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Giants (Greek mythology)

January 01, 1970

"Gigantes" redirects here. For other uses, see Gigantes (disambiguation).

In Greek and Roman mythology, the Giants, also called Gigantes (Greek: Γίγαντες, Gígantes, singular: Γίγας, Gígas), were a race of great strength and aggression, though not necessarily of great size. They were known for the Gigantomachy (or Gigantomachia), their battle with the Olympian gods.[2] According to Hesiod, the Giants were the offspring of Gaia (Earth), born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by his Titan son Cronus.[3]

Poseidon (left) holding a trident, with the island Nisyros on his shoulder, battling a Giant (probably Polybotes), red-figure cup c. 500–450 BC (Cabinet des Medailles 573)[1]

Archaic and Classical representations show Gigantes as man-sized hoplites (heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldiers) fully human in form.[4] Later representations (after c. 380 BC) show Gigantes with snakes for legs.[5] In later traditions, the Giants were often confused with other opponents of the Olympians, particularly the Titans, an earlier generation of large and powerful children of Gaia and Uranus.

The vanquished Giants were said to be buried under volcanoes and to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Origins edit

The name "Gigantes" is usually taken to imply "earth-born",[6] and Hesiod's Theogony makes this explicit by having the Giants be the offspring of Gaia (Earth). According to Hesiod, Gaia, mating with Uranus, bore many children: the first generation of Titans, the Cyclopes, and the Hundred-Handers.[7] However, Uranus hated his children and, as soon as they were born, he imprisoned them inside of Gaia, causing her much distress. Therefore, Gaia made a sickle of adamant which she gave to Cronus, the youngest of her Titan sons, and hid him (presumably still inside Gaia's body) to wait in ambush.[8] When Uranus came to lie with Gaia, Cronus castrated his father, and "the bloody drops that gushed forth [Gaia] received, and as the seasons moved round she bore ... the great Giants."[9] From these same drops of blood also came the Erinyes (Furies) and the Meliai (ash tree nymphs), while the severed genitals of Uranus falling into the sea resulted in a white foam from which Aphrodite grew. The mythographer Apollodorus also has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, though he makes no connection with Uranus' castration, saying simply that Gaia "vexed on account of the Titans, brought forth the Giants".[10]

There are three brief references to the Gigantes in Homer's Odyssey, though it is not entirely clear that Homer and Hesiod understood the term to mean the same thing.[11] Homer has Giants among the ancestors of the Phaiakians, a race of men encountered by Odysseus, their ruler Alcinous being the son of Nausithous, who was the son of Poseidon and Periboea, the daughter of the Giant king Eurymedon.[12] Elsewhere in the Odyssey, Alcinous says that the Phaiakians, like the Cyclopes and the Giants, are "near kin" to the gods.[13] Odysseus describes the Laestrygonians (another race encountered by Odysseus in his travels) as more like Giants than men.[14] Pausanias, the 2nd century AD geographer, read these lines of the Odyssey to mean that, for Homer, the Giants were a race of mortal men.[15]

The 6th–5th century BC lyric poet Bacchylides calls the Giants "sons of the Earth".[16] Later the term "gegeneis" ("earthborn") became a common epithet of the Giants.[17] The first century Latin writer Hyginus has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, another primordial Greek deity.[18]

Confusion with Titans and others edit

Though distinct in early traditions,[19] Hellenistic and later writers often confused or conflated the Giants and their Gigantomachy with an earlier set of offspring of Gaia and Uranus, the Titans and their war with the Olympian gods, the Titanomachy.[20] This confusion extended to other opponents of the Olympians, including the huge monster Typhon,[21] the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, whom Zeus finally defeated with his thunderbolt, and the Aloadae, the large, strong and aggressive brothers Otus and Ephialtes, who piled Pelion on top of Ossa in order to scale the heavens and attack the Olympians (though in the case of Ephialtes there was probably a Giant with the same name).[22] For example, Hyginus includes the names of three Titans, Coeus, Iapetus, and Astraeus, along with Typhon and the Aloadae, in his list of Giants,[23] and Ovid seems to conflate the Gigantomachy with the later siege of Olympus by the Aloadae.[24]

Ovid also seems to confuse the Hundred-Handers with the Giants, whom he gives a "hundred arms".[25] So perhaps do Callimachus and Philostratus, since they both make Aegaeon the cause of earthquakes, as was often said about the Giants (see below).[26]

Descriptions edit

Homer describes the Giant king Eurymedon as "great-hearted" (μεγαλήτορος), and his people as "insolent" (ὑπερθύμοισι) and "froward" (ἀτάσθαλος).[27] Hesiod calls the Giants "strong" (κρατερῶν) and "great" (μεγάλους) which may or may not be a reference to their size.[28] Though a possible later addition, the Theogony also has the Giants born "with gleaming armour, holding long spears in their hands".[29]

