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Wikipedia

Higher education in the United States

November 14, 2023

In the United States, higher education is an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education. It is also referred as post-secondary education, third-stage, third-level, or tertiary education. It covers stages 5 to 8 on the International ISCED 2011 scale. It is delivered at 4,360 Title IV degree-granting institutions, known as colleges or universities.[1] These may be public or private universities, research universities, liberal arts colleges, community colleges, or for-profit colleges. US higher education is loosely regulated by the government and by several third-party organizations.[2]

There is a clear hierarchy of colleges and universities in the US, with the most selective institutions (e.g., Ivy League schools) at the top and the least selective institutions (e.g., community colleges) at the bottom.[3] White supremacy and academic profit-seeking have played major roles in this stratification.[4][5][6]

Attending college has been thought of as "a rite of passage" to which the American Dream is deeply embedded.[7] However, there is a growing skepticism of higher education in the US and its value to consumers.[8][9]

In 2022, about 16 million students—9.6 million women and 6.6 million men—enrolled in degree-granting colleges and universities in the US. Of the enrolled students, 45.8% enrolled in a four-year public institution, 27.8% in a four-year private institution, and 26.4% in a two-year public institution.[10] College enrollment has declined every year since a peak in 2010–2011 and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers.[17] The US higher education system is also unique in its investment in highly competitive NCAA sports, particularly in American football and basketball, with large sports stadiums and arenas adorning its campuses and bringing in billions in revenue.[18]

History edit

Main article: History of higher education in the United States

Colonial era to 19th century edit

See also: Slavery at American colleges and universities
 
The Wren Building at the College of William & Mary is the oldest academic building in the United States, dating back to 1695. The school held African slaves and their descendants for 170 years.

Religious denominations established early colleges in order to train white, male ministers. Between 1636 and 1776, nine colleges were chartered in Colonial America; today, these institutions are known as the colonial colleges. According to historian John Thelin, most instructors at these institutions were lowly paid 'tutors'.[19] As objects of the slavocracy, African slaves and their descendants also served as free labor for more than a century and a half.[20]

Besides slavery, land theft was an important aspect of higher education growth. This theft involved more than 200 indigenous nations, nearly 160 violent treaties and the taking of 11 million acres of land. [21]

Protestants and Catholics opened over hundreds of small denominational colleges in the 19th century. In 1899 they enrolled 46 percent of all US undergraduates. Many closed or merged but in 1905 there were over 500 in operation.[22][23] Catholics opened several women's colleges in the early 20th century. Schools were small, with a limited undergraduate curriculum based on the liberal arts. Students were drilled in Greek, Latin, geometry, ancient history, logic, ethics and rhetoric, with few discussions and no lab sessions. Originality and creativity were not prized, but exact repetition was rewarded. College presidents typically enforced strict discipline, and upperclassman enjoyed hazing freshman. Many students were younger than 17, and most colleges also operated a preparatory school. There were no organized sports, or Greek-letter fraternities, but literary societies were active. Tuition was low and scholarships were few. Many of their students were sons of clergymen; most planned professional careers as ministers, lawyers or teachers.[24]

The nation's small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations. These schools promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers and providing towns with a core of community leaders. Elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed little upward social mobility. By concentrating on ministers and the offspring of wealthy families, elite Eastern colleges such as Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton played a role in the formation of a Northeastern elite.[25]

In some areas, public institutions of higher education were slow to take hold. For instance, although there was general support for expanding access to higher education through public institutions, private colleges and universities successfully hindered the establishment of a public university in Boston, Massachusetts until the 1860s. The competition between private and public institutions shaped the development of the mixed public-private character of higher education in the United States.[26]

Catholic colleges and universities edit

Main article: History of Catholic education in the United States § Colleges and universities
 
The Main Building at the University of Notre Dame, a prominent Catholic university in the United States

The Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities was founded in 1899 and continues to facilitate the exchange of information and methods.[27] Vigorous debate in recent decades has focused on how to balance Catholic and academic roles, with conservatives arguing that bishops should exert more control to guarantee orthodoxy.[28][29][30]

Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) edit

Main article: Historically black colleges and universities

Most Historically Black Colleges and Universities were established in the South after the American Civil War, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the northern United States. HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837, University of the District of Columbia then known as Miner School for Colored Girls in 1851 and Lincoln University in 1854.[31]

The second Morrill Act (1890) required that states consider black students equally or found separate land-grant schools for them.[32]

Timeline of key federal legislation edit

20th century edit

 
An open domed room anchors the Ohio University atop the hillside where the Hocking River had cut.

At the beginning of the 20th century, less than 1,000 colleges with 160,000 students existed in the US. The number of colleges skyrocketed in waves, during the early and mid-20th century. State universities grew from small institutions of fewer than 1,000 students to campuses with 40,000 more students, with networks of regional campuses around the state. In turn, regional campuses broke away and became separate universities.[citation needed]

To handle the explosive growth of K–12 education, every state set up a network of teachers' colleges, beginning with Massachusetts in the 1830s. After 1950, they became state colleges and then state universities with a broad curriculum.[citation needed]

Major new trends included the development of the junior colleges. They were usually set up by city school systems starting in the 1920s.[38] By the 1960s they were renamed as "community colleges".

Junior colleges grew from 20 in number In 1909, to 170 in 1919. By 1922, 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges, enrolling about 150 students each. Meanwhile, another 137 were privately operated, with about 60 students each. Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s, with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70,000 students. The peak year for private institutions came in 1949, when there were 322 junior colleges in all; 180 were affiliated with churches, 108 were independent non-profit, and 34 were private schools run for-profit.[39]

Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges. Students parents and businessmen wanted nearby, low-cost schools to provide training for the growing white-collar labor force, as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue-collar sphere. Four-year colleges were also growing, albeit not as fast; however, many of them were located in rural or small-town areas away from the fast-growing metropolis. Community colleges continue as open-enrollment, low-cost institutions with a strong component of vocational education, as well as a low-cost preparation for transfer students into four-year schools. They appeal to a poorer, older, less prepared element.[40][41]

 
A poster publicizing the student strike of 1970. In the 1960s and 70s, colleges and universities became centers of social movements.

College students were involved in social movements long before the 20th century, but the most dramatic student movements rose in the 1960s. In the 1960s, students organized for civil rights and against the Vietnam War. In the 1970s, students led movements for women's rights and gay rights, as well as protests against South African apartheid.[42]

Privatization of US higher education increased in the 1980s and during economic recessions and austerity in the 20th and 21st century.[43]

While for-profit colleges originated during Colonial times, growth in these schools was most apparent from the 1980s to about 2011. For-profit college enrollment, however, has declined significantly since 2011, after several federal investigations. For-profit colleges were criticized for predatory marketing and sales practices.[44] The failures of Corinthian Colleges and ITT Technical Institute were the most remarkable closings.[45] In 2018, the documentary Fail State chronicled the boom and bust of for-profit colleges, highlighting the abuses that led to their downfall.[46]

21st century edit

 
Royce Hall, at UCLA. In 2021, UCLA received 168,000 applicants, making the school the most applied-to of any American university.[47]

Changing technology, mergers and closings, and politics have resulted in dramatic changes in US higher education during the 21st century.

 
2008–2012 bachelor's degree or higher (5-year estimate) by county (percent)
 
People 25 years and over who have completed an advanced degree by state (percent, 2012)

In 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic upended regular campus life forcing students to take online classes at home, more than 100 colleges, both public and private have been sued for tuition refunds, making many of them to reopen their campuses.

Online education: MOOCs and OPMs edit

Online education has grown in the early 21st century. More than 6.3 million students in the US took at least one online course in fall 2016.[48] While online attendance has increased, confidence among chief academic officers has decreased from 70.8 percent in 2015 to 63.3 percent in 2016.[49] In 2017, about 15% of all students attended exclusively online, and competition for online students has been increasing[50]

By 2018, more than one hundred short-term coding bootcamps existed in the US. Programs were available at Harvard University's extension school and the extension schools at Georgia Tech, University of Pennsylvania, Cal Berkeley, Northwestern, UCLA, University of North Carolina, University of Texas, George Washington, Vanderbilt University, and Rutgers through Trilogy Education Services.[51][52]

In 2019, researchers employed by George Mason University claimed that online education had "contributed to increasing gaps in educational success across socioeconomic groups while failing to improve affordability".[53][54][self-published source?][55]

A MOOC is a massive open online course aimed at unlimited participation and open access via the web. It became popular in 2010–14. In addition to traditional course materials such as filmed lectures, readings, and problem sets, many MOOCs provide interactive user forums to support community interactions between students, professors, and teaching assistants.[56] Robert Zemsky (2014), of the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education notes that they at first seemed to be an extremely inexpensive method of bringing top teachers at low cost directly to students. However, very few students—usually under 5%—were able to finish a MOOC course. He argues that they have passed their peak: "They came; they conquered very little; and now they face substantially diminished prospects."[57] In 2019, researchers at MIT found that MOOCs had completion rates of 3 percent and that the number of people taking these courses has been declining since 2012–13.[58]

Online programs for many universities are often managed by privately owned companies called online program managers or OPMs. The OPMs include 2U, Academic Partnerships, Noodle, and iDesign. Trace Urdan, managing director at Tyton Partners, "estimates that the market for OPMs and related services will be worth nearly $8 billion by 2020."[59]

In 2023, the US Department of Education announced that OPMs would be subject to greater oversight, to include audits. Higher education institutions would be required to report details about their agreements with OPMs by May 1, 2023.[60]

Edtech expert Phil Hill recently said that the OPM model is now "on life support."[61]

Financial difficulties, mergers and downsizing edit

 
Wheelock College in Massachusetts was one of a number of colleges to close due to financial struggles.

Hundreds of colleges are expected to close or merge, according to research from Ernst & Young.[62] The US Department of Education publishes a monthly list of campus and learning site closings. Typically there are 300 to 1000 closings per year.[63][64] Notable college closings include for-profit Corinthian Colleges (2015), ITT Technical Institute (2016), Brightwood College and Virginia College (2018).[65][66] Private college closings include Wheelock College (2018) and Green Mountain College (2019).[67]

In December 2017, Moody's credit rating agency downgraded the US higher education outlook from stable to negative, "citing financial strains at both public and private four-year institutions."[68] In June 2018, Moody's released data on declining college enrollments and constraints, noting that tuition pricing would suppress tuition revenue growth.[69]

Other businesses related to higher education have also had financial difficulties. In May 2019, two academic publishers, Cengage and McGraw Hill, merged.[70]

In 2020, higher education lost 650,000 jobs or about 13 percent of the workforce amid the COVID-19 pandemic, despite an infusion of federal funds.[71] The number of US postsecondary institutions receiving Title IV funding has dropped from 7,253 in 2012–2013 to 5,916 in 2020–2021.[72]

Class privilege and the growth of the educated underclass edit

 
Humanities Building at San Francisco State University

Social class has a profound influence on higher education. Undergraduates at elite universities have a substantial advantage if their parents also went to a particular college.[73] Educator Gary Roth, a left-wing writer, has argued that with fewer good jobs for graduates, the US has been producing an "educated underclass."[74] While upward social mobility continues to be available for immigrants and first generation people, the route to upward social mobility is more complicated for people from families that have been in the US longer.[75][76]

Protests, political clashes, and the growth of right-wing politics edit

The growth of power among right wing groups has been apparent since the mid-2010s. Turning Point USA (TPUS), now the most dominant conservative presence on US campuses, has clubs at more than 2500 college campuses. Charlie Kirk, its founder, also took over Students for Trump in 2019.

The Chronicle of Higher Education has documented groups such as the Groypers who have infiltrated conservative organizations on campus.[77]

Student protests and clashes between left and right appeared on several US campuses in 2017.[78][79][80][81][82] On August 11, 2017, white nationalists and members of the alt-right rallied at the University of Virginia, protesting the removal of a statue of Robert E. Lee.[83] The following day, one person died during protests in Charlottesville.[84] Following this event, speaking engagements by Richard Spencer were canceled at Texas A&M University and the University of Florida.[85]

Functions edit

 
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a polytechnic university

U.S. higher education functions as an institution of knowledge but has several secondary functions. According to Marcus Ford, the primary function went through four phases in American history: preserving Christian civilization, advancing the national interest, research, and growing the global economy.[86]

Higher education has also served as a source for professional credentials, as a vehicle for social mobility, and as a social sorter.[87][88] The college functions as a 'status marker', "signaling membership in the educated class, and a place to meet spouses of similar status."[89] Especially among students who move away from their families to attend residential four-year colleges, the experience of going away to college is seen as a rite of passage that produces young adults, irrespective of what they might learn in a classroom.[7] The loss of these non-classroom experiences was the basis for some lawsuits filed after most campuses closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The desire for those experiences was also one reason why schools were pressured to re-open campus life in the fall of 2020.[7]

 
Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities, and the antecedents of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which Caltech continues to manage and operate.

