Unmanned aerial vehicle

"UAV" redirects here. For other uses, see UAV (disambiguation).

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous"^[1] for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military applications.^[2] These include aerial photography, precision agriculture, forest fire monitoring,^[3] river monitoring,^[4][5] environmental monitoring,^[6][7][8][9] policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, smuggling,^[10] product deliveries, entertainment, and drone racing.

Elbit Systems Hermes-450 taking off

Northrop Grumman Bat carrying EO/IR and SAR sensors, laser range finders, laser designators, infra-red cameras

A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial and recreational aerial photography

A General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer surveillance UAV

Although most large military UAVs are fixed-wing aircraft, rotorcraft designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this MQ-8B Fire Scout are also used.

Terminology

Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board.

The term drone has been used from the early days of aviation, some being applied to remotely flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee. Later examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet, before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik.^[11] The term remains in common use. In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors.^[12] For recreational uses, an aerial photography drone is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.^[13]

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload".^[14] UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases.^[15] Missiles with warheads are generally not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition, but certain types of propeller-based missile are often called "kamikaze drones" by the public and media. Also, the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear,^{[citation needed]} UAVs may or may not include remote-controlled model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US FAA defines any uncrewed flying craft as a UAV regardless of size.^{[citation needed]} A similar term is remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV).

UAVs or RPAVs can also be seen as a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which also includes a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the aircraft.^[3] The term UAS was adopted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030.^[16] The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single-European-Sky (SES) Air-Traffic-Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.^[17] This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. Similar terms are unmanned-aircraft vehicle system (UAVS) and remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS).^[18] Many similar terms are in use. Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation".^[19]

Classification types

UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc. According to the United States Department of Defense, UAVs are classified into five categories below:^[20][21]

Group:	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3	Group 4	Group 5
Size	Small	Medium	Large	Larger	Largest
Max take-off wt	< 20 lb (9.1 kg)	> 20 & < 55	> 55 & < 1320	>1,320 lb (600 kg)	>1,320 lb (600 kg)
Operating altitude	< 1,200 ft (370 m)	< 3,500 ft (1,100 m)	< 18,000 ft (5,500 m)	< 18,000 ft (5,500 m)	> 18,000 ft (5,500 m)
Speed	< 100 kn (190 km/h)	< 250 kn (460 km/h)	< 250 kn (460 km/h)	Any speed	Any speed

Other classifications of UAVs include:^[20]

Range and endurance

There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance:^[20]

Category:	Very close range UAVs	Close range UAVs	Short range UAVs	Medium range UAVs	Long range UAVs
Range (km):	< 5	> 5 & < 50	> 50 & < 150	> 150 & < 650	> 650
Endurance (hr):	0.5 – 0.75	1–6	8–12	12 – 36 or 48	> 36 or 48

Size

There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits:^[20]

Category:	Micro/Very small UAVs	Mini/Small UAVs	Medium UAVs	Large UAVs
Length/Wingspan:	< 50 cm	> 50 cm & < 2 m	5 –10 m	> 10 m

Weight

Based on their weight, drones can be classified into 5 categories—

Category:	Nano	Micro air vehicles (MAV)	Miniature UAV or Small (SUAV)	Medium UAVs	Large UAVs
Weight:	< 250 gm	>= 250 gm & <02  Kg	>= 02  Kg & <25  Kg	>= 25 kg & <150  Kg	>=150 kg

.^[22]

Degree of autonomy

Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.^[23] Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs). The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human operator, as remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention.^[24][25]

Altitude

Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

• Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range
• Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
• NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
• Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
• MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km
• HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
• Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
• Orbital low Earth orbit (Mach 25+)
• CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
• Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

Composite criteria

An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's unmanned aerial systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component.

History

Main article: History of unmanned aerial vehicles

 

Winston Churchill and others waiting to watch the launch of a de Havilland Queen Bee target drone, 6 June 1941

 

A Ryan Firebee, one of a series of target drones/unpiloted aerial vehicles that first flew in 1951. Israeli Air Force Museum, Hatzerim airbase, Israel, 2006

 

Last preparations before the first tactical UAV mission across the Suez canal (1969). Standing: Major Shabtai Brill from the Israeli intelligence corps, the innovator of the tactical UAV.

 

The Israeli Tadiran Mastiff, which first flew in 1975, is seen by many as the first modern battlefield UAV, due to its data-link system, endurance-loitering, and live video-streaming.^[26]

Early drones

The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849,^[27] with a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier)^[28] in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation.^[29][30][31] Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship SMS Vulcano. At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.^[32][33][34]

The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the Telekino^[35] at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903, as a way of testing an airship of his own design without risking human lives.^[36][37]

Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916.^[38] Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system.^[39] Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches D.C.B.s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid. Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went into service in 1935.

Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915.^[40] These developments also inspired the construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from Dayton, Ohio and the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane – initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. Development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time.^[41]

The film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny developed the first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935.^[38]

Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB-1 bombers remotely in the late 1930s.^[42]

World War II

In 1940, Denny started the Radioplane Company and more models emerged during World War II – used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like the Argus As 292 and the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine. Fascist Italy developed a specialised drone version of the Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 flown by remote control, although the Armistice with Italy was enacted prior to any operational deployment.^[43]

Postwar period

After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB-4 (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in 1955.^[38] Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War. In 1959, the U.S. Air Force, concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft.^[44] Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly classified UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon".^[45] The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan AQM-91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War.^[46] When the Chinese government^[47] showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos,^[48] the official U.S. response was "no comment".

During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.^[49]

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles.^[50] After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV.^{[51][pages needed]}

In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam).^[52] Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during the war^[53] at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S. Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit."^[54] Later that year, General John C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!"^[54]

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile-batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the first UAV with real-time surveillance.^[55][56][57] The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.^[58] In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering.^[59]

Modern UAVs

 

The STM Kargu was the first lethal autonomous weapon to attack enemy combatants in warfare.

With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. The U.S. funded the CTC or counterterror center within the CIA which sought to fight terrorism with the aid of modernized drone technology.^[60] In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.