Other early sources characterize the Giants by their excesses. Pindar describes the excessive violence of the Giant Porphyrion as having provoked "beyond all measure".[30] Bacchylides calls the Giants arrogant, saying that they were destroyed by "Hybris" (the Greek word hubris personified).[31] The earlier seventh century BC poet Alcman perhaps had already used the Giants as an example of hubris, with the phrases "vengeance of the gods" and "they suffered unforgettable punishments for the evil they did" being possible references to the Gigantomachy.[32]

Homer's comparison of the Giants to the Laestrygonians is suggestive of similarities between the two races. The Laestrygonians, who "hurled ... rocks huge as a man could lift", certainly possessed great strength, and possibly great size, as their king's wife is described as being as big as a mountain.[33]

Over time, descriptions of the Giants make them less human, more monstrous and more "gigantic". According to Apollodorus the Giants had great size and strength, a frightening appearance, with long hair and beards and scaly feet.[34] Ovid makes them "serpent-footed" with a "hundred arms",[35] and Nonnus has them "serpent-haired".[36]

The Gigantomachy edit

"Gigantomachy" redirects here. For the painting, see Gigantomachy by the Suessula Painter.

The most important divine struggle in Greek mythology was the Gigantomachy, the battle fought between the Giants and the Olympian gods for supremacy of the cosmos.[37] It is primarily for this battle that the Giants are known, and its importance to Greek culture is attested by the frequent depiction of the Gigantomachy in Greek art.

Early sources edit

 
Athena (left) fighting the Giant Enceladus (inscribed retrograde) on an Attic red-figure dish, c. 550–500 BC (Louvre CA3662).[38]

The references to the Gigantomachy in archaic sources are sparse.[39] Neither Homer nor Hesiod mention anything explicit about the Giants battling the gods.[40] Homer's remark that Eurymedon "brought destruction on his froward people" might possibly be a reference to the Gigantomachy[41] and Hesiod's remark that Heracles performed a "great work among the immortals"[42] is probably a reference to Heracles' crucial role in the gods' victory over the Giants.[43] The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women (or the Ehoia), following mentions of Heracles' sacks of Troy and of Kos, refers to his having slain "presumptious Giants".[44] Another probable reference to the Gigantomachy in the Catalogue has Zeus produce Heracles to be "a protector against ruin for gods and men".[45]

There are indications that there might have been a lost epic poem, a Gigantomachia, which gave an account of the war: Hesiod's Theogony says that the Muses sing of the Giants,[46] and the sixth century BC poet Xenophanes mentions the Gigantomachy as a subject to be avoided at table.[47] The Apollonius scholia refers to a "Gigantomachia" in which the Titan Cronus (as a horse) sires the centaur Chiron by mating with Philyra (the daughter of two Titans), but the scholiast may be confusing the Titans and Giants.[48] Other possible archaic sources include the lyric poets Alcman (mentioned above) and the sixth-century Ibycus.[49]

The late sixth early fifth century BC lyric poet Pindar provides some of the earliest details of the battle between the Giants and the Olympians. He locates it "on the plain of Phlegra" and has Teiresias foretell Heracles killing Giants "beneath [his] rushing arrows".[50] He calls Heracles "you who subdued the Giants",[51] and has Porphyrion, whom he calls "the king of the Giants", being overcome by the bow of Apollo.[52] Euripides' Heracles has its hero shooting Giants with arrows,[53] and his Ion has the chorus describe seeing a depiction of the Gigantomachy on the late sixth century Temple of Apollo at Delphi, with Athena fighting the Giant Enceladus with her "gorgon shield", Zeus burning the Giant Mimas with his "mighty thunderbolt, blazing at both ends", and Dionysus killing an unnamed Giant with his "ivy staff".[54] The early 3rd century BC author Apollonius of Rhodes briefly describes an incident where the sun god Helios takes up Hephaestus, exhausted from the fight in Phlegra, on his chariot.[55]

Apollodorus edit

 
Dionysus (left) with ivy crown, and thyrsus attacking a Giant, Attic red-figure pelike, c. 475–425 BC (Louvre G434).[56]

The most detailed account of the Gigantomachy[57] is that of the (first or second-century AD) mythographer Apollodorus.[58] None of the early sources give any reasons for the war. Scholia to the Iliad mention the rape of Hera by the Giant Eurymedon,[59] while according to the scholia to Pindar's Isthmian 6, it was the theft of the cattle of Helios by the Giant Alcyoneus that started the war.[60] Apollodorus, who also mentions the theft of Helios' cattle by Alcyoneus,[61] suggests a mother's revenge as the motive for the war, saying that Gaia bore the Giants because of her anger over the Titans (who had been vanquished and imprisoned by the Olympians).[62] Seemingly, as soon as the Giants are born they begin hurling "rocks and burning oaks at the sky".[63]

There was a prophecy that the Giants could not be killed by the gods alone, but they could be killed with the help of a mortal.[64] Hearing this, Gaia sought for a certain plant (pharmakon) that would protect the Giants. Before Gaia or anyone else could find this plant, Zeus forbade Eos (Dawn), Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) to shine, harvested all of the plant himself and then he had Athena summon Heracles.

According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus and Porphyrion were the two strongest Giants. Heracles shot Alcyoneus, who fell to the ground but then revived, for Alcyoneus was immortal within his native land. So Heracles, on Athena's advice, dragged him beyond the borders of that land, where Alcyoneus then died (compare with Antaeus).[65] Porphyrion attacked Heracles and Hera, but Zeus caused Porphyrion to become enamoured of Hera, whom Porphyrion then tried to rape, but Zeus struck Porphyrion with his thunderbolt and Heracles killed him with an arrow.[66]

Other Giants and their fates are mentioned by Apollodorus. Ephialtes was blinded by an arrow from Apollo in his left eye, and another arrow from Heracles in his right. Eurytus was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus, Clytius by Hecate with her torches and Mimas by Hephaestus with "missiles of red-hot metal" from his forge.[67] Athena crushed Enceladus under the Island of Sicily and flayed Pallas, using his skin as a shield. Poseidon broke off a piece of the island of Kos called Nisyros, and threw it on top of Polybotes (Strabo also relates the story of Polybotes buried under Nisyros but adds that some say Polybotes lies under Kos instead).[68] Hermes, wearing Hades' helmet, killed Hippolytus, Artemis killed Gration, and the Moirai (Fates) killed Agrius and Thoas with bronze clubs. The rest of the giants were "destroyed" by thunderbolts thrown by Zeus, with each Giant being shot with arrows by Heracles (as the prophecy seemingly required).

Ovid edit

The Latin poet Ovid gives a brief account of the Gigantomachy in his poem Metamorphoses.[69] Ovid, apparently including the Aloadae's attack upon Olympus as part of the Gigantomachy, has the Giants attempt to seize "the throne of Heaven" by piling "mountain on mountain to the lofty stars" but Jove (i.e. Jupiter, the Roman Zeus) overwhelms the Giants with his thunderbolts, overturning "from Ossa huge, enormous Pelion".[70] Ovid says that (as "fame reports") from the blood of the Giants came a new race of beings in human form.[71] According to Ovid, Earth (Gaia) did not want the Giants to perish without a trace, so "reeking with the copious blood of her gigantic sons", she gave life to the "steaming gore" of the blood soaked battleground. These new offspring, like their fathers the Giants, also hated the gods and possessed a bloodthirsty desire for "savage slaughter".

Later in the Metamorphoses, Ovid refers to the Gigantomachy as: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven".[72] Here Ovid apparently conflates the Giants with the Hundred-Handers,[73] who, though in Hesiod fought alongside Zeus and the Olympians, in some traditions fought against them.[74]

Other late sources edit

Eratosthenes records that Dionysus, Hephaestus and several satyrs mounted on donkeys and charged against the Giants. As they drew closer and before the Giants had spotted them, the donkeys brayed, scaring off some Giants who ran away in terror of the unseen enemies, for they had never heard a donkey's bray before.[75] Dionysus placed the donkeys in the skies in gratitude, and in vase paintings from the classical period, satyrs and Maenads can sometimes be seen confronting their gigantic opponents.[76]

A late Latin grammarian of the fifth century AD, Servius, mentions that during the battle, the eagle of Zeus (who once had been the boy Aëtos before his metamorphosis) assisted his master by placing the lightning bolts on his hands.[77]

Location edit

Various places have been associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy. As noted above Pindar has the battle occur at Phlegra ("the place of burning"),[78] as do other early sources.[79] Phlegra was said to be an ancient name for Pallene (modern Kassandra)[80] and Phlegra/Pallene was the usual birthplace of the Giants and site of the battle.[81] Apollodorus, who placed the battle at Pallene, says the Giants were born "as some say, in Phlegrae, but according to others in Pallene". The name Phlegra and the Gigantomachy were also often associated, by later writers, with a volcanic plain in Italy, west of Naples and east of Cumae, called the Phlegraean Fields.[82] The third century BC poet Lycophron, apparently locates a battle of gods and Giants in the vicinity of the volcanic island of Ischia, the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples, where he says the Giants (along with Typhon) were "crushed" under the island.[83] At least one tradition placed Phlegra in Thessaly.[84]

According to the geographer Pausanias, the Arcadians claimed that battle took place "not at Pellene in Thrace" but in the plain of Megalopolis where "rises up fire".[85] Another tradition apparently placed the battle at Tartessus in Spain.[86] Diodorus Siculus presents a war with multiple battles, with one at Pallene, one on the Phlegraean Fields, and one on Crete.[87] Strabo mentions an account of Heracles battling Giants at Phanagoria, a Greek colony on the shores of the Black Sea.[88] Even when, as in Apollodorus, the battle starts at one place. Individual battles between a Giant and a god might range farther afield, with Enceladus buried beneath Sicily, and Polybotes under the island of Nisyros (or Kos). Other locales associated with Giants include Attica, Corinth, Cyzicus, Lipara, Lycia, Lydia, Miletus, and Rhodes.[89]

The presence of volcanic phenomena, and the frequent unearthing of the fossilized bones of large prehistoric animals throughout these locations may explain why such sites became associated with the Giants.[90]

In art edit

Sixth century BC edit

 
A depiction of the Gigantomachy showing a typical central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena. black-figure amphora in the style of the Lysippides Painter, c. 530-520 BC (British Museum B208).[91]

From the sixth century BC onwards, the Gigantomachy was a popular and important theme in Greek art, with over six hundred representations cataloged in the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC).[92]

The Gigantomachy was depicted on the new peplos (robe) presented to Athena on the Acropolis of Athens as part of the Panathenaic festival celebrating her victory over the Giants, a practice dating from perhaps as early as the second millennium BC.[93] The earliest extant indisputable representations of Gigantes are found on votive pinakes from Corinth and Eleusis, and Attic black-figure pots, dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (this excludes early depictions of Zeus battling single snake-footed creatures, which probably represent his battle with Typhon, as well as Zeus' opponent on the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis on Kerkyra (modern Corfu) which is probably not a Giant).[94]

Though all these early Attic vases[95] are fragmentary, the many common features in their depictions of the Gigantomachy suggest that a common model or template was used as a prototype, possibly Athena's peplos.[96] These vases depict large battles, including most of the Olympians, and contain a central group which appears to consist of Zeus, Heracles, Athena, and sometimes Gaia.[97] Zeus, Heracles and Athena are attacking Giants to the right.[98] Zeus mounts a chariot brandishing his thunderbolt in his right hand, Heracles, in the chariot, bends forward with drawn bow and left foot on the chariot pole, Athena, beside the chariot, strides forward toward one or two Giants, and the four chariot horses trample a fallen Giant. When present, Gaia is shielded behind Herakles, apparently pleading with Zeus to spare her children.

On either side of the central group are the rest of the gods engaged in combat with particular Giants. While the gods can be identified by characteristic features, for example Hermes with his hat (petasos) and Dionysus his ivy crown, the Giants are not individually characterized and can only be identified by inscriptions which sometimes name the Giant.[99] The fragments of one vase from this same period (Getty 81.AE.211)[100] name five Giants: Pankrates against Heracles,[101] Polybotes against Zeus,[102] Oranion against Dionysus,[103] Euboios and Euphorbus fallen[104] and Ephialtes.[105] Also named, on two other of these early vases, are Aristaeus battling Hephaestus (Akropolis 607), Eurymedon and (again) Ephialtes (Akropolis 2134). An amphora from Caere from later in the sixth century, gives the names of more Giants: Hyperbios and Agasthenes (along with Ephialtes) fighting Zeus, Harpolykos against Hera, Enceladus against Athena and (again) Polybotes, who in this case battles Poseidon with his trident holding the island of Nisyros on his shoulder (Louvre E732).[106] This motif of Poseidon holding the island of Nisyros, ready to hurl it at his opponent, is another frequent feature of these early Gigantomachies.[107]

 
Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, North frieze (c. 525 BC). Detail showing gods facing right and Giants facing left.

The Gigantomachy was also a popular theme in late sixth century sculpture. The most comprehensive treatment is found on the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi (c. 525 BC), with more than thirty figures, named by inscription.[108] From left to right, these include Hephaestus (with bellows), two females fighting two Giants; Dionysus striding toward an advancing Giant; Themis[109] in a chariot drawn by a team of lions which are attacking a fleeing Giant; the archers Apollo and Artemis; another fleeing Giant (Tharos or possibly Kantharos);[110] the Giant Ephialtes lying on the ground;[111] and a group of three Giants, which include Hyperphas[112] and Alektos,[113] opposing Apollo and Artemis. Next comes a missing central section presumably containing Zeus, and possibly Heracles, with chariot (only parts of a team of horses remain). To the right of this comes a female stabbing her spear[114] at a fallen Giant (probably Porphyrion);[115] Athena fighting Eriktypos[116] and a second Giant; a male stepping over the fallen Astarias[117] to attack Biatas.[118] and another Giant; and Hermes against two Giants. Then follows a gap which probably contained Poseidon and finally, on the far right, a male fighting two Giants, one fallen, the other the Giant Mimon (possibly the same as the Giant Mimas mentioned by Apollodorus).[119]

The Gigantomachy also appeared on several other late sixth century buildings, including the west pediment of the Alkmeonid Temple of Apollo at Delphi, the pediment of the Megarian Treasury at Olympia, the east pediment of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis of Athens, and the metopes of Temple F at Selinous.[120]

Fifth century BC edit

The theme continued to be popular in the fifth century BC. A particularly fine example is found on a red-figure cup (c. 490–485 BC) by the Brygos Painter (Berlin F2293). On one side of the cup is the same central group of gods (minus Gaia) as described above: Zeus wielding his thunderbolt, stepping into a quadriga, Heracles with lion skin (behind the chariot rather than on it) drawing his (unseen) bow and, ahead, Athena thrusting her spear into a fallen Giant. On the other side are Hephaestus flinging flaming missiles of red-hot metal from two pairs of tongs, Poseidon, with Nisyros on his shoulder, stabbing a fallen Giant with his trident and Hermes with his petasos hanging in back of his head, attacking another fallen Giant. None of the Giants are named.[121]

Phidias used the theme for the metopes of the east façade of the Parthenon (c. 445 BC) and for the interior of the shield of Athena Parthenos.[122] Phidias' work perhaps marks the beginning of a change in the way the Giants are presented. While previously the Giants had been portrayed as typical hoplite warriors armed with the usual helmets, shields, spears and swords, in the fifth century the Giants begin to be depicted as less handsome in appearance, primitive and wild, clothed in animal skins or naked, often without armor and using boulders as weapons.[123] A series of red-figure pots from c. 400 BC, which may have used Phidas' shield of Athena Parthenos as their model, show the Olympians fighting from above and the Giants fighting with large stones from below.[124]

Fourth century BC and later edit

 
In the Gigantomachy from a 1st-century AD frieze in the agora of Aphrodisias, the Giants are depicted with scaly coils, like Typhon
 
Winged Giant (usually identified as Alcyoneus), Athena, Gaia (rising from the ground), and Nike, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin

With the beginning of the fourth century BC probably comes the first portrayal of the Giants in Greek art as anything other than fully human in form, with legs that become coiled serpents having snake heads at the ends in place of feet.[125] Such depictions were perhaps borrowed from Typhon, the monstrous son of Gaia and Tartarus, described by Hesiod as having a hundred snake heads growing from his shoulders.[126] This snake-legged motif becomes the standard for the rest of antiquity, culminating in the monumental Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar. Measuring nearly 400 feet long and over seven feet high, here the Gigantomachy receives its most extensive treatment, with over one hundred figures.[127]

Although fragmentary, much of the Gigantomachy frieze has been restored. The general sequence of the figures and the identifications of most of the approximately sixty gods and goddesses have been more or less established.[128] The names and positions of most Giants remain uncertain. Some of the names of the Giants have been determined by inscription,[129] while their positions are often conjectured on the basis of which gods fought which Giants in Apollodorus' account.[130]

The same central group of Zeus, Athena, Heracles and Gaia, found on many early Attic vases, also featured prominently on the Pergamon Altar. On the right side of the East frieze, the first encountered by a visitor, a winged Giant, usually identified as Alcyoneus, fights Athena.[131] Below and to the right of Athena, Gaia rises from the ground, touching Athena's robe in supplication. Flying above Gaia, a winged Nike crowns the victorious Athena. To the left of this grouping a snake-legged Porphyrion battles Zeus[132] and to the left of Zeus is Heracles.[133]

On the far left side of the East frieze, a triple Hecate with torch battles a snake-legged Giant usually identified (following Apollodorus) as Clytius.[134] To the right lays the fallen Udaeus, shot in his left eye by an arrow from Apollo,[135] along with Demeter who wields a pair of torches against Erysichthon.[136]

The Giants are depicted in a variety of ways. Some Giants are fully human in form, while others are a combination of human and animal forms. Some are snake-legged, some have wings, one has bird claws, one is lion-headed, and another is bull-headed. Some Giants wear helmets, carry shields and fight with swords. Others are naked or clothed in animal skins and fight with clubs or rocks.[137]

The large size of the frieze probably necessitated the addition of many more Giants than had been previously known. Some, like Typhon and Tityus, who were not strictly speaking Giants, were perhaps included. Others were probably invented.[138] The partial inscription "Mim" may mean that the Giant Mimas was also depicted. Other less-familiar or otherwise unknown Giant names include Allektos, Chthonophylos, Eurybias, Molodros, Obrimos, Ochthaios and Olyktor.[139]

In post-classical art edit

 
Detail of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua, c. 1530, Giulio Romano

The subject was revived in the Renaissance, most famously in the frescos of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua. These were painted around 1530 by Giulio Romano and his workshop, and aimed to give the viewer the unsettling idea that the large hall was in the process of collapsing. The subject was also popular in Northern Mannerism around 1600, especially among the Haarlem Mannerists, and continued to be painted into the 18th century.[140]

Symbolism, meaning and interpretations edit

Historically, the myth of the Gigantomachy (as well as the Titanomachy) may reflect the "triumph" of the new imported gods of the invading Greek speaking peoples from the north (c. 2000 BC) over the old gods of the existing peoples of the Greek peninsula.[141] For the Greeks, the Gigantomachy represented a victory for order over chaos—the victory of the divine order and rationalism of the Olympian gods over the discord and excessive violence of the earth-born chthonic Giants. More specifically, for sixth and fifth century BC Greeks, it represented a victory for civilization over barbarism, and as such was used by Phidias on the metopes of the Parthenon and the shield of Athena Parthenos to symbolize the victory of the Athenians over the Persians. Later the Attalids similarly used the Gigantomachy on the Pergamon Altar to symbolize their victory over the Galatians of Asia Minor.[142]

The attempt of the Giants to overthrow the Olympians also represented the ultimate example of hubris, with the gods themselves punishing the Giants for their arrogant challenge to the gods' divine authority.[143] The Gigantomachy can also be seen as a continuation of the struggle between Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky), and thus as part of the primal opposition between female and male.[144] Plato compares the Gigantomachy to a philosophical dispute about existence, wherein the materialist philosophers, who believe that only physical things exist, like the Giants, wish to "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth".[145]

 
A Giant fighting Artemis. Illustration of a Roman relief in the Vatican Museum.[146]

In Latin literature, in which the Giants, the Titans, Typhon and the Aloadae are all often conflated, Gigantomachy imagery is a frequent occurrence.[147] Cicero, while urging the acceptance of aging and death as natural and inevitable, allegorizes the Gigantomachy as "fighting against Nature".[148] The rationalist Epicurean poet Lucretius, for whom such things as lightning, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions had natural rather than divine causes, used the Gigantomachy to celebrate the victory of philosophy over mythology and superstition. In the triumph of science and reason over traditional religious belief, the Gigantomachy symbolized for him Epicurus storming heaven. In a reversal of their usual meaning, he represents the Giants as heroic rebels against the tyranny of Olympus.[149] Virgil—reversing Lucretius' reversal—restores the conventional meaning, making the Giants once again enemies of order and civilization.[150] Horace makes use of this same meaning to symbolize the victory of Augustus at the Battle of Actium as a victory for the civilized West over the barbaric East.[151]

Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, describes mankind's moral decline through the ages of gold, silver, bronze and iron, and presents the Gigantomachy as a part of that same descent from natural order into chaos.[152] Lucan, in his Pharsalia, which contains many Gigantomachy references,[153] makes the Gorgon's gaze turn the Giants into mountains.[154] Valerius Flaccus, in his Argonautica, makes frequent use of Gigantomachy imagery, with the Argo (the world's first ship) constituting a Gigantomachy-like offense against natural law, and example of hubristic excess.[155]

Claudian, the fourth-century AD court poet of emperor Honorius, composed a Gigantomachia that viewed the battle as a metaphor for vast geomorphic change: "The puissant company of the giants confounds all differences between things; islands abandon the deep; mountains lie hidden in the sea. Many a river is left dry or has altered its ancient course....robbed of her mountains Earth sank into level plains, parted among her own sons."[156]

Association with volcanoes and earthquakes edit

Various locations associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy were areas of volcanic and seismic activity (e.g. the Phlegraean Fields west of Naples), and the vanquished Gigantes (along with other "giants") were said to be buried under volcanos. Their subterranean movements were said to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.[157]

The Giant Enceladus was thought to lay buried under Mount Etna, the volcano's eruptions being the breath of Enceladus, and its tremors caused by the Giant rolling over from side to side beneath the mountain[158] (the monster Typhon[159] and the Hundred-Hander Briareus[160] were also said to be buried under Etna). The Giant Alcyoneus along with "many giants" were said to lie under Mount Vesuvius,[161] Prochyte (modern Procida), one of the volcanic Phlegraean Islands was supposed to sit atop the Giant Mimas,[162] and Polybotes was said to lie pinned beneath the volcanic island of Nisyros, supposedly a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon.[163]

Describing the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Cassius Dio relates accounts of the appearance of many Giant-like creatures on the mountain and in the surrounding area followed by violent earthquakes and the final cataclysmic eruption, saying "some thought that the Giants were rising again in revolt (for at this time also many of their forms could be discerned in the smoke and, moreover, a sound as of trumpets was heard)".[164]

Named Giants edit

Names for the Giants can be found in ancient literary sources and inscriptions. Vian and Moore provide a list with over seventy entries, some of which are based upon inscriptions which are only partially preserved.[165] Some of the Giants identified by name are:

  • Aezeius (Αἰζειός): His son Lycaon was possibly the maternal grandfather of a Lycaon who was king of Arcadia.[166][167]
  • Agrius (Ἄγριος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by the Moirai (Fates) with bronze clubs.[168]
  • Alcyoneus (Ἀλκυονεύς): According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Porphyrion), the greatest of the Giants. Immortal while fighting in his native land, he was dragged from his homeland and killed by Heracles.[169] According to Pindar, he was a herdsman and, in a separate battle from the Gigantomachy, he was killed by Heracles and Telamon, while they were traveling through Phlegra.[170] Representations of Heracles fighting Alcyoneus are found on many sixth century BC and later works of art.[171]
  • Alektos/Allektos (Ἀλέκτος/Ἀλλέκτος): Named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury (Alektos),[172] and the second century BC Pergamon Altar (Allektos).[173]
  • Aristaeus (Ἀρισταῖος): According to the Suda, he was the only Giant to "survive".[174] He is probably named on an Attic black-figure dinos by Lydos (Akropolis 607) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, fighting Hephaestus.[175]
  • Astarias (Ἀστερίας) [See Asterius below]
  • Aster (Ἀστήρ) [See Asterius below]
  • Asterius (Ἀστέριος: "Bright one" or "Glitterer"):[176] A Giant (also called Aster), killed by Athena whose death, according to some accounts, was celebrated by the Panathenaea.[177] Probably the same as the Giant Astarias named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury.[178] Probably also the same as Asterus, mentioned in the epic poem Meropis, as an invulnerable warrior killed by Athena.[179] In the poem, Heracles, while fighting the Meropes, a race of Giants, on the Island of Kos, would have been killed but for Athena's intervention.[180] Athena kills and flays Asterus and uses his impenetrable skin for her aegis. Other accounts name others whose hide provided Athena's aegis:[181] Apollodorus has Athena flay the Giant Pallas,[182] while Euripides' Ion has "the Gorgon", an offspring of Gaia born by her as an ally for the Giant, as Athena's victim.[183]
  • Asterus (Ἀστέρος) [See Asterius above]
  • Clytius (Κλυτίος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hecate with her torches.[184]
 
Gilt-bronze Enceladus by Gaspar Mercy in the Bosquet de l'Encélade in the gardens of Versailles
  • Damysus (Δάμυσος): The fastest of the Giants. Chiron exhumed his body, removed the ankle and incorporated it into Achilles burnt foot.[185]
  • Enceladus (Ἐγκέλαδος): A Giant named Enceladus, fighting Athena, is attested in art as early as an Attic Black-figure pot dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (Louvre E732).[186] Euripides has Athena fighting him with her "Gorgon shield" (her aegis).[187] According to Apollodorus, he was crushed by Athena under the Island of Sicily.[188] Virgil has him struck by Zeus' lightning bolt, and both Virgil and Claudian have him buried under Mount Etna[189] (other traditions had Typhon or Briareus buried under Etna). For some Enceladus was instead buried in Italy.[190]
  • Ephialtes (Ἐφιάλτης): probably different from the Aload Giant who was also named Ephialtes):[191] According to Apollodorus he was blinded by arrows from Apollo and Heracles.[192] He is named on three Attic black-figure pots (Akropolis 2134, Getty 81.AE.211, Louvre E732) dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC.[193] On Louvre E732 he is, along with Hyperbios and Agasthenes, opposed by Zeus, while on Getty 81.AE.211 his opponents are apparently Apollo and Artemis.[194] He is also named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury,[195] where he is probably one of the opponents of Apollo and Artemis, and probably as well on what might be the earliest representation of the Gigantomachy, a pinax fragment from Eleusis (Eleusis 349).[196] He is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531), shown battling Apollo.[197] Although the usual opponent of Poseidon among the Giants is Polybotes, one early fifth century red-figure column krater (Vienna 688) has Poseidon attacking Ephialtes.[198]
  • Euryalus (Εὐρύαλος): He is named on a late sixth century red-figure cup (Akropolis 2.211) and an early fifth century red-figure cup (British Museum E 47) fighting Hephaestos.[199]
  • Eurymedon (Εὐρυμέδων): According to Homer, he was a king of the Giants and father of Periboea (mother of Nausithous, king of the Phaeacians, by Poseidon), who "brought destruction on his froward people".[200] He was possibly the Eurymedon who raped Hera producing Prometheus as offspring (according to an account attributed to the Hellenistic poet Euphorion).[201] He is probably named on Akropolis 2134.[202] He is possibly mentioned by the Latin poet Propertius as an opponent of Jove.[203]
  • Eurytus (Εὔρυτος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus.[204]
  • Gration (Γρατίων): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Artemis.[205] His name may have been corrupted text, as various emendations have been suggested, including Aigaion (Αἰγαίων - "goatish", "stormy"), Eurytion (Εὐρυτίων: "fine flowing", "widely honored") and Rhaion (Ῥαίων - "more adaptable", "more relaxed").[206]
  • Hopladamas or Hopladamus (Ὁπλαδάμας or Ὁπλάδαμος): Possibly named (as Hopladamas) on two vases dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC, on one (Akropolis 607) being speared by Apollo, while on the other (Getty 81.AE.211) attacking Zeus.[207] Mentioned (as Hopladamus) by the geographer Pausanias as being a leader of Giants enlisted by the Titaness Rhea, pregnant with Zeus, to defend herself from her husband Cronus.[208]
  • Hippolytus (Ἱππόλυτος): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hermes, who was wearing Hades' helmet[209] which made its wearer invisible.[210]
  • Lion or Leon (Λέων): Possibly a Giant, he is mentioned by Photius (as ascribed to Ptolemy Hephaestion) as a giant who was challenged to single combat by Heracles and killed.[211] Lion-headed Giants are shown on the Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar.[212]
  • Mimas (Μίμας): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by Hephaestus.[213] Euripides has Zeus burning him "to ashes" with his thunderbolt.[214] According to others he was killed by Ares.[215] "Mimos"—possibly in error for "Mimas"—is inscribed (retrograde) on Akropolis 607.[216] He was said to be buried under Prochyte.[217] Mimas is possibly the same as the Giant named Mimon on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury, as well as on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531) shown fighting Ares.[218] Several depictions in Greek art, though, show Aphrodite as the opponent of Mimas.[219]
  • Mimon (Μίμων) [See Mimas above]
  • Mimos (Μίμος) [See Mimas above]
 
Poseidon attacks Polybotes in the presence of Gaia, red-figure cup late fifth century BC (Antikensammlung Berlin F2531)[220]
  • Pallas (Πάλλας): According to Apollodorus, he was flayed by Athena, who used his skin as a shield.[221] Other accounts name others whose hyde provided Athena's aegis [see Asterus above]. Claudian names Pallas as one of several Giants turned to stone by Minerva's Gorgon shield.[222]
  • Pelorus (Πέλορος): According to Claudian, he was killed by Mars, the Roman equivalent of Ares.[223]
  • Picolous (Πικόλοος): A Giant who fled the battle and came to Circe's island and attempted to chase her away, only to be killed by Helios. It is said that the legendary moly plant first sprang forth from Picolous' blood as it seeped into the ground.[224]
  • Polybotes (Πολυβότης): According to Apollodorus, he was crushed under Nisyros, a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon.[225] He is named on two sixth century BC pots, on one (Getty 81.AE.211) he is opposed by Zeus, on the other (Louvre E732) he is opposed by Poseidon carrying Nisyros on his shoulder.[226]
  • Porphyrion (Πορφυρίων): According to Apollodorus, he was (along with Alcyoneus), the greatest of the Giants. He attacked Heracles and Hera but Zeus "smote him with a thunderbolt, and Hercules shot him dead with an arrow."[227] According to Pindar, who calls him "king of the Giants", he was slain by an arrow from the bow of Apollo.[228] He is named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531), where he is battling with Zeus.[229] He was also probably named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury.[230]
  • Thoas or Thoon (Θόας or Θόων): According to Apollodorus, he was killed by the Moirai (Fates) with bronze clubs.[231]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Beazley Archive 204546; Cook, Plate III, A.
  2. ^ Hansen, pp. 177–179; Gantz, pp. 445–454. As for their size: Hansen p. 177: "Hesiod describes them as being "great," referring perhaps to their stature, but the Giants are not always represented as being huge. Although the word giants derives ultimately from the Greek Gigantes, the most persistent traits of the Gigantes are strength and hubristic aggression."
  3. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 185. Hyginus, Fabulae Preface gives Tartarus as the father of the Giants. A parallel to the Giants' birth is the birth of Aphrodite from the similarly fertilized sea.
  4. ^ Gantz, pp. 446, 447.
  5. ^ Gantz, p. 453; Hanfmann 1992, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Giants"; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.3 "That the giants have serpents instead of feet" pp. 315–316.
  6. ^ Hard, p. 86; Gantz, p. 16; Merry, Homer's Odyssey 7.59; Douglas Harper mentions that a Pre-Greek origin has also been proposed ("giant". Online Etymology Dictionary).
  7. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–153
  8. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 154–175; Gantz, p. 10.
  9. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 176 ff.
  10. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1; Hansen, p. 178.
  11. ^ Gantz, p. 446. Ogden, p. 82 n. 74 says that the "Odyssey's Giants stand a little outside the remainder of the tradition, in so far as they are ethnologized into a wild, arrogant, and doomed race, formerly presided over by a king Eurymedon." Hanfmann 1937, p. 175, sees in the "conflicting" descriptions of Homer and Hesiod, "two different local traditions".
  12. ^ Homer, Odyssey 7.56–63. Alcaeus and Acusilaus make the Phaiakians, like the Giants, offspring of the castration of Uranus, Gantz, p. 16.
  13. ^ Homer, Odyssey 7.199–207.
  14. ^ Homer, Odyssey 10.119–120.
  15. ^ Pausanias, 8.29.1–4. Smith, William, "Gigantes" and Hanfmann 1992, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Giants", following Pausanias, both assert that, for Homer, the Giants were a "savage race of men". For the mythographer Diodorus Siculus, the Giants were also a race of men, see 4.21.5, Gantz, p. 449.
  16. ^ Bacchylides, 15.63; Castriota, pp. 233–234.
  17. ^ "Gegeneis", Brills New Pauly; Crusius, p.93; Batrachomyomachia 7 (pp. 542–543); Sophocles, Women of Trachis 1058; Euripides, The Phoenician Women 1131; Lycophron, Alexandra 127 (pp. 504–505), 1408 (pp. 610–611).
  18. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. Latin
  19. ^ Gantz, p. 450.
  20. ^ Smith, William, "Gigantes"; Gantz, p. 447; Hansen p. 178, Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 250; Morford, pp. 82–83. A probable early confusion (or at least a possible cause of later confusion) can be seen in Euripides' