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History of higher education in the United States

The history of higher education in the United States begins in 1636 and continues to the present time. American higher education is known throughout the world.

Colonial era

 
Harvard University, founded in 1636, is the oldest institution of higher education in the United States
 
Wren Building at College of William & Mary, built in 1700, is the oldest academic building in continuous use in the United States

Religious denominations established most early colleges in order to train ministers. They were modeled after Oxford and Cambridge universities in England, as well as Scottish universities. Harvard College was founded by the Massachusetts Bay colonial legislature in 1636, and named after an early benefactor. Most of the funding came from the colony, but the colleges began to collect endowments early on. Harvard first focused on training young men for the ministry, and won general support from the Puritan government, some of whose leaders had attended either Oxford or Cambridge.[1] The College of William & Mary was founded by the Virginia government in 1693, with 20,000 acres (81 km2) of land for an endowment, and a penny tax on every pound of tobacco, together with an annual appropriation. James Blair, the leading Church of England minister in the colony, was president for 50 years, and the college won the broad support of the Virginia gentry. It trained many of the lawyers, politicians, and leading planters at the time.[2] Yale College was founded in 1701, and in 1716 was relocated to New Haven, Connecticut. The conservative Puritan ministers of Connecticut had grown dissatisfied with the more liberal theology of Harvard and wanted their own school to train orthodox ministers.[3]

New Light Presbyterians in 1747 set up the College of New Jersey, in the town of Princeton; it was later renamed Princeton University in 1896. In New York City, the Church of England set up King's College by royal charter in 1746, with its president Doctor Samuel Johnson the only teacher. Following the American Revolutionary War, the Tory administration of the college was overthrown and it was renamed Columbia College in 1784, then later renamed Columbia University in 1896. Rhode Island College was founded by Baptists in 1764, and in 1804 it was renamed Brown University in honor of a benefactor. Brown was especially liberal in welcoming young men from other denominations. The Academy of Pennsylvania, a secondary school, was founded in 1749 by Benjamin Franklin and other civic-minded leaders in Philadelphia. In 1755, it received its charter, was renamed College of Philadelphia and was converted into an institution of higher education. Unlike the other universities, it was not oriented towards the training of ministers. It was renamed the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. The Dutch Reformed Church in 1766 set up Queen's College in New Jersey, which later became Rutgers University. Dartmouth College, chartered in 1769, moved to its present site in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1770.[4][5]

Seeking a national university

Although European nations did not have a national university, many political and intellectual leaders called for one to unify the new nation intellectually, promote republicanism, enhance the status of learning, and keep up with European standards of scholarship. George Washington as president was the most prominent advocate along with Benjamin Rush, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Charles Pinckney, James Wilson, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Alexander Hamilton, Joel Barlow, and James Monroe. Strong opposition came from the economy- and provincial-minded men who distrusted imposed uniformity in ideas. Anti-intellectualism, states-rights-ism, and indifference defeated the dream. However repeated efforts produced some smaller-scale operations: Columbian College in 1919 (now George Washington University) as well as national scientific centers including a National Observatory, the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1863, the National Academy of Sciences.[6][7]

Nineteenth century

Most Protestant, as well as Catholic, denominations opened small colleges in the nineteenth century, mostly after 1850.[8][9] Nearly all taught in the English language, although there were a few German language seminaries and colleges.[10]

Frontier

While colleges were springing up across the Northeast, there was little competition on the western frontier for Transylvania University, founded in Lexington, Kentucky in 1780.[11] In addition to its undergraduate program, it boasted law and medical programs. It attracted politically ambitious young men from across the Southwest including 50 who became United States senators, 101 congressmen, 36 governors and 34 ambassadors, as well as Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy.[12] Many of the colleges started at this time were funded by churches and denominations, instructing pastors and teachers. It wasn't until the Morrill Land-Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890 that public colleges and universities were started in the Midwest, including many of the first public HBCU's[13]

Curriculum

All the schools were small, with a limited undergraduate curriculum based on the liberal arts. Students were drilled in Greek, Latin, geometry, ancient history, logic, ethics and rhetoric, with few discussions and no lab sessions. Originality and creativity were not prized, but exact repetition was rewarded. The college president typically enforced strict discipline, and the upperclassman enjoyed hazing the freshman. Many students were younger than 17, and most of the colleges concurrently operated a preparatory school. There were no organized sports or Greek-letter fraternities, but literary societies were active. Tuition was very low and scholarships were few. Many of the students were sons of clergymen; most planned professional careers as ministers, lawyers or teachers.[14]

By the 1820s there was a growing demand to replace Greek and Latin with modern languages, as had been proposed by Jeffersonians at the University of Virginia and the newly opened University of the City of New York. The Yale Report of 1828 was a defense of the Latin and Greek curriculum. It called to maintain traditions, especially against the forceful reputation of the German research universities that were starting to attract young American postgraduate scholars. Most critics viewed it as a reactionary move, although Pak Depicted in terms of attracting students from the growing number of private academies that continued to stress the classic languages. The reformers failed, and the classical languages continued as the centerpiece of the rigid traditional curriculum until after the Civil War.[15][16] For example, at East Alabama Male College, a small Methodist school was founded in 1856 with a curriculum centered on Latin, Greek, and moral science; it resembled most other antebellum Southern colleges. It closed during the Civil War and reopened as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama, becoming the state's land-grant institution. While retaining some of the antebellum classical curriculum to accommodate the returning faculty, it added new courses in agricultural and industrial arts, as well as applied sciences. It became Alabama Polytechnic Institute in 1899, and is now known as Auburn University.[17]

Impact of 19th-century colleges

Many American scholars and scientists studied at German universities before 1914. They returned with PhDs and built research-oriented universities based on the German model, such as Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Chicago and Stanford, and upgraded established schools like Harvard, Columbia and Wisconsin.[18]

However the liberal arts colleges also flourished and most did not add graduate programs. Summarizing the research of Burke and Hall, Katz concludes that in the 19th century:[19]

  1. The nation's many small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations.
  2. These colleges especially promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers, and thereby provided towns across the country with a core of community leaders.
  3. The more elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed relatively little to upward social mobility. By concentrating on the offspring of wealthy families, ministers and a few others, the elite Eastern colleges, especially Harvard, played an important role in the formation of a Northeastern elite with great power.

Law and medical schools

 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in Philadelphia, founded in 1765 as the College of Philadelphia Department of Medicine, was the first medical school in the United States

There were no schools of law in the early British colonies. Thus no schools of law were in America during the colonial times. A few lawyers studied at the highly prestigious Inns of Court in London, while the majority served apprenticeships with established American lawyers.[20] Law was very well established in the colonies, compared to medicine, which was in a more rudimentary condition. In the 18th century, 117 Americans had graduated in medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, but most physicians in the colonies learned as apprentices.[21] In Philadelphia, the Medical College of Philadelphia was founded in 1765, and became affiliated with the university in 1791. In New York, the medical department of King's College was established in 1767, and in 1770 awarded the first American M.D. degree. It is now Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons.[22]

On the frontier after 1799, medical professionalism and medical education was heavily influenced by the medical program at Transylvania University in Kentucky, which graduated 8000 doctors by 1860.[23][24]

Women and African-Americans at college

 
Mary Lyon (1797-1849) founded the first woman's college, Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1837

Mary Lyon (1797-1849) founded Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1837; it was the first college opened for women and is now Mount Holyoke College, one of the Seven Sisters. Lyon was a deeply religious Congregationalist who, although not a minister, preached revivals at her school. She greatly admired colonial theologian Jonathan Edwards for his theology and his ideals of self-restraint, self-denial, and disinterested benevolence.[25] Georgia Female College, now Wesleyan College opened in 1839 as the first Southern college for women.[26][27]

Oberlin College opened in 1833 as Oberlin Collegiate Institute, in the heavily Yankee northeastern corner of Ohio. In 1837, it became the first coeducational college by admitting four women. Soon they were fully integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men. Indeed, many alumnae, inspired by this sense of superiority and their personal duty to fulfill God's mission engaged in missionary work. Historians have typically presented coeducation at Oberlin as an enlightened societal development presaging the future evolution of the ideal of equality for women in higher education[28] Intensely anti-slavery, Oberlin was the only college to admit black students in the 1830s. By the 1880s, however, with the fading of evangelical idealism, the school began segregating its black students.[29]

The enrollment of women grew steadily after the Civil War. In 1870, 9,100 women comprised 21% of all college students. In 1930, 481,000 women comprised 44% of the student body.