CAPECON, a European Union project to develop UAVs,^[61] ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005.^[62]

As of 2012^[update], the United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three USAF aircraft.^[63][64] The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs.^[65] By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase.^[66] Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.^[64][67]

The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-controlled aircraft and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy^{[clarification needed]} and by new regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot.^{[citation needed]}

In 2020, a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a report from the UN Security Council's Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings.^[68][69]

Superior drone technology, specifically the Bayraktar TB2, played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war against Armenia.^[70]

 

Artist's concept of Ingenuity landing on Mars

UAVs are also used in NASA missions. The Ingenuity helicopter is an autonomous UAV that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024. Current the Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn's moon Titan. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by landers. As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is estimated to take seven more years to reach the Saturnian system.

Miniaturization is also supporting the development of small UAVs which can be used as individual system or in a fleet offering the possibility to survey large areas, in a relatively small amount of time.^[71]

Design

 

General physical structure of a UAV

Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments.

Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.^[72][73][74]

Aircraft configuration

UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. Air safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs.

For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low drag and stealth, and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the wing configurations in use vary widely.

For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. Multirotor designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.^[75][76]

Propulsion

Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.^[77]

Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.^{[citation needed]}

Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted the hydrogen fuel cell. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, Battery elimination circuitry (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the control of a microcontroller unit (MCU).

Ornithopters – wing propulsion

Flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs. Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.

Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces.^[78] Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.^[79]

Computer control systems

 

A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or BaseFlight firmware for multirotor UAVs

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).

System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common UAV-systems control hardware typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into a single module.

Architecture

Sensors

Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external states.^[80]

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.^[81]

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit – IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.^[82]

In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring devices such as: RGB, multispectral, hyper-spectral cameras or LiDAR, which may allow providing specific measurements or observations.^[83]

Actuators

UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

Software

The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate communications with ground control and mission planning.^[84]

UAVs are real-time systems that require high-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards, etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as NuttX, preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.

Flight stack overview

Layer	Requirement	Operations	Example
Firmware	Time-critical	From machine code to processor execution, memory access	ArduCopter-v1, PX4
Middleware	Time-critical	Flight control, navigation, radio management	PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot
Operating system	Computer-intensive	Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, decision-making	ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions, Microsoft IOT

Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications. For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.^[85] This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.

Loop principles

 

Typical flight-control loops for a multirotor

UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control architectures.

• Open loop – This type provides a positive control signal (faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating feedback from sensor data.
• Closed loop – This type incorporates sensor feedback to adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is common. Sometimes, feedforward is employed, transferring the need to close the loop further.^[86]

Communications

UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote operator.

In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types of data. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP/IP traffic that can be routed over the Internet.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

• Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS).
• Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers. Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in trials.^[87]
• Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station – military manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).^[88]

Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-reliable and low-latency communications.^[89]

UAV-to-UAV coordination supported by Remote ID communication technology. Remote ID messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision-free navigation.^[90]

Autonomy

Main article: Autonomous aircraft

 

UAV's degrees of autonomy

The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations, such as:^[91]

• Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.
• Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using barometric pressure and/or GPS data.
• Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw heading and altitude while maintaining position using GNSS or inertial sensors.
• Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.
• Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
• Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also "autoland")
• Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal
• Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
• Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, image recognition or homing beacon.
• GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
• Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.
• Pre-programmed aerobatics (such as rolls and loops)

One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology, as suggested by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory report, and used in the table on the right.^[92]

 

A Northrop Grumman X-47B unmanned combat aircraft demonstrator of the US Navy refuels in flight from a tanker aircraft.

Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as airborne refueling^[93] or ground-based battery switching.

Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real-time collision avoidance, wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous localization and mapping and swarming, cognitive radio and machine learning. In this context, computer vision can play an important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.

Performance considerations

Flight envelope

UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or landing/perching on inclined surfaces,^[94] and then to climb toward better communication spots.^[95] Some UAVs can control flight with varying flight modelisation,^[96][97] such as VTOL designs.

UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.^[98]

Endurance

 

UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for UAV operations

 

Flight time against mass of small (less than 1 kg) drones^[80]

UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological capabilities of a human pilot.

Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high power to weight ratio, Wankel rotary engines are used in many large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power. These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.

Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the most common cause of drone failure.^[99]

Hydrogen fuel cells, using hydrogen power, may be able to extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.^[100][101]

Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes and multirotors standing last, due to lower Reynolds number.^[80]

Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have achieved flight times of several weeks.

Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding 20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more economically and with more versatility than low Earth orbit satellites. Likely applications include weather drones for weather monitoring, disaster recovery, Earth imaging and communications.

Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or laser power beaming are other potential endurance solutions.^[102]

Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to "stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.

Lengthy endurance flights

UAV	Flight time hours:minutes	Date	Notes
Boeing Condor	58:11	1989	The aircraft is currently in the Hiller Aviation Museum. ^[103]
General Atomics Gnat	40:00	1992	^[104]^[105]
TAM-5	38:52	11 August 2003	Smallest UAV to cross the Atlantic ^[106]
QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric	54:00	September 2007	^[107]^[108]
RQ-4 Global Hawk	33:06	22 March 2008	Set an endurance record for a full-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft.^[109]
QinetiQ Zephyr Solar Electric	82:37	28–31 July 2008	^[110]
QinetiQ Zephyr 7	336:22	9–23 July 2010	Solar electric powered. Remained aloft for 14 days. Also filed for FAI altitude record of 70,740 ft (21,561 m)^[111]

The delicacy of the British PHASA-35 military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however, remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to near-space for them to be regarded in "pseudo-satellites" as regards to their operational capabilities.^[112]

Reliability

Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using resilience engineering and fault tolerance techniques.

Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive redundancy to minimize cost and weight.^[113] Besides, dynamic assessment of flight envelope allows damage-resilient UAVs, using non-linear analysis with ad hoc designed loops or neural networks.^[114] UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of crewed avionics software.^[115]

Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit failures.^[116]

Applications

Main article: List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications

In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS)^[117] while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks, ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,^[118] and protecting the human workforce in times of a pandemic.^[119] They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package delivery, as demonstrated by Amazon Prime Air, and critical deliveries of health supplies.

