists and theologians of his day A judge from the city of Wasit Iraq requested that Ibn Taymiyya write a book on creed His subsequent creedal work Al Aqidah Al Waasitiyyah caused him trouble with the authorities 87 51 Ibn Taymiyya adopted the view that God should be described as he was literally described in the Qur an and in the hadith 51 and that all Muslims were required to believe this because according to him it was the view held by the early Muslim community salaf 87 Within the space of two years 1305 1306 four separate religious council hearings were held to assess the correctness of his creed 87 The first hearing was held with Ash ari scholars who accused Ibn Taymiyya of anthropomorphism 87 At the time Ibn Taymiyya was 42 years old He was protected by the then Governor of Damascus Aqqush al Afram during the proceedings 87 The scholars suggested that he accept that his creed was simply that of the Hanbalites and offered this as a way out of the charge 87 However if Ibn Taymiyya ascribed his creed to the Hanbali school of law then it would be just one view out of the four schools which one could follow rather than a creed everybody must adhere to 87 Uncompromising Ibn Taymiyya maintained that it was obligatory for all scholars to adhere to his creed 87 Two separate councils were held a year later on January 22 and 28 1306 87 19 The first council was in the house of the Governor of Damascus Aqqush al Afram who had protected him the year before when facing the Shafii scholars 19 A second hearing was held six days later where the Indian scholar Safi al Din al Hindi found him innocent of all charges and accepted that his creed was in line with the Qur an and the Sunnah 87 19 Regardless in April 1306 the chief Islamic judges of the Mamluk state declared Ibn Taymiyya guilty and he was incarcerated 87 He was released four months later in September 87 After his release in Damascus the doubts regarding his creed seemed to have resolved but this was not the case 19 A Shafii scholar Ibn al Sarsari was insistent on starting another hearing against Ibn Taymiyya which was held once again at the house of the Governor of Damascus Al Afram 19 His book Al Aqidah Al Waasitiyyah was still not found at fault 19 At the conclusion of this hearing Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al Sarsari were sent to Cairo to settle the problem Life in Egypt edit His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment edit On the arrival of Ibn Taymiyya and the Shafi ite scholar in Cairo in 1306 an open meeting was held 68 The Mamluk sultan at the time was Al Nasir Muhammad and his deputy attended the open meeting 68 Ibn Taymiyya was found innocent 68 Despite the open meeting objections regarding his creed continued and he was summoned to the Citadel in Cairo for a munazara legal debate which took place on April 8 1306 During the munazara his views on divine attributes specifically whether a direction could be attributed to God were debated by the Indian scholar Safi al Din al Hindi in the presence of Islamic judges 88 19 Ibn Taymiyya failed to convince the judges of his position and so was incarcerated for the charge of anthropomorphism on the recommendation of al Hindi 88 19 Thereafter he together with his two brothers were imprisoned in the Citadel of the Mountain Qal at al Jabal in Cairo until September 25 1307 89 19 88 He was freed due to the help he received from two amirs Salar and Muhanna ibn Isa but he was not allowed to go back to Syria 19 He was then again summoned for a legal debate but this time he convinced the judges that his views were correct and he was allowed to go free 88 His trial for intercession and his imprisonment edit nbsp Citadel of Cairo the place where Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned for 18 monthsIbn Taymiyya continued to face troubles for his views which were found to be at odds with those of his contemporaries His strong opposition to what he believed to be religious innovations caused upset among the prominent Sufis of Egypt including Ibn Ata Allah and Karim al Din al Amuli and the locals who started to protest against him 19 Their main contention was Ibn Taymiyya s stance on tawassul intercession 19 In his view a person could not ask anyone other than God for help except on the Day of Judgement when intercession in his view would be possible At the time the people did not restrict intercession to just the Day of Judgement but rather they said it was allowed in other cases Due to this Ibn Taymiyya now aged 45 was ordered to appear before the Shafi i judge Badr al Din in March 1308 and was questioned on his stance regarding intercession 19 Thereafter he was incarcerated in the prison of the judges in Cairo for some months 19 After his release he was allowed to return to Syria should he so wish 19 Ibn Taymiyya however stayed in Egypt for a further five years House arrest in Alexandria edit 1309 the year after his release saw a new Mamluk sultan accede to the throne Baibars al Jashnakir His reign marked by economical and political unrest only lasted a year 19 In August 1309 Ibn Taymiyya was taken into custody and placed under house arrest for seven months in the new sultan s palace in Alexandria 19 He was freed when al Nasir Muhammad retook the position of sultan on March 4 1310 19 Having returned to Cairo a week later he was received by al Nasir 19 The sultan would sometimes consult Ibn Taymiyya on religious affairs and policies during the rest of his three year stay in Cairo 49 19 During this time he continued to teach and wrote his famous book Al Kitab al Siyasa al shar iyya Treatise on the Government of the Religious Law a book noted for its account of the role of religion in politics 19 90 91 Return to Damascus and later years edit He spent his last fifteen years in Damascus Aged 50 Ibn Taymiyya returned to Damascus via Jerusalem on February 28 1313 19 Damascus was now under the governorship of Tankiz There Ibn Taymiyya continued his teaching role as professor of Hanbali fiqh This is when he taught his most famous student Ibn Qayyim Al Jawziyya who went on to become a noted scholar in Islamic history 19 Ibn Qayyim was to share in Ibn Taymiyya s renewed persecution Three years after his arrival in the city Ibn Taymiyya became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims 19 An agreement had been made in 1316 between the amir of Mecca and the Ilkhanid ruler Oljaitu brother of Ghazan Khan to allow a favourable policy towards Shi ism in the city 19 Around the same time the Shia theologian Al Hilli who had played a crucial role in the Mongol ruler s decision to make Shi ism the state religion of Persia 92 93 wrote the book Minhaj al Karamah The Way of Charisma 49 which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the Imamate and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the caliphate 94 In response Ibn Taymiyya wrote his famous book Minhaj as Sunnah an Nabawiyyah as a refutation of Al Hilli s work 95 His fatwa on divorce and imprisonment edit In 1318 Ibn Taymiyya wrote a treatise that would curtail the ease with which a Muslim man could divorce his wife Ibn Taymiyya s fatwa on divorce was not accepted by the majority of scholars of the time and this continued into the Ottoman era 96 However almost every modern Muslim nation state has come to adopt Ibn Taymiyya s position on this issue of divorce 96 At the time he issued the fatwa Ibn Taymiyya revived an edict by the sultan not to issue fatwas on this issue but he continued to do so saying I cannot conceal my knowledge 19 97 As in previous instances he stated that his fatwa was based on the Qur an and hadith His view on the issue was at odds with the Hanbali position 19 This proved controversial among the people in Damascus as well as the Islamic scholars who opposed him on the issue 98 According to the scholars of the time an oath of divorce counted as a full divorce and they were also of the view that three oaths of divorce taken under one occasion counted as three separate divorces 98 The significance of this was that a man who divorces the same partner three times is no longer allowed to remarry that person until and if that person marries and divorces another person 98 Only then could the man who took the oath remarry his previous wife 98 Ibn Taymiyya accepted this but rejected the validity of three oaths taken under one sitting to count as three separate divorces as long as the intention was not to divorce 98 Moreover Ibn Taymiyya was of the view that a single oath of divorce uttered but not intended also does not count as an actual divorce 19 He stated that since this is an oath much like an oath taken in the name of God a person must expiate for an unintentional oath in a similar manner 98 Due to his views and also by not abiding to the sultan s letter two years before forbidding him from issuing a fatwa on the issue three council hearings were held in as many years 1318 1319 and 1320 to deal with this matter 19 The hearing were overseen by the Viceroy of Syria Tankiz 19 This resulted in Ibn Taymiyya being imprisoned on August 26 1320 in the Citadel of Damascus 19 He was released about five months and 18 days later 97 on February 9 1321 by order of the Sultan Al Nasir 19 Ibn Taymiyya was reinstated as teacher of Hanbali law and he resumed teaching 97 His risala on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment edit In 1310 Ibn Taymiyya had written a risala treatise called Ziyarat al Qubur 19 or according to another source Shadd al rihal 97 It dealt with the validity and permissibility of making a journey to visit the tombs of prophets and saints 97 It is reported that in the book he condemned the cult of saints 19 and declared that traveling with the sole purpose of visiting Muhammad s grave was a blameworthy religious innovation 99 For this Ibn Taymiyya was imprisoned in the Citadel of Damascus sixteen years later on July 18 1326 aged 63 along with his student Ibn Qayyim 97 The sultan also prohibited him from issuing any further fatwas 19 97 Hanbali scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al Maqdisi accused Ibn Taymiyya of apostasy over the treatise 100 His life in prison edit nbsp The Citadel of Damascus the prison which Ibn Taymiyya died inIbn Taymiyya referred to his imprisonment as a divine blessing 49 During his incarceration he wrote that when a scholar forsakes what he knows of the Book of God and of the sunnah of His messenger and follows the ruling of a ruler which contravenes a ruling of God and his messenger he is a renegade an unbeliever who deserves to be punished in this world and in the hereafter 49 During his imprisonment he encountered opposition from the Maliki and Shafi i Chief Justices of Damascus Taḳi al Din al Ikhnaʾi 19 He remained in prison for over two years and ignored the sultan s prohibition by continuing to deliver fatwas 19 During his incarceration Ibn Taymiyya wrote three works which are extant Kitab Maʿarif al wuṣul Rafʿ al malam and Kitab al Radd ʿala l Ikhnaʾi The response to al Ikhnaʾi 19 The last book was an attack on Taḳi al Din al Ikhnaʾi and explained his views on saints wali 19 When the Mongols invaded Syria in 1300 he was among those who called for a Jihad against them and he ruled that even though they had recently converted to Islam they should be considered unbelievers He went to Egypt in order to acquire support for his cause and while he was there he got embroiled in religious political disputes Ibn Taymiyya s enemies accused him of advocating anthropomorphism a view that was objectionable to the teachings of the Ash ari school of Islamic theology and in 1306 he was imprisoned for more than a year Upon his release he condemned popular Sufi practices and he also condemned the influence of Ibn Arabi d 1240 causing him to earn the enmity of leading Sufi shaykhs in Egypt and causing him to serve another prison sentence In 1310 he was released by the Egyptian Sultan In 1313 the Sultan allowed Ibn Taymiyya to return to Damascus where he worked as a teacher and a jurist He had supporters among the powerful but his outspokenness and his nonconformity to traditional Sunni doctrines and his denunciation of Sufi ideals and practices continued to draw the wrath of the religious and political authorities in Syria and Egypt He was arrested and released several more times but while he was in prison he was allowed to write Fatwas advisory opinions on matters of law in defense of his beliefs Despite the controversy that surrounded him Ibn Taymiyya s influence grew and it spread from Hanbali circles to members of other Sunni legal schools and Sufi groups Among his foremost students were Ibn Kathir d 1373 a leading medieval historian and a Quran commentator and Ibn Qayyim al Jawziya d 1350 a prominent Hanbali jurist and a theologian who helped spread his teacher s influence after his teacher s death in 1328 Ibn Taymiyya died while he was a prisoner in the citadel of Damascus and he was buried in the city s Sufi cemetery 101 Death edit He fell ill in early September 1328 and died at the age of 65 on September 26 of that year whilst in prison at the Citadel of Damascus 19 Once this news reached the public there was a strong show of support for him from the people 102 After the authorities had given permission it is reported that thousands of people came to show their respects 102 They gathered in the Citadel and lined the streets up to the Umayyad Mosque 102 The funeral prayer was held in the citadel by scholar Muhammad Tammam and a second was held in the mosque 102 A third and final funeral prayer was held by Ibn Taymiyya s brother Zain al Din 102 He was buried in Damascus in Maqbara Sufiyya the cemetery of the Sufis His brother Sharafuddin had been buried in that cemetery before him 103 104 105 Oliver Leaman says that being deprived of the means of writing led to Ibn Taymiyya s death 51 It is reported that two hundred thousand men and fifteen to sixteen thousand women attended his funeral prayer 55 106 Ibn Kathir says that in the history of Islam only the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal received a larger attendance 55 This is also mentioned by Ibn Abd al Hadi 55 Caterina Bori says that In the Islamic tradition wider popular attendance at funerals was a mark of public reverence a demonstration of the deceased s rectitude and a sign of divine approbation 55 Ibn Taymiyya is said to have spent a lifetime objecting to tomb veneration only to cast a more powerful posthumous spell than any of his Sufi contemporaries 107 On his death his personal effects were in such demand that bidders for his lice killing camphor necklace pushed its price up to 150 dirhams and his skullcap fetched a full 500 107 108 A few mourners sought and succeeded in drinking the water used for bathing his corpse 107 108 His tomb received pilgrims and sightseers for 600 years 107 His resting place is now in the parking lot of a maternity ward though as of 2009 its headstone was broken according to author Sadakat Kadri 109 110 Views editFurther information Views of Ibn TaymiyyaStudents editSeveral of Ibn Taymiyya s students became notable scholars in their own right 19 His students came from different backgrounds and belonged to various different schools of thought 111 The most well known of them are Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya and Ibn Kathir 112 while his other students include 19 51 111 113 Al Dhahabi Jamal al Din al Mizzi Ibn Abd al Hadi Ibn Muflih Imad al Din Ahmad al Wasiti Najm al Din al Tufi Al Ba labakki Al Bazzar Ibn Qadi al Jabal Ibn Fadl Allah al Amri Muhammad ibn al Manj Ibn Abd al Salam al Batti Ibn al Wardi Umar al HarraniInfluence in his time editIn the 21st century Ibn Taymiyya is one of the most cited medieval authors and his treatises are regarded to be of central intellectual importance by several Islamic revivalist movements Ibn Taymiyya s disciples consisting of both Hanbalis and non Hanbalis were attracted to his advocacy of ijtihad outside the established boundaries of the madhabs and shared his taste for activism and religious reform Some of his unorthodox legal views in the field of Fiqh were also regarded as a challenge by mainstream Fuqaha 114 Many scholars have argued that Ibn Taymiyya did not enjoy popularity among the intelligentsia of his day 115 Yossef Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed assert that he was a minority figure in his own times and the centuries that followed 21 Caterina Bori goes further arguing that despite popularity Ibn Taymiyya may have enjoyed among the masses he appears to have been not merely unpopular among the scholars of his day but somewhat of an embarrassment 116 Khalid El Rouayheb notes similarly that Ibn Taymiyya had very little influence on mainstream Sunni Islam until the nineteenth century 117 and that he was a little read scholar with problematic and controversial views 118 He also comments the idea that Ibn Taymiyya had an immediate and significant impact on the course of Sunni Islamic religious history simply does not cohere with the evidence that we have from the five centuries that elapsed between his death and the rise of Sunni revivalism in the modern period 119 It was only since the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries that the scholarly influence of Ibn Taymiyya has come to acquire an unprecedented prominence in Muslim societies due to the efforts of Islamic revivalists like Rashid Rida 120 On the other hand Prof Al Matroudi of SOAS university says that Ibn Taymiyya was perhaps the most eminent and influential Hanbali jurist of the Middle Ages and one of the most prolific among them He was also a renowned scholar of Islam whose influence was felt not only during his lifetime but extended through the centuries until the present day 45 Ibn Taymiyya s followers often deemed him as Sheikh ul Islam an honorific title with which he is sometimes still termed today 121 122 123 In the pre modern era Ibn Taymiyya was considered a controversial figure within Sunni Islam and had a number of critics during his life and in the centuries thereafter 118 The Shafi i scholar Ibn Hajar al Haytami stated that Make sure you do not listen to what is in the books of Ibn Taymiyya and his student Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya and other such people who have taken their own whim as their God and who have been led astray by God and whose hearts and ears have been sealed and whose eyes have been covered by Him May God forsake the one who follows them and purify the earth of their likes 124 He also stated that Ibn Taymiyya is a servant whom God has forsaken led astray made blind and deaf and degraded Such is the explicit verdict of the leading scholars who have exposed the rottenness of his ways and the errors of his statements 125 Taqi al Din al Hisni condemned Ibn Taymiyya in even stronger terms by referring to him as the heretic from Harran 125 and similarly Munawi considered Ibn Taymiyya to be an innovator though not an unbeliever 126 Taqi al Din al Subki criticised Ibn Taymiyya for contradicting the consensus of the Muslims by his anthropomorphism by his claims that accidents exist in God by suggesting that God was speaking in time and by his belief in the eternity of the world 127 Ibn Battuta d 770 1369 famously wrote a work questioning Ibn Taymiyya s mental state 128 The possibility of psychological abnormalities not with standing Ibn Taymiyya s personality by multiple accounts was fiery and oftentimes unpredictable 129 130 The historian Al Maqrizi said regarding the rift between the Sunni Ash ari s and Ibn Taymiyya People are divided into two factions over the question of Ibn Taymiyya for until the present the latter has retained admirers and disciples in Syria and Egypt 19 Both his supporters and rivals grew to respect Ibn Taymiyya because he was uncompromising in his views 58 Dhahabi s views towards Ibn Taymiyya were ambivalent 131 132 His praise of Ibn Taymiyya is invariably qualified with criticism and misgivings 131 and he considered him to be both a brilliant Shaykh 45 60 and also cocky and impetuous 131 133 The Hanafi Maturidi scholar Ala al Din al Bukhari said that anyone that gives Ibn Taymiyya the title Shaykh al Islam is a disbeliever 134 135 As a reaction his contemporary Nasir ad Din ad Dimashqi wrote a refutation in which he quoted the 85 greatest scholars from Ibn Taymiyya s till his time who called Ibn Taymiyya with the title Shaykh al Islam Despite the prevalent condemnations of Ibn Taymiyya outside Hanbali school during the pre modern period many prominent non Hanbali scholars such as Ibrahim al Kurrani d 1690 Shah Wali Allah al Dihlawi d 1762 Mehmet Birgiwi d 1573 Ibn al Amir Al San ani d 1768 Muḥammad al Shawkani d 1834 etc would come to the defense of Ibn Taymiyya and advocate his ideas during this era 136 In the 18th century influential South Asian Islamic scholar and revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi would become the most prominent advocate of the doctrines of Ibn Taymiyya and profoundly transformed the religious thought in South Asia His seminary Madrasah i Rahimya became a hub of intellectual life in the country and the ideas developed there quickly spread to wider academic circles 137 Making a powerful defense of Ibn Taymiyya and his doctrines Shah Waliullah wrote Our assessment of Ibn Taimiyya after full investigation is that he was a scholar of the Book of God and had full command over its etymological and juristic implications He remembered by heart the traditions of the prophet and accounts of elders salaf He excelled in intelligence and brilliance He argued in defence of Ahl al Sunnah with great eloquence and force No innovation or irreligious act is reported about him there is not a single matter on which he is without his defence based on the Qur an and the Sunnah So it is difficult to find a man in the whole world who possesses the qualities of Ibn Taimiyya No one can come anywhere near him in the force of his speech and writing People who harassed him and got him thrown in prison did not possess even one tenth of his scholarly excellence 137 The reputation and stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst non Ḥanbali Sunni scholars would significantly improve between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries From a little read scholar considered controversial by many he would become one of the most popular scholarly figures in the Sunni religious tradition The nineteenth century Iraqi scholar Khayr al Din al Alusi d 1899 wrote an influential treatise titled Jala al aynayn fi muḥakamat al Aḥmadayn in defense of Ibn Taymiyya The treatise would make great impact on major scholars of the Salafiyya movement in Syria and Egypt such as Jamal al Din al Qasimi d 1914 and Muḥammad Rashid Riḍa d 1935 Praising Ibn Taymiyya as a central and heroic Islamic figure of the classical era Rashid Rida wrote after the power of the Ash aris reigned supreme in the Middle Ages al qurun al wusṭa and the ahl al ḥadith and the followers of the salaf were weakened there appeared in the eighth century AH fourteenth century AD the great mujaddid Shaykh al Islam Aḥmad Taqi al Din Ibn Taymiyya whose like has not been seen in mastery of both the traditional and rational sciences and in the power of argument Egypt and India have revived his books and the books of his student Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya after a time when they were only available in Najd Now they have spread to both east and west and will become the main support of the Muslims of the earth 138 Ibn Taymiyya s works served as an inspiration for later Muslim scholars and historical figures who have been regarded as his admirers or disciples 19 In the contemporary world he may be considered at the root of Wahhabism the Senussi order and other later reformist movements 9 139 Ibn Taymiyya has been noted to have influenced Rashid Rida Abul A la Maududi Sayyid Qutb Hassan al Banna Abdullah Azzam and Osama bin Laden 140 54 141 142 143 The terrorist organization Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant used a fatwa of Ibn Taymiyya to justify the burning alive of Jordanian pilot Muath al Kasasbeh 144 After the Iranian revolution conservative Sunni ulema robustly championed Ibn Taymiyya s anti Shia polemics across the Islamic World since the 1980s and vast majority of Sunni intellectual circles adopted Ibn Taymiyya s rhetoric against Shi ism 145 Influence in the modern period editSalafism edit See also Salafiyya MovementIbn Taymiyya s appeals to the precedence of the Qur an and the Sunna over the authority of the madh hab system has inspired a wide range of Islamic reform movements over the last few centuries and especially the Salafiyya reform movement that differ from other Sunnis who adhere to the four legal schools of Fiqh jurisprudence These include the 17th century Kadizadeli movement 18th century Wahhabi movement as well as the Islamic reformist movement of Ibn al Amir Al San ani d 1768 and Muḥammad al Shawkani d 1834 in Yemen In the nineteenth century Taymiyyan tradition would expand across the Islamic World influencing the Ahl i Hadith movement in South Asia and the Salafiyya movement in Iraq Syria and Egypt 146 147 Ibn Taymiyya adamantly insisted that his theological doctrines constituted the original creed of the Salaf as well as that of Abul Hasan al Ash ari the eponym of the Ash arite school He also believed that Sharia Islamic law was best preserved through the teachings and practices of the Salaf the earliest three generations of Muslims Modern Islamic revivalist movements salute Ibn Taymiyya as the architect of Salafism which symbolises the concept of reviving the traditions and values of the Golden Age of the prophet For Salafiyya movements across the Islamic World Ibn Taymiyya is their exemplar scholar who revived the methodology of the Salaf and also a social reformer who defiantly stood against foreign occupation Today Salafi Muslims constitute the most avid readers and promoters of the works of Ibn Taymiyya 148 60 Modern Islamism edit See also Islamism Jihadism Salafi Jihadism Muslim Brotherhood Al Qaeda and ISIL Various concepts within modern Islamist movements can be attributed to Ibn Taymiyya 49 Ibn Taymiyya is highly revered in contemporary militant Islamist and Jihadist circles for his 1303 Fatwa of Takfir excommunication against Mongol Ilkhanate rulers who were recent converts to Islam and his assertion that it became obligatory for true Muslims to wage Jihad against the apostate Mongol leaders and Muslim citizens who accepted the Yassa code Influenced by Ibn Taymiyya Sayyid Qutb would take up Ibn Taymiyya s anti Mongol fatwa and apply it on contemporary regimes across the Islamic World Ibn Taymiyya s other major theological mission was to re assert the primacy of armed jihad in Islamic faith which played a major role in shaping future militant interpretations of Islam Along with total literal adherence to Sharia he held that waging martial jihad was an Islamic religious obligation for all Muslims when under foreign invasion These ideas would be readily embraced in the 20th century by various militant