College women
enrollment
Women's colleges Coed-colleges % of all
students
1870 6,500 2,600 21%
1890 16,800 39,500 36%
1910 34,100 106,500 40%
1930 82,100 398,700 44%
Source:[30]

During 1973 and 1975 the numbers of African Americans who graduated from high school and went to college rose, but in the 1980s the numbers went down again. In the 1980s the number of white students stayed the same while African American students dropped. Scholars say this is because of changes of college costs and changes to the Pell Grant. Most attribute these changes in numbers to Pell Grant cuts. The numbers were higher in the 1970s because the costs for education at that time were lower. Since the drop of these numbers and the number of African American students seemed connected scholars decided that prices were the reason for changing student demographics. While there are always other reasons for changes in student enrollment, cost in the nineteenth century had a lot to do with the enrollment of students. The prices increased in the 1980s, leading to lower income families becoming unable to enroll in colleges. Changes to the Pell Grant qualifications changed the ability to attend for many students. The Pell Grant, as time went on, covered less costs and included less students. There have been many changes to the Pell Grant over the years.[31]

African American studies bloomed in colleges during the black power protests and changing cultural views which created a different campus experience. These changes occurred during the civil rights movement and the Vietnam protests. During this time colleges started to change over to be co-educational. More women were then allowed to attend schools that previously only accepted male students. The baby-boomers who were attending college at this time changed many aspects of college life, which included a more inclusive structure for women and minorities. In the late 1960s the Rockefeller foundation gave a grant to Reed college for more African American Students to attend.[32]

Philanthropy and funding

 
Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island is one of eight prestigious Ivy League universities in the United States that are routinely ranked among the best universities in the world[33]

Local wealthy families supported local schools, especially of their religious denomination, often by donating land. Wealthy philanthropists for example, established Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, Carnegie Mellon University, Vanderbilt University and Duke University. John D. Rockefeller funded the University of Chicago without imposing his name on it.[34]

Protestant denominations set up funds that by 1830 subsidized about a fourth of the prospective ministers then in college. The American Education Society, founded in 1815, raised funds from local Protestant churches to support their students. Furthermore, it aided academies, colleges, and seminaries and helped to maintain high academic standards. It was a champion of the classical curriculum against the demands for more modern skills.[35][36]

Land Grant universities

 
Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kansas was founded as one of the first institutions established under the Morrill Land-Grant Acts

Each state used federal funding from the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up "land grant colleges" that specialized in agriculture and engineering.

Among the first were Iowa State University, in Iowa, Purdue University in Indiana, Michigan State University, Kansas State University, Cornell University (in New York), Texas A&M University, Pennsylvania State University, The Ohio State University and the University of California. Few alumni became farmers, but they did play an increasingly important role in the larger food industry, especially after the Extension system was set up in 1916 that put trained agronomists in every agricultural county.

The engineering graduates played a major role in rapid technological development.[37] Indeed, the land-grant college system produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who constituted the critical human resources of the managerial revolution in government and business (1862–1917) laying the foundation of the world's preeminent educational infrastructure that supported the world's foremost technology-based economy.[38]

Pennsylvania State University is a good example of this. The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania State University), chartered in 1855, was intended to uphold declining agrarian values and show farmers ways to prosper through more productive farming. Students were to build character and meet a part of their expenses by performing agricultural labor. By 1875, the compulsory labor requirement was dropped, but male students were to have an hour per day of military training in order to meet the requirements of the Morrill Land Grant College Act. In the early years the agricultural curriculum was not well developed, and politicians in Harrisburg often considered it a costly and useless experiment. The college was a center of middle-class values that served to help young people on their journey to white-collar occupations.[39]

Black land grant colleges

In 1890, Congress funded all-black land grant colleges, which were dedicated primarily to teacher training. These colleges made important contributions to rural development, including the establishment of a traveling school program by the Tuskegee Institute in 1906. Rural conferences sponsored by Tuskegee focused on improving the efficiency and living standards of black farmers. Its founder, Booker T. Washington, was the most influential black spokesman of the 1895–1915 era, and he obtained many academic grants from northern philanthropists and foundations.[40] Starting in 1900, he worked to open connections with educators in Africa; for example he worked with the Phelps-Stokes Fund and the Firestone Rubber Company to design the Booker T. Washington Agricultural and Industrial Institute in Liberia. It was delayed by World War I and opened in 1928, 13 years after Washington's death.[41] Since the 1960s, the 19th century schools had helped train many students from less-developed countries who returned home with the ability to improve agricultural production.[42]

Twentieth century

At the beginning of the 20th century, fewer than 1,000 colleges, with 160,000 students, existed in the United States. Explosive growth in the number of colleges occurred in bursts, especially in 1900–1930 and in 1950–1970. State universities grew from small institutions of fewer than 1000 students to campuses with 40,000 more students, as well as a network of regional campuses around the state. In turn the regional campuses broke away and became separate universities. To handle the growth of K–12 education, every state set up a network of teachers' colleges, beginning with Massachusetts in 1830s. After 1950, they became state colleges and then state universities with a broad curriculum.

College degrees awarded, 1870–2009
Year BA degrees MA degrees PhD degrees
1870    9,400  NA     1
1890   15,500   1,000   149
1910   37,200   2,100   440
1930  122,500  15,000  2,300
1950  432,000  58,200  6,600
1970  827,000 208,000 29,900
1990 1,052,000 325,000 38,000
2009 1,600,000 657,000 67,000
source: census[43]

Graduate programs

 
Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut awarded the first Ph.D. degree in the United States in 1861[44]

Advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. This began to change in the mid-19th century, as thousands of the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for one to three years to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the sciences or the humanities.[45][46] Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In the 1860s and 1870s, Yale and Harvard awarded a few PhD's. The major breakthrough came[according to whom?] with the opening of Clark University, which only offered graduate programs, and Johns Hopkins University, which began focusing more seriously on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs; their alumni were in strong demand at aspiring universities. By 1900, there were 6,000 enrolled graduate students. The six main universities awarded about 300 PhD's annually.[47]

In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. This began to change when private foundations began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the academic scholars of the time, set up a network of scholarly journals. "Publish or perish" became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to master's or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities, not just large research universities.[48][49]

Junior colleges

Major new trends included the development of the junior colleges. They were usually set up by city school systems starting in the 1920s.[50] By the 1960s some were renamed "community colleges".

Junior colleges grew from just 20 in 1909 to 170 in 1919. By 1922, 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges, enrolling about 150 students each. Meanwhile, another 137 were privately operated, with about 60 students each. Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s, with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70,000 students. The peak year for private institutions came in 1949, when there were 322 junior colleges in all; 180 were affiliated with churches, 108 were independent non-profit, and 34 were private Schools run for-profit.[51]

Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges. Students, parents and businessmen wanted nearby, low-cost schools to provide training for the growing white-collar labor force, as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue collar sphere. Four-year colleges were also growing, albeit not as fast; however many of them were located in rural or small-town areas away from the fast-growing metropolis. Community colleges continue as open enrollment, low-cost institutions with a strong component of vocational education, as well as a lower-cost preparation for transfer students into four-year schools. They appeal to a poorer, older, less prepared element.[52]

Great Depression and New Deal

The Great Depression that began in 1929 was a major blow to higher education. Only the richest schools like Harvard had endowments big enough to absorb the losses. Smaller prestigious schools, such as MIT and Northwestern, had to cope with serious cutbacks.[53] Despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard University–the federally operated school for blacks—saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels.[54]

After the golden years of the 1920s, the downturn hit hard at Northwestern University, a private school in Illinois. Its annual income dropped 25 percent from $4.8 million in 1930–31 to $3.6 million in 1933–34. The endowment investments shrank, fewer parents could pay full tuition, and annual giving from alumni and philanthropy fell from $870,000 in 1932 to a low of $331,000 in 1935. The university responded with two salary cuts of 10 percent each for all employees. It imposed a hiring freeze, a building freeze, and slashed appropriations for maintenance, books, and research. From a balanced budget in 1930–31, the university had deficits in the range of $100,000 for the next four years, which was made up by using the endowment. Enrollments fell in most schools, with law and music hardest hit. However, the movement toward state certification of school teachers enabled Northwestern to open up a new graduate program in education, bringing in a new clientele. At this financial low point, in June 1933, President Robert Maynard Hutchins of the University of Chicago proposed to merge the two universities, estimating annual savings of $1.7 million. The two presidents were enthusiastic, and the faculty were supportive. However, the Northwestern alumni were vehemently opposed, fearing the loss of their traditions. The medical school was oriented toward training practitioners, and felt it would lose its mission if it was merged into the larger, research oriented University of Chicago medical school. The merger plan was thus dropped. The Deering family gave an unrestricted gift of $6 million in 1935 that rescued the budget, bringing it up to $5.4 million in 1938–39. That allowed many of the spending cuts to be restored, including half the salary reductions.[55]

State colleges and universities had depended largely on grants from the legislature, ignoring fund-raising, philanthropy. They kept tuition close to zero. Many were very hard-pressed by the Great Depression—it almost shut down the University of Colorado, as the legislature slashed its budget, there was practically no endowment, and tuition was already very low. The medical school was nearly closed in 1938 – it survived when the legislature allowed it to borrow more money. In 1939. The main campus in Boulder came within a few days of having to close. The bright spot came in the building projects. The PWA spent nearly $1 million on 15 new buildings on the Boulder campus and the medical school campus in Denver. That included a fieldhouse, a natural history museum, new wings for the college of arts and sciences, a faculty club, a small library and a new hospital. The RFC loaned $550,000 in 1933 to build women's dormitories, with the loans repaid through room and board charges.[56]

Indiana University fared much better than most state schools thanks to the entrepreneurship of its young president Herman Wells. He collaborated with Frederick L. Hovde, the president of IU's cross state rival, Purdue; together they approached the Indiana delegation to Congress, indicating their highest priorities. For Wells, it was to build a world-class music school, replacing dilapidated facilities. As a result of these efforts, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) built one of finest facilities in the country. He added matching funds from the state legislature, and opened a full-scale fund-raising campaign among alumni and the business community. In 1942, Wells reported that "The past five years have been the greatest single period of expansion in the physical plant of the university in its entire history. In this period 15 new buildings have been constructed.[57][58]