There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.^[2] These include:

General

Recreation, Disaster relief, archeology, conservation of biodiversity and habitat,^[120] law enforcement, crime, and terrorism.

Commercial

Aerial surveillance, filmmaking,^[121] journalism, scientific research, surveying, cargo transport, mining, manufacturing, Forestry, solar farming, thermal energy, ports and agriculture.

Warfare

Main articles: Unmanned combat aerial vehicle, Drone warfare, Loitering munition, Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle, Miniature UAV, Micro air vehicle, and Target drone

 

A Baykar Bayraktar TB2 of the Ukrainian Air Force armed with MAM-L; two ground control stations in the background

As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.^[122] The global military UAV market is dominated by companies based in the United States, Turkey,^[123][124] China,^[125] Israel and Iran.^[126] By sale numbers, the US held over 60% military-market share in 2017. Top military UAV manufactures are including General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, Baykar,^[127][124] TAI, IAIO, CASC and CAIG.^[126] China has established and expanded its presence in military UAV market^[126] since 2010. Turkey also established and expanded its presence in military UAV market.^{[123][126][124][127]}

Of the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top 12 all purchased their drones from China.^[126] According to a report of 2015, Israeli companies mainly focus on small surveillance UAV systems and by quantity of drones, Israel exported 60.7% (2014) of UAV on the market while the United States export 23.9% (2014).^[128] Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade – just 11 (2.5%) of the 439 are armed drones.^[128] The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs in 2014; among them more than 7000 are RQ-11 Raven miniature UAVs.^[129] General Atomics is the dominant manufacturer with the Global Hawk and Predator/Mariner systems product-line.

For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of micro UAV flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them difficult targets to bring down.

Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle are used for reconnaissance, attack, demining, and target practice.

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine a dramatic increase in UAV development took place with Ukraine creating the Brave1 platform to promote rapid development of innovative systems.

Civil

See also: Delivery drone

Suppliers

 

Zipline's aircraft being launched from a base in Rwanda to deliver blood products

The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer DJI alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other company accounting for more than 5%.^[130] Following increased scrutiny of its activities, the US Interior Department grounded its fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and other foreign made UAVs.^[131][132] DJI is followed by Chinese company Yuneec, US company 3D Robotics and French company Parrot.^[133] As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs had been registered with the US FAA, of which 42% were categorized as commercial and 58% as recreational.^[134] 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and $1000+ market segments.^[135]

The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early stage startups have received support and funding from investors as is the case in the United States and by government agencies as is the case in India.^[136] Some universities offer research and training programs or degrees.^[137] Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both recreational and commercial UAV use.^[138]

Consumer drones are widely used by military organizations worldwide because of the cost-effective nature of consumer product. In 2018, Israeli military started to use DJI Mavic and Matrice series of UAV for light reconnaissance missions.^[139][140] DJI surveillance drones have been used by Chinese police in Xinjiang since 2017.^[141][142]

Entertainment

See also: Drone art and Drone racing

Drones are also used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes with the main benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new forms of artwork in the process.^{[143][144][145]}

Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.

Aerial photography

See also: Drone journalism

Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are widely used for this purpose.^[121] Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. However, big drones with professional cine cameras, there is usually a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.^[146] Drones provide access to dangerous, remote or otherwise inaccessible sites.

Environmental Monitoring

UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new generation of survey at very-high or ultra-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:

• Topographic surveys^[147] for the production of orthomosaics, Digital Surface Model (DSM), 3D Models;
• Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,^[148] habitat mapping,^[149] detection of invasive alien species^[150] and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive species or disturbances;
• Precision Agriculture^[151] which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
• River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.^[152]
• Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous, inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.^[153]

These activities can be carried out with different approaches that include: photogrammetry, SfM, thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, NDVI maps, etc.

Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies

Main article: Agricultural drone

As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone and robotics industry is expected to make progress.^[154] Agricultural drones have been used to help build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.^[155] In this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients, pesticides or seeds over a field.^[4]

The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires.^[156]

UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat burrows.^[157]

Law enforcement

Main article: Use of UAVs in law enforcement

Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring.^[158]

Humanitarian Aid

Drones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters ^[159]

Safety and security

See also: List of UAV-related incidents

 

US Department of Agriculture poster warning about the risks of flying UAVs near wildfires

Threats

Nuisance

UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft, deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.^[160] The first recorded instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10 August 2018 in Driggs, Idaho, United States; although there was no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3 occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National Transportation Safety Board, stating that "I hope this incident helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and rules and regulations".^[161] Unauthorized UAV flights into or near major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial flights.^[162]

Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during December 2018, needing the deployment of the British Army.^[163][164]

In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine. Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several occasions, including at the Lake Fire^[165] and the North Fire.^[166][167] In response, California legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted airspace.^[168] The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.

Security vulnerabilities

By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.^[169]

The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream hijacking incident in 2009,^[170] where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.^[171] At a workshop on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the Federal Trade Commission showed they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and noted that UAV manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.^[172]

Aggression

UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets. Payloads could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Anti-UAV systems are being developed by states to counter this threat. This is, however, proving difficult. As J. Rogers stated in an interview to A&T "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".^[173]

Countermeasures

Counter unmanned air system

 

Italian Army soldiers of the 17th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment "Sforzesca" with a portable drone jammer in Rome

 

Cannon anti-drone system

Further information: Electronic warfare

The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies. Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of deep learning based machine learning algorithms.^[174] It is also possible to automatically identify UAVs across different cameras with different view points and hardware specification with re-identification methods.^[175] Commercial systems such as the Aaronia AARTOS have been installed on major international airports.^[176][177] Once a UAV is detected, it can be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another UAV) or by non-kinetic force (laser, microwaves, communications jamming).^[178] Anti-aircraft missile systems such as the Iron Dome are also being enhanced with C-UAS technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or more hostile UAVs is also proposed.^[179]

Regulation

Main article: Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles

Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned aircraft system traffic management solutions to better integrate UAVs into airspace.^[180]

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the civil aviation authorities of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone size and use. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) began exploring the use of drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.^[181] France was among the first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit.^[182] In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in Remote ID, which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit RaceDayQuads v. FAA.^[183][184]

EU Drone Certification - Class Identification Label

The implementation of the Class Identification Label serves a crucial purpose in the regulation and operation of drones.^[185] The label is a verification mechanism designed to confirm that drones within a specific class meet the rigorous standards set by administrations for design and manufacturing.^[186] These standards are necessary to ensure the safety and reliability of drones in various industries and applications.