Islamist movements and underpinned the theological justification for militancy of groups like Al Qaeda ISIS etc 149 Scholars like Yahya Michot have noted that Ibn Taymiyya has thus become a sort of forefather of al Qaeda 49 One of main arguments put forth by Ibn Taymiyya was his categorising the world into distinct territories the domain of Islam dar al Islam where the rule is of Islam and sharia law is enforced the domain of unbelief dar al kufr ruled by unbelievers and the domain of war dar al harb which is territory under the rule of unbelievers who are involved in an active or potential conflict with the domain of Islam 49 150 Ibn Taymiyya included a fourth When the Mongols whom he considered unbelievers took control of the city of Mardin 151 the population included many Muslims Believing Mardin was neither the domain of Islam as Islam was not legally applied with an armed forces consisting of Muslims nor the domain of war because the inhabitants were Muslim 151 Ibn Taymiyya created a new composite category known as dar al ahd 49 152 A second concept is making a declaration of apostasy takfir against a Muslim who does not obey Islam 49 But at the same time Ibn Taymiyya maintained that no one can question anothers faith and curse them as based on one s own desire because faith is defined by God and the prophet 49 He said rather than cursing or condemning them an approach should be taken where they are educated about the religion 49 Another concept attributed to Ibn Taymiyya is the duty to oppose and kill Muslim rulers who do not implement the revealed law shari a 49 Based on this doctrine Ibn Taymiyya excommunicated the Ilkhanid state for not ruling by Sharia Islamic law despite officially professing Islam Ibn Taymiyya issued various fatwas obliging all Muslims to fight the Mongols declaring them as mushrikun polytheists similar to the people from the age of Jahiliyya pre Islamic ignorance Thus he is widely regarded as the spiritual forefather of the Salafi Jihadist thought 20th century Islamist ideologues like Muhammad Rashid Rida Sayyid Qutb Abd al Salam Faraj Usama bin Laden etc drew upon these revolutionary ideas to justify armed Jihad against the contemporary nation states 153 154 155 156 Ibn Taymiyya s fatwa on Alawites as more infidel than Christians and Jews has been recited by Muslim Brotherhood affiliated scholar Yusuf al Qaradawi 157 158 Ibn Taymiyya s role in the Islamist movements of the twentieth and twenty first century have also been noted by the previous Coordinator for Counterterrorism at the United States Department of State Daniel Benjamin who labels the chapter on the history of modern Islamic movements in his book The Age of Sacred Terror as Ibn Taymiyya and His children 60 159 Yossef Rapoport a reader in Islamic history at Queen Mary however says this is not a probable narrative 60 Ibn Taymiyya s intellectual tradition and ideas such as his emphasis on the revival of pristine ideals and practices of early generations also made an intense impact on the leading ideologue of revolutionary Islamism in South Asia Sayyid Abul A la Maududi 1903 1979 C E 1321 1399 A H 160 Mardin fatwas and the Mardin Conference edit One of Ibn Taymiyya s most famous fatwas are regarding the Mongols who had conquered and destroyed the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 and had then converted to Islam 152 Once they were in control the town of Mardin they behaved unjustly with their subjects so the people of Mardin asked Ibn Taymiyya for a legal verdict regarding the classification of the territory under which they live 152 He categorized the territory as dar al ahd which in some ways is similar to dar al kufr domain of unbelievers 152 Included in his verdict was declaring the Mongol ruler Ghazan and other Mongols who did not accept shari a in full as unbelievers 161 162 He was also asked whether Muslims living in Mardin had to emigrate Hijrah to Islamic territories on account of implementation of man made laws Ibn Taymiyya responded in a detailed fatwa If he who resides in Mardin is unable to practice his religion then he must emigrate If this is not the case then it remains preferable but not mandatory The helping of the enemies of the Muslims with their lives and wealth is prohibited upon them and it is required to abstain from that from whatever route possible if that is not possible except by undertaking migration then it is obligatory It is not of the category of the Dar al Islam nor of the category of Dar al Harb It is a third division by which the Muslim is treated according to what he deserves and outsiders are dealt with as they deserve Ibn Taymiyya in Majmu al fatawa vol 28 240 41 163 164 165 According to Nettler and Kechichian Ibn Taymiyya affirmed that Jihad against the Mongols was not only permissible but obligatory because the latter ruled not according to Shariʿah but through their traditional and therefore manmade Yassa code This essentially meant that Mongols were living in a state of jahiliyah ignorance 54 The authors further state that his two famous students Ibn Qayyim and Ibn Kathir agreed with this ruling 54 He called for a defensive jihad to mobilize the people to kill the Mongol rulers and any one who supported them Muslim or non Muslim 49 161 Ibn Taymiyya when talking about those who support the Mongols said Everyone who is with them Mongols in the state over which they rule has to be regarded as belonging to the most evil class of men He is either an atheist zindiq or a hypocrite who does not believe in the essence of the religion of Islam This means that he only outwardly pretends to be Muslim or he belongs to the worst class of all people who are the people of the bida heretical innovations 166 Yahya Mochet says that Ibn Taymiyya s call to war was not simply to cause a rebellion against the political power in place but to repel an external enemy 49 In another series of fatwas Ibn Taymiyya reiterated the religious obligation of Muslims to fight the Ilkhanids on account of their negligence of Islamic laws He also took issue with their non religious approach to dealing with various communities such as Christians Jews Buddhists etc and employing a large chunk of their armies with non Muslims 167 168 Citing these and various other reasons Ibn Taymiyya pronounced Fighting them the Tatars is obligatory by consensus of the Muslims If fighting against the Kurds and the Arabs and others from the Bedouins who do not adhere to the Law of Islam is obligated even if they are not of harm to the people living in the cities then how about these people Yes it is required to exhibit the laws in fighting them They call to the religion of Islam and praise the religion of these disbelievers over the religion of the Muslims and they legislate in what they dispute between themselves with the legislation of the time of ignorance not with the legislation of Allah and His Messenger Such is the case of the elders among their viziers and others who put the religion of Islam similar to the religion of the Jews and Christians and claiming that these are all ways to Allah Then among them are those who choose the religion of the Jews or Christians and those who choose the religion of the Muslims This phenomenon is increasing in great number among them even in their jurists and worshippers especially the Jahmites from the Pharaonic Atheists and the like as philosophy has overtaken their thought The viziers who spread the views of their leader ultimately lead them into the aforementioned class i e they leave Islam they become these Philosopher Jews ascribing to Islam what they have of their Judaism and philosophy Ibn Taymiyya in Majmu al fatawa vol 28 501 506 521 524 167 In 2010 a group of Islamic Scholars at the Mardin conference argued that Ibn Taymiyya s famous fatwa about the residents of Mardin when it was under the control of the Mongols was misprinted into an order to fight the people living under their territory whereas the actual statement is The Muslims living therein should be treated according to their rights as Muslims while the non Muslims living there outside of the authority of Islamic Law should be treated according to their rights 169 They have based their understanding on the original manuscript in the Al Zahiriyah Library and the transmission by Ibn Taymiyya s student Ibn Muflih 170 The participants of the Mardin conference also rejected the categorization of the world into different domains of war and peace stating that the division was a result of the circumstances at the time 152 The participants further stated that the division has become irrelevant with the existence of nation states 152 Opinions about him editPre modern opinions edit Modern opinions edit Islamic scholarship edit Ibn Taymiyya is widely regarded as an anti rationalist hater of logic and a strict literalist who was responsible for the demise of rationalist tendencies within the classical Sunni tradition Through his polemical treatises such as al Radd ala al mantiqiyyin Refutation of the Rationalists Ibn Taymiyya zealously denounced syllogism which provided the rational foundations for both Kalam speculative theology and Falsafa 171 172 According to Lebanese philosopher Majid Fakhry Ibn Taymiyah protests against the abuses of philosophy and theology and advocates a return to the orthodox ways of the ancients al salaf in his religious zeal he is determined to abolish centuries of religious truth as they had been long before they became troubled by theological and philosophical controversies 173 Jamaat e Islami leader Abdul Haq Ansari contends the ubiquitous notion that Ibn Taymiyya rejected Sufism outright as erroneous While the popular image of Ibn Taymiyya is that he criticized Sufism indiscriminately was deadly against the Sufis and saw no place for Sufism in Islam 174 it is historically known according to the same scholar that Ibn Taymiyya actually considered Tasawwuf to be a significant discipline of Islam Far from saying Sufism has no place in Islam Ibn Taymiyya was on the whole sympathetic 174 towards what everyone at the time considered an important aspect of Islamic life 174 Various scholars have also asserted that Ibn Taymiyya had a deep reverence and appreciation for the works of such major Sufi Awliyaa saints such as Junayd Sahl al Tustari Abu Talib al Makki Bayazid Bastami 19 etc and was part of the Qadiriyya Sufi order himself 5 6 7 8 Saudi scholar Hatem al Awni has criticised Ibn Taymiyya over his sectarian discourse against Ash arite and Maturidite schools as well as his creedal beliefs like three fold classification of Tawhid monotheism 23 Western scholarship edit Scholars like Ignac Goldziher described Ibn Taymiyya as a Hanbalite zealot who harshly denounced various practices as bid ah religious innovations and rejected all forms of philosophical influences speculative theology Sufism and pantheistic doctrines like Wahdat al Wujud 175 Others such as the French scholar Henri Laoust 1905 1983 have argued that such portrayals of Ibn Taymiyya are flawed inasmuch as they are often borne of a limited reading of the theologian s substantial corpus of works 19 many of which have not yet been translated from the original Arabic According to Laoust Ibn Taymiyya wanted to reform the practice of medieval Sufism as part of his wider aim to reform Sunni Islam of which Sufism was a major aspect at the time by divesting both these traditions of what he perceived as heretical innovations within them 19 According to James Pavlin Professor of theology at Rutgers University Ibn Taymiyya remains one of the most controversial Islamic thinkers today because of his supposed influence on many fundamentalist movements The common understanding of his ideas have been filtered through the bits and pieces of his statements that have been misappropriated by alleged supporters and avowed critics alike 176 Works editIbn Taymiyya left behind a considerable body of work ranging from 350 according to his student Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya 177 to 500 according to his student al Dhahabi 54 178 Oliver Leaman says Ibn Taymiyya produced some 700 works in the field of Islamic sciences 51 His scholarly output has been described as immense with a wide scope and its contents bear the marks of brilliant insights hastily jotted down 60 In his early life his work was mostly based on theology and the use of reason in interpretation of scriptural evidences with later works focusing on refutation of Greek logic questioning the prevalent practices of the time and anti Christian and anti Shia polemics 60 Ibn Taymiyya s total works have not all survived and his extant works of 35 volumes are incomplete 60 The ascendancy of scholastic interest in his medieval treatises would recommence through the gradual efforts by 18th century Islamic reform movements Salafi theologians of Syria Iraq and Egypt of the late 19th and early 20th centuries would edit publish and mass circulate many of his censured manuscripts among the Muslim public making Ibn Taymiyya the most read classical Islamic theologian in the world however as his scholarly impact increased dissensions and altercations over Ibn Taymiyya s viewpoints continue to escalate 179 Extant books and essays edit Majmu al Fatawa al Kubra collected centuries after his death and contains several of the works mentioned below 36 volumes Minhaj al Sunna al Nabawiyya four volumes in modern critical editions it amounts to more than 2 000 pages 180 Al Aqida al Wasitiyya Al Jawab al Sahih li man Baddala Din al Masih a response to Christianity seven volumes in modern critical editions it amounts to more than 2 000 pages 181 Dar Ta arud al Aql wa l Naql 182 also called al Muwafaqa 11 volumes in modern critical editions it amounts to some 4 000 pages 183 Al Aqida al Hamawiyya Al Asma wa l Sifat two volumes Kitab al Iman Kitab al Safadiyya a refutation of the philosophers who claim the miracles of Muhammad are merely manifestations of the strength of inherent faculties and who claim the universe is eternal Al Sarim al Maslul ala Shatim al Rasul written in response to an incident in which Ibn Taymiyya heard a Christian insulting Muhammad Fatawa al Kubra Fatawa al Misriyya Al Radd ala al Mantiqiyyin 49 Naqd al Ta sis Al Ubudiyya Iqtida al Sirat al Mustaqim Al Siyasa al Shar iyya 49 Risala fi al Ruh wa l Aql Al Tawassul wa l Wasila Sharh Futuh al Ghayb a commentary on Futuh al Ghayb by Abd al Qadir al Jilani Al Hisba fi al Islam a book on Islamic economics 49 English translations edit The Friends of Allah and the Friends of Shaytan Kitab al Iman The Book of Faith Diseases of the Hearts and their Cures The Relief from Distress Fundamentals of Enjoining Good amp Forbidding Evil The Concise Legacy The Goodly Word The Madinan Way Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek Logicians Muslims Under Non Muslim Rule Lost works edit Many of Ibn Taymiyya s books are thought to be lost Their existence is only known through various reports written by scholars throughout history as well as some treatises written by Ibn Taymiyya himself 184 One particularly notable lost work is al Bahr al Muhit which was 40 volumes of Quranic exegesis that Ibn Taymiyya wrote in the prison of Damascus Ibn Hajar al Asqalani mentions the existence of this work in his work al Durar al Kamina 184 References editNotes edit Full name Taqi al Din Abu al ʿAbbas Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al Ḥalim ibn ʿAbd al Salam ibn ʿAbd Allah al Numayri al Ḥarrani Arabic ت ق ي ٱلد ين أ ب و ٱل ع ب اس أ ح م د ب ن ع ب د ٱل ح ل يم ب ن ع ب د ٱلس ل ام ب ن ع ب د ٱلل ه ٱلن م ي ر ي ٱل ح ر ان ي he is also known by the title Shaykh al Islam Shaykh of Islam Sources describing Ibn Taymiyya as a proto Salafi theologian James Fromherz Allen Samin Nadav 2021 Social Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia The Netherlands Brill p 182 ISBN 978 90 04 43952 8 The circle surrounding the paradigmatic proto Salafi scholar Ibn Taymiyya and his influential disciple Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya d 751 1350 played a central role among them Ibn Taymiyya s theology passionately opposed and polemicized against the Murjiʾite views of other Sunnis particularly Hanafis and the followers of Ashʿarite speculative theology kalam Medoff Louis Abraham 2007 Ijtihad and Renewal in Qurʼanic Hermeneutics Berkeley California USA University of California p 33 Ibn Taymiyah lives up to his reputation as a fiercely polemical proto Salafi Wainscott Ann Marie 2017 Bureaucratizing Islam Morocco and the War on Terror Liberty Plaza New York USA Cambridge University Press p 85 ISBN 978 1 316 51049 0 the medieval theologian and proto Salafi Ibn Taymiyya was a critic of Ash arism He argued that the approach relied too heavily on philosophy Instead he advocated an approach that looked to the Salaf for guidance on correct beliefs Haynes Jeffrey Sheikh Naveed S 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 179 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 What might be referred to as proto Salafism or creedal Salafism al salafiyya al iʿtiqadiyya became emblematic in the scholarship of the fourteenth century imam Taqi al Din Ahmad Ibn Abd al Halim al Harrani Citations edit Ibn Taymiyya Ahmad ibn ʻAbd al Ḥalim 1999 Kitab Al Iman Kuala Lumpur Islamic Book Trust ISBN 978 967 5062 28 5 Retrieved January 16 2015 a b Ibn Taymiyya Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on February 13 2015 Retrieved January 16 2015 Halverson Jeffry R 2010 Theology and Creed wahabi Islam Palgrave Macmillan p 48 ISBN 978 0 230 10279 8 Spevack Aaron 2014 The Archetypal Scholar Law Theology and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al Bajuri State University of New York Press p 45 ISBN 978 1 4384 5370 5 a b Makdisi American Journal of Arabic Studies 1 part 1 1973 pp 118 28 a b Spevack Aaron 2014 The Archetypal Sunni Law Theology and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al Bajuri State University of New York Press p 91 ISBN 978 1438453712 a b Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 334 a b Halverson Jeffry R 2010 Theology and Creed