Many of the world's top universities, as ranked by mainly British and American ranking organizations, are in the United States.[90][91][92][93] The U.S. also has the most Nobel Prize winners in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards).[94] Strong research funding helped 'elite American universities' dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers.[17] Other countries, though, are offering incentives to compete for researchers[95] as funding is threatened in the U.S.[96][97] and U.S. dominance of international rankings has lessened.[98][99]

The U.S. higher education system has also been blighted by fly-by-night schools, diploma mills, visa mills, and predatory for-profit colleges.[100][101][102][103] There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations and the Department of Education's College Scorecard, which publishes data on the socio-economic diversity, SAT/ACT scores, graduation rates, and average earnings and debt of graduates at all colleges.[104]

According to Pew Research Center, public opinion about colleges has been declining, especially among Republicans.[105] The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive, providing a difficult-to-measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs, which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs, and payments coming from third parties, not users.[106] In a 2018 Pew survey, 61 percent of those polled said that U.S. higher education was headed in the wrong direction.[107] A 2019 Gallup survey found that, among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important, "only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college."[108]

Types of colleges and universities edit

See also: List of American institutions of higher education, List of U.S. state universities, and List of U.S. liberal arts colleges
 
The University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida, April 2006
 
The Main Building of the University of Texas at Austin

US colleges and universities offer diverse educational venues: some emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, or technical curriculum (like polytechnic universities and land-grant universities) and others emphasize a liberal arts curriculum. Many combine some or all of the above, as comprehensive universities.

The education and training that takes place in a university, college, or Institute of technology usually includes significant theoretical and abstract elements, as well as applied aspects (although limited offerings of internships or SURF programs attempt to provide practical applications). In contrast, the vocational higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications, with very little theory.

In the US, professional schools such as those for law, medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine are graduate schools which a student enters after completing a bachelor's degree. Despite teaching skills necessary for a specific profession and often ending in a licensing exam, these programs are not typically perceived as vocational schools. Admission to professional schools is often highly competitive and requires strong performance on standardized tests.

Employers hiring college graduates consider the average graduate to be more or less deficient in many skill areas, including critical thinking, analytical reasoning, team work, and communication skills.[109][110][111]

 
Mean financial wealth of US families by education of the head of household, 1989–2010
 
Mean income of US families by education of the head of household, 1989–2010

There are significant differences in the economic outcomes of different fields of study. Students with undergraduate degrees in the STEM fields, health, and business are generally the highest paid at the entry-level.[112] According to the US Department of Education, education and nursing majors had the lowest average unemployment rates among 25–29 year old degree-holders, while English and computer science majors had some of the highest.[113]

Terminology edit

The term "college" can refer to one of several key types of educational institutions:

  1. Stand-alone higher-level education institutions that are not components of a university
  2. Community colleges
  3. Liberal arts colleges
  4. Academic units within a larger university or educational institution

Almost all colleges and universities are coeducational. A dramatic transition occurred in the 1970s, when most men's colleges started to accept women. Over 80% of the women's colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged, leaving fewer than 50. Over 100 historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) operate, both private and public.

Some US states offer higher education at two year "colleges" formerly called "community colleges". The change requires cooperation between community colleges and local universities.

Four-year colleges often provide the bachelor's degree, most commonly the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or Bachelor of Science (B.S.). They are primarily either undergraduate only institutions (e.g. liberal arts colleges), or the undergraduate institution of a university (such as Harvard College, Yale College, and Columbia College).

Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations, independent of the government, to vouch for the quality of degrees. These voluntary member organizations establish and maintain standards at participating institutions. Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results.[114] Non-accredited institutions exist, but their students are not eligible for federal loans.

Universities edit

 
The Clark Center at Stanford University in California

Universities are educational institutions with undergraduate and graduate programs. For historical or cultural reasons, some universities[115] have retained the term college instead of "university" for their name. Graduate programs grant a variety of master's degrees (like the Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) or Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.)) in addition to doctorates such as the Ph.D. The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education distinguishes among institutions on the basis of the prevalence of degrees they grant and considers the granting of master's degrees necessary, although not sufficient, for an institution to be classified as a university.[116]

 
The Stern School of Business is New York University's business school.

Some universities have professional schools. Examples include journalism school, business school, medical schools, pharmacy schools (Pharm.D.), and dental schools. A common practice is to refer to these disparate faculties within universities as colleges or schools.[citation needed]

The American university system is largely decentralized. Public universities are administered by the individual states and territories, usually as part of a state university system. Except for the United States service academies and staff colleges, the federal government does not directly regulate universities. However, it can offer federal grants and any institution that receives federal funds must certify that it has adopted and implemented a drug prevention program that meets federal regulations.[117][118]

Each state supports at least one state university and many support several. At one extreme, California has three public higher education systems: the 10-campus University of California, the 23-campus California State University, and the 112-campus California Community Colleges System. In contrast, Wyoming supports a single state university. Public universities often have large student bodies, with introductory classes numbering in the hundreds, with some undergraduate classes taught by graduate students. Tribal colleges operated on Indian reservations by some federally recognized tribes are also public institutions.[citation needed]

Many private universities exist. Some are secular and others are involved in religious education. Some are non-denominational, and some are affiliated with a certain sect or church, such as Roman Catholicism (with different institutions often sponsored by particular religious institutes such as the Jesuits) or religions such as Lutheranism or Mormonism. Seminaries are private institutions for those preparing to become members of the clergy. Most private schools (like all public schools) are non-profit, although some are for-profit.[citation needed]

Community colleges edit

Main article: Community colleges in the United States

 
Truckee Meadows Community College in Nevada

Community colleges are often two-year colleges. They have open admissions, usually with lower tuition fees than other state or private schools.[citation needed] Graduates earn associate degrees, such as an Associate of Arts (AA).

According to National Student Clearinghouse data, community college enrollment has dropped by 2.2 million students since its peak year of 2010–11. In 2017, 88% of community colleges surveyed were facing declining enrollments.[119] A New York Times report in 2017 suggested that of the nation's 18 million undergraduates, 40% were attending community college; of these students, 62% were attending community college full-time, 40% of them worked at least 30 hours a week or more, and more than half lived at home to save money.[120]

The College Promise program, which exists in several forms in 47 states, is an effort to encourage community college enrollment.[121]

Liberal arts colleges edit

Main article: Liberal arts colleges in the United States
 
Commencement at Williams College, a private liberal arts college in Massachusetts

Four-year institutions emphasizing the liberal arts are liberal arts colleges. They traditionally emphasize interactive instruction. They are known for being residential and for having smaller enrollment and lower student-to-faculty ratios than universities. Most are private, although there are public liberal arts colleges. Some offer experimental curricula.[122] Academic areas that are included within the liberal arts include great books, history, languages including English, linguistics, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, political science, psychology, religious studies, science, environmental science, sociology and theater.

For-profit colleges edit

See also: For-profit higher education in the United States

For-profit higher education (known as for-profit college or proprietary education) refers to higher education institutions operated by private, profit-seeking businesses. Students were "attracted to the programs for their ease of enrollment and help obtaining financial aid," but "disappointed with the poor quality of education...."[123][124] University of Phoenix has been the largest for-profit college in the US.[125] Since 2010, for-profit colleges have received greater scrutiny from the US government, state Attorneys General, the media, and scholars.[126] Notable business failures include Corinthian Colleges (2015), ITT Educational Services (2016), Education Management Corporation also known as EDMC (2017), and Education Corporation of America (2018).[127] Two large schools, Kaplan University and Ashford University were sold to public universities with for-profit online program managers and rebranded as Purdue University Global and University of Arizona Global Campus.[128]

Engineering edit

Main article: Engineering college

Teaching engineering is teaching the application of scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to design, build, maintain, and improve structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes. It may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of technology and types of application. Engineering disciplines include aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial and mechanical.

Performing arts edit

Main article: Performing arts education

The performing arts differ from the plastic arts or visual arts, insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face and presence as a medium; the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint, which can be molded or transformed to create a work of art.

Performing arts institutions include circus schools, dance schools, drama schools and music schools.

Plastic or visual arts edit

Main articles: Art education and Art school

The plastic arts or visual arts are a class of art forms, that involve the use of materials, that can be moulded or modulated in some way, often in three dimensions. Examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing.

Higher educational institutions in these arts include film schools and art schools.

Vocational edit

Main articles: Vocational university, Vocational school, and Technical school

Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of both practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education, which are more colloquially known as trade schools. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge.

Professional higher education edit

This describes a distinct form of higher education that offers a particularly intense integration with the world of work in all its aspects (including teaching, learning, research and governance) and at all levels of the overarching Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area. Its function is to diversify learning opportunities, enhance employability, offer qualifications and stimulate innovation, for the benefit of learners and society.

The intensity of integration with the world of work (which includes enterprise, civil society and the public sector) is manifested by a strong focus on application of learning. This approach involves combining phases of work and study, a concern for employability, cooperation with employers, the use of practice-relevant knowledge and use-inspired research.[129]

Examples of providers of professional higher education include graduate colleges of architecture, business, journalism, law, library science, optometry, pharmacy, public policy, human medicine, professional engineering, podiatric medicine, scientific dentistry, K-12 education, and veterinary medicine.

Funding of universities and colleges edit

 
In 2017, the federal contribution amounted to 40 billion dollars. Only 100 schools out of more than 4,000 received 80% of that sum.

Sources of funds edit

US colleges and universities receive their funds from many sources, including tuition, federal Title IV funds, state funds, and endowments.[130][131][132]

State government edit

 
Suzzallo Library at the University of Washington

The major source of funding for public institutions of higher education is direct support from the state. The levels of state support roughly correlate with the population of the state. For example, with a population nearly 40 million, the state of California allocates more than $15 billion on higher education. At the other extreme, Wyoming allocates $384 million for its 570,000 citizens.[133]

Institutional donors and endowments edit

Main article: List of colleges and universities in the United States by endowment
 
4-year colleges and universities in 2015–2016

Private giving supports both private and public institutions. Gifts come in two forms, current use and endowment. Both types of gifts are usually constrained according to a contract between the donor and the institution. Private institutions tend to be more reliant on private giving.[citation needed]

Universities with some of the largest endowments include:[134]

Private philanthropy can be controversial. At the University of Maryland, Northrop Grumman has funded a cybersecurity concentration, designs the curriculum in cybersecurity, provides computers and pays some cost of a new dorm. At Ohio State, IBM partnered to teach big data analytics. Murray State University's engineering program was supported by computer companies. The College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at State University of New York in Albany, received billions of dollars in private sector investment.[135]

Student costs and funding edit

 
In 2019, Columbia University charged $62,000 in tuition, making it the most expensive undergraduate school in the nation.[136]

In 2016, average estimated annual student costs (excluding books) were $16,757 at public institutions, $43,065 at private nonprofit institutions, and $23,776 at private for-profit institutions. Between 2006 and 2016, prices at public colleges and universities rose 34 percent above inflation, and prices at private nonprofit institutions rose 26 percent above inflation.[137]

Students receive scholarships, student loans, or grants to offset costs out-of-pocket. Several states offer scholarships that allow students to attend free of tuition or at lower cost, for example the HOPE Scholarship in Georgia and the Bright Futures Scholarship Program in Florida. Some private colleges and universities offer full need-based financial aid, so that admitted students only have to pay as much as their families can afford (based on the university's assessment of their income).[138][139][140] In most cases, the barrier of entry for students who require financial aid is set higher, a practice called need-aware admissions. Universities with exceptionally large endowments may combine need-based financial aid with need-blind admission, in which students who require financial aid have equal chances to those who do not.[citation needed]

Financial assistance comes in two major forms: grant programs and loan programs. Grant programs consist of money the student receives to pay for higher education that does not need to be paid back; loan programs consist of money the student receives to pay for school that must be paid back. Public higher education institutions (which are partially funded through state government appropriation) and private higher education institutions (which are funded exclusively through tuition and private donations) offer grant and loan financial assistance programs. Grants to attend public schools are distributed through federal and state governments, and through the schools themselves; grants to attend private schools are distributed through the school itself (independent organizations, such as charities or corporations also offer grants that can be applied to both public and private higher education institutions).[141] Loans can be obtained publicly through government sponsored loan programs or privately through independent lending institutions.

