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Bonobo

The bonobo (/bəˈnb, ˈbɒnəb/; Pan paniscus), also historically called the pygmy chimpanzee (less often the dwarf chimpanzee or gracile chimpanzee), is an endangered great ape and one of the two species making up the genus Pan (the other being the common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes).[4] While bonobos are, today, recognized as a distinct species in their own right, they were initially thought to be a subspecies of Pan troglodytes, due to the physical similarities between the two species. Taxonomically, the members of the chimpanzee/bonobo subtribe Panina—composed entirely by the genus Pan—are collectively termed panins.[5][6]

Bonobo[1]
Temporal range: 1.5–0 Ma
Early PleistoceneHolocene
Male at Apenheul Primate Park
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Pan
Species:
P. paniscus
Binomial name
Pan paniscus
Schwarz, 1929
Bonobo distribution

Bonobos are distinguished from common chimpanzees by relatively long limbs, pinker lips, a darker face, a tail-tuft through adulthood, and parted, longer hair on their heads. Some individuals have sparser, thin hair over parts of their bodies. The bonobo is found in a 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi) area within the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Central Africa. The species is predominantly frugivorous,[7] compared to the often highly omnivorous diets and hunting of small monkeys, duiker and other antelope exhibited by common chimpanzees. The bonobo inhabits primary and secondary forest, including seasonally inundated swamp forest. Because of political instability in the region, and the general timidity of bonobos, there has been relatively little field work done observing the species in its natural habitat.

According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University, the ancestors of the genus Pan split from the human line about 8 million years ago; moreover, bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago.[8][9]

Along with the common chimpanzee, the bonobo is the closest extant relative to humans.[4] As the two species are not proficient swimmers, the natural formation of the Congo River (around 1.5–2 million years ago) possibly led to the isolation and speciation of the bonobo. Bonobos live south of the river, and thereby were separated from the ancestors of the common chimpanzee, which live north of the river. There are no concrete figures regarding population, but the estimate is between 29,500 and 50,000 individuals. The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is most threatened by habitat destruction, human population growth and movement (as well as ongoing civil unrest and political infighting), with commercial poaching being, by far, the most prominent threat. Bonobos typically live 40 years in captivity; their lifespan in the wild is unknown, but it is almost certainly much shorter.[10]

Etymology

Formerly the bonobo was known as the "pygmy chimpanzee", despite the bonobo having a similar body size to the common chimpanzee. The name "pygmy" was given by the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz in 1929, who classified the species on the basis of a previously mislabeled bonobo cranium, noting its diminutive size compared to chimpanzee skulls.[11]

The name "bonobo" first appeared in 1954, when Austrian zoologist Eduard Paul Tratz and German biologist Heinz Heck proposed it as a new and separate generic term for pygmy chimpanzees. The name is thought to derive from a misspelling on a shipping crate from the town of Bolobo on the Congo River near the location from which the first bonobo specimens were collected in the 1920s.[12][13]

Taxonomy

The bonobo was first recognised as a distinct taxon in 1928 by German anatomist Ernst Schwarz, based on a skull in the Tervuren Museum in Belgium which had previously been classified as a juvenile chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Schwarz published his findings in 1929, classifying the bonobo as a subspecies of chimpanzee, Pan satyrus paniscus.[14][15] In 1933, American anatomist Harold Coolidge elevated it to species status.[15][11] Major behavioural differences between bonobos and chimpanzees were first discussed in detail by Tratz and Heck in the early 1950s.[16] Unaware of any taxonomic distinction with the common chimpanzee, American psychologist and primatologist Robert Yerkes had already noticed an unexpected major behavioural difference in the 1920s.[17]

Bonobos and chimpanzees are the two species which make up the genus Pan, and are the closest living relatives to humans (Homo sapiens).[18][19]

According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University, bonobos, along with common chimpanzees, split from the human line about 8 million years ago; moreover, bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago.[8][9]

Nonetheless, the exact timing of the PanHomo last common ancestor is contentious, but DNA comparison suggests continual interbreeding between ancestral Pan and Homo groups, post-divergence, until about 4 million years ago.[20] DNA evidence suggests the bonobo and common chimpanzee species diverged approximately 890,000–860,000 years ago due to separation of these two populations possibly due to acidification and the spread of savannas at this time. Currently, these two species are separated by the Congo River, which had existed well before the divergence date, though ancestral Pan may have dispersed across the river using corridors which no longer exist.[21] The first Pan fossils were reported in 2005 from the Middle Pleistocene (after the bonobo–chimpanzee split) of Kenya, alongside early Homo fossils.[22]

According to A. Zihlman, bonobo body proportions closely resemble those of Australopithecus,[23] leading evolutionary biologist Jeremy Griffith to suggest that bonobos may be a living example of our distant human ancestors.[24] According to Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg, human ancestors went through a bonobo-like phase featuring reduced aggression and associated anatomical changes, exemplified in Ardipithecus ramidus.[25]

The first official publication of the sequencing and assembly of the bonobo genome was released in June 2012. The genome of a female bonobo from Leipzig Zoo was deposited with the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank) under the EMBL accession number AJFE01000000[26] after a previous analysis by the National Human Genome Research Institute confirmed that the bonobo genome is about 0.4% divergent from the chimpanzee genome.[27]

Genetics and genomics

Genomic information
NCBI genome ID10729
Ploidydiploid
Genome size2,869.21 Mb
Number of chromosomes24 pairs
Year of completion2012, 2021

Relationships of bonobos to humans and other apes can be determined by comparing their genes or whole genomes. While the first bonobo genome was published in 2012,[28] a high-quality reference genome became available only in 2021.[29] The overall nucleotide divergence between chimpanzee and bonobo based on the latter is 0.421 ± 0.086% for autosomes and 0.311 ± 0.060% for the X chromosome.[29] The reference genome predicts 22,366 full-length protein-coding genes and 9,066 noncoding genes, although cDNA sequencing confirmed only 20,478 protein-coding and 36,880 noncoding bonobo genes,[29] similar to the number of genes annotated in the human genome. Overall, 206 and 1,576 protein-coding genes are part of gene families that contracted or expanded in the bonobo genome compared to the human genome, respectively, that is, these genes were lost or gained in the bonobo genome compared to humans.[29]

Description

The bonobo is commonly considered to be more gracile than the common chimpanzee. Although large male chimpanzees can exceed any bonobo in bulk and weight, the two species broadly overlap in body size. Adult female bonobos are somewhat smaller than adult males. Body mass ranges from 34 to 60 kg (75 to 132 lb) with an average weight of 45 kilograms (99 lb) in males against an average of 33 kg (73 lb) in females.[30] The total length of bonobos (from the nose to the rump while on all fours) is 70 to 83 cm (28 to 33 in).[31][32][33][34] Male bonobos average 119 cm (3.90 ft) when standing upright, compared to 111 centimetres (3.64 ft) in females.[35] The bonobo's head is relatively smaller than that of the common chimpanzee with less prominent brow ridges above the eyes. It has a black face with pink lips, small ears, wide nostrils, and long hair on its head that forms a parting. Females have slightly more prominent breasts, in contrast to the flat breasts of other female apes, although not so prominent as those of humans. The bonobo also has a slim upper body, narrow shoulders, thin neck, and long legs when compared to the common chimpanzee.

 
Bonobos Kanzi (C) and Panbanisha (R) with Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the outdoor symbols "keyboard"

Bonobos are both terrestrial and arboreal. Most ground locomotion is characterized by quadrupedal knuckle-walking. Bipedal walking has been recorded as less than 1% of terrestrial locomotion in the wild, a figure that decreased with habituation,[36] while in captivity there is a wide variation. Bipedal walking in captivity, as a percentage of bipedal plus quadrupedal locomotion bouts, has been observed from 3.9% for spontaneous bouts to nearly 19% when abundant food is provided.[37] These physical characteristics and its posture give the bonobo an appearance more closely resembling that of humans than the common chimpanzee does. The bonobo also has highly individuated facial features,[38] as humans do, so that one individual may look significantly different from another, a characteristic adapted for visual facial recognition in social interaction.

Multivariate analysis has shown bonobos are more neotenized than the common chimpanzee, taking into account such features as the proportionately long torso length of the bonobo.[39] Other researchers challenged this conclusion.[40]

Behavior

General

Primatologist Frans de Waal states bonobos are capable of altruism, compassion, empathy, kindness, patience, and sensitivity,[41] and described "bonobo society" as a "gynecocracy".[42][a] Primatologists who have studied bonobos in the wild have documented a wide range of behaviors, including aggressive behavior and more cyclic sexual behavior similar to chimpanzees, even though bonobos show more sexual behavior in a greater variety of relationships. An analysis of female bonding among wild bonobos by Takeshi Furuichi stresses female sexuality and shows how female bonobos spend much more time in estrus than female chimpanzees.[43]

Some primatologists have argued that de Waal's data reflect only the behavior of captive bonobos, suggesting that wild bonobos show levels of aggression closer to what is found among chimpanzees. De Waal has responded that the contrast in temperament between bonobos and chimpanzees observed in captivity is meaningful, because it controls for the influence of environment. The two species behave quite differently even if kept under identical conditions.[44] A 2014 study also found bonobos to be less aggressive than chimpanzees, particularly eastern chimpanzees. The authors argued that the relative peacefulness of western chimpanzees and bonobos was primarily due to ecological factors.[45] Bonobos warn each other of danger less efficiently than chimpanzees in the same situation.[46]

Social behavior

 
Bonobos are very social.
 