in Wahabi Islam The Muslim Brotherhood Ash arism and Political Wahabism Palgrave Macmillan pp 48 49 ISBN 978 0230102798 a b c Haque 1982 Hoover J 2018 Ibn Taymiyya s use of Ibn Rushd to refute the incorporealism of Fakhr al Din al Razi In A Al Ghouz Ed Islamic Philosophy from the 12th till the 14th Century 469 492 Goettingen Germany Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht Ibn Taymiyya Taqi al Din Ahmad The Oxford Dictionary of Islam http www oxfordreference com view 10 1093 acref 9780195125580 001 0001 acref 9780195125580 e 959 Archived December 20 2016 at the Wayback Machine Yahya An Najmi Shaykh Ahmad Explanation Of Al Qasidah Al Lamiyah PDF Philadelphia Hikmah Publications p 5 ISBN 9781495196805 Woodward Mark The Garebeg Malud Veneration of the Prophet as Imperial Ritual p 170 a b Ghobadzdeh Naser Akbarzadeh Shahram May 18 2015 Sectarianism and the prevalence of othering in Islamic thought Third World Quarterly 36 4 691 704 doi 10 1080 01436597 2015 1024433 S2CID 145364873 Retrieved June 6 2020 Yet Ibn Taymiyya remained unconvinced and issued three controversial fatwas to justify revolt against mongol rule Nadvi Syed Suleiman 2012 Muslims and Greek Schools of Philosophy Islamic Studies 51 2 218 JSTOR 23643961 All his works are full of condemnation of philosophy and yet he was a great philosopher himself Kokoschka Alina 2013 Islamic Theology Philosophy and Law Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim Al Jawziyya De Gruyter p 218 Identifying him especially in regards to his comprehensive view as a true philosopher they describe him as an equal to or even superseding the most famous medieval Muslim philosophers Nettler R and Kechichian J A 2009 Ibn Taymiyah Taqi al Din Aḥmad The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World 2 pp 502 4 a b Kadri Sadakat 2012 Heaven on Earth A Journey Through Shari a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia macmillan p 187 ISBN 978 0 09 952327 7 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved September 17 2015 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn Laoust 2012 Tim Winter The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology Cambridge University Press May 22 2008 ISBN 978 0 521 78058 2 p 84 a b Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 6 Haynes Jeffrey S Sheikh Naveed 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 180 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 His denouncement of both the high church ʿulamaʾ of the rival theological schools particularly the Ash aris even as he muddied the waters by calling them anachronistic names such as Jahmis after the heterodox theologian Jahm Ibn Safwan d 745 and low church folk religion steeped in local understandings of Sufism earned him the authorities wrath He was imprisoned on charges of corporealism tajsim and likening the attributes of God to those of His creation tashbiḥ a dual charge that his followers from Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya 1292 1350 onwards have also faced a b Sinani Besnik April 10 2022 Post Salafism Religious Revisionism in Contemporary Saudi Arabia Religions 13 4 344 doi 10 3390 rel13040340 A key aspect of the legacy of Ibn Taymiyya is his opposition to the two dominant schools of Sunni theology kalam Ashaʿrism and Maturidism Nettler Ronald L 2009 Ibn Taymiyah Taqi al Din Aḥmad In L Esposito John ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780195305135 001 0001 ISBN 9780195305135 Archived from the original on November 1 2022 He incurred the wrath of some Shafiʿi and other ʿulamaʿ religious scholars and theologians for some of his teachings on theology and law He was persecuted and imprisoned in Syria and Egypt for his tashbih anthropomorphism several of his rulings derived through ijtihad independent reason and his idiosyncratic legal judgments Haynes Jeffrey S Sheikh Naveed 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 180 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 What might be referred to as proto Salafism or creedal Salafism al salafiyya al iʿtiqadiyya became emblematic in the scholarship of the fourteenth century imam Taqi al Din Ahmad Ibn Abd al Halim al Harrani 1263 1328 better known by his matronymic Ibn Taymiyya the most important medieval reference for contemporary Salafism El Tobgui Carl Sharif 2022 Ibn Taymiyya on reason and revelation a study of Darʾ ta aruḍ al ʻaql wa l naql Brill ISBN 978 90 04 51101 9 OCLC 1296947160 Atheism and Radical Skepticism Ibn Taymiyya s Epistemic Critique Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research Retrieved March 21 2023 The most voluminous and vociferous intellectual opposition to the use of philosophical argumentation to establish religious doctrine was to come in the writings of Shaykh al Islam Ibn Taymiyyah al Jamil Tariq 2010 8 Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al Mutahhar al Hilli In Ahmed Shahab Rapoport Yossef eds Ibn Taymiyya and His Times New York USA Oxford University Press pp 229 241 ISBN 9780199402069 Archived from the original on August 12 2021 a b Kepel Gilles The Prophet and the Pharaoh 2003 p 194 Kepel Gilles 2003 Jihad The Trail of Political Islam Bloomsbury Publishing PLC ISBN 9781845112578 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved August 12 2015 Wiktorowicz Quintan 2005 A Genealogy of Radical Islam Studies in Conflict amp Terrorism 28 2 75 97 doi 10 1080 10576100590905057 S2CID 55948737 Haynes Jeffrey S Sheikh Naveed 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 180 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 The Legal Thought of Jalal Al Din Al Suyuṭi Authority and Legacy Page 133 Rebecca Skreslet Hernandez Haynes Jeffrey S Sheikh Naveed 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 182 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 Esposito John L 2003 The Oxford Dictionary of Islam New York Oxford University Press p 130 ISBN 0 19 512558 4 Ibn Taymiyya Taqi al Din Ahmad d 1328 Tied Islam to politics and state formation Issued fatwas against the Mongols as unbelievers at heart despite public claims to be Muslim His authority has been used by some twentieth century Islamist groups to declare jihad against ruling governments Springer Devin January 6 2009 Islamic Radicalism and Global Jihad Georgetown University Press p 29 ISBN 978 1589015784 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved December 3 2016 Bassouni Cherif October 21 2013 The Shari a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace Cambridge University Press p 200 ISBN 9781107471153 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved December 4 2016 Lessons From Islamic History Ibn Taymiyya and the Synthesis of Takfir HuffPost 2019 Retrieved August 3 2023 S Rowe Paul 2019 Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East New York Routledge p 157 ISBN 978 1 138 64904 0 a b Hastings James 1908 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Vol 7 Morrison and Gibb Limited p 72 Canard Marius amp Cahen Claude 1965 Diyar Mudar In Lewis B Pellat Ch amp Schacht J eds The Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition Volume II C G Leiden E J Brill pp 347 348 OCLC 495469475 Al Dhahabi Muhammad ibn Ahmad Tadhkirat al huffaz Haidarabad p 48 a b c d e f Haque 1982 p 6 a b c d e f g h i j k l Michel Thomas 1985 Ibn Taymiyya Islamic Reformer Studia missionalia Vol 34 Rome Italy Pontificia Universita Gregorian a b c d e f Al Matroudi Abdul Hakim Ibrahim February 14 2015 Ibn Taymiyah 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Syro Egypt 648 741 A H 1250 1340 C E V amp r Unipress p 163 ISBN 978 3 8471 0091 1 a b c d Haque 1982 p 9 a b Watt William Montgomery 2008 Islamic Philosophy and Theology Transaction Publishers p 160 ISBN 978 0 202 36272 4 a b Rougier Bernard 2008 Everyday Jihad The Rise of Militant Islam Among Palestinians in Lebanon Harvard University Press p 162 ISBN 978 0 674 03066 4 Ibn Taymiyya Majmoo al Fatawa 35 145 Lapidus Ira M 2012 Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century A Global History Cambridge University Press p 295 ISBN 978 0 521 73298 7 a b c d Haque 1982 p 10 Lebanon Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments Int l Business Publications 2012 p 44 ISBN 978 0 7397 3913 6 The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule 1516 1788 Cambridge University Press 2010 p 205 ISBN 978 0 5217 6584 8 a b c d e f g h Hoover Jon Taymiyyan Studies Archived from the original on February 15 2015 Retrieved February 14 2015 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 1 Introduction Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge p 7 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 Aigle Denise 2015 7 Mongol Law versus Islamic Law Myth and Reality The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality Studies in Anthropological History Koninklijke Brill nv Leiden The Netherlands Brill pp 283 305 doi 10 1163 9789004280649 015 ISBN 978 90 04 27749 6 Aigle Denise 2015 The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality Studies in Anthropological History Koninklijke Brill nv Leiden The Netherlands Brill pp 135 136 256 257 296 298 doi 10 1163 9789004280649 015 ISBN 978 90 04 27749 6 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge pp 15 16 24 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 a b S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge pp 15 16 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge p 15 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 a b c S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge p 16 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 a b c d e Aigle Denise 2007 The Mongol Invasions of Bilad al Sham by Ghazan Khan and Ibn Taymiyah s Three Anti Mongol Fatwas PDF Mamluk Studies Review The University of Chicago 105 Archived PDF from the original on March 4 2016 Retrieved January 29 2015 Hawting Gerald 2005 Muslims Mongols and Crusaders Routledge p 116 ISBN 978 0 7007 1393 6 Janin Hunt Islamic Law The Sharia from Muhammad s Time to the Present by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer McFarland and Co Publishers 2007 p 79 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge p 27 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 2 The Works Their Author and Significance Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge p 24 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 Haynes Jeffrey S Sheikh Naveed 2022 Making Sense of Salafism Theological foundations ideological iterations and political manifestations The Routledge handbook of Religion Politics and Ideology New York USA Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group pp 180 184 189 ISBN 978 0 367 41782 6 G Rabil Robert 2014 1 The Creed Ideology and Manhaj Methodology of Salafism A Historical and Contemporaneous Framework Salafism in Lebanon From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism Washington DC USA Georgetown University Press p 26 ISBN 978 1 62616 116 0 a b c d e f g h i j k l Bearman Peri 2007 The Law Applied Contextualizing the Islamic Shari a I B Tauris pp 263 264 ISBN 978 1 84511 736 8 a b c d Haque 1982 p 11 Haque 1982 p VII Jackson Roy 2006 Fifty Key Figures in Islam Routledge p 130 ISBN 978 0 415 35468 4 Cooper Barry 2005 New Political Religions Or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism University of Missouri Press pp 96 97 ISBN 978 0 8262 1621 2 Ali Kecia 2007 Islam The Key Concepts Routledge p 125 ISBN 978 0 415 39639 4 Clarke Lynda 2001 Rationalism in the School of Bahrain A Historical Perspective in Shiʻite Heritage Essays on Classical and Modern Traditions Global Academic Publishing p 336 A Saleh Walid 2004 The Formation of the Classical Tafsir Tradition Brill Academic Pub p 220 ISBN 978 9004127777 N Keaney Heather 2013 Medieval Islamic Historiography Remembering Rebellion Routledge p 108 ISBN 978 0 415 82852 9 a b Saleh Walid 2010 Ibn Tayimiyah and the Rise of Radical Hermeneutics An Analysis of An Introduction to the Foundation of Quranic Exegesis Ibn Taymiyya and His Times Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 547834 1 a b c d e f g Haque 1982 p 12 a b c d e f Winter Michael 2004 The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society BRILL pp 191 220 ISBN 978 9004132863 Beranek Ondrej Tupek Pavel July 2009 Sohrabi Naghmeh ed From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis PDF Crown Paper Crown Center for Middle East Studies Brandeis University Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies p 11 Archived PDF from the original on August 10 2018 Retrieved August 6 2018 Zargar Cameron 2014 The Hanbali and Wahhabi Schools of Thought As Observed Through the Case of Ziyarah Ohio State University pp 33 34 Archived from the original on May 19 2018 Retrieved May 19 2018 Campo Juan Eduardo 2009 Encyclopedia of Islam Infobase Publishing p 340 ISBN 978 1 4381 2696 8 a b c d e Haque 1982 p 14 George Makdisi A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order p 123 Juan Eduardo Campo Encyclopedia of Islam p 340 ISBN 1 4381 2696 4 Haque 1982 p 15 Anhuri Salim Majallat al Majma al Ilmi al Arabi bi Dimashq Vol 27 pp 11 193 a b c d Kadri Sadakat 2012 Heaven on Earth A Journey Through Shari a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia macmillan p 135 ISBN 978 0 09 952327 7 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved September 17 2015 a b Laoust Henri Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki d Din Ahmad b Timiya Cairo 1939 pp 149 50 Kadri Sadakat 2012 Heaven on Earth A Journey Through Shari a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia macmillan pp 177 8 ISBN 978 0 09 952327 7 Archived from the original on July 1 2020 Retrieved September 17 2015 Yahya Michot www saphirnews com Pour une tombe a Damas a4483 html Pour une tombe a Damas Redige par Yahya Michot Jeudi 21 Septembre 2006 a b Ozervarli M Sait 2010 The Qur anic Rational Theology of Ibn Taymiyya and his Criticism of the Mutakallimun Ibn Taymiyya and His Times Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 547834 1 Nettler Ronald L February 13 2015 Ibn Taymiyah Taqi al Din Aḥmad Oxford Islamic Studies Online Oxford University Press Archived from the original on March 7 2016 Retrieved February 14 2015 Matroudi Abdul Hakim 2006 The Hanbali School of Law and Ibn Taymiyya Conflict Or Conciliation Routledge p 203 ISBN 978 0 415 58707 5 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 7 15 16 Ibn Taymiyya Radical Polymath Part I Scholarly Perceptions Religion Compass 2015 p 101 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 41 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 269 a b Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 305 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 270 QASIM ZAMAN MUHAMMAD 2012 Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age New York Cambridge University Press p 315 ISBN 978 1 107 09645 5 R Hrair Dekmejian Islam in Revolution Fundamentalism in the Arab World pg 40 Part of the Contemporary issues in the Middle East series Syracuse University Press 1995 ISBN 978 0 8156 2635 0 Index of Al Qaeda in Its Own Words pg 360 Eds Gilles Kepel and Jean pierre Milelli Harvard University Press 2008 ISBN 978 0 674 02804 3 David Bukay From Muhammad to Bin Laden Religious and Ideological Sources of the Homicide Bombers Phenomenon pg 194 Transaction Publishers 2011 ISBN 978 1 4128 0913 9 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 274 a b Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 271 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 283 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 191 Little Did Ibn Taymiyya Have a Screw Loose 95 Antony Black The History of Islamic Political Thought Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press 2001 154 Ibn Taymiyya Radical Polymath Part I Scholarly Perceptions Religion Compass 2015 p 105 a b c Little Donald P 1975 Did Ibn Taymiyya Have a Screw Loose Studia Islamica 41 93 111 doi 10 2307 1595400 JSTOR 1595400 S2CID 170132816 Krawietz Birgit Tamer Georges August 29 2013 Islamic Theology Philosophy and Law Debating Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al Jawziyya Walter de Gruyter p 258 ISBN 9783110285406 Bori Caterina 2004 A New Source for the Biography of Ibn Taymiyya Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London 67 3 321 348 doi 10 1017 S0041977X04000229 JSTOR 4145798 S2CID 161811279 El Rouayheb Khaled July 8 2015 Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century Cambridge University Press p 16 ISBN 9781107042964 Khafif Ibn June 25 1999 Correct Islamic Doctrine Islamic Doctrine ISCA ISBN 9781930409019 via Google Books Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 300 305 a b Ahmad Nizami Khaliq 1990 The Impact of Ibn Taymiyya on South Asia Journal of Islamic Studies 1 Oxford University Press 136 137 JSTOR 26195671 Rapoport amp Ahmed 2010 p 6 300 305 311 He has strongly influenced modern Islam for the last two centuries He is the source of the Wahhabiyah a reformist movement founded by Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al Wahhab died 1792 who took his ideas from Ibn Taymiyya s writings Ibn Taymiyya also influenced various reform movements that have posed the problem of reformulating traditional ideologies by a return to sources 1 Archived July 10 2013 at the Wayback Machine Esposito John L 2003 Unholy War Terror in the Name of Islam Oxford University Press p 45 ISBN 978 0 19 516886 0 Esposito John L Ibn Taymiyah Oxford Islamic Studies Online Oxford University Press Archived from the original on March 18 2018 Retrieved February 13 2015 Makdisis Ussama 2010 Faith Misplaced The Broken Promise of U S Arab Relations 1820 2001 PublicAffairs p 322 ISBN 978 1 58648 680 8 Dekmejian R Hrair 1995 Islam in Revolution Fundamentalism in the Arab World Syracuse University Press p 40 ISBN 978 0 8156 2635 0 جدل فقهي بعد استعانة داعش بفتوى لابن تيمية لتبرير إحراق الكساسبة ماذا كان موقف النبي وهل فعلها أبوبكر وعمر وعلي February 4 2015 Archived from the original on August 10 2015 Retrieved August 18 2015 Brunner Rainer Ende Werner 2001 Preface The Twelver Shia in Modern Times Religious Culture amp 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Politics Vail Ballou Press Binghamton N Y USA Yale University Press pp 101 102 ISBN 0 300 04914 5 L Esposito John 2011 Faith What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam Second Edition New York Oxford University Press pp 45 46 ISBN 978 0 19 979413 3 L Esposito John 2002 2 Jihad and the Struggle for Islam Unholy War Terror in the name of Islam New York Oxford University Press pp 28 44 46 62 ISBN 0 19 515435 5 Spotlight on Global Jihad June 16 22 2022 terrorism info org il June 23 2022 Archived from the original on June 25 2022 القرضاوي النصيريون أكفر من اليهود ولو كنت قادرا لقاتلت بالقصير Archived from the original on November 25 2015 Retrieved August 23 2015 Abdo Geneive June 7 2013 Why Sunni Shia conflict is worsening CNN Archived from the original on December 12 2018 Retrieved September 12 2013 Benjamin Daniel Simon Steven 2003 The Age of Sacred Terror Radical Islam s War Against America Random House Trade p VI ISBN 978 0 8129 6984 9 Jackson Roy 2011 7 The Salafis Mawlana Mawdudi and 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ISBN 978 90 04 27749 6 Youssef Michael 1985 11 The Link Between Muslim Brotherhood and Al Jihad Revolt Against Modernity Muslim Zealots and the West E J Brill Leiden The Netherlands Brill p 81 ISBN 90 04 07559 3 Aaron David 2008 In Their Own Words RAND Corporation p 46 ISBN 978 0 8330 4402 0 a b S Islam Jaan Eryigit Adem 2022 5 The Compiled Fatwas the Prophetic Way against the Shiʿites and Islamic Governance on the Importance of Islamic Government Islam and the State in Ibn Taymiyya Translation and Analysis New York Routledge pp 153 158 doi 10 4324 9781003228035 ISBN 978 1 032 13183 2 S2CID 249087588 Aigle Denise 2015 13 A Religious Response to Ghazan Khan s Invasions of Syria The Three Anti Mongol fatwas of Ibn Taymiyya The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality Studies in Anthropological History Koninklijke Brill nv Leiden The Netherlands Brill pp 283 305 doi 10 1163 9789004280649 015 ISBN 978 90 04 27749 6 al Turayri Shaykh Abd al Wahhab June 29 2010 The Mardin Conference Understanding Ibn Taymiyya s Fatwa MuslimMatters Archived from the original on July 5 2011 Retrieved May 29 2011 A religious basis for violence misreads original principles The National Archived from the original on April 10 2012 Retrieved October 4 2012 Winter Tim 2008 The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic theology Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press pp 69 82 83 ISBN 978 0 521 78058 2 Adamson Peter Taylor Richard C 2005 The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press pp 253 254 413 414 ISBN 0 521 81743 9 Fakhry Majid 2006 Eleven Theological Reaction and Reconstruction A History of Islamic Philosophy Third Edition New York Columbia University Press p 326 ISBN 0 231 13220 4 a b c M Abdul Haq Ansari Ibn Taymiyya and Sufism Islamic Studies Vol 24 No 1 Spring 1985 pp 1 12 Goldziher Ignaz 1981 Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law Translated by Hamori Andras Hamori Ruth Princeton New Jersey Princeton University Press pp 166 240 ISBN 0 691 07257 4 Ibn Taymiyya Ahmad Pavlin James 2015 Risalat Al Ubudiyya Epistle on Worship Islamic Texts Society ISBN 978 1 903682 48 7 Archived from the original on February 22 2018 Ibn Taimiyah Usc edu Archived from the original on February 20 2009 Retrieved June 9 2010 M M Sharif A History of Muslim Philosophy Pakistan Philosophical Congress p 798 Hakim Al Matroudi Abdul 2022 Ibn Taymiyah Taqi al Din 1263 1328 ce In L Esposito John ed Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World Digital Collection Oxford University Press ISBN 9780197669419 Archived from the original on November 1 2022 Ibn Taymiyya s Critique of Shi i Imamology Translation of Three Sections of his Minhaj al Sunna by Yahya Michot The Muslim World 104 1 2 2014 pp 109 149 Thomas E Burmann Foreword in Ian Christopher Levy Rita George Tvrtkovic Donald Duclow ed Nicholas of Cusa and Islam Polemic and Dialogue in the Late Middle Ages BRILL 2014 p xviii Jaffer Tariq November 28 2014 Razi Master of Quranic Interpretation and Theological Reasoning Oxford University Press p 118 ISBN 978 0 19 994799 7 Frank Griffel Al Ghazali at His Most Rationalist The Universal Rule for Allegorically Interpreting Revelation al Qanun al Kulli fi t Ta ʾwil in Islam and Rationality The Impact of al Ghazali Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary volume 1 BRILL 2005 p 89 a b Haque 1982 p 16 Sources edit Haque Serajul 1982 Imam Ibn Taimiya and his projects of reform Islamic Foundation Bangladesh Hoover Jon 2007 Ibn Taymiyya s Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism Brill ISBN 978 9004158474 Hoover Jon 2016 Withholding judgment on Islamic universalism Ibn al Wazir d 840 1436 on the duration and purpose of hell fire In Locating Hell in Islamic traditions Islamic History and Civilization 119 208 237 Archived from the original on November 29 2016 Retrieved November 29 2016 Hoover Jon 2019 Makers of the Muslim World Ibn Taymiyya London One World Publications ISBN 978 1 78607 689 2 Laoust H 2012 Ibn Taymiyya In P Bearman Th Bianquis C E Bosworth E van Donzel W P Heinrichs eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition Brill doi 10 1163 1573 3912 islam sim 3388 Linhoff Josef 2020 III Love saints and shirk Ibn Taymiyya d 1328 Associating with God in Islamic Thought A Comparative Study of Muslim interpretations of shirk University of Edinburgh doi 10 7488 era 236 hdl 1842 36935 Rapoport Yossef Ahmed Shahab January 1 2010 Ibn Taymiyya and His Times Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195478341 Reynolds Gabrield Said 2012 The Emergence of Islam Classical traditions in contemporary perspective Minneapolis Fortress Press ISBN 9780800698591 Further reading editLittle Donald P Did Ibn Taymiyya have a screw loose Studia Islamica 1975 Number 41 pp 93 111 Makdisi G Ibn Taymiyya A Sufi of the Qadiriya Order American Journal of Arabic Studies 1973 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya Against Extremisms Texts translated annotated and introduced With a foreword by Bruce B LAWRENCE Beirut amp Paris Albouraq 2012 xxxii amp 334 p ISBN 9782841615551 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya Muslims under Non Muslim Rule Texts translated annotated and presented in relation to six modern readings of the Mardin fatwa Foreword by James Piscatori Oxford amp London Interface Publications 2006 ISBN 0 9554545 2 2 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya s New Mardin Fatwa Is genetically modified Islam GMI carcinogenic in The Muslim World 101 2 April 2011 pp 130 181 Michot Yahya From al Ma mun to Ibn Sab in via Avicenna Ibn Taymiyya s Historiography of Falsafa in F OPWIS amp D REISMAN eds Islamic Philosophy Science Culture and Religion Studies in Honor of Dimitri Gutas Leiden Boston Brill 2012 pp 453 475 Michot Yahya Between Entertainment and Religion Ibn Taymiyya s Views on Superstition in The Muslim World 99 1 January 2009 pp 1 20 Michot Yahya Misled and Misleading Yet Central in their Influence Ibn Taymiyya s Views on the Ikhwan al Safa in The Ikhwan al Safa and their Rasa il An Introduction Edited by Nader EL BIZRI Foreword by Farhad DAFTARY Oxford Oxford University Press in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies Epistles of the Brethren of Purity 2008 pp 139 179 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya s Commentary on the Creed of al Hallaj in A SHIHADEH ed Sufism and Theology Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press 2007 pp 123 136 Michot Yahya A Mamluk Theologian s Commentary on Avicenna s Risala Aḍḥawiyya Being a Translation of a Part of the Dar al Ta aruḍ of Ibn Taymiyya with Introduction Annotation and Appendices Part I in Journal of Islamic Studies 14 2 Oxford 2003 pp 149 203 Michot Yahya A Mamluk Theologian s Commentary on Avicenna s Risala Aḍḥawiyya Being a Translation of a Part of the Dar al Ta aruḍ of Ibn Taymiyya with Introduction Annotation and Appendices Part II in Journal of Islamic Studies 14 3 Oxford 2003 pp 309 363 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya on Astrology Annotated Translation of Three Fatwas in Journal of Islamic Studies 11 2 Oxford May 2000 pp 147 208 Michot Yahya Ibn Taymiyya s Critique of Shi i Imamology Translation of Three Sections of his Minhaj al Sunna in The Muslim World 104 1 2 Hartford Jan April 2014 pp 109 149 Michot Yahya An Important Reader of al Ghazali Ibn Taymiyya in The Muslim World 103 1 Hartford January 2013 pp 131 160 External links edit nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Ibn Taymiyya nbsp Wikisource has original text related to this article Author Ibn Taymiyyah nbsp Arabic Wikisource has original text related to this article Ibn Taymiyyah Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ibn Taymiyya amp oldid 1217904379, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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