Financial aid at US institutions has shifted from needs based to merit based, leaving many low-income students with more debt and fewer opportunities.[142]

Grants, scholarships, loans and work study programs edit

Main article: Student loans in the United States
 
The website of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid, which allows American students to determine their eligibility for student financial aid

Grant programs and work study programs are divided into two major categories: Need-based financial awards and merit-based financial awards. Most state governments provide need-based scholarship programs, while a few also offer merit-based aid.[143] Several need-based grants are provided through the federal government based on information provided on a student's Free Application for Federal Student Aid or FAFSA.[144] The federal Pell Grant is a need-based grant available from the federal government. The federal government had two other grants that were a combination of need-based and merit-based: the Academic Competitiveness Grant, and the National SMART Grant, but the SMART grant was abolished in 2011 with the last grant awarded in June 2011. In order to receive one of these grants a student must be eligible for the Pell Grant, meet specific academic requirements, and be a US citizen.[141]

Eligibility for work study programs is also determined by information collected on the student's FAFSA.[141]

Many companies offer tuition reimbursement plans for their employees, to make benefits package more attractive, to upgrade the skill levels and to increase retention.[145]

In 2012, total student loans exceeded consumer credit card debt for the first time in history.[146] In late 2016, the total estimated US student loan debt exceeded $1.4 trillion.[147]

Student loans can be divided into two categories: federal student loans and private student loans. Federal student loans may be:

A student's eligibility for any of these loans, as well as the amount of the loan itself is determined by information on the student's FAFSA. The former Federal Perkins Loan program expired in 2017.[148]

Statistics edit

 
University of Arizona, a public land-grant research university in Tucson, Arizona

US educational statistics are provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), part of the Department of Education. The number of Title IV-eligible, degree-granting institutions peaked at 4,726 in 2012, with 4-year institutions numbering at 3,026 and 2-year institutions at 1,700.[1] Enrollment at postsecondary institutions, participating in Title IV, peaked at just over 21 million students in 2010.[149] Demographic wise, on average, whites constitute the highest percentage of enrollments in US higher educational institutions.[150] The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the National Student Clearinghouse show that college enrollment has declined since a peak in 2010–11, and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

Enrollment data for postsecondary education in degree-granting institutions in US
Year Fall enrollment[149] Degree-granting institutions[1] Ethnic demography of students(%)[150]
(total) (male) (female) (percent female) (Total) (4-year) (2-year) (white) (black) (Hispanic) (Asian/pacific islander) (others)
2020 18,991,798 7,869,545 11,122,253 58.6 3,931 2,637 1,294 54.0 13.1 20.3 7.7 4.9
2019 19,630,178 8,363,889 11,266,289 57.4 3,982 2,679 1,303 54.4 13.2 20.3 7.4 4.7
2018 19,651,412 8,444,614 11,206,798 57.0 4,042 2,703 1,339 55.2 13.4 19.5 7.3 4.9
2017 19,778,151 8,571,314 11,206,837 56.7 4,313 2,828 1,485 56.0 13.6 18.9 7.1 4.4
2016 19,846,904 8,638,422 11,208,482 56.5 4,360 2,832 1,528 56.9 13.7 18.2 6.9 4.3
2015 19,988,204 8,723,819 11,264,385 56.4 4,583 3,004 1,579 57.6 14.1 17.4 6.8 4.1
2014 20,209,092 8,797,530 11,411,562 56.5 4,627 3,011 1,616 58.3 14.5 16.5 6.6 4.1
2013 20,376,677 8,861,197 11,515,480 56.5 4,724 3,039 1,685 59.3 14.7 15.8 6.4 3.8
2012 20,644,478 8,919,006 11,725,472 56.8 4,726 3,026 1,700 60.3 14.9 15.0 6.3 3.5
2011 21,010,590 9,034,256 11,976,334 57.0 4,706 2,968 1,738 61.2 15.2 14.3 6.3 3
2010 21,019,438 9,045,759 11,973,679 57.0 4,599 2,870 1,729 62.6 15.0 13.5 6.3 2.6
2009 20,313,594 8,732,953 11,580,641 57.0 4,495 2,774 1,721 64.5 14.7 12.9 6.8 1.1
2008 19,081,686 8,177,714 10,903,972 57.1 4,409 2,719 1,690 65.5 14.0 12.3 7.1 1.1
2007 18,258,138 7,819,938 10,438,200 57.2 4,352 2,675 1,677 66.7 13.5 11.8 6.9 1.1
2006 17,754,230 7,572,265 10,181,965 57.3 4,314 2,629 1,685 67.4 13.3 11.4 6.8 1.1
2005 17,487,475 7,455,925 10,031,550 57.4 4,276 2,582 1,694 68.0 13.1 11.1 6.7 1.1
2004 17,272,044 7,387,262 9,884,782 57.2 4,216 2,533 1,683 68.5 13.0 10.8 6.6 1.1
2003 16,911,481 7,260,264 9,651,217 57.1 4,236 2,530 1,706 69.1 12.7 10.5 6.6 1.1
2002 16,611,711 7,202,116 9,409,595 56.6 4,168 2,466 1,702 69.5 12.4 10.4 6.7 1
2001 15,927,987 6,960,815 8,967,172 56.3 4,197 2,487 1,710 70.1 12.0 10.2 6.6 1.1
2000 15,312,289 6,721,769 8,590,520 56.1 4,182 2,450 1,732 70.8 11.7 9.9 6.6 1
1999 14,849,691 6,515,164 8,334,527 56.1 4,084 2,363 1,721 71.9 11.5 9.2 6.4 1
1998 14,506,967 6,369,265 8,137,702 56.1 4,048 2,335 1,713 72.4 11.3 8.9 6.4 1
1997 14,502,334 6,396,028 8,106,306 55.9 4,064 2,309 1,755 73.1 11.0 8.7 6.1 1.1
1996 14,367,520 6,352,825 8,014,695 55.8 4,009 2,267 1,742 73.8 10.8 8.4 6.0 1
1995 14,261,781 6,342,539 7,919,242 55.5 3,706 2,244 1,462 74.7 10.7 7.9 5.8 0.9
1994 14,278,790 6,371,898 7,906,892 55.4 3,688 2,215 1,473 75.4 10.5 7.6 5.6 0.9
1993 14,304,803 6,427,450 7,877,353 55.1 3,632 2,190 1,442 NA NA NA NA NA
1992 14,487,359 6,523,989 7,963,370 55.0 3,638 2,169 1,469 NA NA NA NA NA
1991 14,358,953 6,501,844 7,857,109 54.7 3,601 2,157 1,444 NA NA NA NA NA
1990 13,818,637 6,283,909 7,534,728 54.5 3,559 2,141 1,418 79.9 9.3 5.8 4.3 0.7
1989 13,538,560 6,190,015 7,348,545 54.3 3,535 2,127 1,408 NA NA NA NA NA
1988 13,055,337 6,001,896 7,053,441 54.0 3,565 2,129 1,436 NA NA NA NA NA
1987 12,766,642 5,932,056 6,834,586 53.5 3,587 2,135 1,452 NA NA NA NA NA
1986 12,503,511 5,884,515 6,618,996 52.9 3,406 2,070 1,336 NA NA NA NA NA
1985 12,247,055 5,818,450 6,428,605 52.5 3,340 2,029 1,311 NA NA NA NA NA
1984 12,241,940 5,863,574 6,378,366 52.1 3,331 2,025 1,306 NA NA NA NA NA
1983 12,464,661 6,023,725 6,440,936 51.7 3,284 2,013 1,271 NA NA NA NA NA
1982 12,425,780 6,031,384 6,394,396 51.5 3,280 1,984 1,296 NA NA NA NA NA
1981 12,371,672 5,975,056 6,396,616 51.7 3,253 1,979 1,274 NA NA NA NA NA
1980 12,096,895 5,874,374 6,222,521 51.4 3,231 1,957 1,274 83.5 9.4 4.0 2.4 0.7
1979 11,569,899 5,682,877 5,887,022 50.9 3,095 1,938 1,157 NA NA NA NA NA
1978 11,260,092 5,640,998 5,619,094 49.9 3,134 1,941 1,193 NA NA NA NA NA
1977 11,285,787 5,789,016 5,496,771 48.7 3,095 1,938 1,157 NA NA NA NA NA
1976 11,012,137 5,810,828 5,201,309 47.2 3,046 1,913 1,133 84.3 9.6 3.6 1.8 0.7
1975 11,184,859 6,148,997 5,035,862 45.0 3,026 1,898 1,128 NA NA NA NA NA
1970 8,580,887 5,043,642 3,537,245 41.2 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
1965 5,920,864 3,630,020 2,290,844 38.7 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
1957 3,323,783 2,170,765 1,153,018 34.7 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

A US Department of Education longitudinal survey of 15,000 high school students in 2002 and 2012, found that 84% of the 27-year-old students had some college education, but only 34% achieved a bachelor's degree or higher; 79% owe some money for college and 55% owe more than $10,000; college dropouts were three times more likely to be unemployed than those who finished college; 40% spent some time unemployed and 23% were unemployed for six months or more; and 79% earned less than $40,000 per year.[151][152]

Admission process edit

Main article: College admissions in the United States
Further information: Transfer admissions in the United States
 
In 2021, Harvard College at Harvard University reported a 3.43% acceptance rate.[153]

Students can apply to some colleges using the Common Application. With a few exceptions, most undergraduate colleges and universities maintain the policy that students are to be admitted to (or rejected from) the entire college, not to a particular department or major. (This is unlike college admissions in many European countries, as well as graduate admissions.) Some students, rather than being rejected, are "wait-listed" for a particular college and may be admitted if another student who was admitted decides not to attend the college or university. The five major parts of admission are ACT/SAT scores, grade point average, college application, essay, and letters of recommendation. The SAT's usefulness in the admissions process is controversial.[154] Each state has its own set of residency laws and requirements that dictate educational benefits as a reward for state residence. As a result, public colleges and universities in many states charge out-of-state applicants a higher rate of tuition than resident students must pay.[155]

Legacies and large donors edit

Admissions at elite schools include preferences to alumni and large investors.[156][157][158] Legislators have asked for transparency with donors and college admissions, but there are several groups that oppose it.[159] Inside Higher Ed's 2018 survey of college admissions directors found that 42 percent of private colleges and universities used legacy status as a factor in admissions decisions.[160]

International study and student exchange edit

Further information: International student § United States

In 2016–17, 332,727 US students studied abroad for credit. Most took place in Europe, with 40 percent of students studying in five countries: the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France, and Germany.[161]

The US is the most popular country in the world for attracting students from other countries, according to UNESCO, with 16% of all international students going to the US (the next highest is the UK with 11%).[162] 671,616 foreign students enrolled in American colleges in 2008–09.[162][163] This figure rose to 723,277 in 2010–11. The largest number, 157,558, came from China.[164] According to Uni in the USA, despite "exorbitant" costs of US universities, higher education in America remains attractive to international students due to "generous subsidies and financial aid packages that enable students from even the most disadvantaged backgrounds to attend the college of their dreams".[165]

Government coordination edit

Most states have an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions. Examples include the Alabama Commission on Higher Education, California Postsecondary Education Commission, Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, Washington State Higher Education Coordinating Board, and The Georgia Department of Technical and Adult Education.