Higher education was much too elitist to fit into the New Deal agenda. The educational establishment was ignored. President Franklin Roosevelt even ignored his Commissioner of education John Ward Studebaker and cut his budget. Pleas for emergency assistance for higher education, or for research projects, were rejected.[59] However, relief agencies such as WPA and PWA were in the construction business, and work closely with local and state government which sometimes included new buildings and athletic facilities for public universities. While the New Deal would not give money to colleges or school districts, it did give work-study money to needy students, from high school through graduate school. The average pay scale was $15 a month for part-time work.[60]

GI Bill

Eager to avoid a repeat of the highly controversial debates over a postwar years and then the bonus to veterans of the first World War, Congress in 1944 passed the G.I. Bill. It was promoted primarily by the veterans organizations, especially the American Legion, and represented a conservative program of financial aid not to poor people, but one limited to veterans who had served in wartime, regardless of their financial situation. The GI Bill made college education possible for millions by paying tuition and living expenses. The government provided between $800 and $1,400 each year to these veterans as a subsidy to attend college, which covered 50–80% of total costs. This included forgone earnings in addition to tuition, which allowed them to have enough funds for life outside of school. It opened up higher education to ambitious young men who would otherwise have been forced to immediately enter the job market. When comparing college attendance rates between veterans and non-veterans during this period, veterans were around 10% more likely to go to college than non-veterans. Most campuses became overwhelmingly male thanks to the GI Bill, since few women were veterans. However, by 2000, women had reached parity in numbers and began passing men in rates of college and graduate school attendance.[61]

Great Society

Under the leadership of President Lyndon B. Johnson, Congress in 1964, passed numerous Great Society programs that greatly expanded federal support for education. The Higher Education Act of 1965 set up federal scholarships and low-interest loans for college students, and subsidized better academic libraries, ten to twenty new graduate centers, several new technical institutes, classrooms for several hundred thousand students, and twenty-five to thirty new community colleges a year. A separate education bill enacted that same year provided similar assistance to dental and medical schools.[62]

For-profit universities

A major development[according to whom?] of the late twentieth century was the emergence on a very large scale of for-profit higher education institutions. They have traditionally appealed to low-income students, who could borrow money from the federal government to pay the tuition, and to veterans who received tuition money as part of their enlistment bonus. They have become very controversial in the 21st century, because of the high proportion of students who fail to graduate, or who do graduate and fail to get appropriate jobs; many default on repayment of their federal loans as a result. There has been additional concern over for-profit colleges as they fundamentally changed the view of colleges as a public good.[63] As of 2016, some for profit colleges have been sanctioned by federal agencies for preying on vulnerable populations who accrue massive student loan debt in the course of earning a degree that has less value than those obtained from public or private institutions of higher learning.[64] Federal and state officials started cracking down on for-profit universities, and some have gone out of business.[65][66]

Roman Catholic colleges and universities

 
Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. was the first Catholic institution of higher education founded in the United States

The first Catholic college in the United States was Georgetown University, founded in Georgetown (now Washington, D.C.). Some of the small colleges of the 19th century have become major universities and integrated into the mainstream academic community.[67]

The Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities was founded in 1899 and continues to facilitate the exchange of information and methods.[68] Vigorous debate in recent decades has focused on how to balance Catholic and academic roles, with conservatives arguing that bishops should exert more control to guarantee orthodoxy.[69][70][71]

The orders of nuns, and some dioceses, founded numerous colleges for women. The first was the College of Notre Dame of Maryland, which opened elementary and secondary schools in Baltimore in 1873 and a four-year college in 1895. It added graduate programs in the 1980s that accepted men and is now Notre Dame of Maryland University.[72] Another 42 women's colleges opened by 1925. By 1955, there were 116 Catholic colleges for women. Most—but not all of them—went co-ed, merged, or closed after 1970.[73]

Twenty-first century

The twenty-first century has been characterized by the growth of for-profit higher education, including the continued evolution of online learning. By 2010, student enrollment had peaked, and enrollment at community colleges, for-profit colleges, regional institutions, and smaller colleges and universities began to drop. But online education, boosted by online program managers continued to grow. In 2020 and 2021, the federal government provided billions of dollars in relief to schools that suffered from the COVID-19 pandemic.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See Roger L. Geiger, The History of American Higher Education (2014) pp 1-8 online
  2. ^ See Geiger, The History of American Higher Education (2014) pp 11-15 online
  3. ^ See Geiger, The History of American Higher Education (2014) pp 8-11 online
  4. ^ John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (2004) pp 1-40
  5. ^ Lawrence A. Cremin, American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783 1970, passim
  6. ^ Albert Castel, . "The Founding Fathers and the Vision of a National University." History of Education Quarterly 4.4 (1964): 280-302.
  7. ^ George Thomas, The Founders and the Idea of a National University: Constituting the American Mind (2014).
  8. ^ David B. Potts, "American colleges in the nineteenth century: From localism to denominationalism." History of Education Quarterly (1971): 363-380 in JSTOR.
  9. ^ David B. Potts, Baptist colleges in the development of American society, 1812-1861 (1988).
  10. ^ Louis A. Haselmayer, "German Methodist colleges in the West." Methodist History (1964) 2#4 pp 35-43. online 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ John, Jr. Wright, Transylvania: Tutor to the West (1976)
  12. ^ John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (2004) pp 46-47
  13. ^ Thelin, J. R. (2014). Essential documents in the history of American higher education. JHU Press. p. 76, 93
  14. ^ Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (1962) pp 3-22
  15. ^ Michael S. Pak, "The Yale Report of 1828: A New Reading and New Implications," History of Education Quarterly (2008) 48#1 pp 30-57 in JSTOR
  16. ^ Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (1962) pp 124-135
  17. ^ Dwayne Cox, "Academic Purpose and Command at Auburn, 1856-1902," Alabama Review (2008) 51#2 pp 83-104 online
  18. ^ Lawrence R. Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1965) pp. 127–133.
  19. ^ Michael Katz, "The Role of American Colleges in the Nineteenth Century", History of Education Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Summer, 1983), pp. 215-223 in JSTOR, summarizing Colin B. Burke, American Collegiate Populations: A Test of the Traditional View (New York University Press, 1982) and Peter Dobkin Hall, The Organization of American Culture: Private Institutions, Elites, and the Origins of American Nationality (New York University Press, 1982)
  20. ^ Anton-Hermann Chroust, Rise of the Legal Profession in America (1965) vol 1 ch 1-2
  21. ^ Genevieve Miller, "A Physician in 1776", Clio Medica, Oct 1976, Vol. 11 Issue 3, pp 135-146
  22. ^ Jacob Ernest Cooke, ed. Encyclopedia of the North American colonies (3 vol 1992) 1:214
  23. ^ John D. Wright, Jr. ed., Transylvania: Tutor to the West (1980)
  24. ^ L. G. Zerfas, "Medical Education in Indiana As Influenced by Early Indiana Graduates in Medicine from Transylvania University" Indiana Magazine of History (1934) 30#2 pp 139-48 online
  25. ^ Andrea L. Turpin, "The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in the Educational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon," History of Education Quarterly, May 2010, Vol. 50 Issue 2, pp 133–158
  26. ^ F. N. Boney, "'The Pioneer College for Women': Wesleyan Over a Century and a Half." Georgia Historical Quarterly (1988) pp: 519-532. in JSTOR
  27. ^ Christie Anne Farnham, The education of the southern belle: Higher education and student socialization in the antebellum south (1994)
  28. ^ Hoagland adds that this innovation as also advantageous for men because it would uplift them spiritually. Ronald W. Hogeland, "Coeducation of the Sexes at Oberlin College: A Study of Social Ideas in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Social History, (1972-73) 6#2 pp. 160-176 at p 161 in JSTOR
  29. ^ Cally L. Waite, "The Segregation of Black Students at Oberlin College after Reconstruction," History of Education Quarterly (2001) 41#3 pp 344-64. in JSTOR
  30. ^ Mabel Newcomer, A century of higher education for American women (1959). p 46
  31. ^ Kane, Thomas J. (October 1994). "College Entry by Blacks since 1970: The Role of College Costs, Family Background, and the Returns to Education". Journal of Political Economy. 102 (5): 878–911. doi:10.1086/261958. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 153543847.
  32. ^ White, Martin (2018). "The Black Studies Controversy at Reed College, 1968–1970". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 119 (1): 6–37. doi:10.1353/ohq.2018.0063. ISSN 2329-3780. S2CID 245850161.
  33. ^ "Ivy League school", U.S. News & World Report, 2022
  34. ^ Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1965)
  35. ^ Natalie A. Naylor, "'Holding High the Standard': The Influence of the American Education Society in Ante-Bellum Education," History of Education Quarterly (1984) 24#4 pp. 479-497 in JSTOR
  36. ^ Rudolph, (1962) p 183
  37. ^ Alan I. Marcus, ed., Engineering in a Land Grant Context: The Past, Present, and Future of an Idea. Marcus (2005)
  38. ^ Louis Ferleger and William Lazonick, "Higher Education for an Innovative Economy: Land-grant Colleges and the Managerial Revolution in America," Business & Economic History 1994 23(1): 116-128
  39. ^ Jim Weeks, "A New Race of Farmers: the Labor Rule, the Farmers' High School, and the Origins of the Pennsylvania State University," Pennsylvania History 1995 62(1): 5-30,
  40. ^ Booker T. Gardner, "The educational contributions of Booker T. Washington". Journal of Negro Education (1975): 502-518. in JSTOR
  41. ^ Edward H. Berman, "Tuskegee-In-Africa", Journal of Negro Education (1972) 41#2 pp. 99–112 in JSTOR
  42. ^ B. D. Mayberry, A Century of Agriculture in the 1890 Land Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University, 1890-1990 (1991)
  43. ^ Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) series H 752, 757, 761; Statistical Abstract: 2012 (2011) table 300
  44. ^ Cassuto, Leonard (May 14, 2021). "Can Yale Reform Its Humanities Doctoral Programs?". www.chronicle.com. Retrieved 2021-05-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  45. ^ Carl Diehl, Americans and German scholarship, 1770-1870 (1978)
  46. ^ Henry Geitz, Jürgen Heideking, and Jurgen Herbst, eds. German influences on education in the United States to 1917 (1995)
  47. ^ Roger L. Geiger, "Research, graduate education, and the ecology of American universities: An interpretive history." in Lester F. Goodchild and Harold S. Weschler, eds., The History of Higher Education (2nd ed, 1997), pp 273–89
  48. ^ Christopher Jencks and David Riesman. The academic revolution (1968) ch 1.
  49. ^ Laurence R. Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1970) is the standard history; see pp 121–79.
  50. ^ Leonard V. Koos, The Junior College Movement (1924).
  51. ^ Cohen and Brawer, The American Community College (4th ed. 2003) p 13–14
  52. ^ Jesse P. Bogue, ed. American Junior Colleges (American council on education, 1948)
  53. ^ Richard M. Freeland, Academia’s golden age (1992) pp 55-59.
  54. ^ Clifford L. Muse, "Howard University and The Federal Government During The Presidential Administrations of Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1928-1945." Journal of Negro History 76.1/4 (1991): 1-20. in JSTOR
  55. ^ Harold F. Williamson and Payson S. Wild, Northwestern University: A History, 1850-1975 (1976) pp 180-95.
  56. ^ Frederick S. Allen, et al., eds., The University of Colorado: 1876-1976 (1976) pp 108-10.
  57. ^ Herman B Wells, Being Lucky (1980), pp 155-69
  58. ^ Thomas D Clark, Indiana University: Midwestern Pioneer volume 3: Years of Fulfillment (1977), p 168.
  59. ^ Ronald Story, The New Deal and Higher Education in The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism ed. by Sidney M. Milkis (2002). pp 272-96.
  60. ^ Report of the National Youth Administration, June 26, 1935 to June 30, 1938 (1938) online
  61. ^ Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin, The GI Bill: The New Deal for Veterans (2009)
  62. ^ Irving Bernstein, Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson (1994) pp 202–22
  63. ^ Hebel, Sara (2 March 2014). "From Public Good to Private Good: How Higher Education Got to a Tipping Point". Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  64. ^ Cellini, Stephanie Riegg; Darolia, Rajeev; Turner, Leslie. "The Government is Sanctioning For-Profit Colleges. What Happens to the Students?". Brookings Brown Center. Brookings Institution. Retrieved October 6, 2017.
  65. ^ Matt Krupnick, "States, federal government cracking down on for-profit colleges," CNNMoney March 12, 2014
  66. ^ "For-Profit Schools" 179 recent articles and editorials from the New York Times
  67. ^ Philip Gleason, Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century (Oxford U. Press, 1995.)
  68. ^ LaBelle, Jeffrey (2011). Catholic Colleges in the 21st Century: A Road Map for Campus Ministry. Paulist Press. ISBN 9781893757899.
  69. ^ John Rodden, "Less 'Catholic,' More 'catholic'? American Catholic Universities Since Vatican II." Society (2013) 50#1 pp: 21-27.
  70. ^ S. J. Currie, and L. Charles. "Pursuing Jesuit, Catholic identity and mission at US Jesuit colleges and universities." Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice (2011) 14#3 pp 4+ online
  71. ^ Matthew Thomas Larsen, The Duty and Right of the Diocesan Bishop to Watch Over the Preservation and Strengthening of the Catholic Character of Catholic Universities in His Diocese (PhD dissertation Catholic University of America, 2012)
  72. ^ Bridget Marie Engelmeyer, "A Maryland First", Maryland Historical Magazine (1993) 78#3 pp 186–204
  73. ^ Irene Harwarth; et al. (1997). Women's Colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges. DIANE Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 9780788143243.