Bonobo searching for termites

Bonobos are unusual among apes for their matriarchal social structure (extensive overlap between the male and female hierarchies leads some to refer to them as gender-balanced in their power structure). Bonobos do not have a defined territory and communities will travel over a wide range. Due to the nomadic nature of the females and evenly distributed food in their environment, males do not gain any obvious advantages by forming alliances with other males, or by defending a home range, as chimpanzees do. Female bonobos possess sharper canines than female chimpanzees, further fueling their status in the group.[47] Although a male bonobo is dominant to a female in a dyadic interaction,[48] depending on the community, socially-bonded females may be co-dominant with males[49] or dominant over them, even to the extent that females can coerce reluctant males into mating with them.[50][51]

At the top of the hierarchy is a coalition of high-ranking females and males typically headed by an old, experienced matriarch[52] who acts as the decision-maker and leader of the group. Female bonobos typically earn their rank through experience, age, and ability to forge alliances with other females in their group, rather than physical intimidation, and top-ranking females will protect immigrant females from male harassment.[53] While bonobos are often called matriarchal, and while every community is dominated by a female, some males will still obtain a high rank and act as coalitionary partners to the alpha female,[54] often taking initiative in coordinating the groups movements. These males may outrank not only the other males in the group, but also many females.[55] Certain males alert the group to any possible threats, protecting the group from predators such as pythons and leopards.[56][57]

Aggressive encounters between males and females are rare, and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles. A male derives his status from the status of his mother.[58] The mother–son bond often stays strong and continues throughout life. While social hierarchies do exist, and although the son of a high ranking female may outrank a lower female, rank plays a less prominent role than in other primate societies.[59] Relationships between different communities are often positive and affiliative, and bonobos are not a territorial species.[60] Bonobos will also share food with others, even unrelated strangers.[61] Bonobos exhibit paedomorphism (retaining infantile physical characteristics and behaviours),[62] which greatly inhibits aggression and enables unfamiliar bonobos to freely mingle and cooperate with each other.[63]

Males engage in lengthy friendships with females and, in turn, female bonobos prefer to associate with and mate with males who are respectful and easygoing around them. Because female bonobos can use alliances to rebuff coercive and domineering males and select males at their own leisure, they show preference for males who are not aggressive towards them.[64]

Aging bonobos lose their playful streak and become noticeably more irritable in old age. Both sexes have a similar level of aggressiveness.[65]

Bonobos live in a male philopatric society where the females immigrate to new communities while males remain in their natal troop. However, it is not entirely unheard of for males to occasionally transfer into new groups.[66] Additionally, females with powerful mothers may remain in their natal clan.[67]

Alliances between males are poorly developed in most bonobo communities, while females will form alliances with each other and alliances between males and females occur, including multisex hunting parties.[68] There is a confirmed case of a grown male bonobo adopting his orphaned infant brother.[69]

A mother bonobo will also support her grown son in conflicts with other males and help him secure better ties with other females, enhancing her chance of gaining grandchildren from him.[70] She will even take measures such as physical intervention to prevent other males from breeding with certain females she wants her son to mate with.[71] Although mothers play a role in aiding their sons, and the hierarchy among males is largely reflected by their mother's social status, some motherless males will still successfully dominate some males who do have mothers.[72]

Female bonobos have also been observed fostering infants from outside their established community.[73][74]

Bonobos are not known to kill each other, and are generally less violent than chimpanzees, yet aggression still manifests itself in this species. Although female bonobos dominate males and selectively mate with males who do not exhibit aggression toward them, competition between the males themselves is intense and high-ranking males secure more matings than low-ranking ones.[75] Indeed, the size difference between males and females is more pronounced in bonobos than it is in chimpanzees, as male bonobos do not form alliances and therefore have little incentive to hold back when fighting for access to females.[76] Male bonobos are known to attack each other and inflict serious injuries such as missing digits, damaged eyes and torn ears. Some of these injuries may also occur when a male threatens the high ranking females and is injured by them, as the larger male is swarmed and outnumbered by a female mob.[77]

Due to the promiscuous mating behavior of female bonobos, a male cannot be sure which offspring are his. As a result, the entirety of parental care in bonobos is assumed by the mothers.[78] However, bonobos are not as promiscuous as chimpanzees and slightly polygamous tendencies occur, with high-ranking males enjoying greater reproductive success than low-ranking males. Unlike chimpanzees, where any male can coerce a female into mating with him, female bonobos enjoy greater sexual preferences and can rebuff undesirable males, an advantage of female-female bonding, and actively seek out higher-ranking males.[79]

Bonobo party size tends to vary because the groups exhibit a fission–fusion pattern. A community of approximately 100 will split into small groups during the day while looking for food, and then will come back together to sleep. They sleep in nests that they construct in trees.

Female bonobos more often than not secure feeding privileges and feed before males do, although they are rarely successful in one-on-one confrontations with males, a female bonobo with several allies supporting her has extremely high success in monopolizing food sources.[80] Different communities favour different prey. In some communities females exclusively hunt and have a preference for rodents, in others both sexes hunt, and will target monkeys.[81]

In captive settings, females exhibit extreme food-based aggression towards males, and forge coalitions against them to monopolize specific food items, often going as far as to mutilate any males who fail to heed their warning.[82]

In wild settings, however, female bonobos will quietly ask males for food if they had gotten it first, instead of forcibly confiscating it, suggesting sex-based hierarchy roles are less rigid than in captive colonies.[83]

Female bonobos are known to lead hunts on duikers and successfully defend their bounty from marauding males in the wild. They are more tolerant of younger males pestering them yet exhibit heightened aggression towards older males.[84]

In a study published in November 2023, scientists reported, for the first time, evidence that groups of primates, particularly bonobos, are capable of cooperating with each other.[85][86] Researchers observed unprecedented cooperation between two distinct bonobo groups in the Congo's Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, Ekalakala and Kokoalongo, challenging traditional notions of ape societies. Over two years of observation, researchers witnessed 95 encounters between the groups. Contrary to expectations, these interactions resembled those within a single group. During these encounters, the bonobos engaged in behaviors such as grooming, food sharing, and collective defense against threats like snakes. Notably, the two groups, while displaying cooperative tendencies, maintained distinct identities, and there was no evidence of interbreeding or a blending of cultures. The cooperation observed was not arbitrary but evolved through individual bonds formed by exchanging favors and gifts. Some bonobos even formed alliances to target a third individual, demonstrating a nuanced social dynamic within the groups.[85][86]

Sociosexual behaviour

 
Bonobos mating, Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens.

Sexual activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society, being used as what some scientists perceive as a greeting, a means of forming social bonds, a means of conflict resolution, and postconflict reconciliation.[87][4] Bonobos are the only non-human animal to have been observed engaging in tongue kissing.[88] Bonobos and humans are the only primates to typically engage in face-to-face genital sex, although a pair of western gorillas has also been photographed in this position.[89]

Bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual partners. They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behavior by sex or age, with the possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers and their adult sons. When bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground, the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity, presumably decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding.[90]

More often than the males, female bonobos engage in mutual genital-rubbing behavior, possibly to bond socially with each other, thus forming a female nucleus of bonobo society. The bonding among females enables them to dominate most of the males.[90] Adolescent females often leave their native community to join another community. This migration mixes the bonobo gene pools, providing genetic diversity. Sexual bonding with other females establishes these new females as members of the group.

Bonobo clitorises are larger and more externalized than in most mammals;[91] while the weight of a young adolescent female bonobo "is maybe half" that of a human teenager, she has a clitoris that is "three times bigger than the human equivalent, and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks".[92] In scientific literature, the female–female behavior of bonobos pressing vulvas together is often referred to as genito-genital (GG) rubbing.[90][93] This sexual activity happens within the immediate female bonobo community and sometimes outside of it. Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, "which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement"; he added that it is estimated that they engage in this practice "about once every two hours" on average.[91] As bonobos occasionally copulate face-to-face, "evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse".[91] The position of the clitoris may alternatively permit GG-rubbings, which has been hypothesized to function as a means for female bonobos to evaluate their intrasocial relationships.[94]

 
Group of bonobos

Bonobo males engage in various forms of male–male genital behavior.[90][95] The most common form of male–male mounting is similar to that of a heterosexual mounting: one of the males sits "passively on his back [with] the other male thrusting on him", with the penises rubbing together due to both males' erections.[41] In another, rarer form of genital rubbing, two bonobo males hang from a tree limb face-to-face while penis fencing.[90][96] This also may occur when two males rub their penises together while in face-to-face position. Another form of genital interaction (rump rubbing) often occurs to express reconciliation between two males after a conflict, when they stand back-to-back and rub their scrotal sacs together, but such behavior also occurs outside agonistic contexts: Kitamura (1989) observed rump–rump contacts between adult males following sexual solicitation behaviors similar to those between female bonobos prior to GG-rubbing.[97] Takayoshi Kano observed similar practices among bonobos in the natural habitat. Tongue kissing, oral sex, and genital massaging have also been recorded among male bonobos.[98][41]

Wild females give birth for the first time at 13 or 14 years of age.[99] Bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee.[90] However, female bonobo oestrus periods are longer.[100] During oestrus, females undergo a swelling of the perineal tissue lasting 10 to 20 days. The gestation period is on average 240 days. Postpartum amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) lasts less than one year and a female may resume external signs of oestrus within a year of giving birth, though the female is probably not fertile at this point. Female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average every 4.6 years.[101] Compared to common chimpanzees, bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth, enabling them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society. Also, bonobo females which are sterile or too young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity. Mothers will help their sons get more matings from females in oestrus.[59]

Adult male bonobos have sex with infants,[102] although without penetration.[103] Adult females also have sex with infants, but less frequently. Infants are not passive participants. They quite often initiate contacts with both adult males and females, as well as with peers.[102] They have also been shown to be sexually active even in the absence of any stimulation or learning from adults.[104]

Infanticide, while well documented in chimpanzees, is apparently absent in bonobo society.[105] Although infanticide has not been directly observed, there have been documented cases of both female[106] and male[107] bonobos kidnapping infants, sometimes resulting in infants dying from dehydration. Although male bonobos have not yet been seen to practice infanticide, there is a documented incident in captivity involving a dominant female abducting an infant from a lower-ranking female, treating the infant roughly and denying it the chance to suckle. During the kidnapping, the infant's mother was clearly distressed and tried to retrieve her infant. Had the zookeepers not intervened, the infant almost certainly would have died from dehydration. This suggests female bonobos can have hostile rivalries with each other and a propensity to carry out infanticide.[108] The highly sexual nature of bonobo society and the fact that there is little competition over mates means that many males and females are mating with each other, in contrast to the one dominant male chimpanzee that fathers most of the offspring in a group.[109] The strategy of bonobo females mating with many males may be a counterstrategy to infanticide because it confuses paternity. If male bonobos cannot distinguish their own offspring from others, the incentive for infanticide essentially disappears.[105] This is a reproductive strategy that seems specific to bonobos; infanticide is observed in all other great apes except orangutans.[110] Bonobos engage in sexual activity numerous times a day.[111]

It is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and its effects.[112]

Peacefulness

 
Bonobo (Pan paniscus) mother and infant at Lola ya Bonobo

Observations in the wild indicate that the males among the related common chimpanzee communities are hostile to males from outside the community. Parties of males 'patrol' for the neighboring males that might be traveling alone, and attack those single males, often killing them.[113] This does not appear to be the behavior of bonobo males or females, which seem to prefer sexual contact over violent confrontation with outsiders.[4]

While bonobos are more peaceful than chimpanzees, it is not true that they are unaggressive.[114] In the wild, among males, bonobos are half as aggressive as chimpanzees, while female bonobos are more aggressive than female chimpanzees.[114] Both bonobos and chimpanzees exhibit physical aggression more than 100 times as often as humans do.[114]

 
Grooming: reinforcement of social links

Although referred to as peaceful, bonobo aggression is not restricted to each other, and humans have also been attacked by bonobos, and suffered serious, albeit non-fatal, injuries.[107]

Bonobos are far less violent than chimpanzees, though, as lethal aggression is essentially nonexistent among bonobos while being not infrequent among chimpanzees.[45] It has been hypothesized that bonobos are able to live a more peaceful lifestyle in part because of an abundance of nutritious vegetation in their natural habitat, allowing them to travel and forage in large parties.[115]

Recent studies show that there are significant brain differences between bonobos and chimpanzees. Bonobos have more grey matter volume in the right anterior insula, right dorsal amygdala, hypothalamus, and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, all of which are regions assumed to be vital for feeling empathy, sensing distress in others and feeling anxiety.[116] They also have a thick connection between the amygdala, an important area that can spark aggression, and the ventral anterior cingulate cortex, which has been shown to help control impulses in humans.[117][118] This thicker connection may make them better at regulating their emotional impulses and behavior.[119]

Bonobo society is dominated by females, and severing the lifelong alliance between mothers and their male offspring may make them vulnerable to female aggression.[4] De Waal has warned of the danger of romanticizing bonobos: "All animals are competitive by nature and cooperative only under specific circumstances" and that "when first writing about their behaviour, I spoke of 'sex for peace' precisely because bonobos had plenty of conflicts. There would obviously be no need for peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony."[120]

Surbeck and Hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species. Five incidents were observed in a group of bonobos in Salonga National Park, which seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting. On three occasions, the hunt was successful, and infant monkeys were captured and eaten.[121]

There is one inferred intraspecies killing in the wild,[122] and a confirmed lethal attack in captivity.[123] In both cases, the attackers were female and the victims were male.

Diet

 
Folivory: bonobos use certain species for self-medication

The bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore; 57% of its diet is fruit, but this is supplemented with leaves, honey, eggs,[124] meat from small vertebrates such as anomalures, flying squirrels and duikers,[125] and invertebrates.[126] The truffle species Hysterangium bonobo is eaten by bonobos.[127] In some instances, bonobos have been shown to consume lower-order primates.[121] Some claim bonobos have also been known to practise cannibalism in captivity, a claim disputed by others.[128][129] However, at least one confirmed report of cannibalism in the wild of a dead infant was described in 2008.[130][131] A 2016 paper reported two more instances of infant cannibalism, although it was not confirmed if infanticide was involved.[132]

Cognitive comparisons to chimpanzees

 
Chimpanzee and bonobo males
 
A comparison of chimpanzees' and bonobos' performance on various cognitive tests[133]

In 2020, the first whole-genome comparison between chimpanzees and bonobos was published and showed genomic aspects that may underlie or have resulted from their divergence and behavioral differences, including selection for genes related to diet and hormones.[134] A 2010 study found that "female bonobos displayed a larger range of tool use behaviours than males, a pattern previously described for chimpanzees but not for other great apes".[135] This finding was affirmed by the results of another 2010 study which also found that "bonobos were more skilled at solving tasks related to theory of mind or an understanding of social causality, while chimpanzees were more skilled at tasks requiring the use of tools and an understanding of physical causality".[133] Bonobos have been found to be more risk-averse compared to chimpanzees, preferring immediate rather than delayed rewards when it comes to foraging. Bonobos also have a weaker spatial memory compared to chimpanzees, with adult bonobos performing comparably to juvenile chimpanzees.[136]

Similarity to humans

Bonobos are capable of passing the mirror-recognition test for self-awareness, as are all great apes.[137][138] They communicate primarily through vocal means, although the meanings of their vocalizations are not currently known. However, most humans do understand their facial expressions[139] and some of their natural hand gestures, such as their invitation to play. The communication system of wild bonobos includes a characteristic that was earlier only known in humans: bonobos use the same call to mean different things in different situations, and the other bonobos have to take the context into account when determining the meaning.[140]

Two bonobos at the Great Ape Trust, Kanzi and Panbanisha, have been taught how to communicate using a keyboard labeled with lexigrams (geometric symbols) and they can respond to spoken sentences. Kanzi's vocabulary consists of more than 500 English words,[141] and he has comprehension of around 3,000 spoken English words.[142]

Kanzi is also known for learning by observing people trying to teach his mother; Kanzi started doing the tasks that his mother was taught just by watching, some of which his mother had failed to learn. Some, such as philosopher and bioethicist Peter Singer, argue that these results qualify them for "rights to survival and life"—rights which humans theoretically accord to all persons (See great ape personhood).

In the 1990s, Kanzi was taught to make and use simple stone tools. This resulted from a study undertaken by researchers Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, and later Gary Garufi. The researchers wanted to know if Kanzi possessed the cognitive and biomechanical abilities required to make and use stone tools. Though Kanzi was able to form flakes, he did not create them in the same way as humans, who hold the core in one hand and knap it with the other, Kanzi threw the cobble against a hard surface or against another cobble. This allowed him to produce a larger force to initiate a fracture as opposed to knapping it in his hands.[143]

As in other great apes and humans, third party affiliation toward the victim—the affinitive contact made toward the recipient of an aggression by a group member other than the aggressor—is present in bonobos.[144] A 2013 study[145] found that both the affiliation spontaneously offered by a bystander to the victim and the affiliation requested by the victim (solicited affiliation) can reduce the probability of further aggression by group members on the victim (this fact supporting the Victim-Protection Hypothesis). Yet, only spontaneous affiliation reduced victim anxiety—measured via self-scratching rates—thus suggesting not only that non-solicited affiliation has a consolatory function but also that the spontaneous gesture—more than the protection itself—works in calming the distressed subject. The authors hypothesize that the victim may perceive the motivational autonomy of the bystander, who does not require an invitation to provide post-conflict affinitive contact. Moreover, spontaneous—but not solicited—third party affiliation was affected by the bond between consoler and victim (this supporting the Consolation Hypothesis). Importantly, spontaneous affiliation followed the empathic gradient described for humans, being mostly offered to kin, then friends, then acquaintances (these categories having been determined using affiliation rates between individuals). Hence, consolation in the bonobo may be an empathy-based phenomenon.

Instances in which bonobos have expressed joy have been reported. One study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human infants and bonobos when they were tickled.[146] Although the bonobos' laugh was at a higher frequency, the laugh was found to follow a spectrographic pattern similar to that of human babies.[146]

Distribution and habitat

 
A year-old bonobo (Ulrik)

Bonobos are found only south of the Congo River and north of the Kasai River (a tributary of the Congo),[147] in the humid forests of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ernst Schwarz's 1927 paper "Le Chimpanzé de la Rive Gauche du Congo", announcing his discovery, has been read as an association between the Parisian Left Bank and the left bank of the Congo River; the bohemian culture in Paris, and an unconventional ape in the Congo.[148] The ranges of bonobos and chimpanzees are separated by the Congo River, with bonobos living to its south and chimpanzees to the north.[149][150]

Ecological role

 
Bonobos disperse the seeds of more than 91 species of plants across distances of several kilometers

In the Congo tropical rainforest, the very great majority of plants need animals to reproduce and disperse their seeds.[151] Bonobos are the second largest frugivorous animals in this region, after elephants. It is estimated that during its life, each bonobo will ingest and disperse nine tons of seeds, from more than 91 species of lianas, grass, trees and shrubs. These seeds travel for about 24 hours in the bonobo digestive tract, which can transfer them over several kilometers (mean 1.3 km; max: 4.5 km), far from their parents, where they will be deposited intact in their feces. These dispersed seeds remain viable, germinating better and more quickly than unpassed seeds.[152] For those seeds, diplochory with dung-beetles (Scarabaeidae) improves post-dispersal survival.[153]

Certain plants such as Dialium may even be dependent on bonobos to activate the germination of their seeds, characterized by tegumentary dormancy.[154] The first parameters of the effectiveness of seed dispersal by bonobos are present. Behavior of the bonobo could affect the population structure of plants whose seeds they disperse. The majority of these zoochorous plants cannot recruit without dispersal and the homogeneous spatial structure of the trees suggests a direct link with their dispersal agent.[155] Few species could replace bonobos in terms of seed dispersal services, just as bonobos could not replace elephants. There is little functional redundancy between frugivorous mammals of the Congo, which face severe human hunting pressures and local extinction. The defaunation of the forests, leading to the empty forest syndrome, is critical in conservation biology. The disappearance of the bonobos, which disperse seeds of 40% of the tree species in these forests, or 11.6 million individual seeds during the life of each bonobo, would have consequences for the conservation of the Congo rainforest.[152][155]

Conservation status

The IUCN Red List classifies bonobos as an endangered species, with conservative population estimates ranging from 29,500 to 50,000 individuals.[2] Major threats to bonobo populations include habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat, the latter activity having increased dramatically during the first and second Congo Wars in the Democratic Republic of Congo, due to the presence of heavily armed militias (even in remote, "protected" areas such as Salonga National Park). This is part of a more general trend of ape extinction.

As the bonobos' habitat is shared with many people, the ultimate success of conservation efforts still relies on local and community involvement. The issue of parks versus people[156] is salient in the Cuvette Centrale, within the bonobos' range. There is strong local, and broad-based Congolese, resistance to establishing national parks, as indigenous communities have previously been driven from their forest homes by the forming of parks. In Salonga National Park (the only national park in bonobo habitat), there is no local involvement, and surveys undertaken since 2000 indicate the bonobo, the African forest elephant, the okapi, and other rare species have been devastated by poachers and the thriving bushmeat trade.[157] In contrast, areas do exist where the bonobo and ecological biodiversity still thrive without any established park borders, due to the indigenous beliefs/taboos against killing bonobos and other animals.

During the wars in the 1990s, researchers and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were driven out of the bonobo habitat. In 2002, the Bonobo Conservation Initiative initiated the Bonobo Peace Forest Project (supported by the Global Conservation Fund of Conservation International), in cooperation with national institutions, local NGOs, and local communities; the Peace Forest Project works with local communities to establish a linked constellation of community-based reserves managed by local and indigenous people. This model, implemented mainly through DRC organizations and local communities, has helped bring about agreements to protect over 50,000 square miles (130,000 km2) of the bonobo habitat. According to Amy Parish, the Bonobo Peace Forest "is going to be a model for conservation in the 21st century".[158]

The port town of Basankusu is situated on the Lulonga River, at the confluence of the Lopori and Maringa Rivers, in the north of the country, making it well placed to receive and transport local goods to the cities of Mbandaka and Kinshasa. With Basankusu being the last port of substance before the wilderness of the Lopori Basin and the Lomako River—the bonobo heartland—conservation efforts for the bonobo[159] use the town as a base.[160][161]

In 1995, concern over declining numbers of bonobos in the wild led the Zoological Society of Milwaukee (ZSM), in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with contributions from bonobo scientists around the world, to publish the Action Plan for Pan paniscus: A Report on Free Ranging Populations and Proposals for their Preservation. The Action Plan compiles population data on bonobos from 20 years of research conducted at various sites throughout the bonobo's range. The plan identifies priority actions for bonobo conservation and serves as a reference for developing conservation programs for researchers, government officials, and donor agencies.

Acting on Action Plan recommendations, the ZSM developed the Bonobo and Congo Biodiversity Initiative. This program includes habitat and rain-forest preservation, training for Congolese nationals and conservation institutions, wildlife population assessment and monitoring, and education. The ZSM has conducted regional surveys within the range of the bonobo in conjunction with training Congolese researchers in survey methodology and biodiversity monitoring. The ZSM's initial goal was to survey Salonga National Park to determine the conservation status of the bonobo within the park and to provide financial and technical assistance to strengthen park protection. As the project has developed, the ZSM has become more involved in helping the Congolese living in bonobo habitat. They have built schools, hired teachers, provided some medicines, and started an agriculture project to help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on hunting wild animals.[162]

With grants from the United Nations, USAID, the U.S. Embassy, the World Wildlife Fund, and many other groups and individuals, the ZSM also has been working to:

  • Survey the bonobo population and its habitat to find ways to help protect these apes
  • Develop antipoaching measures to help save apes, forest elephants, and other endangered animals in Congo's Salonga National Park, a UN World Heritage Site
  • Provide training, literacy education, agricultural techniques, schools, equipment, and jobs for Congolese living near bonobo habitats so that they will have a vested interest in protecting the great apes – the ZSM started an agriculture project to help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on hunting wild animals.
  • Model small-scale conservation methods that can be used throughout Congo

Starting in 2003, the U.S. government allocated $54 million to the Congo Basin Forest Partnership. This significant investment has triggered the involvement of international NGOs to establish bases in the region and work to develop bonobo conservation programs. This initiative should improve the likelihood of bonobo survival, but its success still may depend upon building greater involvement and capability in local and indigenous communities.[163]

The bonobo population is believed to have declined sharply in the last 30 years, though surveys have been hard to carry out in war-ravaged central Congo. Estimates range from 60,000 to fewer than 50,000 living, according to the World Wildlife Fund.

In addition, concerned parties have addressed the crisis on several science and ecological websites. Organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, the African Wildlife Foundation, and others, are trying to focus attention on the extreme risk to the species. Some have suggested that a reserve be established in a more stable part of Africa, or on an island in a place such as Indonesia. Awareness is ever increasing, and even nonscientific or ecological sites have created various groups to collect donations to help with the conservation of this species.

Hybridization with chimpanzees

Researchers have found that both central (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) and eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) share more genetic material with bonobos than other chimpanzee subspecies.[164] It is believed that genetic admixture has occurred at least two times within the past 550,000 years.[165] In modern times hybridization between bonobos and chimpanzees in the wild is prevented as populations are allopatric and kept isolated on different sides of the Congo river.[166]

Within captivity, hybrids between bonobos and chimpanzees have been recorded. Between 1990 and 1992, five pregnancies were conceived and studied between a male bonobo and two female chimpanzees. The two initial pregnancies were aborted due to environmental stressors. The following three pregnancies however lead to the birth of three hybrid offspring.[167]

A bonobo and chimpanzee hybrid called Tiby was also featured in the 2017 Swedish film The Square.[168]

Bonobos in Human Culture

World Bonobo Day is February 14th (Valentine's Day). This was established in 2017 by the African Wildlife Foundation.[169]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Gynecocracy, among people, 'women's government over women and men' or 'women's social supremacy'

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Further reading

Books

Articles

  • de Waal F (1995). "Bonobo: Sex & Society". Scientific American. 272 (3): 82–88. Bibcode:1995SciAm.272c..82W. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0395-82. PMID 7871411.
  • DeBartolo A (11 June 1998). . Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 2003-02-11.
  • Schweller K (July 2012). "Apes with Apps". IEEE Spectrum Magazine. 49 (7): 38–45. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2012.6221081. S2CID 22556649.
  • Madrigal A (11 June 2014). "Brian the Mentally Ill Bonobo, and How He Healed". The Atlantic.
  • Parker I (30 July 2007). "Swingers". The New Yorker.
  • Bechard D (February 2014). . The Solutions Journal. Archived from the original on 2016-03-26. Retrieved 2016-07-13.

Journal articles

  • Fischer A, Prüfer K, Good JM, Halbwax M, Wiebe V, André C, et al. (29 June 2011). Joly E (ed.). "Bonobos fall within the genomic variation of chimpanzees". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e21605. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621605F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021605. PMC 3126833. PMID 21747915.
  • Zsurka G, Kudina T, Peeva V, Hallmann K, Elger CE, Khrapko K, Kunz WS (September 2010). "Distinct patterns of mitochondrial genome diversity in bonobos (Pan paniscus) and humans". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 10 (1): 270. Bibcode:2010BMCEE..10..270Z. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-270. PMC 2942848. PMID 20813043.
  • Wildman DE, Uddin M, Liu G, Grossman LI, Goodman M (June 2003). "Implications of natural selection in shaping 99.4% nonsynonymous DNA identity between humans and chimpanzees: enlarging genus Homo". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (12): 7181–8. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.7181W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1232172100. PMC 165850. PMID 12766228.

External links

  • Evolution: Why Sex?
  • Bonobos: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
  • Primate Info Net Pan paniscus Factsheet
  • Susan Savage-Rumbaugh: The gentle genius of bonobos – TED
  • WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature / World Wildlife Fund) – Bonobo species profile
  • View the panPan1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.

bonobo, other, uses, disambiguation, bonobo, paniscus, also, historically, called, pygmy, chimpanzee, less, often, dwarf, chimpanzee, gracile, chimpanzee, endangered, great, species, making, genus, other, being, common, chimpanzee, troglodytes, while, bonobos,. For other uses see Bonobo disambiguation The bonobo b e ˈ n oʊ b oʊ ˈ b ɒ n e b oʊ Pan paniscus also historically called the pygmy chimpanzee less often the dwarf chimpanzee or gracile chimpanzee is an endangered great ape and one of the two species making up the genus Pan the other being the common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes 4 While bonobos are today recognized as a distinct species in their own right they were initially thought to be a subspecies of Pan troglodytes due to the physical similarities between the two species Taxonomically the members of the chimpanzee bonobo subtribe Panina composed entirely by the genus Pan are collectively termed panins 5 6 Bonobo 1 Temporal range 1 5 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Early Pleistocene HoloceneMale at Apenheul Primate ParkConservation statusEndangered IUCN 3 1 2 CITES Appendix I CITES 3 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder PrimatesSuborder HaplorhiniInfraorder SimiiformesFamily HominidaeSubfamily HomininaeTribe HomininiGenus PanSpecies P paniscusBinomial namePan paniscusSchwarz 1929Bonobo distributionBonobos are distinguished from common chimpanzees by relatively long limbs pinker lips a darker face a tail tuft through adulthood and parted longer hair on their heads Some individuals have sparser thin hair over parts of their bodies The bonobo is found in a 500 000 km2 190 000 sq mi area within the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC Central Africa The species is predominantly frugivorous 7 compared to the often highly omnivorous diets and hunting of small monkeys duiker and other antelope exhibited by common chimpanzees The bonobo inhabits primary and secondary forest including seasonally inundated swamp forest Because of political instability in the region and the general timidity of bonobos there has been relatively little field work done observing the species in its natural habitat According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University the ancestors of the genus Pan split from the human line about 8 million years ago moreover bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago 8 9 Along with the common chimpanzee the bonobo is the closest extant relative to humans 4 As the two species are not proficient swimmers the natural formation of the Congo River around 1 5 2 million years ago possibly led to the isolation and speciation of the bonobo Bonobos live south of the river and thereby were separated from the ancestors of the common chimpanzee which live north of the river There are no concrete figures regarding population but the estimate is between 29 500 and 50 000 individuals The species is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is most threatened by habitat destruction human population growth and movement as well as ongoing civil unrest and political infighting with commercial poaching being by far the most prominent threat Bonobos typically live 40 years in captivity their lifespan in the wild is unknown but it is almost certainly much shorter 10 Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 3 Genetics and genomics 4 Description 5 Behavior 5 1 General 5 2 Social behavior 5 2 1 Sociosexual behaviour 5 2 2 Peacefulness 5 3 Diet 5 4 Cognitive comparisons to chimpanzees 5 5 Similarity to humans 6 Distribution and habitat 7 Ecological role 8 Conservation status 9 Hybridization with chimpanzees 10 Bonobos in Human Culture 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 14 1 Books 14 2 Articles 14 3 Journal articles 15 External linksEtymologyFormerly the bonobo was known as the pygmy chimpanzee despite the bonobo having a similar body size to the common chimpanzee The name pygmy was given by the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz in 1929 who classified the species on the basis of a previously mislabeled bonobo cranium noting its diminutive size compared to chimpanzee skulls 11 The name bonobo first appeared in 1954 when Austrian zoologist Eduard Paul Tratz and German biologist Heinz Heck proposed it as a new and separate generic term for pygmy chimpanzees The name is thought to derive from a misspelling on a shipping crate from the town of Bolobo on the Congo River near the location from which the first bonobo specimens were collected in the 1920s 12 13 TaxonomyThe bonobo was first recognised as a distinct taxon in 1928 by German anatomist Ernst Schwarz based on a skull in the Tervuren Museum in Belgium which had previously been classified as a juvenile chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Schwarz published his findings in 1929 classifying the bonobo as a subspecies of chimpanzee Pan satyrus paniscus 14 15 In 1933 American anatomist Harold Coolidge elevated it to species status 15 11 Major behavioural differences between bonobos and chimpanzees were first discussed in detail by Tratz and Heck in the early 1950s 16 Unaware of any taxonomic distinction with the common chimpanzee American psychologist and primatologist Robert Yerkes had already noticed an unexpected major behavioural difference in the 1920s 17 Bonobos and chimpanzees are the two species which make up the genus Pan and are the closest living relatives to humans Homo sapiens 18 19 According to studies published in 2017 by researchers at The George Washington University bonobos along with common chimpanzees split from the human line about 8 million years ago moreover bonobos split from the common chimpanzee line about 2 million years ago 8 9 Nonetheless the exact timing of the Pan Homo last common ancestor is contentious but DNA comparison suggests continual interbreeding between ancestral Pan and Homo groups post divergence until about 4 million years ago 20 DNA evidence suggests the bonobo and common chimpanzee species diverged approximately 890 000 860 000 years ago due to separation of these two populations possibly due to acidification and the spread of savannas at this time Currently these two species are separated by the Congo River which had existed well before the divergence date though ancestral Pan may have dispersed across the river using corridors which no longer exist 21 The first Pan fossils were reported in 2005 from the Middle Pleistocene after the bonobo chimpanzee split of Kenya alongside early Homo fossils 22 According to A Zihlman bonobo body proportions closely resemble those of Australopithecus 23 leading evolutionary biologist Jeremy Griffith to suggest that bonobos may be a living example of our distant human ancestors 24 According to Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg human ancestors went through a bonobo like phase featuring reduced aggression and associated anatomical changes exemplified in Ardipithecus ramidus 25 The first official publication of the sequencing and assembly of the bonobo genome was released in June 2012 The genome of a female bonobo from Leipzig Zoo was deposited with the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration DDBJ EMBL GenBank under the EMBL accession number AJFE01000000 26 after a previous analysis by the National Human Genome Research Institute confirmed that the bonobo genome is about 0 4 divergent from the chimpanzee genome 27 Genetics and genomicsGenomic informationNCBI genome ID10729PloidydiploidGenome size2 869 21 MbNumber of chromosomes24 pairsYear of completion2012 2021Relationships of bonobos to humans and other apes can be determined by comparing their genes or whole genomes While the first bonobo genome was published in 2012 28 a high quality reference genome became available only in 2021 29 The overall nucleotide divergence between chimpanzee and bonobo based on the latter is 0 421 0 086 for autosomes and 0 311 0 060 for the X chromosome 29 The reference genome predicts 22 366 full length protein coding genes and 9 066 noncoding genes although cDNA sequencing confirmed only 20 478 protein coding and 36 880 noncoding bonobo genes 29 similar to the number of genes annotated in the human genome Overall 206 and 1 576 protein coding genes are part of gene families that contracted or expanded in the bonobo genome compared to the human genome respectively that is these genes were lost or gained in the bonobo genome compared to humans 29 DescriptionThe bonobo is commonly considered to be more gracile than the common chimpanzee Although large male chimpanzees can exceed any bonobo in bulk and weight the two species broadly overlap in body size Adult female bonobos are somewhat smaller than adult males Body mass ranges from 34 to 60 kg 75 to 132 lb with an average weight of 45 kilograms 99 lb in males against an average of 33 kg 73 lb in females 30 The total length of bonobos from the nose to the rump while on all fours is 70 to 83 cm 28 to 33 in 31 32 33 34 Male bonobos average 119 cm 3 90 ft when standing upright compared to 111 centimetres 3 64 ft in females 35 The bonobo s head is relatively smaller than that of the common chimpanzee with less prominent brow ridges above the eyes It has a black face with pink lips small ears wide nostrils and long hair on its head that forms a parting Females have slightly more prominent breasts in contrast to the flat breasts of other female apes although not so prominent as those of humans The bonobo also has a slim upper body narrow shoulders thin neck and long legs when compared to the common chimpanzee nbsp Bonobos Kanzi C and Panbanisha R with Sue Savage Rumbaugh and the outdoor symbols keyboard Bonobos are both terrestrial and arboreal Most ground locomotion is characterized by quadrupedal knuckle walking Bipedal walking has been recorded as less than 1 of terrestrial locomotion in the wild a figure that decreased with habituation 36 while in captivity there is a wide variation Bipedal walking in captivity as a percentage of bipedal plus quadrupedal locomotion bouts has been observed from 3 9 for spontaneous bouts to nearly 19 when abundant food is provided 37 These physical characteristics and its posture give the bonobo an appearance more closely resembling that of humans than the common chimpanzee does The bonobo also has highly individuated facial features 38 as humans do so that one individual may look significantly different from another a characteristic adapted for visual facial recognition in social interaction Multivariate analysis has shown bonobos are more neotenized than the common chimpanzee taking into account such features as the proportionately long torso length of the bonobo 39 Other researchers challenged this conclusion 40 BehaviorGeneral Primatologist Frans de Waal states bonobos are capable of altruism compassion empathy kindness patience and sensitivity 41 and described bonobo society as a gynecocracy 42 a Primatologists who have studied bonobos in the wild have documented a wide range of behaviors including aggressive behavior and more cyclic sexual behavior similar to chimpanzees even though bonobos show more sexual behavior in a greater variety of relationships An analysis of female bonding among wild bonobos by Takeshi Furuichi stresses female sexuality and shows how female bonobos spend much more time in estrus than female chimpanzees 43 Some primatologists have argued that de Waal s data reflect only the behavior of captive bonobos suggesting that wild bonobos show levels of aggression closer to what is found among chimpanzees De Waal has responded that the contrast in temperament between bonobos and chimpanzees observed in captivity is meaningful because it controls for the influence of environment The two species behave quite differently even if kept under identical conditions 44 A 2014 study also found bonobos to be less aggressive than chimpanzees particularly eastern chimpanzees The authors argued that the relative peacefulness of western chimpanzees and bonobos was primarily due to ecological factors 45 Bonobos warn each other of danger less efficiently than chimpanzees in the same situation 46 Social behavior nbsp Bonobos are very social nbsp Bonobo searching for termitesBonobos are unusual among apes for their matriarchal social structure extensive overlap between the male and female hierarchies leads some to refer to them as gender balanced in their power structure Bonobos do not have a defined territory and communities will travel over a wide range Due to the nomadic nature of the females and evenly distributed food in their environment males do not gain any obvious advantages by forming alliances with other males or by defending a home range as chimpanzees do Female bonobos possess sharper canines than female chimpanzees further fueling their status in the group 47 Although a male bonobo is dominant to a female in a dyadic interaction 48 depending on the community socially bonded females may be co dominant with males 49 or dominant over them even to the extent that females can coerce reluctant males into mating with them 50 51 At the top of the hierarchy is a coalition of high ranking females and males typically headed by an old experienced matriarch 52 who acts as the decision maker and leader of the group Female bonobos typically earn their rank through experience age and ability to forge alliances with other females in their group rather than physical intimidation and top ranking females will protect immigrant females from male harassment 53 While bonobos are often called matriarchal and while every community is dominated by a female some males will still obtain a high rank and act as coalitionary partners to the alpha female 54 often taking initiative in coordinating the groups movements These males may outrank not only the other males in the group but also many females 55 Certain males alert the group to any possible threats protecting the group from predators such as pythons and leopards 56 57 Aggressive encounters between males and females are rare and males are tolerant of infants and juveniles A male derives his status from the status of his mother 58 The mother son bond often stays strong and continues throughout life While social hierarchies do exist and although the son of a high ranking female may outrank a lower female rank plays a less prominent role than in other primate societies 59 Relationships between different communities are often positive and affiliative and bonobos are not a territorial species 60 Bonobos will also share food with others even unrelated strangers 61 Bonobos exhibit paedomorphism retaining infantile physical characteristics and behaviours 62 which greatly inhibits aggression and enables unfamiliar bonobos to freely mingle and cooperate with each other 63 Males engage in lengthy friendships with females and in turn female bonobos prefer to associate with and mate with males who are respectful and easygoing around them Because female bonobos can use alliances to rebuff coercive and domineering males and select males at their own leisure they show preference for males who are not aggressive towards them 64 Aging bonobos lose their playful streak and become noticeably more irritable in old age Both sexes have a similar level of aggressiveness 65 Bonobos live in a male philopatric society where the females immigrate to new communities while males remain in their natal troop However it is not entirely unheard of for males to occasionally transfer into new groups 66 Additionally females with powerful mothers may remain in their natal clan 67 Alliances between males are poorly developed in most bonobo communities while females will form alliances with each other and alliances between males and females occur including multisex hunting parties 68 There is a confirmed case of a grown male bonobo adopting his orphaned infant brother 69 A mother bonobo will also support her grown son in conflicts with other males and help him secure better ties with other females enhancing her chance of gaining grandchildren from him 70 She will even take measures such as physical intervention to prevent other males from breeding with certain females she wants her son to mate with 71 Although mothers play a role in aiding their sons and the hierarchy among males is largely reflected by their mother s social status some motherless males will still successfully dominate some males who do have mothers 72 Female bonobos have also been observed fostering infants from outside their established community 73 74 Bonobos are not known to kill each other and are generally less violent than chimpanzees yet aggression still manifests itself in this species Although female bonobos dominate males and selectively mate with males who do not exhibit aggression toward them competition between the males themselves is intense and high ranking males secure more matings than low ranking ones 75 Indeed the size difference between males and females is more pronounced in bonobos than it is in chimpanzees as male bonobos do not form alliances and therefore have little incentive to hold back when fighting for access to females 76 Male bonobos are known to attack each other and inflict serious injuries such as missing digits damaged eyes and torn ears Some of these injuries may also occur when a male threatens the high ranking females and is injured by them as the larger male is swarmed and outnumbered by a female mob 77 Due to the promiscuous mating behavior of female bonobos a male cannot be sure which offspring are his As a result the entirety of parental care in bonobos is assumed by the mothers 78 However bonobos are not as promiscuous as chimpanzees and slightly polygamous tendencies occur with high ranking males enjoying greater reproductive success than low ranking males Unlike chimpanzees where any male can coerce a female into mating with him female bonobos enjoy greater sexual preferences and can rebuff undesirable males an advantage of female female bonding and actively seek out higher ranking males 79 Bonobo party size tends to vary because the groups exhibit a fission fusion pattern A community of approximately 100 will split into small groups during the day while looking for food and then will come back together to sleep They sleep in nests that they construct in trees Female bonobos more often than not secure feeding privileges and feed before males do although they are rarely successful in one on one confrontations with males a female bonobo with several allies supporting her has extremely high success in monopolizing food sources 80 Different communities favour different prey In some communities females exclusively hunt and have a preference for rodents in others both sexes hunt and will target monkeys 81 In captive settings females exhibit extreme food based aggression towards males and forge coalitions against them to monopolize specific food items often going as far as to mutilate any males who fail to heed their warning 82 In wild settings however female bonobos will quietly ask males for food if they had gotten it first instead of forcibly confiscating it suggesting sex based hierarchy roles are less rigid than in captive colonies 83 Female bonobos are known to lead hunts on duikers and successfully defend their bounty from marauding males in the wild They are more tolerant of younger males pestering them yet exhibit heightened aggression towards older males 84 In a study published in November 2023 scientists reported for the first time evidence that groups of primates particularly bonobos are capable of cooperating with each other 85 86 Researchers observed unprecedented cooperation between two distinct bonobo groups in the Congo s Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve Ekalakala and Kokoalongo challenging traditional notions of ape societies Over two years of observation researchers witnessed 95 encounters between the groups Contrary to expectations these interactions resembled those within a single group During these encounters the bonobos engaged in behaviors such as grooming food sharing and collective defense against threats like snakes Notably the two groups while displaying cooperative tendencies maintained distinct identities and there was no evidence of interbreeding or a blending of cultures The cooperation observed was not arbitrary but evolved through individual bonds formed by exchanging favors and gifts Some bonobos even formed alliances to target a third individual demonstrating a nuanced social dynamic within the groups 85 86 Sociosexual behaviour See also Animal sexual behaviour Genital genital rubbing and Homosexual behavior in animals Bonobos nbsp Bonobos mating Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens Sexual activity generally plays a major role in bonobo society being used as what some scientists perceive as a greeting a means of forming social bonds a means of conflict resolution and postconflict reconciliation 87 4 Bonobos are the only non human animal to have been observed engaging in tongue kissing 88 Bonobos and humans are the only primates to typically engage in face to face genital sex although a pair of western gorillas has also been photographed in this position 89 Bonobos do not form permanent monogamous sexual relationships with individual partners They also do not seem to discriminate in their sexual behavior by sex or age with the possible exception of abstaining from sexual activity between mothers and their adult sons When bonobos come upon a new food source or feeding ground the increased excitement will usually lead to communal sexual activity presumably decreasing tension and encouraging peaceful feeding 90 More often than the males female bonobos engage in mutual genital rubbing behavior possibly to bond socially with each other thus forming a female nucleus of bonobo society The bonding among females enables them to dominate most of the males 90 Adolescent females often leave their native community to join another community This migration mixes the bonobo gene pools providing genetic diversity Sexual bonding with other females establishes these new females as members of the group Bonobo clitorises are larger and more externalized than in most mammals 91 while the weight of a young adolescent female bonobo is maybe half that of a human teenager she has a clitoris that is three times bigger than the human equivalent and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks 92 In scientific literature the female female behavior of bonobos pressing vulvas together is often referred to as genito genital GG rubbing 90 93 This sexual activity happens within the immediate female bonobo community and sometimes outside of it Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds and this behavior which may be repeated in rapid succession is usually accompanied by grinding shrieking and clitoral engorgement he added that it is estimated that they engage in this practice about once every two hours on average 91 As bonobos occasionally copulate face to face evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse 91 The position of the clitoris may alternatively permit GG rubbings which has been hypothesized to function as a means for female bonobos to evaluate their intrasocial relationships 94 nbsp Group of bonobosBonobo males engage in various forms of male male genital behavior 90 95 The most common form of male male mounting is similar to that of a heterosexual mounting one of the males sits passively on his back with the other male thrusting on him with the penises rubbing together due to both males erections 41 In another rarer form of genital rubbing two bonobo males hang from a tree limb face to face while penis fencing 90 96 This also may occur when two males rub their penises together while in face to face position Another form of genital interaction rump rubbing often occurs to express reconciliation between two males after a conflict when they stand back to back and rub their scrotal sacs together but such behavior also occurs outside agonistic contexts Kitamura 1989 observed rump rump contacts between adult males following sexual solicitation behaviors similar to those between female bonobos prior to GG rubbing 97 Takayoshi Kano observed similar practices among bonobos in the natural habitat Tongue kissing oral sex and genital massaging have also been recorded among male bonobos 98 41 Wild females give birth for the first time at 13 or 14 years of age 99 Bonobo reproductive rates are no higher than those of the common chimpanzee 90 However female bonobo oestrus periods are longer 100 During oestrus females undergo a swelling of the perineal tissue lasting 10 to 20 days The gestation period is on average 240 days Postpartum amenorrhea absence of menstruation lasts less than one year and a female may resume external signs of oestrus within a year of giving birth though the female is probably not fertile at this point Female bonobos carry and nurse their young for four years and give birth on average every 4 6 years 101 Compared to common chimpanzees bonobo females resume the genital swelling cycle much sooner after giving birth enabling them to rejoin the sexual activities of their society Also bonobo females which are sterile or too young to reproduce still engage in sexual activity Mothers will help their sons get more matings from females in oestrus 59 Adult male bonobos have sex with infants 102 although without penetration 103 Adult females also have sex with infants but less frequently Infants are not passive participants They quite often initiate contacts with both adult males and females as well as with peers 102 They have also been shown to be sexually active even in the absence of any stimulation or learning from adults 104 Infanticide while well documented in chimpanzees is apparently absent in bonobo society 105 Although infanticide has not been directly observed there have been documented cases of both female 106 and male 107 bonobos kidnapping infants sometimes resulting in infants dying from dehydration Although male bonobos have not yet been seen to practice infanticide there is a documented incident in captivity involving a dominant female abducting an infant from a lower ranking female treating the infant roughly and denying it the chance to suckle During the kidnapping the infant s mother was clearly distressed and tried to retrieve her infant Had the zookeepers not intervened the infant almost certainly would have died from dehydration This suggests female bonobos can have hostile rivalries with each other and a propensity to carry out infanticide 108 The highly sexual nature of bonobo society and the fact that there is little competition over mates means that many males and females are mating with each other in contrast to the one dominant male chimpanzee that fathers most of the offspring in a group 109 The strategy of bonobo females mating with many males may be a counterstrategy to infanticide because it confuses paternity If male bonobos cannot distinguish their own offspring from others the incentive for infanticide essentially disappears 105 This is a reproductive strategy that seems specific to bonobos infanticide is observed in all other great apes except orangutans 110 Bonobos engage in sexual activity numerous times a day 111 It is unknown how the bonobo avoids simian immunodeficiency virus SIV and its effects 112 Peacefulness nbsp Bonobo Pan paniscus mother and infant at Lola ya BonoboObservations in the wild indicate that the males among the related common chimpanzee communities are hostile to males from outside the community Parties of males patrol for the neighboring males that might be traveling alone and attack those single males often killing them 113 This does not appear to be the behavior of bonobo males or females which seem to prefer sexual contact over violent confrontation with outsiders 4 While bonobos are more peaceful than chimpanzees it is not true that they are unaggressive 114 In the wild among males bonobos are half as aggressive as chimpanzees while female bonobos are more aggressive than female chimpanzees 114 Both bonobos and chimpanzees exhibit physical aggression more than 100 times as often as humans do 114 nbsp Grooming reinforcement of social linksAlthough referred to as peaceful bonobo aggression is not restricted to each other and humans have also been attacked by bonobos and suffered serious albeit non fatal injuries 107 Bonobos are far less violent than chimpanzees though as lethal aggression is essentially nonexistent among bonobos while being not infrequent among chimpanzees 45 It has been hypothesized that bonobos are able to live a more peaceful lifestyle in part because of an abundance of nutritious vegetation in their natural habitat allowing them to travel and forage in large parties 115 Recent studies show that there are significant brain differences between bonobos and chimpanzees Bonobos have more grey matter volume in the right anterior insula right dorsal amygdala hypothalamus and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex all of which are regions assumed to be vital for feeling empathy sensing distress in others and feeling anxiety 116 They also have a thick connection between the amygdala an important area that can spark aggression and the ventral anterior cingulate cortex which has been shown to help control impulses in humans 117 118 This thicker connection may make them better at regulating their emotional impulses and behavior 119 Bonobo society is dominated by females and severing the lifelong alliance between mothers and their male offspring may make them vulnerable to female aggression 4 De Waal has warned of the danger of romanticizing bonobos All animals are competitive by nature and cooperative only under specific circumstances and that when first writing about their behaviour I spoke of sex for peace precisely because bonobos had plenty of conflicts There would obviously be no need for peacemaking if they lived in perfect harmony 120 Surbeck and Hohmann showed in 2008 that bonobos sometimes do hunt monkey species Five incidents were observed in a group of bonobos in Salonga National Park which seemed to reflect deliberate cooperative hunting On three occasions the hunt was successful and infant monkeys were captured and eaten 121 There is one inferred intraspecies killing in the wild 122 and a confirmed lethal attack in captivity 123 In both cases the attackers were female and the victims were male Diet nbsp Folivory bonobos use certain species for self medicationThe bonobo is an omnivorous frugivore 57 of its diet is fruit but this is supplemented with leaves honey eggs 124 meat from small vertebrates such as anomalures flying squirrels and duikers 125 and invertebrates 126 The truffle species Hysterangium bonobo is eaten by bonobos 127 In some instances bonobos have been shown to consume lower order primates 121 Some claim bonobos have also been known to practise cannibalism in captivity a claim disputed by others 128 129 However at least one confirmed report of cannibalism in the wild of a dead infant was described in 2008 130 131 A 2016 paper reported two more instances of infant cannibalism although it was not confirmed if infanticide was involved 132 Cognitive comparisons to chimpanzees nbsp Chimpanzee and bonobo males nbsp A comparison of chimpanzees and bonobos performance on various cognitive tests 133 In 2020 the first whole genome comparison between chimpanzees and bonobos was published and showed genomic aspects that may underlie or have resulted from their divergence and behavioral differences including selection for genes related to diet and hormones 134 A 2010 study found that female bonobos displayed a larger range of tool use behaviours than males a pattern previously described for chimpanzees but not for other great apes 135 This finding was affirmed by the results of another 2010 study which also found that bonobos were more skilled at solving tasks related to theory of mind or an understanding of social causality while chimpanzees were more skilled at tasks requiring the use of tools and an understanding of physical causality 133 Bonobos have been found to be more risk averse compared to chimpanzees preferring immediate rather than delayed rewards when it comes to foraging Bonobos also have a weaker spatial memory compared to chimpanzees with adult bonobos performing comparably to juvenile chimpanzees 136 Similarity to humans Bonobos are capable of passing the mirror recognition test for self awareness as are all great apes 137 138 They communicate primarily through vocal means although the meanings of their vocalizations are not currently known However most humans do understand their facial expressions 139 and some of their natural hand gestures such as their invitation to play The communication system of wild bonobos includes a characteristic that was earlier only known in humans bonobos use the same call to mean different things in different situations and the other bonobos have to take the context into account when determining the meaning 140 Two bonobos at the Great Ape Trust Kanzi and Panbanisha have been taught how to communicate using a keyboard labeled with lexigrams geometric symbols and they can respond to spoken sentences Kanzi s vocabulary consists of more than 500 English words 141 and he has comprehension of around 3 000 spoken English words 142 Kanzi is also known for learning by observing people trying to teach his mother Kanzi started doing the tasks that his mother was taught just by watching some of which his mother had failed to learn Some such as philosopher and bioethicist Peter Singer argue that these results qualify them for rights to survival and life rights which humans theoretically accord to all persons See great ape personhood In the 1990s Kanzi was taught to make and use simple stone tools This resulted from a study undertaken by researchers Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth and later Gary Garufi The researchers wanted to know if Kanzi possessed the cognitive and biomechanical abilities required to make and use stone tools Though Kanzi was able to form flakes he did not create them in the same way as humans who hold the core in one hand and knap it with the other Kanzi threw the cobble against a hard surface or against another cobble This allowed him to produce a larger force to initiate a fracture as opposed to knapping it in his hands 143 As in other great apes and humans third party affiliation toward the victim the affinitive contact made toward the recipient of an aggression by a group member other than the aggressor is present in bonobos 144 A 2013 study 145 found that both the affiliation spontaneously offered by a bystander to the victim and the affiliation requested by the victim solicited affiliation can reduce the probability of further aggression by group members on the victim this fact supporting the Victim Protection Hypothesis Yet only spontaneous affiliation reduced victim anxiety measured via self scratching rates thus suggesting not only that non solicited affiliation has a consolatory function but also that the spontaneous gesture more than the protection itself works in calming the distressed subject The authors hypothesize that the victim may perceive the motivational autonomy of the bystander who does not require an invitation to provide post conflict affinitive contact Moreover spontaneous but not solicited third party affiliation was affected by the bond between consoler and victim this supporting the Consolation Hypothesis Importantly spontaneous affiliation followed the empathic gradient described for humans being mostly offered to kin then friends then acquaintances these categories having been determined using affiliation rates between individuals Hence consolation in the bonobo may be an empathy based phenomenon Instances in which bonobos have expressed joy have been reported One study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human infants and bonobos when they were tickled 146 Although the bonobos laugh was at a higher frequency the laugh was found to follow a spectrographic pattern similar to that of human babies 146 Distribution and habitat nbsp A year old bonobo Ulrik Bonobos are found only south of the Congo River and north of the Kasai River a tributary of the Congo 147 in the humid forests of the Democratic Republic of Congo Ernst Schwarz s 1927 paper Le Chimpanze de la Rive Gauche du Congo announcing his discovery has been read as an association between the Parisian Left Bank and the left bank of the Congo River the bohemian culture in Paris and an unconventional ape in the Congo 148 The ranges of bonobos and chimpanzees are separated by the Congo River with bonobos living to its south and chimpanzees to the north 149 150 Ecological role nbsp Bonobos disperse the seeds of more than 91 species of plants across distances of several kilometersIn the Congo tropical rainforest the very great majority of plants need animals to reproduce and disperse their seeds 151 Bonobos are the second largest frugivorous animals in this region after elephants It is estimated that during its life each bonobo will ingest and disperse nine tons of seeds from more than 91 species of lianas grass trees and shrubs These seeds travel for about 24 hours in the bonobo digestive tract which can transfer them over several kilometers mean 1 3 km max 4 5 km far from their parents where they will be deposited intact in their feces These dispersed seeds remain viable germinating better and more quickly than unpassed seeds 152 For those seeds diplochory with dung beetles Scarabaeidae improves post dispersal survival 153 Certain plants such as Dialium may even be dependent on bonobos to activate the germination of their seeds characterized by tegumentary dormancy 154 The first parameters of the effectiveness of seed dispersal by bonobos are present Behavior of the bonobo could affect the population structure of plants whose seeds they disperse The majority of these zoochorous plants cannot recruit without dispersal and the homogeneous spatial structure of the trees suggests a direct link with their dispersal agent 155 Few species could replace bonobos in terms of seed dispersal services just as bonobos could not replace elephants There is little functional redundancy between frugivorous mammals of the Congo which face severe human hunting pressures and local extinction The defaunation of the forests leading to the empty forest syndrome is critical in conservation biology The disappearance of the bonobos which disperse seeds of 40 of the tree species in these forests or 11 6 million individual seeds during the life of each bonobo would have consequences for the conservation of the Congo rainforest 152 155 Conservation statusThe IUCN Red List classifies bonobos as an endangered species with conservative population estimates ranging from 29 500 to 50 000 individuals 2 Major threats to bonobo populations include habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat the latter activity having increased dramatically during the first and second Congo Wars in the Democratic Republic of Congo due to the presence of heavily armed militias even in remote protected areas such as Salonga National Park This is part of a more general trend of ape extinction As the bonobos habitat is shared with many people the ultimate success of conservation efforts still relies on local and community involvement The issue of parks versus people 156 is salient in the Cuvette Centrale within the bonobos range There is strong local and broad based Congolese resistance to establishing national parks as indigenous communities have previously been driven from their forest homes by the forming of parks In Salonga National Park the only national park in bonobo habitat there is no local involvement and surveys undertaken since 2000 indicate the bonobo the African forest elephant the okapi and other rare species have been devastated by poachers and the thriving bushmeat trade 157 In contrast areas do exist where the bonobo and ecological biodiversity still thrive without any established park borders due to the indigenous beliefs taboos against killing bonobos and other animals During the wars in the 1990s researchers and international non governmental organizations NGOs were driven out of the bonobo habitat In 2002 the Bonobo Conservation Initiative initiated the Bonobo Peace Forest Project supported by the Global Conservation Fund of Conservation International in cooperation with national institutions local NGOs and local communities the Peace Forest Project works with local communities to establish a linked constellation of community based reserves managed by local and indigenous people This model implemented mainly through DRC organizations and local communities has helped bring about agreements to protect over 50 000 square miles 130 000 km2 of the bonobo habitat According to Amy Parish the Bonobo Peace Forest is going to be a model for conservation in the 21st century 158 The port town of Basankusu is situated on the Lulonga River at the confluence of the Lopori and Maringa Rivers in the north of the country making it well placed to receive and transport local goods to the cities of Mbandaka and Kinshasa With Basankusu being the last port of substance before the wilderness of the Lopori Basin and the Lomako River the bonobo heartland conservation efforts for the bonobo 159 use the town as a base 160 161 In 1995 concern over declining numbers of bonobos in the wild led the Zoological Society of Milwaukee ZSM in Milwaukee Wisconsin with contributions from bonobo scientists around the world to publish the Action Plan for Pan paniscus A Report on Free Ranging Populations and Proposals for their Preservation The Action Plan compiles population data on bonobos from 20 years of research conducted at various sites throughout the bonobo s range The plan identifies priority actions for bonobo conservation and serves as a reference for developing conservation programs for researchers government officials and donor agencies Acting on Action Plan recommendations the ZSM developed the Bonobo and Congo Biodiversity Initiative This program includes habitat and rain forest preservation training for Congolese nationals and conservation institutions wildlife population assessment and monitoring and education The ZSM has conducted regional surveys within the range of the bonobo in conjunction with training Congolese researchers in survey methodology and biodiversity monitoring The ZSM s initial goal was to survey Salonga National Park to determine the conservation status of the bonobo within the park and to provide financial and technical assistance to strengthen park protection As the project has developed the ZSM has become more involved in helping the Congolese living in bonobo habitat They have built schools hired teachers provided some medicines and started an agriculture project to help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on hunting wild animals 162 With grants from the United Nations USAID the U S Embassy the World Wildlife Fund and many other groups and individuals the ZSM also has been working to Survey the bonobo population and its habitat to find ways to help protect these apes Develop antipoaching measures to help save apes forest elephants and other endangered animals in Congo s Salonga National Park a UN World Heritage Site Provide training literacy education agricultural techniques schools equipment and jobs for Congolese living near bonobo habitats so that they will have a vested interest in protecting the great apes the ZSM started an agriculture project to help the Congolese learn to grow crops and depend less on hunting wild animals Model small scale conservation methods that can be used throughout CongoStarting in 2003 the U S government allocated 54 million to the Congo Basin Forest Partnership This significant investment has triggered the involvement of international NGOs to establish bases in the region and work to develop bonobo conservation programs This initiative should improve the likelihood of bonobo survival but its success still may depend upon building greater involvement and capability in local and indigenous communities 163 The bonobo population is believed to have declined sharply in the last 30 years though surveys have been hard to carry out in war ravaged central Congo Estimates range from 60 000 to fewer than 50 000 living according to the World Wildlife Fund In addition concerned parties have addressed the crisis on several science and ecological websites Organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature the African Wildlife Foundation and others are trying to focus attention on the extreme risk to the species Some have suggested that a reserve be established in a more stable part of Africa or on an island in a place such as Indonesia Awareness is ever increasing and even nonscientific or ecological sites have created various groups to collect donations to help with the conservation of this species Hybridization with chimpanzeesResearchers have found that both central Pan troglodytes troglodytes and eastern chimpanzees Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii share more genetic material with bonobos than other chimpanzee subspecies 164 It is believed that genetic admixture has occurred at least two times within the past 550 000 years 165 In modern times hybridization between bonobos and chimpanzees in the wild is prevented as populations are allopatric and kept isolated on different sides of the Congo river 166 Within captivity hybrids between bonobos and chimpanzees have been recorded Between 1990 and 1992 five pregnancies were conceived and studied between a male bonobo and two female chimpanzees The two initial pregnancies were aborted due to environmental stressors The following three pregnancies however lead to the birth of three hybrid offspring 167 A bonobo and chimpanzee hybrid called Tiby was also featured in the 2017 Swedish film The Square 168 Bonobos in Human CultureWorld Bonobo Day is February 14th Valentine s Day This was established in 2017 by the African Wildlife Foundation 169 See alsoBasankusu DR Congo base for bonobo research and conservation Bonobo Conservation Initiative Chimpanzee genome project Claudine Andre Great ape personhood Great Ape Project International Primate Day Kanzi List of apes notable individual nonhuman apes Lola ya Bonobo Koba a fictional bonobo and antagonist of the Planet of the Apes reboot seriesNotes Gynecocracy among people women s government over women and men or women s social supremacy References Groves CP 2005 Wilson DE Reeder DM eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press p 183 ISBN 0 801 88221 4 OCLC 62265494 a b Fruth B Hickey JR Andre C Furuichi T Hart J 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1864 1547 Retrieved 2023 12 01 Foundation Arcus 2021 04 29 Killing Capture Trade and Ape Conservation Volume 4 Cambridge University Press p 111 ISBN 9781108487948 Kibet R World Bonobo Day Protecting Our Closest Kin the Hippie Chimps February 14 2024Further readingBooks de Waal F Lanting F 1997 Bonobo The Forgotten Ape University of California Press ISBN 0 520 20535 9 Takayoshi K 1992 The Last Ape Pygmy Chimpanzee Behavior and Ecology Stanford CA Stanford University Press Savage Rumbaugh S Lewin R 1994 Kanzi The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind John Wiley ISBN 0 471 58591 2 Woods V 2010 Bonobo Handshake Gotham Books ISBN 978 1 59240 546 6 Sandin J 2007 Bonobos Encounters in Empathy Zoological Society of Milwaukee amp The Foundation for Wildlife Conservation Inc ISBN 978 0 9794151 0 4 de Waal F 2013 The Bonobo and the Atheist Norton ISBN 978 0 393 07377 5 Articles de Waal F 1995 Bonobo Sex amp Society Scientific American 272 3 82 88 Bibcode 1995SciAm 272c 82W doi 10 1038 scientificamerican0395 82 PMID 7871411 DeBartolo A 11 June 1998 The Bonobo Newest apes are teaching us about ourselves Chicago Tribune Archived from the original on 2003 02 11 Schweller K July 2012 Apes with Apps IEEE Spectrum Magazine 49 7 38 45 doi 10 1109 MSPEC 2012 6221081 S2CID 22556649 Madrigal A 11 June 2014 Brian the Mentally Ill Bonobo and How He Healed The Atlantic Parker I 30 July 2007 Swingers The New Yorker Bechard D February 2014 Viral Conservation The Solutions Journal Archived from the original on 2016 03 26 Retrieved 2016 07 13 Journal articles Fischer A Prufer K Good JM Halbwax M Wiebe V Andre C et al 29 June 2011 Joly E ed Bonobos fall within the genomic variation of chimpanzees PLOS ONE 6 6 e21605 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 621605F doi 10 1371 journal pone 0021605 PMC 3126833 PMID 21747915 Zsurka G Kudina T Peeva V Hallmann K Elger CE Khrapko K Kunz WS September 2010 Distinct patterns of mitochondrial genome diversity in bonobos Pan paniscus and humans BMC Evolutionary Biology 10 1 270 Bibcode 2010BMCEE 10 270Z doi 10 1186 1471 2148 10 270 PMC 2942848 PMID 20813043 Wildman DE Uddin M Liu G Grossman LI Goodman M June 2003 Implications of natural selection in shaping 99 4 nonsynonymous DNA identity between humans and chimpanzees enlarging genus Homo Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100 12 7181 8 Bibcode 2003PNAS 100 7181W doi 10 1073 pnas 1232172100 PMC 165850 PMID 12766228 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pan paniscus nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Bonobo Evolution Why Sex Bonobos Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation Primate Info Net Pan paniscus Factsheet Susan Savage Rumbaugh The gentle genius of bonobos TED WWF World Wide Fund for Nature World Wildlife Fund Bonobo species profile San Diego Zoo Library Bonobo Pan paniscus View the panPan1 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser Portals nbsp Biology nbsp Primates Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bonobo amp oldid 1207825824, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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