Academic labor edit

Main article: Adjunct professors in North America
 
The George Peabody Library at Johns Hopkins University

Until the mid-1970s, when federal expenditures for higher education fell, there were routinely more tenure-track jobs than Ph.D. graduates. In the 1980s and 1990s there were significant changes in the economics of academic life. Despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues, professorial positions were replaced with poorly paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor.[166] Community colleges and for-profit colleges rely almost exclusively on adjuncts for instruction.[167]

With academic institutions producing Ph.D.s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track positions they intended to create, administrators were cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement. Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand".[168] Aggravating the problem, those few academics who do achieve tenure are often determined to stay put as long as possible, refusing lucrative incentives to retire early.[169]

Labor unions and labor conditions edit

The following unions represent higher education faculty and staff:

  • American Association of University Professors
  • American Federation of Teachers
  • Service Employees International Union
  • United Auto Workers

Adjunctification edit

In 2017, 17% of faculty were tenured. 89% of adjunct professors worked at more than one job. An adjunct was paid an average of $2,700 for a single course. While student-faculty ratios remained the same since 1975, administrator-student ratio went from 1–84 to 1–68.[170] In 2018, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) reported that 73 percent of all faculty positions were filled by adjuncts.[171]

According to the American Federation of Teachers, "nearly 25 percent of adjunct faculty members rely on public assistance, and 40 percent struggle to cover basic household expenses" and just 15 percent of adjuncts said they are able to comfortably cover basic expenses from month to month."[172]

Adjunct organizations include the Coalition for Contingent (COCAL), the New Faculty Majority, and SEIU Faculty Forward.[173][174] The American Federation of Teachers and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters have also organized contingent academic labor.[175][176]

Unionizing and labor actions edit

2022 and 2023 were record years for academic labor strikes in the United States.[177]

Sports edit

Main article: College athletics in the United States
 
Michigan on offense against Ohio State during the 2011 game in Ann Arbor Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry

College athletics in the US is a three-tiered system. The first tier consists of elite sports that make a profit. The second tier includes sports sanctioned by one of the collegiate sport governing bodies that break even or lose money. Some of these collegiate sports governing organizations like the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) are umbrella non-profit organizations that govern multiple sports. Additionally, the first and second tiers are characterized by selective participation; some colleges offer athletic scholarships to intercollegiate sports competitors. The third tier includes intramural and recreational sports clubs, which are available to more of the student body. Competition between student clubs from different colleges, not organized by and therefore not representing the institutions or their faculties, may also be called "intercollegiate" athletics or simply college sports.[178]: 476 

The most competitive collegiate sport governing body in the first and second tiers is the NCAA, which regulates athletes of 1,268 institutions across the US and Canada. The NCAA uses a three-division system of Division I, Division II, and Division III. Division I and Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport, while Division III schools cannot offer any athletic scholarships.[179] Division I schools, which generally are larger than either Division II or III institutions, must further meet additional requirements: among them, they must field teams in at least seven sports for men and seven for women or six for men and eight for women, with at least two team sports for each gender.[180] Each division is then further divided into several conferences for regional league play. The names of these conferences, such as the Ivy League, are also metonyms for their respective schools.[181]

College sports are popular on regional and national scales, at times competing with professional championships for prime broadcast, print coverage. In most states, the person with the highest taxpayer-provided base salary is a public college football or basketball coach. This does not include coaches at private colleges.[182] The average university sponsors at least 20 different sports and offers a wide variety of intramural sports. There are approximately 400,000 men and women student-athletes that participate in sanctioned athletics each year.[178]: 474 

Varsity esports have been growing since the 2010s. As of 2019, there were 125 esports teams at colleges and universities in North America.[183]

Issues confronting higher education in the United States edit

Main article: Issues in higher education in the United States
 
College enrollment
  Female
  Male

Entrance routes and procedures for choosing a college or university, their rankings and the financial value of degrees are being discussed. This leads to discussions on socioeconomic status and race ethnicity and gender. From the student perspective, issues include colleges failing to teach soft skills such as critical thinking,[184] the wide ranges of remuneration and underemployment among the various degrees,[185][186][187] rising tuition and increasing student loan debt,[188][189] austerity in state and local spending, the adjunctification of academic labor,[190][191] student poverty and hunger,[192] along with educational inflation.[193]

Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century, making them attractive to international students, professors and researchers.[17] Other countries, though, are offering incentives to compete for researchers[95] as funding is threatened in the US[96][97] and US dominance of international tables has lessened.[98] The system has also been blighted by fly-by-night schools, diploma mills, visa mills, and predatory for-profit colleges.[102][100][103][101] There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations, but they have been met by resistance.[194]

Public opinion about colleges has been declining, especially among Republicans and the white working class.[195][196][197][198] The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive, providing a difficult-to-measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs, which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs, and payments coming from third parties, not users.[106] In a 2018 Pew survey, 61 percent of those polled said that US higher education was headed in the wrong direction.[107] A 2019 Gallup survey found that, among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important, "only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college."[108] In 2023, the Wall Street Journal reported that 56 percent of Americans thought a bachelor's degree was a bad bet.[199]

In 2021, US student loan debt amounted to more than $1.7 trillion.[200]

Declining enrollment, mergers, and campus closures edit

Falling birth rates result in fewer people graduating from high school. The number of high school graduates grew 30% from 1995 to 2013, then peaked at 3.5 million.[201] Liberal arts programs have been declining for decades. From 1967 to 2018, college students majoring in the liberal arts declined from 20 percent to 5 percent.[202]

Since 2011, enrollment in postsecondary education in the United States has declined by more than 2 million people.[203] Researchers hypothesize that the primary factors leading to this drop in enrollment are low birth rates over the last couple decades, a more successful economy, and the increasing cost of postsecondary education coupled with a decrease in financial aid and student debt.[203][204] Some potential students are also questioning the cost-benefit ratio of a college education and if it is necessary to gain employment, opting instead for vocational education.[205][206][207][203][204] In 2018, the National Center for Education Statistics projected stagnant enrollment patterns until at least 2027.[13] Demographer Nathan Grawe projected that lower birth rates following the Great Recession of 2008 would result in a 15 percent enrollment loss, beginning in 2026.[11]

In 2019, the National Center for Education Statistics continued to project that higher education enrollment would remain stagnant, but white enrollment would drop 8 percent from 2016 to 2027. The report projected black enrollment to increase by 6 percent, Hispanic enrollment to increase 14 percent, Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment to increase 7 percent, and American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment to decrease 9 percent during the same period.[16] In March 2019, Moody's warned that enrollment declines could lead to more financial problems for the higher education industry.[208] In a 2019 survey by Inside Higher Ed, nearly one in seven college presidents said their campus could close or merge within five years.[209] The total number of degree granting colleges in the US peaked in 2012 and has decreased every year since then.[210]

In "The Higher Education Apocalypse", U.S. News & World Report education reporter Lauren Camera speculated that recent closings of schools in New England might be the beginning of a rash of college closures.[211] An analysis of federal data from The Chronicle of Higher Education shows "about half a million students have been displaced by college closures, which together shuttered more than 1,200 campuses."[212] In a 2021 Wall Street Journal article titled "Hobbled for Life," Melissa Korn and Andrea Fuller found that many master's degrees at elite schools did not pay off.[213]

Anti-Semitism edit

Cases of anti-Semitism in US campuses and universities have increased significantly in the past few, intensifying following the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.[214] [215] These include cases of physical and verbal assault on Jewish students. [216] Reports of anti-Semitism, hate speech and violence have prompted Jews to factor anti-Semitism in their college applications.[217][218] Furthermore, universities which received foreign undisclosed donations authoritarian regimes surmounting to 13 billion USD had a 250% rise from 2015 to 2020 in anti-Semitic incidents.[219] Institutions that received donations from Middle Eastern authoritarian regimes have had a rise in anti-Semitism of 300% in the respective universities.[219] This comes in addition to pro-Palestinian and anti-Israeli organizations receiving funding from familiar financial supporters.[220] The ADL has risen the issue that academic freedom and students activism have been misused in order to shield hate speech against Jews.[221]

Foreign Financial Influence edit

It has been estimated that US universities have illegally undisclosed information regarding 13 billion USD in donations from foreign countries. A very significant part of these donations originate in authoritarian regimes.[219] This occurrence is part of wider global initiatives aimed at augmenting soft power and weakening democratic institutions by authoritarian regimes.[222] Several of these foreign financial funders are believed to have an attached agenda to their funding that at times have involved political goals in promotion of a foreign agenda.[223][224][225] Furthermore some institutions funded are pressured to alter and adjust themselves to the foreign donor, triggering fear of potential influence.[223][224][225] The phenomena has led to US universities facing scrutiny from US congress and crackdowns on their financials.[226][227]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

Main article: History of education in the United States: Bibliography
See also: History of higher education in the United States § Further reading
  • Adams-Johnson, Susan, et al. "Higher education recruitment in the United States: A chronology of significant literature." Journal of Educational Administration and History 51.3 (2019): 213–238. online
  • Baum, Sandy, Charles Kurose, and Michael McPherson. "An overview of American higher education." in The future of children (2013): 17–39; reviews changes since 1960s. online
  • Betts, Kristen, et al. "Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States: Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education." Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice 8.1 (2021) pp 3–55 online.
  • Cahalan, Margaret W., et al. "Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United States: 2021 Historical Trend Report." (Pell institute for the study of opportunity in higher education, 2021). online
  • Cole, Jonathan R. (2016). Toward a More Perfect University. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610392655.
  • MacLeod, W. Bentley, and Miguel Urquiola. 2021. "Why Does the United States Have the Best Research Universities? Incentives, Resources, and Virtuous Circles." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 35 (1): 185–206.
  • Renn, Kristen A., and Robert D. Reason. (2021) College students in the United States: Characteristics, experiences, and outcomes (2nd ed. 2021) reviews.
  • Taylor, Barrett J., and Brendan Cantwell. "Unequal higher education in the United States: Growing participation and shrinking opportunities." Social Sciences 7.9 (2018): 167+ online

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Higher education in the United States.
 
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Touring prestigious and notable universities in the U.S..
  • US Department of Education – College Affordability and Transparency Center
  • Guide to US higher education for international students

November 14, 2023
higher, education, united, states, united, states, higher, education, optional, stage, formal, learning, following, secondary, education, also, referred, post, secondary, education, third, stage, third, level, tertiary, education, covers, stages, international. In the United States higher education is an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education It is also referred as post secondary education third stage third level or tertiary education It covers stages 5 to 8 on the International ISCED 2011 scale It is delivered at 4 360 Title IV degree granting institutions known as colleges or universities 1 These may be public or private universities research universities liberal arts colleges community colleges or for profit colleges US higher education is loosely regulated by the government and by several third party organizations 2 There is a clear hierarchy of colleges and universities in the US with the most selective institutions e g Ivy League schools at the top and the least selective institutions e g community colleges at the bottom 3 White supremacy and academic profit seeking have played major roles in this stratification 4 5 6 Attending college has been thought of as a rite of passage to which the American Dream is deeply embedded 7 However there is a growing skepticism of higher education in the US and its value to consumers 8 9 In 2022 about 16 million students 9 6 million women and 6 6 million men enrolled in degree granting colleges and universities in the US Of the enrolled students 45 8 enrolled in a four year public institution 27 8 in a four year private institution and 26 4 in a two year public institution 10 College enrollment has declined every year since a peak in 2010 2011 and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades 11 12 13 14 15 16 Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century making them attractive to international students professors and researchers 17 The US higher education system is also unique in its investment in highly competitive NCAA sports particularly in American football and basketball with large sports stadiums and arenas adorning its campuses and bringing in billions in revenue 18 Contents 1 History 1 1 Colonial era to 19th century 1 1 1 Catholic colleges and universities 1 1 2 Historically black colleges and universities HBCUs 1 2 Timeline of key federal legislation 1 3 20th century 1 4 21st century 1 4 1 Online education MOOCs and OPMs 1 4 2 Financial difficulties mergers and downsizing 1 4 3 Class privilege and the growth of the educated underclass 1 4 4 Protests political clashes and the growth of right wing politics 2 Functions 3 Types of colleges and universities 3 1 Terminology 3 2 Universities 3 3 Community colleges 3 4 Liberal arts colleges 3 5 For profit colleges 3 6 Engineering 3 7 Performing arts 3 8 Plastic or visual arts 3 9 Vocational 3 10 Professional higher education 4 Funding of universities and colleges 4 1 Sources of funds 4 1 1 State government 4 1 2 Institutional donors and endowments 4 2 Student costs and funding 4 2 1 Grants scholarships loans and work study programs 5 Statistics 6 Admission process 6 1 Legacies and large donors 7 International study and student exchange 8 Government coordination 9 Academic labor 9 1 Labor unions and labor conditions 9 2 Adjunctification 9 3 Unionizing and labor actions 10 Sports 11 Issues confronting higher education in the United States 11 1 Declining enrollment mergers and campus closures 11 2 Anti Semitism 11 3 Foreign Financial Influence 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External linksHistory editMain article History of higher education in the United States Colonial era to 19th century edit See also Slavery at American colleges and universities nbsp The Wren Building at the College of William amp Mary is the oldest academic building in the United States dating back to 1695 The school held African slaves and their descendants for 170 years Religious denominations established early colleges in order to train white male ministers Between 1636 and 1776 nine colleges were chartered in Colonial America today these institutions are known as the colonial colleges According to historian John Thelin most instructors at these institutions were lowly paid tutors 19 As objects of the slavocracy African slaves and their descendants also served as free labor for more than a century and a half 20 Besides slavery land theft was an important aspect of higher education growth This theft involved more than 200 indigenous nations nearly 160 violent treaties and the taking of 11 million acres of land 21 Protestants and Catholics opened over hundreds of small denominational colleges in the 19th century In 1899 they enrolled 46 percent of all US undergraduates Many closed or merged but in 1905 there were over 500 in operation 22 23 Catholics opened several women s colleges in the early 20th century Schools were small with a limited undergraduate curriculum based on the liberal arts Students were drilled in Greek Latin geometry ancient history logic ethics and rhetoric with few discussions and no lab sessions Originality and creativity were not prized but exact repetition was rewarded College presidents typically enforced strict discipline and upperclassman enjoyed hazing freshman Many students were younger than 17 and most colleges also operated a preparatory school There were no organized sports or Greek letter fraternities but literary societies were active Tuition was low and scholarships were few Many of their students were sons of clergymen most planned professional careers as ministers lawyers or teachers 24 The nation s small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations These schools promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers and providing towns with a core of community leaders Elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed little upward social mobility By concentrating on ministers and the offspring of wealthy families elite Eastern colleges such as Harvard Columbia and Princeton played a role in the formation of a Northeastern elite 25 In some areas public institutions of higher education were slow to take hold For instance although there was general support for expanding access to higher education through public institutions private colleges and universities successfully hindered the establishment of a public university in Boston Massachusetts until the 1860s The competition between private and public institutions shaped the development of the mixed public private character of higher education in the United States 26 Catholic colleges and universities edit Main article History of Catholic education in the United States Colleges and universities nbsp The Main Building at the University of Notre Dame a prominent Catholic university in the United StatesThe Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities was founded in 1899 and continues to facilitate the exchange of information and methods 27 Vigorous debate in recent decades has focused on how to balance Catholic and academic roles with conservatives arguing that bishops should exert more control to guarantee orthodoxy 28 29 30 Historically black colleges and universities HBCUs edit Main article Historically black colleges and universities Most Historically Black Colleges and Universities were established in the South after the American Civil War often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the northern United States HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include Cheyney University of Pennsylvania in 1837 University of the District of Columbia then known as Miner School for Colored Girls in 1851 and Lincoln University in 1854 31 The second Morrill Act 1890 required that states consider black students equally or found separate land grant schools for them 32 Timeline of key federal legislation edit Morrill Act 1862 and 1890 Smith Hughes Act or National Vocational Education Act 1917 33 Federal Student Aid Program 1934 1943 34 G I Bill 1944 National Defense Education Act 1958 Higher Education Act 1965 Education Amendments 1972 CARES Act Coronavirus Relief packages and American Rescue Plan 2020 2021 35 36 37 20th century edit nbsp An open domed room anchors the Ohio University atop the hillside where the Hocking River had cut At the beginning of the 20th century less than 1 000 colleges with 160 000 students existed in the US The number of colleges skyrocketed in waves during the early and mid 20th century State universities grew from small institutions of fewer than 1 000 students to campuses with 40 000 more students with networks of regional campuses around the state In turn regional campuses broke away and became separate universities citation needed To handle the explosive growth of K 12 education every state set up a network of teachers colleges beginning with Massachusetts in the 1830s After 1950 they became state colleges and then state universities with a broad curriculum citation needed Major new trends included the development of the junior colleges They were usually set up by city school systems starting in the 1920s 38 By the 1960s they were renamed as community colleges Junior colleges grew from 20 in number In 1909 to 170 in 1919 By 1922 37 states had set up 70 junior colleges enrolling about 150 students each Meanwhile another 137 were privately operated with about 60 students each Rapid expansion continued in the 1920s with 440 junior colleges in 1930 enrolling about 70 000 students The peak year for private institutions came in 1949 when there were 322 junior colleges in all 180 were affiliated with churches 108 were independent non profit and 34 were private schools run for profit 39 Many factors contributed to rapid growth of community colleges Students parents and businessmen wanted nearby low cost schools to provide training for the growing white collar labor force as well as for more advanced technical jobs in the blue collar sphere Four year colleges were also growing albeit not as fast however many of them were located in rural or small town areas away from the fast growing metropolis Community colleges continue as open enrollment low cost institutions with a strong component of vocational education as well as a low cost preparation for transfer students into four year schools They appeal to a poorer older less prepared element 40 41 nbsp A poster publicizing the student strike of 1970 In the 1960s and 70s colleges and universities became centers of social movements College students were involved in social movements long before the 20th century but the most dramatic student movements rose in the 1960s In the 1960s students organized for civil rights and against the Vietnam War In the 1970s students led movements for women s rights and gay rights as well as protests against South African apartheid 42 Privatization of US higher education increased in the 1980s and during economic recessions and austerity in the 20th and 21st century 43 While for profit colleges originated during Colonial times growth in these schools was most apparent from the 1980s to about 2011 For profit college enrollment however has declined significantly since 2011 after several federal investigations For profit colleges were criticized for predatory marketing and sales practices 44 The failures of Corinthian Colleges and ITT Technical Institute were the most remarkable closings 45 In 2018 the documentary Fail State chronicled the boom and bust of for profit colleges highlighting the abuses that led to their downfall 46 21st century edit nbsp Royce Hall at UCLA In 2021 UCLA received 168 000 applicants making the school the most applied to of any American university 47 Changing technology mergers and closings and politics have resulted in dramatic changes in US higher education during the 21st century nbsp 2008 2012 bachelor s degree or higher 5 year estimate by county percent nbsp People 25 years and over who have completed an advanced degree by state percent 2012 In 2020 when the COVID 19 pandemic upended regular campus life forcing students to take online classes at home more than 100 colleges both public and private have been sued for tuition refunds making many of them to reopen their campuses Online education MOOCs and OPMs edit Online education has grown in the early 21st century More than 6 3 million students in the US took at least one online course in fall 2016 48 While online attendance has increased confidence among chief academic officers has decreased from 70 8 percent in 2015 to 63 3 percent in 2016 49 In 2017 about 15 of all students attended exclusively online and competition for online students has been increasing 50 By 2018 more than one hundred short term coding bootcamps existed in the US Programs were available at Harvard University s extension school and the extension schools at Georgia Tech University of Pennsylvania Cal Berkeley Northwestern UCLA University of North Carolina University of Texas George Washington Vanderbilt University and Rutgers through Trilogy Education Services 51 52 In 2019 researchers employed by George Mason University claimed that online education had contributed to increasing gaps in educational success across socioeconomic groups while failing to improve affordability 53 54 self published source 55 A MOOC is a massive open online course aimed at unlimited participation and open access via the web It became popular in 2010 14 In addition to traditional course materials such as filmed lectures readings and problem sets many MOOCs provide interactive user forums to support community interactions between students professors and teaching assistants 56 Robert Zemsky 2014 of the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education notes that they at first seemed to be an extremely inexpensive method of bringing top teachers at low cost directly to students However very few students usually under 5 were able to finish a MOOC course He argues that they have passed their peak They came they conquered very little and now they face substantially diminished prospects 57 In 2019 researchers at MIT found that MOOCs had completion rates of 3 percent and that the number of people taking these courses has been declining since 2012 13 58 Online programs for many universities are often managed by privately owned companies called online program managers or OPMs The OPMs include 2U Academic Partnerships Noodle and iDesign Trace Urdan managing director at Tyton Partners estimates that the market for OPMs and related services will be worth nearly 8 billion by 2020 59 In 2023 the US Department of Education announced that OPMs would be subject to greater oversight to include audits Higher education institutions would be required to report details about their agreements with OPMs by May 1 2023 60 Edtech expert Phil Hill recently said that the OPM model is now on life support 61 Financial difficulties mergers and downsizing edit nbsp Wheelock College in Massachusetts was one of a number of colleges to close due to financial struggles Hundreds of colleges are expected to close or merge according to research from Ernst amp Young 62 The US Department of Education publishes a monthly list of campus and learning site closings Typically there are 300 to 1000 closings per year 63 64 Notable college closings include for profit Corinthian Colleges 2015 ITT Technical Institute 2016 Brightwood College and Virginia College 2018 65 66 Private college closings include Wheelock College 2018 and Green Mountain College 2019 67 In December 2017 Moody s credit rating agency downgraded the US higher education outlook from stable to negative citing financial strains at both public and private four year institutions 68 In June 2018 Moody s released data on declining college enrollments and constraints noting that tuition pricing would suppress tuition revenue growth 69 Other businesses related to higher education have also had financial difficulties In May 2019 two academic publishers Cengage and McGraw Hill merged 70 In 2020 higher education lost 650 000 jobs or about 13 percent of the workforce amid the COVID 19 pandemic despite an infusion of federal funds 71 The number of US postsecondary institutions receiving Title IV funding has dropped from 7 253 in 2012 2013 to 5 916 in 2020 2021 72 Class privilege and the growth of the educated underclass edit nbsp Humanities Building at San Francisco State UniversitySocial class has a profound influence on higher education Undergraduates at elite universities have a substantial advantage if their parents also went to a particular college 73 Educator Gary Roth a left wing writer has argued that with fewer good jobs for graduates the US has been producing an educated underclass 74 While upward social mobility continues to be available for immigrants and first generation people the route to upward social mobility is more complicated for people from families that have been in the US longer 75 76 Protests political clashes and the growth of right wing politics edit The growth of power among right wing groups has been apparent since the mid 2010s Turning Point USA TPUS now the most dominant conservative presence on US campuses has clubs at more than 2500 college campuses Charlie Kirk its founder also took over Students for Trump in 2019 The Chronicle of Higher Education has documented groups such as the Groypers who have infiltrated conservative organizations on campus 77 Student protests and clashes between left and right appeared on several US campuses in 2017 78 79 80 81 82 On