Further reading

Surveys

  • Bogue, E. Grady and Aper, Jeffrey. Exploring the Heritage of American Higher Education: The Evolution of Philosophy and Policy. Oryx, 2000. 272 pp.
  • Cohen, Arthur M. The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System. (Jossey-Bass, 1998)
  • Dorn, Charles. For the Common Good: A New History of Higher Education in America (Cornell UP, 2017) 308 pp
  • Delbanco, Andrew. College: What It Was, Is, and Should Be (2012) online
  • Geiger, Roger L. The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton UP 2014), 584pp; encyclopedic in scope
  • Geiger, Roger L., ed. The American College in the Nineteenth Century. Vanderbilt University Press. (2000).
  • Geiger, Roger L. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940. (Oxford University Press, 1986).
  • Geiger, Roger L. Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II. Oxford University Press. (2001).
  • Horowitz, Helen L. Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present. (1987).
  • Jarausch, Konrad H., ed. The Transformation of Higher Learning 1860-1930: Expansion, Diversification, Social Opening, and Professionalization in England, Germany, Russia, and the United States (U. of Chicago Press, 1983) 375 pp.
  • Kerr, Clark. The Great Transformation in Higher Education, 1960–1980. State U. of New York Press, 1991. 383 pp.
  • Levine, D. O. The American college and the culture of aspiration, 1915–1940. (1986).
  • Lucas, C. J. American higher education: A history. (1994).
  • Monroe, Paul, ed. (1911), "American College: Historical Development", Cyclopedia of Education, vol. 2, New York: Macmillan, pp. 59–62, hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t6251wk11 – via HathiTrust
  • Monroe, P. (1922). "Colleges and Universities of the United States". In Foster Watson (ed.). Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Education. Vol. 4. London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1696–1703 – via Google Books.
  • Robson, David W. Educating Republicans: The College in the Era of the American Revolution, 1750–1800. (Greenwood, 1985) online
  • Ruben, Julie. The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality. University Of Chicago Press. (1996).
  • Rudolph, Frederick. The American College and University: A History (1962), a standard survey
  • Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education. Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2004. 421 pp.
  • Veysey Lawrence R. The Emergence of the American University. (1965).
  • Wechsler, Harold S. and Lester F. Goodchild, eds. The History of Higher Education (ASHE Reader) (3rd ed. 2008) excerpts from scholarly articles

Specialty topics

  • Barrow, Clyde W. Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928 (University of Wisconsin Press 1990)
  • Cardozier, Virgus R. Colleges and universities in World War II (1993) online
  • Freeland, Richard M. Academia's Golden Age: Universities in Massachusetts, 1945-1970 (1992) online
  • Goodchild, Lester F., et al., eds. Higher Education in the American West: Regional History and State Contexts (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
  • Jencks, Christopher, and David Riesman. The Academic Revolution (1969) influential study of changes in 1960s online
  • Leslie, W. Bruce. Gentlemen and Scholars: College and Community in the "Age of the University," 1865-1917 (1992) online
  • Oliver Jr., John William et al. eds. Cradles of Conscience: Ohio's Independent Colleges and Universities (2003) online
  • Syrett, Nicholas L. The Company He Keeps: A History of White College Fraternities (2009) online

Community colleges

  • Beach, J. M. and W. Norton Grubb. Gateway to Opportunity: A History of the Community College in the United States (2011)
  • Brint, S., & Karabel, J. The Diverted Dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 1900–1985. Oxford University Press. (1989).
  • Cohen, Arthur M. and Florence B. Brawer. The American Community College (1st ed. 1982; new edition 2013) excerpts & text search; widely cited comprehensive survey
  • Frye, John H. The Vision of the Public Junior College, 1900–1940: Professional Goals and Popular Aspirations. Greenwood, 1992. 163 pp.

Women and minorities

  • Eisenmann, Linda. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America, 1945–1965. (Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2006). 304 pp.
  • Faragher, John Mack and Howe, Florence, ed. Women and Higher Education in American History. Norton, 1988. 220 pp.
  • Gasman Marybeth and Roger L. Geiger. Higher Education for African Americans before the Civil Rights Era, 1900-1964 (2012)
  • Gleason, Philip. Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. (Oxford U. Press, 1995). 434 pp. online
  • Harwarth, Irene; et al. (1997). Women's Colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 9780788143243.
  • Leahy, William P. Adapting to America: Catholics, Jesuits, and Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. (Georgetown U. Press, 1991) 187 pp.
  • Perez, Mario Rios, and Sharon S. Lee. "Balancing Two Worlds: Asian American College Students Tell Their Life Stories /Mi Voz, Mi Vida: Latino College Students Tell Their Life Stories," Journal of American Ethnic History (2008) 27#4 pp 107–113. online
  • Roebuck, Julian B. and Komanduri S. Murty. Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Their Place in American Higher Education (1993) online

Primary sources

  • Cohen, Sol, ed. Education In the United States: A Documentary History (5 vol, 1974), 3600 pp of primary sources from origins to 1972
  • Hofstadter, Richard and Wilson Smith, eds. American Higher Education: A Documentary History (2 vol 1967); especially strong an academic freedom
  • Ihle, Elizabeth L., ed. Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies, and Documents. (Garland, 1992). 341 pp.
  • Knight, Edgar W., ed. A Documentary History of Education in the South Before 1860 (5 vol 1952)
  • Willis, George, Robert V. Bullough, and John T. Holton, eds. The American Curriculum: A Documentary History (1992)