By providing this assurance to customers, the Class Identification Label helps to increase confidence in drone technology and encourages wider adoption across industries. This, in turn, contributes to the growth and development of the drone industry and supports the integration of drones into society.

Export controls

The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime.

See also

• List of unmanned aerial vehicles
• Delivery drone
• Drone in a Box
• International Aerial Robotics Competition
• List of films featuring drones
• MARSS Interceptor
• Micromechanical Flying Insect
• ParcAberporth
• Quadcopter
• Radio-controlled aircraft
• Autonomous aircraft
• Optionally piloted vehicle
• Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery System
• Satellite Sentinel Project
• Tactical Control System
• UAV ground control station
• Unmanned underwater vehicle

References

Citations

1. Tice, Brian P. (Spring 1991). . Airpower Journal. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2013. When used, UAVs should generally perform missions characterized by the three Ds: dull, dirty, and dangerous.
2. Alvarado, Ed (3 May 2021). "237 Ways Drone Applications Revolutionize Business". Drone Industry Insights. from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
3. Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "Fault-tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring 14 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine" Aerospace Science and Technology, 2022.
4. Remote sensing of the environment using unmanned aerial systems (UAS). [S.l.]: ELSEVIER - HEALTH SCIENCE. 2023. ISBN 978-0-323-85283-8. OCLC 1329422815. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
5. Perks, Matthew T.; Dal Sasso, Silvano Fortunato; Hauet, Alexandre; Jamieson, Elizabeth; Le Coz, Jérôme; Pearce, Sophie; Peña-Haro, Salvador; Pizarro, Alonso; Strelnikova, Dariia; Tauro, Flavia; Bomhof, James; Grimaldi, Salvatore; Goulet, Alain; Hortobágyi, Borbála; Jodeau, Magali (8 July 2020). "Towards harmonisation of image velocimetry techniques for river surface velocity observations". Earth System Science Data. 12 (3): 1545–1559. Bibcode:2020ESSD...12.1545P. doi:10.5194/essd-12-1545-2020. ISSN 1866-3516. from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
6. Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, A. Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2020). "Adaptive Water Sampling Device for Aerial Robots". Drones. 4 (1): 5. doi:10.3390/drones4010005.
7. Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B.; Sharp, Julia L. (May 2018). "Evaluation of a UAV-Assisted Autonomous Water Sampling". Water. 10 (5): 655. doi:10.3390/w10050655.
8. Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2018). "In Situ Water Quality Measurements Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System". Water. 10 (3): 264. doi:10.3390/w10030264.
9. Koparan, Cengiz; Koc, Ali Bulent; Privette, Charles V.; Sawyer, Calvin B. (March 2019). "Autonomous In Situ Measurements of Noncontaminant Water Quality Indicators and Sample Collection with a UAV". Water. 11 (3): 604. doi:10.3390/w11030604.
10. "Drones smuggling porn, drugs to inmates around the world". Fox News. 17 April 2017. from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
11. Note; the term "drone" refers to the male bee that serves only to fertilize the queen bee, hence the use of the name in reference to the DH Queen Bee aerial target.
12. "Drones and Artificial Intelligence". Drone Industry Insights. 28 August 2018. from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
13. . Drones Etc. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
14. "unmanned aerial vehicle". TheFreeDictionary.com. from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
15. Guilmartin, John F. "unmanned aerial vehicle". Encyclopedia Britannica. from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
16. (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008.
17. . www.sesarju.eu. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
18. "State government gears up for autonomous RPAS mapping". 23 January 2017. from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
19. "Canadian Aviation Regulations". Government of Canada – Justice Laws Website. 1 June 2019. from the original on 6 January 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
20. "UAV classification". from the original on 23 May 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
21. "Eyes of the Army: U.S. Army Roadmap for UAS 2010–2035" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
22. "Nano, micro, small: The different drone types in India & if Jammu-like strike can be averted" 29 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, ThePrint, 29 June 2021.
23. Drones, Percepto (3 January 2019). "The Differences Between UAV, UAS, and Autonomous Drones". Percepto. from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
24. Cary, Leslie; Coyne, James. "ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328". (PDF). Blyenburgh & Co. pp. 112–115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
25. Hu, J.; Lanzon, A. (2018). "An innovative tri-rotor drone and associated distributed aerial drone swarm control". Robotics and Autonomous Systems. 103: 162–174. doi:10.1016/j.robot.2018.02.019.
26. The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History, ABC-CLIO, 12 May 2008, by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts, pages 1054–55 ISBN
27. The Future of Drone Use: Opportunities and Threats from Ethical and Legal Perspectives 27 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Asser Press – Springer, chapter by Alan McKenna, page 355
28. Kaplan, Philip (2013). Naval Aviation in the Second World War. Pen and Sword. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4738-2997-8. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
29. Hallion, Richard P. (2003). Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity through the First World War. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-19-028959-1.
30. Naval Aviation in the First World War: Its Impact and Influence, R. D. Layman, page 56
31. Renner, Stephen L. (2016). Broken Wings: The Hungarian Air Force, 1918–45. Indiana University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-253-02339-1. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
32. Murphy, Justin D. (2005). Military Aircraft, Origins to 1918: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-85109-488-2. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
33. Haydon, F. Stansbury (2000). Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War. JHU Press. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-8018-6442-1.
34. Mikesh, Robert C. (1973). "Japan's World War II balloon bomb attacks on North America" (PDF). Smithsonian Annals of Flight. Washington, DC (9): 1–85. doi:10.5479/si.AnnalsFlight.9. hdl:10088/18679. ISSN 0081-0207. (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
35. Tapan K. Sarkar, History of wireless, John Wiley and Sons, 2006, ISBN 0-471-71814-9, p. 97.
36. Randy Alfred, "Nov. 7, 1905: Remote Control Wows Public", Wired, 7 November 2011.
37. H. R. Everett (2015). Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II. MIT Press. pp. 91–95. ISBN 978-0-262-02922-3.
38. Taylor, John W. R.. Jane's Pocket Book of Remotely Piloted Vehicles.
39. Professor A. M. Low FLIGHT, 3 October 1952 page 436 "The First Guided Missile"
40. Dempsey, Martin E. (9 April 2010). (PDF). U.S. Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
41. Says, Robert Kanyike (21 May 2012). "History of U.S. Drones". from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
42. Andersson, Lennart (1994). Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941. The Putnam Aviation Series. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 249. ISBN 9781557507709. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2021. Experiments with a pilotless drone version of the TB-1 controlled by radio from other aircraft started in 1935 and continued until 1939.
43. H. R. Everett (2015). Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II. MIT Press. p. 318. ISBN 9780262029223.
44. Wagner 1982, p. xi.
45. Wagner 1982, p. xi, xii.
46. Wagner 1982, p. xii.
47. Wagner 1982, p. 79.
48. Wagner 1982, p. 78, 79.
49. Dunstan, Simon (2013). Israeli Fortifications of the October War 1973. Osprey Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 9781782004318. Retrieved 25 October 2015. The War of Attrition was also notable for the first use of UAVs, or unmanned aerial vehicles, carrying reconnaissance cameras in combat.^{[permanent dead link]}
50. Saxena, V. K. (2013). The Amazing Growth and Journey of UAV's and Ballistic Missile Defence Capabilities: Where the Technology is Leading to?. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 9789382573807. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015. During the Yom Kippur War the Israelis used Teledyne Ryan 124 R RPVs along with the home-grown Scout and Mastiff UAVs for reconnaissance, surveillance, and as decoys to draw fire from Arab SAMs. This resulted in Arab forces expending costly and scarce missiles on inappropriate targets [...].
51. Blum, Howard (2003). The eve of destruction: the untold story of the Yom Kippur War. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060013998.
52. Wagner 1982, p. 202.
53. Wagner 1982, p. 200, 212.
54. Wagner 1982, p. 208.
55. "A Brief History of UAVs". Howstuffworks.com. 22 July 2008. from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
56. "Russia Buys A Bunch of Israeli UAVs". Strategypage.com. from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
57. Azoulai, Yuval (24 October 2011). "Unmanned combat vehicles shaping future warfare". Globes. from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
58. Levinson, Charles (13 January 2010). "Israeli Robots Remake Battlefield". The Wall Street Journal. p. A10. from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
59. Gal-Or, Benjamin (1990). Vectored Propulsion, Supermaneuverability & Robot Aircraft. Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-97161-0.
60. Fuller, Christopher J. (2015). "The Eagle Comes Home to Roost: The Historical Origins of the CIA's Lethal Drone Program". Intelligence and National Security. 30 (6): 769–792. doi:10.1080/02684527.2014.895569. S2CID 154927243.
61. Z. Goraj; A. Frydrychewicz; R. Świtkiewicz; B. Hernik; J. Gadomski; T. Goetzendorf-Grabowski; M. Figat; St Suchodolski; W. Chajec. report (PDF). Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Technical Sciences, Volume 52. Number 3, 2004. (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
62. Community Research and Development Information Service. Civil uav application and economic effectiveness of potential configuration solutions. published by the Publications Office of the European Union. from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
63. Ackerman, Spencer; Shachtman, Noah (9 January 2012). "Almost 1 in 3 U.S. Warplanes Is a Robot". WIRED. from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
64. Singer, Peter W. "A Revolution Once More: Unmanned Systems and the Middle East" 6 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, The Brookings Institution 26 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, November 2009.
65. Radsan, AJ; Murphy (2011). "Measure Twice, Shoot Once: Higher Care for Cia-Targeted Killing". Univ. Ill. Law Rev.:1201–1241.
66. Sayler (2015)
67. Franke, Ulrike Esther ["The global diffusion of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or 'drones'"], in Mike Aaronson (ed) Precision Strike Warfare and International Intervention, Routledge 2015.
68. Hambling, David. "Drones may have attacked humans fully autonomously for the first time". New Scientist. from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
69. "Killer drone 'hunted down a human target' without being told to". New York Post. 29 May 2021. from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
70. Forestier-Walker, Robin (13 October 2020). "Nagorno-Karabakh: New weapons for an old conflict spell danger". Al Jazeera. from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2021. [...] battlefield videos and the known military capabilities of the two warring sides suggest Azerbaijan has the technological advantage, especially with its combat drones purchased from Israel and Turkey.
71. Bailon-Ruiz, Rafael; Lacroix, Simon; Bit-Monnot, Arthur (October 2018). "Planning to Monitor Wildfires with a Fleet of UAVs". 2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). Madrid: IEEE. pp. 4729–4734. doi:10.1109/IROS.2018.8593859. ISBN 978-1-5386-8094-0. S2CID 52970107. from the original on 29 December 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
72. "Design, Simulation and New Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles". www.mdpi.com. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
73. Nagel, Huub; Bondt, Geert; Custers, Bart; Vergouw, Bas (16 July 2016). "Drone Technology: Types, Payloads, Applications, Frequency Spectrum Issues and Future Developments". The Future of Drone Use.
74. da Silva, F.B; Scott, S.D; Cummings, M.L (December 2007). "Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination" (PDF). Design Methodology for Unmannded Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Team Coordination.
75. Torres-Sánchez, Jorge; López-Granados, Francisca; Castro, Ana Isabel De; Peña-Barragán, José Manuel (6 March 2013). "Configuration and Specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Early Site Specific Weed Management". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e58210. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...858210T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058210. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3590160. PMID 23483997.
76. Torres-Sánchez, Jorge; López-Granados, Francisca; De Castro, Ana Isabel; Peña-Barragán, José Manuel (2013). "Configuration and specifications of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for early site specific weed management". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e58210. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...858210T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058210. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3590160. PMID 23483997.
77. "Model airplane history-maker Maynard Hill dies at the age of 85". The Washington Post. from the original on 4 July 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
78. Chirarattananon, Pakpong; Ma, Kevin Y; Wood, J (22 May 2014), (PDF), Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 9 (2): 025004, Bibcode:2014BiBi....9b5004C, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.650.3728, doi:10.1088/1748-3182/9/2/025004, PMID 24855052, S2CID 12799012, archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2016
79. Sarah Knapton (29 March 2016). . The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016.
80. Floreano, Dario; Wood, Robert J. (27 May 2015). "Science, technology and the future of small autonomous drones". Nature. 521 (7553): 460–466. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..460F. doi:10.1038/nature14542. PMID 26017445. S2CID 4463263. from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
81. Fasano, Giancarmine; Accardo, Domenico; Tirri, Anna Elena; Moccia, Antonio; De Lellis, Ettore (1 October 2015). "Radar/electro-optical data fusion for non-cooperative UAS sense and avoid". Aerospace Science and Technology. 46: 436–450. Bibcode:2015AeST...46..436F. doi:10.1016/j.ast.2015.08.010.
82. "Arduino Playground – WhatIsDegreesOfFreedom6DOF9DOF10DOF11DOF". playground.arduino.cc. from the original on 18 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
83. Manfreda, Salvatore; McCabe, Matthew; Miller, Pauline; Lucas, Richard; Pajuelo Madrigal, Victor; Mallinis, Giorgos; Ben Dor, Eyal; Helman, David; Estes, Lyndon; Ciraolo, Giuseppe; Müllerová, Jana; Tauro, Flavia; de Lima, M.; de Lima, João; Maltese, Antonino (20 April 2018). "On the Use of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Environmental Monitoring". Remote Sensing. 10 (4): 641. Bibcode:2018RemS...10..641M. doi:10.3390/rs10040641. hdl:10251/127481. ISSN 2072-4292.
84. Carlson, Daniel F.; Rysgaard, Søren (1 January 2018). "Adapting open-source drone autopilots for real-time iceberg observations". MethodsX. 5: 1059–1072. doi:10.1016/j.mex.2018.09.003. ISSN 2215-0161. PMC 6139390. PMID 30225206.
85. Lesko, J.; Schreiner, M.; Megyesi, D.; Kovacs, Levente (November 2019). "Pixhawk PX-4 Autopilot in Control of a Small Unmanned Airplane". 2019 Modern Safety Technologies in Transportation (MOSATT). Kosice, Slovakia: IEEE. pp. 90–93. doi:10.1109/MOSATT48908.2019.8944101. ISBN 978-1-7281-5083-3. S2CID 209695691. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
86. Pierre-Jean Bristeau; François Callou; David Vissière; Nicolas Petit (2011). "The Navigation and Control technology inside the AR.Drone micro UAV" (PDF). IFAC World Congress. (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
87. "Cellular enables safer drone deployments". Qualcomm. from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
88. "Identifying Critical Manned-Unmanned Teaming Skills for Unmanned Aircraft System Operators" (PDF). U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. September 2012. (PDF) from the original on 6 February 2016.
89. "Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)". www.itu.int. from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
90. Vinogradov, Evgenii; Kumar, A. V. S. Sai Bhargav; Minucci, Franco; Pollin, Sofie; Natalizio, Enrico (2023). "Remote ID for separation provision and multi-agent navigation". 2023 IEEE/AIAA 42nd Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC). pp. 1–10. arXiv:2309.00843. doi:10.1109/DASC58513.2023.10311133. ISBN 979-8-3503-3357-2.
91. "Automated Vehicles for Safety | NHTSA". www.nhtsa.gov. from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
92. Clough, Bruce (August 2002). "Metrics, Schmetrics! How The Heck Do You Determine A UAV's Autonomy Anyway?". US Air Force Research Laboratory. from the original on 24 September 2020.
93. Davenport, Christian (23 April 2015). "Watch a step in Navy history: an autonomous drone gets refueled mid-air". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
94. "Teaching tiny drones how to fly themselves". Ars Technica. 27 November 2012. from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
95. "Biomimetics and Dextrous Manipulation Lab – MultiModalRobots". bdml.stanford.edu. from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
96. D'Andrea, Raffaello (11 June 2013). "The astounding athletic power of quadcopters". www.ted.com. from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
97. Yanguo, Song; Huanjin, Wang (1 June 2009). "Design of Flight Control System for a Small Unmanned Tilt Rotor Aircraft". Chinese Journal of Aeronautics. 22 (3): 250–256. doi:10.1016/S1000-9361(08)60095-3.
98. "The device, designed for landing UAV helicopter type on a flat vertical surface". patents.google.com. from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
99. "The Importance of Proper Cooling and Airflow for Optimal Drone Performance". Pelonis Technologies. from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
100. "Flying on Hydrogen: Georgia Tech Researchers Use Fuel Cells to Power Unmanned Aerial Vehicle | Georgia Tech Research Institute". www.gtri.gatech.edu. from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
101. "Hydrogen-powered Hycopter quadcopter could fly for 4 hours at a time". www.gizmag.com. 20 May 2015. from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
102. Gibbs, Yvonne (31 March 2015). "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Beamed Laser Power for UAVs". NASA. from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
103. (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2013
104. "General Atomics Gnat". Designation-systems.net. from the original on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
105. . Archived from the original on 30 July 2013.
106. "Trans atlantic Model". Tam.plannet21.com. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
107. (Press release). QinetiQ. 10 September 2007. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011.
108. Simonite, Tom. . New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
109. "Northrop Grumman's Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33-Hour Flight Endurance Record". Spacewar.com. Archived from the original on 1 July 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
110. (Press release). QinetiQ. 24 August 2008. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011.
111. . QinetiQ (Press release). 24 August 2010. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010.
112. MacDonald, Alistair (14 July 2023). "Drones Reach Stratospheric Heights in Race to Fly Higher, Longer". Wall Street Journal – via www.wsj.com.
113. Boniol (December 2014). "Towards Modular and Certified Avionics for UAV" (PDF). Aerospacelab Journal. (PDF) from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
114. D. Boskovic and Knoebel (2009). (PDF). AIAA Guidance, Navigation andControl Conference. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2016.
115. Atkins. "Certifiable Autonomous Flight Management for Unmanned Aircraft Systems". University of Michigan. from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
116. Subhav Pradhan; William Otte; Abhishek Dubey; Aniruddha Gokhale; Gabor Karsai (2013). "Key Considerations for a Resilient and Autonomous Deployment and Configuration Infrastructure for Cyber-Physical Systems" (PDF). Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Vanderbilt University, Nashville. (PDF) from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
117. "How Autonomous Drone Flights Will Go Beyond Line of Sight". Nanalyze. 31 December 2019. from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
118. McNabb, Miriam (28 February 2020). "Drones Get the Lights Back on Faster for Florida Communities". DRONELIFE. from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
119. Peck, Abe (19 March 2020). "Coronavirus Spurs Percepto's Drone-in-a-Box Surveillance Solution". Inside Unmanned Systems. from the original on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
120. Valle, Roberto G. (January 2022). "Rapid drone semi-automated counts of wintering Greater Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus ) as a tool for amateur researchers". Ibis. 164 (1): 320–328. doi:10.1111/ibi.12993. ISSN 0019-1019. S2CID 237865267. from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
121. Mademlis, Ioannis; Nikolaidis, Nikos; Tefas, Anastasios; Pitas, Ioannis; Wagner, Tilman; Messina, Alberto (2019). "Autonomous UAV Cinematography: A Tutorial and a Formalized Shot-Type Taxonomy". ACM Computing Surveys. Association for Computing Machinery. 52 (5). doi:10.1145/3347713. S2CID 202676119. from the original on 3 November 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
122. Horowitz, Michael C. (2020). "Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics?". Annual Review of Political Science. 23 (1): 385–400. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032725.
123. "Strengthening Turkish Policy on Drone Exports". Carnegie Endowment for International. from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
124. "Turkey's defense industry targets more than $4 billion in exports this year: Official". Hürriyet Daily News. 6 March 2022. from the original on 17 March 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
125. "Combat drones in China are coming to a conflict near you". www.intelligent-aerospace.com. 19 March 2021. from the original on 7 June 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
126. "Market for Military Drones will Surge". 27 October 2016. from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
127. "Turkish defence industry grows as Akinci UCAV signs first export deal". TRTWORLD. 23 January 2022. from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
128. Arnett, George (16 March 2015). "The numbers behind the worldwide trade in UAVs". The Guardian. from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
129. . DoD Buzz. 2 January 2014. Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
130. Bateman, Joshua (1 September 2017). "China drone maker DJI: Alone atop the unmanned skies". News Ledge. from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
131. Friedman, Lisa; McCabe, David (29 January 2020). "Interior Dept. Grounds Its Drones Over Chinese Spying Fears". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
132. Miller, Maggie (8 October 2020). "DOJ bans use of grant funds for certain foreign-made drones". The Hill. from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
133. "DJI market share: here's exactly how rapidly it has grown in just a few years". Emberify Blog. 18 September 2018. from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
134. "UAS by the Numbers". www.faa.gov. from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
135. "Consumer Drones By the Numbers in 2018 and Beyond | News Ledge". News Ledge. 4 April 2017. from the original on 14 October 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
136. "Skylark Drones set to raise its first round of funding to boost expansion". 14 September 2015. from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
137. Peterson, Andrea (19 August 2013). "States are competing to be the Silicon Valley of drones". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
138. "Drone Training Courses – The Complete List". Drone Business Marketer. from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
139. . Jane's 360. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017.
140. Greenwood, Faine (16 August 2017). . Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Archived from the original on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
141. "DJI Won the Drone Wars, and Now It's Paying the Price". Bloomberg. 26 March 2020. from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
142. "大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴". YouUAV.com. 24 December 2017. from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
143. "Drone Light Shows Powered by Intel". Intel. from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
144. Hirsch, Lauren (1 July 2023). "Fireworks Have a New Competitor: Drones". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
145. "Fireworks and Drones Combine to Create Amazing Long Exposure Images". Moss and Fog. 1 May 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
146. "AERIGON cinema drone (UAV) pioneering in film production". from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
147. Ferreira, Edgar; Chandler, Jim; Wackrow, Rene; Shiono, Koji (April 2017). "Automated extraction of free surface topography using SfM-MVS photogrammetry". Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. 54: 243–249. doi:10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2017.02.001. S2CID 56307390.
148. Reddy, C. Sudhakar; Kurian, Ayushi; Srivastava, Gaurav; Singhal, Jayant; Varghese, A. O.; Padalia, Hitendra; Ayyappan, N.; Rajashekar, G.; Jha, C. S.; Rao, P. V. N. (January 2021). "Remote sensing enabled essential biodiversity variables for biodiversity assessment and monitoring: technological advancement and potentials". Biodiversity and Conservation. 30 (1): 1–14. Bibcode:2021BiCon..30....1R. doi:10.1007/s10531-020-02073-8. ISSN 0960-3115. S2CID 254281346. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
149. Gonçalves, João; Henriques, Renato; Alves, Paulo; Sousa-Silva, Rita; Monteiro, António T.; Lomba, Ângela; Marcos, Bruno; Honrado, João (January 2016). Rocchini, Duccio (ed.). "Evaluating an unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach for assessing habitat extent and condition in fine-scale early successional mountain mosaics". Applied Vegetation Science. 19 (1): 132–146. doi:10.1111/avsc.12204. from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
150. Barbizan Sühs, R.; Ziller, S. R.; Dechoum, M. (2023). "Is the use of drones cost-effective and efficient in detecting invasive alien trees? A case study from a subtropical coastal ecosystem". *Biological Invasions*. doi:10.1007/s10530-023-03190-5. S2CID 265016887.
151. Zhang, Chunhua; Kovacs, John M. (December 2012). "The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: a review". Precision Agriculture. 13 (6): 693–712. doi:10.1007/s11119-012-9274-5. ISSN 1385-2256. S2CID 254938502. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
152. Perks, Matthew T.; Russell, Andrew J.; Large, Andrew R. G. (5 October 2016). "Technical Note: Advances in flash flood monitoring using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 20 (10): 4005–4015. Bibcode:2016HESS...20.4005P. doi:10.5194/hess-20-4005-2016. ISSN 1607-7938. from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
153. Zhou, Jianguo; He, Linshu; Luo, Haitao (19 March 2023). "Real-Time Positioning Method for UAVs in Complex Structural Health Monitoring Scenarios". Drones. 7 (3): 212. doi:10.3390/drones7030212. ISSN 2504-446X.
154. "Global Agriculture Drones and Robots Market Analysis & Forecast, 2018-2028 - ResearchAndMarkets.com". finance.yahoo.com. from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
155. . Drone Addicts. 12 March 2018. Archived from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
156. "Drones That Launch Flaming Balls Are Being Tested To Help Fight Wildfires". NPR.org. from the original on 25 April 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
157. Old JM, Lin S H, Franklin MJM (2019). Mapping out bare-nosed wombat (Vombatus ursinus) burrows with the use of a drone. BMC Ecology. 19:39. DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0257-5
158. Faust, Daniel R. (2015). Police Drones (1 ed.). New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 9781508145028. from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
159. Sindi & Zarei (15 September 2023). "Drones in humanitarian aid – Can they be a game-changer?".
160. Dent, Steve (16 October 2017). . Engadget. Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
161. Tellman, Julie (28 September 2018). "First-ever recorded drone-hot air balloon collision prompts safety conversation". Teton Valley News. Boise, Idaho, United States: Boise Post-Register. from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
162. "Drones need to be encouraged, and people protected". The Economist. 26 January 2019. ProQuest 2171135630. from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
163. Halon, Eytan (21 December 2018). "Israeli anti-drone technology brings an end to Gatwick Airport chaos – International news – Jerusalem Post". jpost.com. from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
164. Matthew Weaver; Damien Gayle; Patrick Greenfield; Frances Perraudin (20 December 2018). "Military called in to help with Gatwick drone crisis". The Guardian. from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
165. "In The Heat of the Moment, Drones Are Getting in the Way of Firefighters". NPR.org. from the original on 5 March 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
166. Michael Martinez; Paul Vercammen; Ben Brumfield (18 July 2015). "Drones visit California wildfire, angering firefighters". CNN. from the original on 8 November 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
167. Medina, Jennifer (19 July 2015). "Chasing Video With Drones, Hobbyists Imperil California Firefighting Efforts". The New York Times. from the original on 21 July 2015 – via NYTimes.com.
168. Rocha, Veronica (21 July 2015). "Attack on the drones: Legislation could allow California firefighters to take them down". from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016 – via LA Times.
169. "Prisons Work To Keep Out Drug-Smuggling Drones". NPR.org. from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
170. Mike Mount; Elaine Quijano. "Iraqi insurgents hacked Predator drone feeds, U.S. official indicates". CNN.com. from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
171. Walters, Sander (29 October 2016). "How Can Drones Be Hacked? The updated list of vulnerable drones & attack tools". Medium. from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
172. Glaser, April (4 January 2017). "The U.S. government showed just how easy it is to hack drones made by Parrot, DBPower and Cheerson". Recode. from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
173. "Anti-drone technology to be test flown on UK base amid terror fears". 6 March 2017. from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
174. Isaac-Medina, Brian K. S.; Poyser, Matthew; Organisciak, Daniel; Willcocks, Chris G.; Breckon, Toby P.; Shum, Hubert P. H. (2021). Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Visual Detection and Tracking using Deep Neural Networks: A Performance Benchmark. pp. 1223–1232. arXiv:2103.13933.
175. Organisciak, Daniel; Poyser, Matthew; Alsehaim, Aishah; Hu, Shanfeng; Isaac-Medina, Brian K. S.; Breckon, Toby P.; Shum, Hubert P. H. (2022). "UAV-ReID: A Benchmark on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Re-identification in Video Imagery". Proceedings of the 17th International Joint Conference on Computer Vision, Imaging and Computer Graphics Theory and Applications. SciTePress. pp. 136–146. arXiv:2104.06219. doi:10.5220/0010836600003124. ISBN 978-989-758-555-5.
176. "Heathrow picks C-UAS to combat drone disruption". from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
177. "Muscat International Airport to install USD10 million Aaronia counter-UAS system". 21 January 2019. from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
178. Grand-Clément, Sarah; Bajon, Theò (19 October 2022). . United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2023.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
179. Hartley, John; Shum, Hubert P. H.; Ho, Edmond S. L.; Wang, He; Ramamoorthy, Subramanian (2022). "Formation Control for UAVs Using a Flux Guided Approach". Expert Systems with Applications. Elsevier. 205: 117665. arXiv:2103.09184. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117665. ISSN 0957-4174. S2CID 232240581.
180. "What is unmanned traffic management?". Airbus. from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
181. Cary, Leslie; Coyne, James. "ICAO Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), Circular 328". (PDF). Blyenburgh & Co. pp. 112–115. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
182. Boedecker, Hendrik. "The 2021 Drone Regulation – What is new? What is planned?". Drone Industry Insights. from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
183. "UAS Remote Identification Overview". www.faa.gov. from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
184. "FAA Legal Battle – Challenging Remote ID". RaceDayQuads. from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
185. "UAS Class Label". www.eudronport.com. August 2022. from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
186. "Official Journal of the European Union". www.eur-lex.europa.eu. from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2023.

Bibliography

• Axe, David. Drone War Vietnam. Pen & Sword, Military. Great Britain. (2021). ISBN 978 1 52677 026 4
• Sayler, Kelley (June 2015). (PDF). Center for a New American Security. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016.
• Wagner, William (1982), Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones; The can-do story of Ryan's unmanned spy planes, Armed Forces Journal International : Aero Publishers, ISBN 978-0-8168-6654-0

Further reading

• Javier Garcia-Bernardoa; Peter Sheridan Dodds; Neil F. Johnson (2016). (PDF). Science direct. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2016.
• Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). The rise of the drones: From The Great War to Gaza. Vancouver Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series.
• Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014). Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security. Between the Lines. ISBN 9781771131544

External links

 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Unmanned aerial vehicles.

 

Wikiquote has quotations related to Drones.

• How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare 2 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Rolling Stone Magazine