August 11 2017 white nationalists and members of the alt right rallied at the University of Virginia protesting the removal of a statue of Robert E Lee 83 The following day one person died during protests in Charlottesville 84 Following this event speaking engagements by Richard Spencer were canceled at Texas A amp M University and the University of Florida 85 Functions edit nbsp The Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT a polytechnic universityU S higher education functions as an institution of knowledge but has several secondary functions According to Marcus Ford the primary function went through four phases in American history preserving Christian civilization advancing the national interest research and growing the global economy 86 Higher education has also served as a source for professional credentials as a vehicle for social mobility and as a social sorter 87 88 The college functions as a status marker signaling membership in the educated class and a place to meet spouses of similar status 89 Especially among students who move away from their families to attend residential four year colleges the experience of going away to college is seen as a rite of passage that produces young adults irrespective of what they might learn in a classroom 7 The loss of these non classroom experiences was the basis for some lawsuits filed after most campuses closed due to the COVID 19 pandemic The desire for those experiences was also one reason why schools were pressured to re open campus life in the fall of 2020 7 nbsp Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities and the antecedents of NASA s Jet Propulsion Laboratory which Caltech continues to manage and operate Many of the world s top universities as ranked by mainly British and American ranking organizations are in the United States 90 91 92 93 The U S also has the most Nobel Prize winners in history with 403 having won 406 awards 94 Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century making them attractive to international students professors and researchers 17 Other countries though are offering incentives to compete for researchers 95 as funding is threatened in the U S 96 97 and U S dominance of international rankings has lessened 98 99 The U S higher education system has also been blighted by fly by night schools diploma mills visa mills and predatory for profit colleges 100 101 102 103 There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations and the Department of Education s College Scorecard which publishes data on the socio economic diversity SAT ACT scores graduation rates and average earnings and debt of graduates at all colleges 104 According to Pew Research Center public opinion about colleges has been declining especially among Republicans 105 The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive providing a difficult to measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs and payments coming from third parties not users 106 In a 2018 Pew survey 61 percent of those polled said that U S higher education was headed in the wrong direction 107 A 2019 Gallup survey found that among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college 108 Types of colleges and universities editSee also List of American institutions of higher education List of U S state universities and List of U S liberal arts colleges nbsp The University of Miami in Coral Gables Florida April 2006 nbsp The Main Building of the University of Texas at AustinUS colleges and universities offer diverse educational venues some emphasize a vocational business engineering or technical curriculum like polytechnic universities and land grant universities and others emphasize a liberal arts curriculum Many combine some or all of the above as comprehensive universities The education and training that takes place in a university college or Institute of technology usually includes significant theoretical and abstract elements as well as applied aspects although limited offerings of internships or SURF programs attempt to provide practical applications In contrast the vocational higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications with very little theory In the US professional schools such as those for law medicine dentistry and veterinary medicine are graduate schools which a student enters after completing a bachelor s degree Despite teaching skills necessary for a specific profession and often ending in a licensing exam these programs are not typically perceived as vocational schools Admission to professional schools is often highly competitive and requires strong performance on standardized tests Employers hiring college graduates consider the average graduate to be more or less deficient in many skill areas including critical thinking analytical reasoning team work and communication skills 109 110 111 nbsp Mean financial wealth of US families by education of the head of household 1989 2010 nbsp Mean income of US families by education of the head of household 1989 2010There are significant differences in the economic outcomes of different fields of study Students with undergraduate degrees in the STEM fields health and business are generally the highest paid at the entry level 112 According to the US Department of Education education and nursing majors had the lowest average unemployment rates among 25 29 year old degree holders while English and computer science majors had some of the highest 113 Terminology edit The term college can refer to one of several key types of educational institutions Stand alone higher level education institutions that are not components of a university Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Academic units within a larger university or educational institutionAlmost all colleges and universities are coeducational A dramatic transition occurred in the 1970s when most men s colleges started to accept women Over 80 of the women s colleges of the 1960s have closed or merged leaving fewer than 50 Over 100 historically black colleges and universities HBCUs operate both private and public Some US states offer higher education at two year colleges formerly called community colleges The change requires cooperation between community colleges and local universities Four year colleges often provide the bachelor s degree most commonly the Bachelor of Arts B A or Bachelor of Science B S They are primarily either undergraduate only institutions e g liberal arts colleges or the undergraduate institution of a university such as Harvard College Yale College and Columbia College Higher education has led to the creation of accreditation organizations independent of the government to vouch for the quality of degrees These voluntary member organizations establish and maintain standards at participating institutions Accrediting agencies have been criticized for possible conflicts of interest that lead to favorable results 114 Non accredited institutions exist but their students are not eligible for federal loans Universities edit nbsp The Clark Center at Stanford University in CaliforniaUniversities are educational institutions with undergraduate and graduate programs For historical or cultural reasons some universities 115 have retained the term college instead of university for their name Graduate programs grant a variety of master s degrees like the Master of Arts M A Master of Science M S Master of Business Administration M B A or Master of Fine Arts M F A in addition to doctorates such as the Ph D The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education distinguishes among institutions on the basis of the prevalence of degrees they grant and considers the granting of master s degrees necessary although not sufficient for an institution to be classified as a university 116 nbsp The Stern School of Business is New York University s business school Some universities have professional schools Examples include journalism school business school medical schools pharmacy schools Pharm D and dental schools A common practice is to refer to these disparate faculties within universities as colleges or schools citation needed The American university system is largely decentralized Public universities are administered by the individual states and territories usually as part of a state university system Except for the United States service academies and staff colleges the federal government does not directly regulate universities However it can offer federal grants and any institution that receives federal funds must certify that it has adopted and implemented a drug prevention program that meets federal regulations 117 118 Each state supports at least one state university and many support several At one extreme California has three public higher education systems the 10 campus University of California the 23 campus California State University and the 112 campus California Community Colleges System In contrast Wyoming supports a single state university Public universities often have large student bodies with introductory classes numbering in the hundreds with some undergraduate classes taught by graduate students Tribal colleges operated on Indian reservations by some federally recognized tribes are also public institutions citation needed Many private universities exist Some are secular and others are involved in religious education Some are non denominational and some are affiliated with a certain sect or church such as Roman Catholicism with different institutions often sponsored by particular religious institutes such as the Jesuits or religions such as Lutheranism or Mormonism Seminaries are private institutions for those preparing to become members of the clergy Most private schools like all public schools are non profit although some are for profit citation needed Community colleges edit Main article Community colleges in the United States nbsp Truckee Meadows Community College in NevadaCommunity colleges are often two year colleges They have open admissions usually with lower tuition fees than other state or private schools citation needed Graduates earn associate degrees such as an Associate of Arts AA According to National Student Clearinghouse data community college enrollment has dropped by 2 2 million students since its peak year of 2010 11 In 2017 88 of community colleges surveyed were facing declining enrollments 119 A New York Times report in 2017 suggested that of the nation s 18 million undergraduates 40 were attending community college of these students 62 were attending community college full time 40 of them worked at least 30 hours a week or more and more than half lived at home to save money 120 The College Promise program which exists in several forms in 47 states is an effort to encourage community college enrollment 121 Liberal arts colleges edit Main article Liberal arts colleges in the United States nbsp Commencement at Williams College a private liberal arts college in MassachusettsFour year institutions emphasizing the liberal arts are liberal arts colleges They traditionally emphasize interactive instruction They are known for being residential and for having smaller enrollment and lower student to faculty ratios than universities Most are private although there are public liberal arts colleges Some offer experimental curricula 122 Academic areas that are included within the liberal arts include great books history languages including English linguistics literature mathematics music philosophy political science psychology religious studies science environmental science sociology and theater For profit colleges edit See also For profit higher education in the United States For profit higher education known as for profit college or proprietary education refers to higher education institutions operated by private profit seeking businesses Students were attracted to the programs for their ease of enrollment and help obtaining financial aid but disappointed with the poor quality of education 123 124 University of Phoenix has been the largest for profit college in the US 125 Since 2010 for profit colleges have received greater scrutiny from the US government state Attorneys General the media and scholars 126 Notable business failures include Corinthian Colleges 2015 ITT Educational Services 2016 Education Management Corporation also known as EDMC 2017 and Education Corporation of America 2018 127 Two large schools Kaplan University and Ashford University were sold to public universities with for profit online program managers and rebranded as Purdue University Global and University of Arizona Global Campus 128 Engineering edit Main article Engineering college Teaching engineering is teaching the application of scientific economic social and practical knowledge in order to design build maintain and improve structures machines devices systems materials and processes It may encompass using insights to conceive model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective The discipline of engineering is extremely broad and encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of technology and types of application Engineering disciplines include aerospace biological civil chemical computer electrical industrial and mechanical Performing arts edit Main article Performing arts education The performing arts differ from the plastic arts or visual arts insofar as the former uses the artist s own body face and presence as a medium the latter uses materials such as clay metal or paint which can be molded or transformed to create a work of art Performing arts institutions include circus schools dance schools drama schools and music schools Plastic or visual arts edit Main articles Art education and Art school The plastic arts or visual arts are a class of art forms that involve the use of materials that can be moulded or modulated in some way often in three dimensions Examples are painting sculpture and drawing Higher educational institutions in these arts include film schools and art schools Vocational edit Main articles Vocational university Vocational school and Technical school Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non university tertiary level Such education combines teaching of both practical skills and theoretical expertise Higher education differs from other forms of post secondary education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education which are more colloquially known as trade schools Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a usually broader scientific field which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge Professional higher education edit This describes a distinct form of higher education that offers a particularly intense integration with the world of work in all its aspects including teaching learning research and governance and at all levels of the overarching Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area Its function is to diversify learning opportunities enhance employability offer qualifications and stimulate innovation for the benefit of learners and society The intensity of integration with the world of work which includes enterprise civil society and the public sector is manifested by a strong focus on application of learning This approach involves combining phases of work and study a concern for employability cooperation with employers the use of practice relevant knowledge and use inspired research 129 Examples of providers of professional higher education include graduate colleges of architecture business journalism law library science optometry pharmacy public policy human medicine professional engineering podiatric medicine scientific dentistry K 12 education and veterinary medicine Funding of universities and colleges edit nbsp In 2017 the federal contribution amounted to 40 billion dollars Only 100 schools out of more than 4 000 received 80 of that sum Sources of funds edit US colleges and universities receive their funds from many sources including tuition federal Title IV funds state funds and endowments 130 131 132 State government edit nbsp Suzzallo Library at the University of WashingtonThe major source of funding for public institutions of higher education is direct support from the state The levels of state support roughly correlate with the population of the state For example with a population nearly 40 million the state of California allocates more than 15 billion on higher education At the other extreme Wyoming allocates 384 million for its 570 000 citizens 133 Institutional donors and endowments edit Main article List of colleges and universities in the United States by endowment nbsp 4 year colleges and universities in 2015 2016Private giving supports both private and public institutions Gifts come in two forms current use and endowment Both types of gifts are usually constrained according to a contract between the donor and the institution Private institutions tend to be more reliant on private giving citation needed Universities with some of the largest endowments include 134 Harvard University 40 9 billion University of Texas 30 88 billion Princeton University 25 9 billionPrivate philanthropy can be controversial At the University of Maryland Northrop Grumman has funded a cybersecurity concentration designs the curriculum in cybersecurity provides computers and pays some cost of a new dorm At Ohio State IBM partnered to teach big data analytics Murray State University s engineering program was supported by computer companies The College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering at State University of New York in Albany received billions of dollars in private sector investment 135 Student costs and funding edit nbsp In 2019 Columbia University charged 62 000 in tuition making it the most expensive undergraduate school in the nation 136 In 2016 average estimated annual student costs excluding books were 16 757 at public institutions 43 065 at private nonprofit institutions and 23 776 at private for profit institutions Between 2006 and 2016 prices at public colleges and universities rose 34 percent above inflation and prices at private nonprofit institutions rose 26 percent above inflation 137 Students receive scholarships student loans or grants to offset costs out of pocket Several states offer scholarships that allow students to attend free of tuition or at lower cost for example the HOPE Scholarship in Georgia and the Bright Futures Scholarship Program in Florida Some private colleges and universities offer full need based financial aid so that admitted students only have to pay as much as their families can afford based on the university s assessment of their income 138 139 140 In most cases the barrier of entry for students who require financial aid is set higher a practice called need aware admissions Universities with exceptionally large endowments may combine need based financial aid with need blind admission in which students who require financial aid have equal chances to those who do not citation needed Financial assistance comes in two major forms grant programs and loan programs Grant programs consist of money the student receives to pay for higher education that does not need to be paid back loan programs consist of money the student receives to pay for school that must be paid back Public higher education institutions which are partially funded through state government appropriation and private higher education institutions which are funded exclusively through tuition and private donations offer grant and loan financial assistance programs Grants to attend public schools are distributed through federal and state governments and through the schools themselves grants to attend private schools are distributed through the school itself independent organizations such as charities or corporations also offer grants that can be applied to both public and private higher education institutions 141 Loans can be obtained publicly through government sponsored loan programs or privately through independent lending institutions Financial aid at US institutions has shifted from needs based to merit based leaving many low income students with more debt and fewer opportunities 142 Grants scholarships loans and work study programs edit Main article Student loans in the United States nbsp The website of the Free Application for Federal Student Aid which allows American students to determine their eligibility for student financial aidGrant programs and work study programs are divided into two major categories Need based financial awards and merit based financial awards Most state governments provide need based scholarship programs while a few also offer merit based aid 143 Several need based grants are provided through the federal government based on information provided on a student s Free Application for Federal Student Aid or FAFSA 144 The federal Pell Grant is a need based grant available from the federal government The federal government had two other grants that were a combination of need based and merit based the Academic Competitiveness Grant and the National SMART Grant but the SMART grant was abolished in 2011 with the last grant awarded in June 2011 In order to receive one of these grants a student must be eligible for the Pell Grant meet specific academic requirements and be a US citizen 141 Eligibility for work study programs is also determined by information collected on the student s FAFSA 141 Many companies offer tuition reimbursement plans for their employees to make benefits package more attractive to upgrade the skill levels and to increase retention 145 In 2012 total student loans exceeded consumer credit card debt for the first time in history 146 In late 2016 the total estimated US student loan debt exceeded 1 4 trillion 147 Student loans can be divided into two categories federal student loans and private student loans Federal student loans may be subsidized Stafford Loans unsubsidized Stafford Loans Direct Loans PLUS LoansA student s eligibility for any of these loans as well as the amount of the loan itself is determined by information on the student s FAFSA The former Federal Perkins Loan program expired in 2017 148 Statistics edit nbsp University of Arizona a public land grant research university in Tucson ArizonaUS educational statistics are provided by the National Center for Education Statistics NCES part of the Department of Education The number of Title IV eligible degree granting institutions peaked at 4 726 in 2012 with 4 year institutions numbering at 3 026 and 2 year institutions at 1 700 1 Enrollment at postsecondary institutions participating in Title IV peaked at just over 21 million students in 2010 149 Demographic wise on average whites constitute the highest percentage of enrollments in US higher educational institutions 150 The National Center for Education Statistics NCES and the National Student Clearinghouse show that college enrollment has declined since a peak in 2010 11 and is projected to continue declining or be stagnant for the next two decades 11 12 13 14 15 16 Enrollment data for postsecondary education in degree granting institutions in US Year Fall enrollment 149 Degree granting institutions 1 Ethnic demography of students 150 total male female percent female Total 4 year 2 year white black Hispanic Asian pacific islander others 2020 18 991 798 7 869 545 11 122 253 58 6 3 931 2 637 1 294 54 0 13 1 20 3 7 7 4 92019 19 630 178 8 363 889 11 266 289 57 4 3 982 2 679 1 303 54 4 13 2 20 3 7 4 4 72018 19 651 412 8 444 614 11 206 798 57 0 4 042 2 703 1 339 55 2 13 4 19 5 7 3 4 92017 19 778 151 8 571 314 11 206 837 56 7 4 313 2 828 1 485 56 0 13 6 18 9 7 1 4 42016 19 846 904 8 638 422 11 208 482 56 5 4 360 2 832 1 528 56 9 13 7 18 2 6 9 4 32015 19 988 204 8 723 819 11 264 385 56 4 4 583 3 004 1 579 57 6 14 1 17 4 6 8 4 12014 20 209 092 8 797 530 11 411 562 56 5 4 627 3 011 1 616 58 3 14 5 16 5 6 6 4 12013 20 376 677 8 861 197 11 515 480 56 5 4 724 3 039 1 685 59 3 14 7 15 8 6 4 3 82012 20 644 478 8 919 006 11 725 472 56 8 4 726 3 026 1 700 60 3 14 9 15 0 6 3 3 52011 21 010 590 9 034 256 11 976 334 57 0 4 706 2 968 1 738 61 2 15 2 14 3 6 3 32010 21 019 438 9 045 759 11 973 679 57 0 4 599 2 870 1 729 62 6 15 0 13 5 6 3 2 62009 20 313 594 8 732 953 11 580 641 57 0 4 495 2 774 1 721 64 5 14 7 12 9 6 8 1 12008 19 081 686 8 177 714 10 903 972 57 1 4 409 2 719 1 690 65 5 14 0 12 3 7 1 1 12007 18 258 138 7 819 938 10 438 200 57 2 4 352 2 675 1 677 66 7 13 5 11 8 6 9 1 12006 17 754 230 7 572 265 10 181 965 57 3 4 314 2 629 1 685 67 4 13 3 11 4 6 8 1 12005 17 487 475 7 455 925 10 031 550 57 4 4 276 2 582 1 694 68 0 13 1 11 1 6 7 1 12004 17 272 044 7 387 262 9 884 782 57 2 4 216 2 533 1 683 68 5 13 0 10 8 6 6 1 12003 16 911 481 7 260 264 9 651 217 57 1 4 236 2 530 1 706 69 1 12 7 10 5 6 6 1 12002 16 611 711 7 202 116 9 409 595 56 6 4 168 2 466 1 702 69 5 12 4 10 4 6 7 12001 15 927 987 6 960 815 8 967 172 56 3 4 197 2 487 1 710 70 1 12 0 10 2 6 6 1 12000 15 312 289 6 721 769 8 590 520 56 1 4 182 2 450 1 732 70 8 11 7 9 9 6 6 11999 14 849 691 6 515 164 8 334 527 56 1 4 084 2 363 1 721 71 9 11 5 9 2 6 4 11998 14 506 967 6 369 265 8 137 702 56 1 4 048 2 335 1 713 72 4 11 3 8 9 6 4 11997 14 502 334 6 396 028 8 106 306 55 9 4 064 2 309 1 755 73 1 11 0 8 7 6 1 1 11996 14 367 520 6 352 825 8 014 695 55 8 4 009 2 267 1 742 73 8 10 8 8 4 6 0 11995 14 261 781 6 342 539 7 919 242 55 5 3 706 2 244 1 462 74 7 10 7 7 9 5 8 0 91994 14 278 790 6 371 898 7 906 892 55 4 3 688 2 215 1 473 75 4 10 5 7 6 5 6 0 91993 14 304 803 6 427 450 7 877 353 55 1 3 632 2 190 1 442 NA NA NA NA NA1992 14 487 359 6 523 989 7 963 370 55 0 3 638 2 169 1 469 NA NA NA NA NA1991 14 358 953 6 501 844 7 857 109 54 7 3 601 2 157 1 444 NA NA NA NA NA1990 13 818 637 6 283 909 7 534 728 54 5 3 559 2 141 1 418 79 9 9 3 5 8 4 3 0 71989 13 538 560 6 190 015 7 348 545 54 3 3 535 2 127 1 408 NA NA NA NA NA1988 13 055 337 6 001 896 7 053 441 54 0 3 565 2 129 1 436 NA NA NA NA NA1987 12 766 642 5 932 056 6 834 586 53 5 3 587 2 135 1 452 NA NA NA NA NA1986 12 503 511 5 884 515 6 618 996 52 9 3 406 2 070 1 336 NA NA NA NA NA1985 12 247 055 5 818 450 6 428 605 52 5 3 340 2 029 1 311 NA NA NA NA NA1984 12 241 940 5 863 574 6 378 366 52 1 3 331 2 025 1 306 NA NA NA NA NA1983 12 464 661 6 023 725 6 440 936 51 7 3 284 2 013 1 271 NA NA NA NA NA1982 12 425 780 6 031 384 6 394 396 51 5 3 280 1 984 1 296 NA NA NA NA NA1981 12 371 672 5 975 056 6 396 616 51 7 3 253 1 979 1 274 NA NA NA NA NA1980 12 096 895 5 874 374 6 222 521 51 4 3 231 1 957 1 274 83 5 9 4 4 0 2 4 0 71979 11 569 899 5 682 877 5 887 022 50 9 3 095 1 938 1 157 NA NA NA NA NA1978 11 260 092 5 640 998 5 619 094 49 9 3 134 1 941 1 193 NA NA NA NA NA1977 11 285 787 5 789 016 5 496 771 48 7 3 095 1 938 1 157 NA NA NA NA NA1976 11 012 137 5 810 828 5 201 309 47 2 3 046 1 913 1 133 84 3 9 6 3 6 1 8 0 71975 11 184 859 6 148 997 5 035 862 45 0 3 026 1 898 1 128 NA NA NA NA NA1970 8 580 887 5 043 642 3 537 245 41 2 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA1965 5 920 864 3 630 020 2 290 844 38 7 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA1957 3 323 783 2 170 765 1 153 018 34 7 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NAA US Department of Education longitudinal survey of 15 000 high school students in 2002 and 2012 found that 84 of the 27 year old students had some college education but only 34 achieved a bachelor s degree or higher 79 owe some money for college and 55 owe more than 10 000 college dropouts were three times more likely to be unemployed than those who finished college 40 spent some time unemployed and 23 were unemployed for six months or more and 79 earned less than 40 000 per year 151 152 Admission process editMain article College admissions in the United StatesFurther information Transfer admissions in the United States nbsp In 2021 Harvard College at Harvard University reported a 3 43 acceptance rate 153 Students can apply to some colleges using the Common Application With a few exceptions most undergraduate colleges and universities maintain the policy that students are to be admitted to or rejected from the entire college not to a particular department or major This is unlike college admissions in many European countries as well as graduate admissions Some students rather than being rejected are wait listed for a particular college and may be admitted if another student who was admitted decides not to attend the college or university The five major parts of admission are ACT SAT scores grade point average college application essay and letters of recommendation The SAT s usefulness in the admissions process is controversial 154 Each state has its own set of residency laws and requirements that dictate educational benefits as a reward for state residence As a result public colleges and universities in many states charge out of state applicants a higher rate of tuition than resident students must pay 155 Legacies and large donors edit Admissions at elite schools include preferences to alumni and large investors 156 157 158 Legislators have asked for transparency with donors and college admissions but there are several groups that oppose it 159 Inside Higher Ed s 2018 survey of college admissions directors found that 42 percent of private colleges and universities used legacy status as a factor in admissions decisions 160 International study and student exchange editFurther information International student United States In 2016 17 332 727 US students studied abroad for credit Most took place in Europe with 40 percent of students studying in five countries the United Kingdom Italy Spain France and Germany 161 The US is the most popular country in the world for attracting students from other countries according to UNESCO with 16 of all international students going to the US the next highest is the UK with 11 162 671 616 foreign students enrolled in American colleges in 2008 09 162 163 This figure rose to 723 277 in 2010 11 The largest number 157 558 came from China 164 According to Uni in the USA despite exorbitant costs of US universities higher education in America remains attractive to international students due to generous subsidies and financial aid packages that enable students from even the most disadvantaged backgrounds to attend the college of their dreams 165 Government coordination editMost states have an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions Examples include the Alabama Commission on Higher Education California Postsecondary Education Commission Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board Washington State Higher Education Coordinating Board and The Georgia Department of Technical and Adult Education Academic labor editMain article Adjunct professors in North America nbsp The George Peabody Library at Johns Hopkins UniversityUntil the mid 1970s when federal expenditures for higher education fell there were routinely more tenure track jobs than Ph D graduates In the 1980s and 1990s there were significant changes in the economics of academic life Despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues professorial positions were replaced with poorly paid adjunct positions and graduate student labor 166 Community colleges and for profit colleges rely almost exclusively on adjuncts for instruction 167 With academic institutions producing Ph D s in greater numbers than the number of tenure track positions they intended to create administrators were cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement Sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand 168 Aggravating the problem those few academics who do achieve tenure are often determined to stay put as long as possible refusing lucrative incentives to retire early 169 Labor unions and labor conditions edit The following unions represent higher education faculty and staff American Association of University Professors American Federation of Teachers Service Employees International Union United Auto WorkersAdjunctification edit In 2017 17 of faculty were tenured 89 of adjunct professors worked at more than one job An adjunct was paid an average of 2 700 for a single course While student faculty ratios remained the same since 1975 administrator student ratio went from 1 84 to 1 68 170 In 2018 the American Association of University Professors AAUP reported that 73 percent of all faculty positions were filled by adjuncts 171 According to the American Federation of Teachers nearly 25 percent of adjunct faculty members rely on public assistance and 40 percent struggle to cover basic household expenses and just 15 percent of adjuncts said they are able to comfortably cover basic expenses from month to month 172 Adjunct organizations include the Coalition for Contingent COCAL the New Faculty Majority and SEIU Faculty Forward 173 174 The American Federation of Teachers and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters have also organized contingent academic labor 175 176 Unionizing and labor actions edit 2022 and 2023 were record years for academic labor strikes in the United States 177 Sports editMain article College athletics in the United States nbsp Michigan on offense against Ohio State during the 2011 game in Ann Arbor Michigan Ohio State football rivalryCollege athletics in the US is a three tiered system The first tier consists of elite sports that make a profit The second tier includes sports sanctioned by one of the collegiate sport governing bodies that break even or lose money Some of these collegiate sports governing organizations like the National Collegiate Athletic Association NCAA are umbrella non profit organizations that govern multiple sports Additionally the first and second tiers are characterized by selective participation some colleges offer athletic scholarships to intercollegiate sports competitors The third tier includes intramural and recreational sports clubs which are available to more of the student body Competition between student clubs from different colleges not organized by and therefore not representing the institutions or their faculties may also be called intercollegiate athletics or simply college sports 178 476 The most competitive collegiate sport governing body in the first and second tiers is the NCAA which regulates athletes of 1 268 institutions across the US and Canada The NCAA uses a three division system of Division I Division II and Division III Division I and Division II schools can offer scholarships to athletes for playing a sport while Division III schools cannot offer any athletic scholarships 179 Division I schools which generally are larger than either Division II or III institutions must further meet additional requirements among them they must field teams in at least seven sports for men and seven for women or six for men and eight for women with at least two team sports for each gender 180 Each division is then further divided into several conferences for regional league play The names of these conferences such as the Ivy League are also metonyms for their respective schools 181 College sports are popular on regional and national scales at times competing with professional championships for prime broadcast print coverage In most states the person with the highest taxpayer provided base salary is a public college football or basketball coach This does not include coaches at private colleges 182 The average university sponsors at least 20 different sports and offers a wide variety of intramural sports There are approximately 400 000 men and women student athletes that participate in sanctioned athletics each year 178 474 Varsity esports have been growing since the 2010s As of 2019 there were 125 esports teams at colleges and universities in North America 183 Issues confronting higher education in the United States editMain article Issues in higher education in the United States nbsp College enrollment Female MaleEntrance routes and procedures for choosing a college or university their rankings and the financial value of degrees are being discussed This leads to discussions on socioeconomic status and race ethnicity and gender From the student perspective issues include colleges failing to teach soft skills such as critical thinking 184 the wide ranges of remuneration and underemployment among the various degrees 185 186 187 rising tuition and increasing student loan debt 188 189 austerity in state and local spending the adjunctification of academic labor 190 191 student poverty and hunger 192 along with educational inflation 193 Strong research funding helped elite American universities dominate global rankings in the early 21st century making them attractive to international students professors and researchers 17 Other countries though are offering incentives to compete for researchers 95 as funding is threatened in the US 96 97 and US dominance of international tables has lessened 98 The system has also been blighted by fly by night schools diploma mills visa mills and predatory for profit colleges 102 100 103 101 There have been some attempts to reform the system through federal policy such as gainful employment regulations but they have been met by resistance 194 Public opinion about colleges has been declining especially among Republicans and the white working class 195 196 197 198 The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive providing a difficult to measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs which is beset with federal regulations that drive up costs and payments coming from third parties not users 106 In a 2018 Pew survey 61 percent of those polled said that US higher education was headed in the wrong direction 107 A 2019 Gallup survey found that among graduates who strongly felt a purpose in life was important only 40 percent said they had found a meaningful career after college 108 In 2023 the Wall Street Journal reported that 56 percent of Americans thought a bachelor s degree was a bad bet 199 In 2021 US student loan debt amounted to more than 1 7 trillion 200 Declining enrollment mergers and campus closures edit Falling birth rates result in fewer people graduating from high school The number of high school graduates grew 30 from 1995 to 2013 then peaked at 3 5 million 201 Liberal arts programs have been declining for decades From 1967 to 2018 college students majoring in the liberal arts declined from 20 percent to 5 percent 202 Since 2011 enrollment in postsecondary education in the United States has declined by more than 2 million people 203 Researchers hypothesize that the primary factors leading to this drop in enrollment are low birth rates over the last couple decades a more successful economy and the increasing cost of postsecondary education coupled with a decrease in financial aid and student debt 203 204 Some potential students are also questioning the cost benefit ratio of a college education and if it is necessary to gain employment opting instead for vocational education 205 206 207 203 204 In 2018 the National Center for Education Statistics projected stagnant enrollment patterns until at least 2027 13 Demographer Nathan Grawe projected that lower birth rates following the Great Recession of 2008 would result in a 15 percent enrollment loss beginning in 2026 11 In 2019 the National Center for Education Statistics continued to project that higher education enrollment would remain stagnant but white enrollment would drop 8 percent from 2016 to 2027 The report projected black enrollment to increase by 6 percent Hispanic enrollment to increase 14 percent Asian Pacific Islander enrollment to increase 7 percent and American Indian Alaska Native enrollment to decrease 9 percent during the same period 16 In March 2019 Moody s warned that enrollment declines could lead to more financial problems for the higher education industry 208 In a 2019 survey by Inside Higher Ed nearly one in seven college presidents said their campus could close or merge within five years 209 The total number of degree granting colleges in the US peaked in 2012 and has decreased every year since then 210 In The Higher Education Apocalypse U S News amp World Report education reporter Lauren Camera speculated that recent closings of schools in New England might be the beginning of a rash of college closures 211 An analysis of federal data from The Chronicle of Higher Education shows about half a million students have been displaced by college closures which together shuttered more than 1 200 campuses 212 In a 2021 Wall Street Journal article titled Hobbled for Life Melissa Korn and Andrea Fuller found that many master s degrees at elite schools did not pay off 213 Anti Semitism edit Cases of anti Semitism in US campuses and universities have increased significantly in the past few intensifying following the 2023 Israel Hamas war 214 215 These include cases of physical and verbal assault on Jewish students 216 Reports of anti Semitism hate speech and violence have prompted Jews to factor anti Semitism in their college applications 217 218 Furthermore universities which received foreign undisclosed donations authoritarian regimes surmounting to 13 billion USD had a 250 rise from 2015 to 2020 in anti Semitic incidents 219 Institutions that received donations from Middle Eastern authoritarian regimes have had a rise in anti Semitism of 300 in the respective universities 219 This comes in addition to pro Palestinian and anti Israeli organizations receiving funding from familiar financial supporters 220 The ADL has risen the issue that academic freedom and students activism have been misused in order to shield hate speech against Jews 221 Foreign Financial Influence edit It has been estimated that US universities have illegally undisclosed information regarding 13 billion USD in donations from foreign countries A very significant part of these donations originate in authoritarian regimes 219 This occurrence is part of wider global initiatives aimed at augmenting soft power and weakening democratic institutions by authoritarian regimes 222 Several of these foreign financial funders are believed to have an attached agenda to their funding that at times have involved political goals in promotion of a foreign agenda 223 224 225 Furthermore some institutions funded are pressured to alter and adjust themselves to the foreign donor triggering fear of potential influence 223 224 225 The phenomena has led to US universities facing scrutiny from US congress and crackdowns on their financials 226 227 See also editAssociation of American Universities Hispanic serving institution Historically black colleges and universities List of Catholic universities and colleges in the United States History of Catholic education in the United States Tribal colleges and universities Women s colleges in the United States Men s colleges in the United States Political views of American academics Postgraduate year Intellectual disability and higher education in the United StatesReferences edit a b c Degree granting postsecondary institutions by control and level of institution Selected years 1949 50 through 2020 21 National Center for Education Studies Retrieved November 26 2022 Natasa Bakic Miric Davronzhon Erkinovich Gaipov February 27 2015 Current Trends and Issues in Higher Education An International Dialogue Cambridge Scholars Publishing pp 154 ISBN 978 1 4438 7564 6 Fain Paul Race and Inequity www insidehighered com Inside Higher Education Retrieved September 13 2023 Taylor Barrett J Cantwell Brendan 2018 Unequal Higher Education in the United States Growing Participation and Shrinking Opportunities Social Sciences 7 9 167 doi 10 3390 socsci7090167 Alexander F King Academic capitalism privatization and five decades of misguided federal higher education funding priorities and policies in the United States PDF www researchcghe org Centre for Global Higher Education Retrieved September 13 2023 Knott Katherine States Underfunded Historically Black Land Grants by 13 Billion Over 3 Decades www insidehighered com Inside Higher Education Retrieved September 20 2023 a b c Bogost Ian October 2020 America Will Sacrifice Anything for the College Experience The Atlantic ISSN 1072 7825 Retrieved October 21 2020 Brenan Megan July 11 2023 Americans Confidence in Higher Education Down Sharply Gallup Retrieved July 19 2023 Belkin Douglas March 31 2023 Americans Are Losing Faith in College Education WSJ NORC Poll Finds Wall Street Journal Retrieved July 19 2023 Spring 2022 Enrollment Estimates PDF National Student Clearinghouse Research Center May 2022 a b c Jaschik Scott January 7 2018 New book argues most colleges are about to face significant decline in prospective students Inside Higher Ed a b Why Is Undergraduate College Enrollment Declining NPR a b c The Condition of Education PDF National Center for Education Studies May 2018 Retrieved April 2 2019 a b Redden Elizabeth May 30 2018 Intensive English Enrollments in U S Drop 20 Inside Higher Ed a b Fall 2018 Overall Postsecondary Enrollments Decreased 1 7 Percent from Last Fall National Student Clearinghouse December 13 2018 Retrieved March 21 2019 a b c Projections of Education Statistics to 2027 PDF National Center for Education Studies February 2019 Retrieved April 2 2019 a b c Phil Baty September 16 2010 The World University Rankings Measure by measure the US is the best of the best TSL Education Ltd Retrieved December 12 2012 Vedder Richard The Three Reasons College Sports Is An Ugly Business Forbes Thelin John R April 2 2019 A History of American Higher Education 3rd ed Johns 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dissertation Catholic University of America 2012 Marybeth Gasman has Envisioning Black Colleges A History of the United Negro College Fund Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press 2007 ISBN missing Archie Ayana State run land grant HBCUs are owed more than 13 billion the White House says National Public Radio Hillison John 1995 The Coalition that Supported the Smith Hughes Act or a Case for Strange Bedfellows PDF Journal of Career and Technical Education 11 2 4 11 doi 10 21061 jcte v11i2 582 Retrieved June 22 2019 Kelchen Robert 2018 Higher Education Accountability Baltimore Maryland Johns Hopkins University Press p 42 ISBN 9781421424736 Retrieved April 6 2020 Murakami Kery December 21 2020 Congressional Deal Would Give Higher Ed 23B Inside Higher Ed Retrieved January 15 2021 Murakami Kery March 7 2021 40 Billion for Colleges Inside Higher Education Retrieved March 8 2021 Gravely Alexis Seltzer Rick May 11 2021 How Much Pandemic Support Is Coming Part 3 Inside Higher Education 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Jordan January 11 2018 Study More Students Are Enrolling in Online Courses U S News amp World Report Retrieved April 2 2019 Report One in Four Students Enrolled in Online Courses OLC Retrieved January 21 2019 Straumsheim Carl May 21 2017 Signs of a Ceiling in Online Ed Market Inside Higher Ed Retrieved October 18 2017 McKenzie Lindsay December 6 2018 Harvard Offers First Coding Boot Camp Inside Higher Ed Universities Trilogy Education Services Fain Paul January 15 2019 Takedown of Online Education Inside Higher Ed Retrieved January 21 2019 Protopsaltis Spiros Baum Sandy January 2019 Does Online Education Live Up to Its Promise A Look at the Evidence and Implications for Federal Policy PDF Hill Phil January 27 2019 Deeply Flawed GMU Report on Online Education Asks Good Questions But Provides Misguided Analysis e Literate Bozkurt Aras Akgun Ozbek Ela Yilmazel Sibel Erdogdu Erdem Ucar Hasan Guler Emel Sezgin Sezan Karadeniz Abdulkadir Sen Ersoy Nazife Goksel Canbek Nil Dincer Gokhan Deniz Ari Suleyman Aydin Cengiz Hakan January 20 2015 Trends in distance education research A content analysis of journals 2009 2013 The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 16 1 doi 10 19173 irrodl v16i1 1953 Zemsky Robert 2014 With a MOOC MOOC here and a MOOC MOOC there here a MOOC there a MOOC everywhere a MOOC MOOC Journal of General Education 63 4 237 243 doi 10 1353 jge 2014 0029 JSTOR 10 5325 jgeneeduc 63 4 0237 S2CID 144913961 Study offers data to show MOOCs didn t achieve their goals Inside Higher Ed Retrieved January 21 2019 Carey Kevin April 1 2019 The Creeping Capitalist Takeover of Higher Education Huffpost Retrieved April 2 2019 Knott Katherine February 15 2023 Oversight Coming for Online Program Providers Inside Higher Education Retrieved February 21 2023 Coffey Lauren OPMs on Life Support in Changing Online Marketplace www insidehighered com Inside Higher Education Retrieved October 12 2023 Networked U s This Is What Will Save Higher Ed November 8 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Expat Inside Higher Ed Retrieved October 18 2017 a b Kreighbaum Andrew July 25 2017 Senate Appropriations Bill Cuts NSF Funding Inside Higher Education Retrieved October 18 2017 a b Proposed Federal Policy Would Cripple University Research Inside Higher Ed July 20 2017 Retrieved October 18 2017 a b Erica Snow September 26 2018 Oxford Cambridge Top Global University Rankings Long dominant U S schools facing stiffer competition from overseas The Wall Street Journal O Malley Brendan US suffers worst global ranking performance in 16 years universityworldnews com Retrieved June 24 2019 a b Davis Whitman February 13 2017 Vietnam Vets and a New Student Loan Program Bring New College Scams The Century Foundation a b Liz Robbins May 5 2016 Students at Fake University Say They Were Collateral Damage in Sting Operation New York Times a b Robert Shireman May 20 2019 The Policies That Work and Don t Work to Stop Predatory For Profit Colleges The Century Foundation a b Onion Rebecca July 27 2016 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t Pay Off The Wall Street Journal Retrieved July 14 2021 Presse AFP Agence France Alarming Anti Semitism Surge At US Colleges W House www barrons com Retrieved November 8 2023 The Biden administration says colleges must fight alarming rise in antisemitism and Islamophobia AP News November 7 2023 Retrieved November 8 2023 Stripling Jack October 31 2023 Colleges braced for antisemitism and violence It s happening Washington Post ISSN 0190 8286 Retrieved November 8 2023 Deutch Gabby November 1 2023 Campus safety now a top priority for Jewish students choosing colleges Jewish Insider Retrieved November 8 2023 Massel Rebecca I am a target Dozens of Jewish students report feeling unsafe on campus Columbia Daily Spectator Retrieved November 8 2023 a b c New Report Shows Foreign Donations Fuel Antisemitism on Campuses Committee on Education amp the Workforce November 8 2023 Retrieved November 8 2023 Stephens Bret April 25 2016 The Anti Israel Money Trail Wall Street Journal ISSN 0099 9660 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Foreign Financial Influence Document Gale Academic OneFile Select go gale com Retrieved November 8 2023 Further reading editMain article History of education in the United States Bibliography See also History of higher education in the United States Further reading Adams Johnson Susan et al Higher education recruitment in the United States A chronology of significant literature Journal of Educational Administration and History 51 3 2019 213 238 online Baum Sandy Charles Kurose and Michael McPherson An overview of American higher education in The future of children 2013 17 39 reviews changes since 1960s online Betts Kristen et al Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice 8 1 2021 pp 3 55 online Cahalan Margaret W et al Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United States 2021 Historical Trend Report Pell institute for the study of opportunity in higher education 2021 online Cole Jonathan R 2016 Toward a More Perfect University PublicAffairs ISBN 978 1610392655 MacLeod W Bentley and Miguel Urquiola 2021 Why Does the United States Have the Best Research Universities Incentives Resources and Virtuous Circles Journal of Economic Perspectives 35 1 185 206 Renn Kristen A and Robert D Reason 2021 College students in the United States Characteristics experiences and outcomes 2nd ed 2021 reviews Taylor Barrett J and Brendan Cantwell Unequal higher education in the United States Growing participation and shrinking opportunities Social Sciences 7 9 2018 167 onlineExternal links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Higher education in the United States nbsp Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Touring prestigious and notable universities in the U S US Department of Education College Affordability and Transparency Center Guide to US higher education for international students Retrieved from https en 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