history, higher, education, united, states, this, article, lead, section, short, adequately, summarize, points, please, consider, expanding, lead, provide, accessible, overview, important, aspects, article, march, 2021, history, higher, education, united, stat. This article s lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article March 2021 The history of higher education in the United States begins in 1636 and continues to the present time American higher education is known throughout the world Contents 1 Colonial era 1 1 Seeking a national university 2 Nineteenth century 2 1 Frontier 2 2 Curriculum 2 3 Impact of 19th century colleges 2 4 Law and medical schools 2 5 Women and African Americans at college 2 6 Philanthropy and funding 2 7 Land Grant universities 2 7 1 Black land grant colleges 3 Twentieth century 3 1 Graduate programs 3 2 Junior colleges 3 3 Great Depression and New Deal 3 4 GI Bill 3 5 Great Society 3 6 For profit universities 3 7 Roman Catholic colleges and universities 4 Twenty first century 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Further reading 7 1 Surveys 7 2 Specialty topics 7 3 Community colleges 7 4 Women and minorities 7 5 Primary sourcesColonial era Edit Harvard University founded in 1636 is the oldest institution of higher education in the United States Wren Building at College of William amp Mary built in 1700 is the oldest academic building in continuous use in the United States See also Slavery at American colleges and universities Religious denominations established most early colleges in order to train ministers They were modeled after Oxford and Cambridge universities in England as well as Scottish universities Harvard College was founded by the Massachusetts Bay colonial legislature in 1636 and named after an early benefactor Most of the funding came from the colony but the colleges began to collect endowments early on Harvard first focused on training young men for the ministry and won general support from the Puritan government some of whose leaders had attended either Oxford or Cambridge 1 The College of William amp Mary was founded by the Virginia government in 1693 with 20 000 acres 81 km2 of land for an endowment and a penny tax on every pound of tobacco together with an annual appropriation James Blair the leading Church of England minister in the colony was president for 50 years and the college won the broad support of the Virginia gentry It trained many of the lawyers politicians and leading planters at the time 2 Yale College was founded in 1701 and in 1716 was relocated to New Haven Connecticut The conservative Puritan ministers of Connecticut had grown dissatisfied with the more liberal theology of Harvard and wanted their own school to train orthodox ministers 3 New Light Presbyterians in 1747 set up the College of New Jersey in the town of Princeton it was later renamed Princeton University in 1896 In New York City the Church of England set up King s College by royal charter in 1746 with its president Doctor Samuel Johnson the only teacher Following the American Revolutionary War the Tory administration of the college was overthrown and it was renamed Columbia College in 1784 then later renamed Columbia University in 1896 Rhode Island College was founded by Baptists in 1764 and in 1804 it was renamed Brown University in honor of a benefactor Brown was especially liberal in welcoming young men from other denominations The Academy of Pennsylvania a secondary school was founded in 1749 by Benjamin Franklin and other civic minded leaders in Philadelphia In 1755 it received its charter was renamed College of Philadelphia and was converted into an institution of higher education Unlike the other universities it was not oriented towards the training of ministers It was renamed the University of Pennsylvania in 1791 The Dutch Reformed Church in 1766 set up Queen s College in New Jersey which later became Rutgers University Dartmouth College chartered in 1769 moved to its present site in Hanover New Hampshire in 1770 4 5 Seeking a national university Edit Although European nations did not have a national university many political and intellectual leaders called for one to unify the new nation intellectually promote republicanism enhance the status of learning and keep up with European standards of scholarship George Washington as president was the most prominent advocate along with Benjamin Rush Thomas Jefferson James Madison Charles Pinckney James Wilson John Adams John Quincy Adams Alexander Hamilton Joel Barlow and James Monroe Strong opposition came from the economy and provincial minded men who distrusted imposed uniformity in ideas Anti intellectualism states rights ism and indifference defeated the dream However repeated efforts produced some smaller scale operations Columbian College in 1919 now George Washington University as well as national scientific centers including a National Observatory the Smithsonian Institution and in 1863 the National Academy of Sciences 6 7 Nineteenth century EditMost Protestant as well as Catholic denominations opened small colleges in the nineteenth century mostly after 1850 8 9 Nearly all taught in the English language although there were a few German language seminaries and colleges 10 Frontier Edit While colleges were springing up across the Northeast there was little competition on the western frontier for Transylvania University founded in Lexington Kentucky in 1780 11 In addition to its undergraduate program it boasted law and medical programs It attracted politically ambitious young men from across the Southwest including 50 who became United States senators 101 congressmen 36 governors and 34 ambassadors as well as Jefferson Davis the president of the Confederacy 12 Many of the colleges started at this time were funded by churches and denominations instructing pastors and teachers It wasn t until the Morrill Land Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890 that public colleges and universities were started in the Midwest including many of the first public HBCU s 13 Curriculum Edit All the schools were small with a limited undergraduate curriculum based on the liberal arts Students were drilled in Greek Latin geometry ancient history logic ethics and rhetoric with few discussions and no lab sessions Originality and creativity were not prized but exact repetition was rewarded The college president typically enforced strict discipline and the upperclassman enjoyed hazing the freshman Many students were younger than 17 and most of the colleges concurrently operated a preparatory school There were no organized sports or Greek letter fraternities but literary societies were active Tuition was very low and scholarships were few Many of the students were sons of clergymen most planned professional careers as ministers lawyers or teachers 14 By the 1820s there was a growing demand to replace Greek and Latin with modern languages as had been proposed by Jeffersonians at the University of Virginia and the newly opened University of the City of New York The Yale Report of 1828 was a defense of the Latin and Greek curriculum It called to maintain traditions especially against the forceful reputation of the German research universities that were starting to attract young American postgraduate scholars Most critics viewed it as a reactionary move although Pak Depicted in terms of attracting students from the growing number of private academies that continued to stress the classic languages The reformers failed and the classical languages continued as the centerpiece of the rigid traditional curriculum until after the Civil War 15 16 For example at East Alabama Male College a small Methodist school was founded in 1856 with a curriculum centered on Latin Greek and moral science it resembled most other antebellum Southern colleges It closed during the Civil War and reopened as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama becoming the state s land grant institution While retaining some of the antebellum classical curriculum to accommodate the returning faculty it added new courses in agricultural and industrial arts as well as applied sciences It became Alabama Polytechnic Institute in 1899 and is now known as Auburn University 17 Impact of 19th century colleges Edit Many American scholars and scientists studied at German universities before 1914 They returned with PhDs and built research oriented universities based on the German model such as Cornell Johns Hopkins Chicago and Stanford and upgraded established schools like Harvard Columbia and Wisconsin 18 However the liberal arts colleges also flourished and most did not add graduate programs Summarizing the research of Burke and Hall Katz concludes that in the 19th century 19 The nation s many small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations These colleges especially promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers and thereby provided towns across the country with a core of community leaders The more elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed relatively little to upward social mobility By concentrating on the offspring of wealthy families ministers and a few others the elite Eastern colleges especially Harvard played an important role in the formation of a Northeastern elite with great power Law and medical schools Edit University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in Philadelphia founded in 1765 as the College of Philadelphia Department of Medicine was the first medical school in the United States There were no schools of law in the early British colonies Thus no schools of law were in America during the colonial times A few lawyers studied at the highly prestigious Inns of Court in London while the majority served apprenticeships with established American lawyers 20 Law was very well established in the colonies compared to medicine which was in a more rudimentary condition In the 18th century 117 Americans had graduated in medicine in Edinburgh Scotland but most physicians in the colonies learned as apprentices 21 In Philadelphia the Medical College of Philadelphia was founded in 1765 and became affiliated with the university in 1791 In New York the medical department of King s College was established in 1767 and in 1770 awarded the first American M D degree It is now Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons 22 On the frontier after 1799 medical professionalism and medical education was heavily influenced by the medical program at Transylvania University in Kentucky which graduated 8000 doctors by 1860 23 24 Women and African Americans at college Edit Mary Lyon 1797 1849 founded the first woman s college Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley Massachusetts in 1837 Mary Lyon 1797 1849 founded Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in 1837 it was the first college opened for women and is now Mount Holyoke College one of the Seven Sisters Lyon was a deeply religious Congregationalist who although not a minister preached revivals at her school She greatly admired colonial theologian Jonathan Edwards for his theology and his ideals of self restraint self denial and disinterested benevolence 25 Georgia Female College now Wesleyan College opened in 1839 as the first Southern college for women 26 27 Oberlin College opened in 1833 as Oberlin Collegiate Institute in the heavily Yankee northeastern corner of Ohio In 1837 it became the first coeducational college by admitting four women Soon they were fully integrated into the college and comprised from a third to half of the student body The religious founders especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney saw women as morally superior to men Indeed many alumnae inspired by this sense of superiority and their personal duty to fulfill God s mission engaged in missionary work Historians have typically presented coeducation at Oberlin as an enlightened societal development presaging the future evolution of the ideal of equality for women in higher education 28 Intensely anti slavery Oberlin was the only college to admit black students in the 1830s By the 1880s however with the fading of evangelical idealism the school began segregating its black students 29 The enrollment of women grew steadily after the Civil War In 1870 9 100 women comprised 21 of all college students In 1930 481 000 women comprised 44 of the student body College women enrollment Women s colleges Coed colleges of all students1870 6 500 2 600 21 1890 16 800 39 500 36 1910 34 100 106 500 40 1930 82 100 398 700 44 Source 30 During 1973 and 1975 the numbers of African Americans who graduated from high school and went to college rose but in the 1980s the numbers went down again In the 1980s the number of white students stayed the same while African American students dropped Scholars say this is because of changes of college costs and changes to the Pell Grant Most attribute these changes in numbers to Pell Grant cuts The numbers were higher in the 1970s because the costs for education at that time were lower Since the drop of these numbers and the number of African American students seemed connected scholars decided that prices were the reason for changing student demographics While there are always other reasons for changes in student enrollment cost in the nineteenth century had a lot to do with the enrollment of students The prices increased in the 1980s leading to lower income families becoming unable to enroll in colleges Changes to the Pell Grant qualifications changed the ability to attend for many students The Pell Grant as time went on covered less costs and included less students There have been many changes to the Pell Grant over the years 31 African American studies bloomed in colleges during the black power protests and changing cultural views which created a different campus experience These changes occurred during the civil rights movement and the Vietnam protests During this time colleges started to change over to be co educational More women were then allowed to attend schools that previously only accepted male students The baby boomers who were attending college at this time changed many aspects of college life which included a more inclusive structure for women and minorities In the late 1960s the Rockefeller foundation gave a grant to Reed college for more African American Students to attend 32 Philanthropy and funding Edit Brown University in Providence Rhode Island is one of eight prestigious Ivy League universities in the United States that are routinely ranked among the best universities in the world 33 Local wealthy families supported local schools especially of their religious denomination often by donating land Wealthy philanthropists for example established Johns Hopkins University Stanford University Carnegie Mellon University Vanderbilt University and Duke University John D Rockefeller funded the University of Chicago without imposing his name on it 34 Protestant denominations set up funds that by 1830 subsidized about a fourth of the prospective ministers then in college The American Education Society founded in 1815 raised funds from local Protestant churches to support their students Furthermore it aided academies colleges and seminaries and helped to maintain high academic standards It was a champion of the classical curriculum against the demands for more modern skills 35 36 Land Grant universities Edit Kansas State University in Manhattan Kansas was founded as one of the first institutions established under the Morrill Land Grant Acts Each state used federal funding from the Morrill Land Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges that specialized in agriculture and engineering Among the first were Iowa State University in Iowa Purdue University in Indiana Michigan State University Kansas State University Cornell University in New York Texas A amp M University Pennsylvania State University The Ohio State University and the University of California Few alumni became farmers but they did play an increasingly important role in the larger food industry especially after the Extension system was set up in 1916 that put trained agronomists in every agricultural county The engineering graduates played a major role in rapid technological development 37 Indeed the land grant college system produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who constituted the critical human resources of the managerial revolution in government and business 1862 1917 laying the foundation of the world s preeminent educational infrastructure that supported the world s foremost technology based economy 38 Pennsylvania State University is a good example of this The Farmers High School of Pennsylvania later the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania State University chartered in 1855 was intended to uphold declining agrarian values and show farmers ways to prosper through more productive farming Students were to build character and meet a part of their expenses by performing agricultural labor By 1875 the compulsory labor requirement was dropped but male students were to have an hour per day of military training in order to meet the requirements of the Morrill Land Grant College Act In the early years the agricultural curriculum was not well developed and politicians in Harrisburg often considered it a costly and useless experiment The college was a center of middle class values that served to help young people on their journey to white collar occupations 39 Black land grant colleges Edit In 1890 Congress funded all black land grant colleges which were dedicated primarily to teacher training These colleges made important contributions to rural development including the establishment of a traveling school program by the Tuskegee Institute in 1906 Rural conferences sponsored by Tuskegee focused on improving the efficiency and living standards of black farmers Its founder Booker T Washington was the most influential black spokesman of the 1895 1915 era and he obtained many academic grants from northern philanthropists and foundations 40 Starting in 1900 he worked to open connections with educators in Africa for example he worked with the Phelps Stokes Fund and the Firestone Rubber Company to design the Booker T Washington Agricultural and Industrial Institute in Liberia It was delayed by World War I and opened in 1928 13 years after Washington s death 41 Since the 1960s the 19th century schools had helped train many students from less developed countries who returned home with the ability to improve agricultural production 42 Twentieth century EditAt the beginning of the 20th century fewer than 1 000 colleges with 160 000 students existed in the United States Explosive growth in the number of colleges occurred in bursts especially in 1900 1930 and in 1950 1970 State universities grew from small institutions of fewer than 1000 students to campuses with 40 000 more students as well as a network of regional campuses around the state In turn the regional campuses broke away and became separate universities To handle the growth of K 12 education every state set up a network of teachers colleges beginning with Massachusetts in 1830s After 1950 they became state colleges and then state universities with a broad curriculum College degrees awarded 1870 2009 Year BA degrees MA degrees PhD degrees1870 9 400 NA 11890 15 500 1 000 1491910 37 200 2 100 4401930 122 500 15 000 2 3001950 432 000 58 200 6 6001970 827 000 208 000 29 9001990 1 052 000 325 000 38 0002009 1 600 000 657 000 67 000source census 43 Graduate programs Edit Yale University in New Haven Connecticut awarded the first Ph D degree in the United States in 1861 44 Advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges This began to change in the mid 19th century as thousands of the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for one to three years to obtain a Doctor of Philosophy PhD in the sciences or the humanities 45 46 Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States In the 1860s and 1870s Yale and Harvard awarded a few PhD s The major breakthrough came according to whom with the opening of Clark University which only offered graduate programs and Johns Hopkins University which began focusing more seriously on its PhD program By the 1890s Harvard Columbia Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs their alumni were in strong demand at aspiring universities By 1900 there were 6 000 enrolled graduate students The six main universities awarded about 300 PhD s annually 47 In Germany the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students In the United States private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government Independence was high but funding was low This began to change when private foundations began regularly supporting research in science and history large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919 Meanwhile the leading universities in cooperation with the academic scholars of the time set up a network of scholarly journals Publish or perish became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities After World War II state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment and eagerly added research programs leading to master s or doctorate degrees Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants Late in the 20th century publish or perish became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities not just large research universities 48 49 Junior colleges Edit Major new trends included the development of the junior colleges They were usually set up by city school systems starting in the 1920s 50 By the 1960s some were renamed community colleges Junior colleges grew from just 20 in 1909 to 170 in 1919 By 1922 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges enrolling about 150 students each Meanwhile another 137 were privately operated with about 60 students each Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70 000 students The peak year for private institutions came in 1949 when there were 322 junior colleges in all 180 were affiliated with churches 108 were independent non profit and 34 were private Schools run for profit 51 Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges Students parents and businessmen wanted nearby low cost schools to provide training for the growing white collar labor force as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue collar sphere Four year colleges were also growing albeit not as fast however many of them were located in rural or small town areas away from the fast growing metropolis Community colleges continue as open enrollment low cost institutions with a strong component of vocational education as well as a lower cost preparation for transfer students into four year schools They appeal to a poorer older less prepared element 52 Great Depression and New Deal Edit Further information Presidency of Franklin D Roosevelt Education The Great Depression that began in 1929 was a major blow to higher education Only the richest schools like Harvard had endowments big enough to absorb the losses Smaller prestigious schools such as MIT and Northwestern had to cope with serious cutbacks 53 Despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt Howard University the federally operated school for blacks saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels 54 After the golden years of the 1920s the downturn hit hard at Northwestern University a private school in Illinois Its annual income dropped 25 percent from 4 8 million in 1930 31 to 3 6 million in 1933 34 The endowment investments shrank fewer parents could pay full tuition and annual giving from alumni and philanthropy fell from 870 000 in 1932 to a low of 331 000 in 1935 The university responded with two salary cuts of 10 percent each for all employees It imposed a hiring freeze a building freeze and slashed appropriations for maintenance books and research From a balanced budget in 1930 31 the university had deficits in the range of 100 000 for the next four years which was made up by using the endowment Enrollments fell in most schools with law and music hardest hit However the movement toward state certification of school teachers enabled Northwestern to open up a new graduate program in education bringing in a new clientele At this financial low point in June 1933 President Robert Maynard Hutchins of the University of Chicago proposed to merge the two universities estimating annual savings of 1 7 million The two presidents were enthusiastic and the faculty were supportive However the Northwestern alumni were vehemently opposed fearing the loss of their traditions The medical school was oriented toward training practitioners and felt it would lose its mission if it was merged into the larger research oriented University of Chicago medical school The merger plan was thus dropped The Deering family gave an unrestricted gift of 6 million in 1935 that rescued the budget bringing it up to 5 4 million in 1938 39 That allowed many of the spending cuts to be restored including half the salary reductions 55 State colleges and universities had depended largely on grants from the legislature ignoring fund raising philanthropy They kept tuition close to zero Many were very hard pressed by the Great Depression it almost shut down the University of Colorado as the legislature slashed its budget there was practically no endowment and tuition was already very low The medical school was nearly closed in 1938 it survived when the legislature allowed it to borrow more money In 1939 The main campus in Boulder came within a few days of having to close The bright spot came in the building projects The PWA spent nearly 1 million on 15 new buildings on the Boulder campus and the medical school campus in Denver That included a fieldhouse a natural history museum new wings for the college of arts and sciences a faculty club a small library and a new hospital The RFC loaned 550 000 in 1933 to build women s dormitories with the loans repaid through room and board charges 56 Indiana University fared much better than most state schools thanks to the entrepreneurship of its young president Herman Wells He collaborated with Frederick L Hovde the president of IU s cross state rival Purdue together they approached the Indiana delegation to Congress indicating their highest priorities For Wells it was to build a world class music school replacing dilapidated facilities As a result of these efforts the Works Progress Administration WPA built one of finest facilities in the country He added matching funds from the state legislature and opened a full scale fund raising campaign among alumni and the business community In 1942 Wells reported that The past five years have been the greatest single period of expansion in the physical plant of the university in its entire history In this period 15 new buildings have been constructed 57 58 Higher education was much too elitist to fit into the New Deal agenda The educational establishment was ignored President Franklin Roosevelt even ignored his Commissioner of education John Ward Studebaker and cut his budget Pleas for emergency assistance for higher education or for research projects were rejected 59 However relief agencies such as WPA and PWA were in the construction business and work closely with local and state government which sometimes included new buildings and athletic facilities for public universities While the New Deal would not give money to colleges or school districts it did give work study money to needy students from high school through graduate school The average pay scale was 15 a month for part time work 60 GI Bill Edit Main article G I Bill Eager to avoid a repeat of the highly controversial debates over a postwar years and then the bonus to veterans of the first World War Congress in 1944 passed the G I Bill It was promoted primarily by the veterans organizations especially the American Legion and represented a conservative program of financial aid not to poor people but one limited to veterans who had served in wartime regardless of their financial situation The GI Bill made college education possible for millions by paying tuition and living expenses The government provided between 800 and 1 400 each year to these veterans as a subsidy to attend college which covered 50 80 of total costs This included forgone earnings in addition to tuition which allowed them to have enough funds for life outside of school It opened up higher education to ambitious young men who would otherwise have been forced to immediately enter the job market When comparing college attendance rates between veterans and non veterans during this period veterans were around 10 more likely to go to college than non veterans Most campuses became overwhelmingly male thanks to the GI Bill since few women were veterans However by 2000 women had reached parity in numbers and began passing men in rates of college and graduate school attendance 61 Great Society Edit Under the leadership of President Lyndon B Johnson Congress in 1964 passed numerous Great Society programs that greatly expanded federal support for education The Higher Education Act of 1965 set up federal scholarships and low interest loans for college students and subsidized better academic libraries ten to twenty new graduate centers several new technical institutes classrooms for several hundred thousand students and twenty five to thirty new community colleges a year A separate education bill enacted that same year provided similar assistance to dental and medical schools 62 For profit universities Edit A major development according to whom of the late twentieth century was the emergence on a very large scale of for profit higher education institutions They have traditionally appealed to low income students who could borrow money from the federal government to pay the tuition and to veterans who received tuition money as part of their enlistment bonus They have become very controversial in the 21st century because of the high proportion of students who fail to graduate or who do graduate and fail to get appropriate jobs many default on repayment of their federal loans as a result There has been additional concern over for profit colleges as they fundamentally changed the view of colleges as a public good 63 As of 2016 some for profit colleges have been sanctioned by federal agencies for preying on vulnerable populations who accrue massive student loan debt in the course of earning a degree that has less value than those obtained from public or private institutions of higher learning 64 Federal and state officials started cracking down on for profit universities and some have gone out of business 65 66 Roman Catholic colleges and universities Edit Georgetown University in Washington D C was the first Catholic institution of higher education founded in the United States Main article History of Catholic education in the United States Colleges and universities The first Catholic college in the United States was Georgetown University founded in Georgetown now Washington D C Some of the small colleges of the 19th century have become major universities and integrated into the mainstream academic community 67 The Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities was founded in 1899 and continues to facilitate the exchange of information and methods 68 Vigorous debate in recent decades has focused on how to balance Catholic and academic roles with conservatives arguing that bishops should exert more control to guarantee orthodoxy 69 70 71 The orders of nuns and some dioceses founded numerous colleges for women The first was the College of Notre Dame of Maryland which opened elementary and secondary schools in Baltimore in 1873 and a four year college in 1895 It added graduate programs in the 1980s that accepted men and is now Notre Dame of Maryland University 72 Another 42 women s colleges opened by 1925 By 1955 there were 116 Catholic colleges for women Most but not all of them went co ed merged or closed after 1970 73 Twenty first century EditThe twenty first century has been characterized by the growth of for profit higher education including the continued evolution of online learning By 2010 student enrollment had peaked and enrollment at community colleges for profit colleges regional institutions and smaller colleges and universities began to drop But online education boosted by online program managers continued to grow In 2020 and 2021 the federal government provided billions of dollars in relief to schools that suffered from the COVID 19 pandemic See also EditUniversity History Doctor of Philosophy Graduate school List of fields of doctoral studies History of college campuses and architecture in the United States Jewish quota Asian quotaNotes Edit See Roger L Geiger The History of American Higher Education 2014 pp 1 8 online See Geiger The History of American Higher Education 2014 pp 11 15 online See Geiger The History of American Higher Education 2014 pp 8 11 online John R Thelin A History of American Higher Education 2004 pp 1 40 Lawrence A Cremin American Education The Colonial Experience 1607 1783 1970 passim Albert Castel The Founding Fathers and the Vision of a National University History of Education Quarterly 4 4 1964 280 302 George Thomas The Founders and the Idea of a National University Constituting the American Mind 2014 David B Potts American colleges in the nineteenth century From localism to denominationalism History of Education Quarterly 1971 363 380 in JSTOR David B Potts Baptist colleges in the development of American society 1812 1861 1988 Louis A Haselmayer German Methodist colleges in the West Methodist History 1964 2 4 pp 35 43 online Archived 2014 11 29 at the Wayback Machine John Jr Wright Transylvania Tutor to the West 1976 John R Thelin A History of American Higher Education 2004 pp 46 47 Thelin J R 2014 Essential documents in the history of American higher education JHU Press p 76 93 Frederick Rudolph The American College and University A History 1962 pp 3 22 Michael S Pak The Yale Report of 1828 A New Reading and New Implications History of Education Quarterly 2008 48 1 pp 30 57 in JSTOR Rudolph The American College and University A History 1962 pp 124 135 Dwayne Cox Academic Purpose and Command at Auburn 1856 1902 Alabama Review 2008 51 2 pp 83 104 online Lawrence R Veysey The Emergence of the American University 1965 pp 127 133 Michael Katz The Role of American Colleges in the Nineteenth Century History of Education Quarterly Vol 23 No 2 Summer 1983 pp 215 223 in JSTOR summarizing Colin B Burke American Collegiate Populations A Test of the Traditional View New York University Press 1982 and Peter Dobkin Hall The Organization of American Culture Private Institutions Elites and the Origins of American Nationality New York University Press 1982 Anton Hermann Chroust Rise of the Legal Profession in America 1965 vol 1 ch 1 2 Genevieve Miller A Physician in 1776 Clio Medica Oct 1976 Vol 11 Issue 3 pp 135 146 Jacob Ernest Cooke ed Encyclopedia of the North American colonies 3 vol 1992 1 214 John D Wright Jr ed Transylvania Tutor to the West 1980 L G Zerfas Medical Education in Indiana As Influenced by Early Indiana Graduates in Medicine from Transylvania University Indiana Magazine of History 1934 30 2 pp 139 48 online Andrea L Turpin The Ideological Origins of the Women s College Religion Class and Curriculum in the Educational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon History of Education Quarterly May 2010 Vol 50 Issue 2 pp 133 158 F N Boney The Pioneer College for Women Wesleyan Over a Century and a Half Georgia Historical Quarterly 1988 pp 519 532 in JSTOR Christie Anne Farnham The education of the southern belle Higher education and student socialization in the antebellum south 1994 Hoagland adds that this innovation as also advantageous for men because it would uplift them spiritually Ronald W Hogeland Coeducation of the Sexes at Oberlin College A Study of Social Ideas in Mid Nineteenth Century America Journal of Social History 1972 73 6 2 pp 160 176 at p 161 in JSTOR Cally L Waite The Segregation of Black Students at Oberlin College after Reconstruction History of Education Quarterly 2001 41 3 pp 344 64 in JSTOR Mabel Newcomer A century of higher education for American women 1959 p 46 Kane Thomas J October 1994 College Entry by Blacks since 1970 The Role of College Costs Family Background and the Returns to Education Journal of Political Economy 102 5 878 911 doi 10 1086 261958 ISSN 0022 3808 S2CID 153543847 White Martin 2018 The Black Studies Controversy at Reed College 1968 1970 Oregon Historical Quarterly 119 1 6 37 doi 10 1353 ohq 2018 0063 ISSN 2329 3780 S2CID 245850161 Ivy League school U S News amp World Report 2022 Laurence Veysey The Emergence of the American University 1965 Natalie A Naylor Holding High the Standard The Influence of the American Education Society in Ante Bellum Education History of Education Quarterly 1984 24 4 pp 479 497 in JSTOR Rudolph 1962 p 183 Alan I Marcus ed Engineering in a Land Grant Context The Past Present and Future of an Idea Marcus 2005 Louis Ferleger and William Lazonick Higher Education for an Innovative Economy Land grant Colleges and the Managerial Revolution in America Business amp Economic History 1994 23 1 116 128 Jim Weeks A New Race of Farmers the Labor Rule the Farmers High School and the Origins of the Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania History 1995 62 1 5 30 Booker T Gardner The educational contributions of Booker T Washington Journal of Negro Education 1975 502 518 in JSTOR Edward H Berman Tuskegee In Africa Journal of Negro Education 1972 41 2 pp 99 112 in JSTOR B D Mayberry A Century of Agriculture in the 1890 Land Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University 1890 1990 1991 Bureau of the Census Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1970 1976 series H 752 757 761 Statistical Abstract 2012 2011 table 300 Cassuto Leonard May 14 2021 Can Yale Reform Its Humanities Doctoral Programs www chronicle com Retrieved 2021 05 17 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Carl Diehl Americans and German scholarship 1770 1870 1978 Henry Geitz Jurgen Heideking and Jurgen Herbst eds German influences on education in the United States to 1917 1995 Roger L Geiger Research graduate education and the ecology of American universities An interpretive history in Lester F Goodchild and Harold S Weschler eds The History of Higher Education 2nd ed 1997 pp 273 89 Christopher Jencks and David Riesman The academic revolution 1968 ch 1 Laurence R Veysey The Emergence of the American University 1970 is the standard history see pp 121 79 Leonard V Koos The Junior College Movement 1924 Cohen and Brawer The American Community College 4th ed 2003 p 13 14 Jesse P Bogue ed American Junior Colleges American council on education 1948 Richard M Freeland Academia s golden age 1992 pp 55 59 Clifford L Muse Howard University and The Federal Government During The Presidential Administrations of Herbert Hoover and Franklin D Roosevelt 1928 1945 Journal of Negro History 76 1 4 1991 1 20 in JSTOR Harold F Williamson and Payson S Wild Northwestern University A History 1850 1975 1976 pp 180 95 Frederick S Allen et al eds The University of Colorado 1876 1976 1976 pp 108 10 Herman B Wells Being Lucky 1980 pp 155 69 Thomas D Clark Indiana University Midwestern Pioneer volume 3 Years of Fulfillment 1977 p 168 Ronald Story The New Deal and Higher Education in The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism ed by Sidney M Milkis 2002 pp 272 96 Report of the National Youth Administration June 26 1935 to June 30 1938 1938 online Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin The GI Bill The New Deal for Veterans 2009 Irving Bernstein Guns or Butter The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson 1994 pp 202 22 Hebel Sara 2 March 2014 From Public Good to Private Good How Higher Education Got to a Tipping Point Chronicle of Higher Education Retrieved 7 October 2017 Cellini Stephanie Riegg Darolia Rajeev Turner Leslie The Government is Sanctioning For Profit Colleges What Happens to the Students Brookings Brown Center Brookings Institution Retrieved October 6 2017 Matt Krupnick States federal government cracking down on for profit colleges CNNMoney March 12 2014 For Profit Schools 179 recent articles and editorials from the New York Times Philip Gleason Contending with Modernity Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century Oxford U Press 1995 LaBelle Jeffrey 2011 Catholic Colleges in the 21st Century A Road Map for Campus Ministry Paulist Press ISBN 9781893757899 John Rodden Less Catholic More catholic American Catholic Universities Since Vatican II Society 2013 50 1 pp 21 27 S J Currie and L Charles Pursuing Jesuit Catholic identity and mission at US Jesuit colleges and universities Catholic Education A Journal of Inquiry and Practice 2011 14 3 pp 4 online Matthew Thomas Larsen The Duty and Right of the Diocesan Bishop to Watch Over the Preservation and Strengthening of the Catholic Character of Catholic Universities in His Diocese PhD dissertation Catholic University of America 2012 Bridget Marie Engelmeyer A Maryland First Maryland Historical Magazine 1993 78 3 pp 186 204 Irene Harwarth et al 1997 Women s Colleges in the United States History Issues and Challenges DIANE Publishing p 10 ISBN 9780788143243 Further reading EditSurveys Edit Bogue E Grady and Aper Jeffrey Exploring the Heritage of American Higher Education The Evolution of Philosophy and Policy Oryx 2000 272 pp Cohen Arthur M The Shaping of American Higher Education Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System Jossey Bass 1998 Dorn Charles For the Common Good A New History of Higher Education in America Cornell UP 2017 308 pp Delbanco Andrew College What It Was Is and Should Be 2012 online Geiger Roger L The History of American Higher Education Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II Princeton UP 2014 584pp encyclopedic in scope Geiger Roger L ed The American College in the Nineteenth Century Vanderbilt University Press 2000 online review Geiger Roger L To Advance Knowledge The Growth of American Research Universities 1900 1940 Oxford University Press 1986 Geiger Roger L Research and Relevant Knowledge American Research Universities Since World War II Oxford University Press 2001 Horowitz Helen L Campus life Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present 1987 Jarausch Konrad H ed The Transformation of Higher Learning 1860 1930 Expansion Diversification Social Opening and Professionalization in England Germany Russia and the United States U of Chicago Press 1983 375 pp Kerr Clark The Great Transformation in Higher Education 1960 1980 State U of New York Press 1991 383 pp Levine D O The American college and the culture of aspiration 1915 1940 1986 Lucas C J American higher education A history 1994 Monroe Paul ed 1911 American College Historical Development Cyclopedia of Education vol 2 New York Macmillan pp 59 62 hdl 2027 uc2 ark 13960 t6251wk11 via HathiTrust Monroe P 1922 Colleges and Universities of the United States In Foster Watson ed Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Education Vol 4 London Sir Isaac Pitman amp Sons Ltd pp 1696 1703 via Google Books Robson David W Educating Republicans The College in the Era of the American Revolution 1750 1800 Greenwood 1985 online Ruben Julie The Making of the Modern University Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality University Of Chicago Press 1996 Rudolph Frederick The American College and University A History 1962 a standard survey Thelin John R A History of American Higher Education Johns Hopkins U Press 2004 421 pp Veysey Lawrence R The Emergence of the American University 1965 Wechsler Harold S and Lester F Goodchild eds The History of Higher Education ASHE Reader 3rd ed 2008 excerpts from scholarly articlesSpecialty topics Edit Barrow Clyde W Universities and the Capitalist State Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education 1894 1928 University of Wisconsin Press 1990 Cardozier Virgus R Colleges and universities in World War II 1993 online Freeland Richard M Academia s Golden Age Universities in Massachusetts 1945 1970 1992 online Goodchild Lester F et al eds Higher Education in the American West Regional History and State Contexts Palgrave Macmillan 2014 Jencks Christopher and David Riesman The Academic Revolution 1969 influential study of changes in 1960s online Leslie W Bruce Gentlemen and Scholars College and Community in the Age of the University 1865 1917 1992 online Oliver Jr John William et al eds Cradles of Conscience Ohio s Independent Colleges and Universities 2003 online Syrett Nicholas L The Company He Keeps A History of White College Fraternities 2009 onlineCommunity colleges Edit Beach J M and W Norton Grubb Gateway to Opportunity A History of the Community College in the United States 2011 Brint S amp Karabel J The Diverted Dream Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America 1900 1985 Oxford University Press 1989 Cohen Arthur M and Florence B Brawer The American Community College 1st ed 1982 new edition 2013 excerpts amp text search widely cited comprehensive survey Frye John H The Vision of the Public Junior College 1900 1940 Professional Goals and Popular Aspirations Greenwood 1992 163 pp Women and minorities Edit Eisenmann Linda Higher Education for Women in Postwar America 1945 1965 Johns Hopkins U Press 2006 304 pp Faragher John Mack and Howe Florence ed Women and Higher Education in American History Norton 1988 220 pp Gasman Marybeth and Roger L Geiger Higher Education for African Americans before the Civil Rights Era 1900 1964 2012 Gleason Philip Contending with Modernity Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century Oxford U Press 1995 434 pp online Harwarth Irene et al 1997 Women s Colleges in the United States History Issues and Challenges DIANE Publishing ISBN 9780788143243 Leahy William P Adapting to America Catholics Jesuits and Higher Education in the Twentieth Century Georgetown U Press 1991 187 pp Perez Mario Rios and Sharon S Lee Balancing Two Worlds Asian American College Students Tell Their Life Stories Mi Voz Mi Vida Latino College Students Tell Their Life Stories Journal of American Ethnic History 2008 27 4 pp 107 113 online Roebuck Julian B and Komanduri S Murty Historically Black Colleges and Universities Their Place in American Higher Education 1993 onlinePrimary sources Edit Cohen Sol ed Education In the United States A Documentary History 5 vol 1974 3600 pp of primary sources from origins to 1972 Hofstadter Richard and Wilson Smith eds American Higher Education A Documentary History 2 vol 1967 especially strong an academic freedom Ihle Elizabeth L ed Black Women in Higher Education An Anthology of Essays Studies and Documents Garland 1992 341 pp Knight Edgar W ed A Documentary History of Education in the South Before 1860 5 vol 1952 Willis George Robert V Bullough and John T Holton eds The American Curriculum A Documentary History 1992 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of higher education in the United States amp oldid 1136462178, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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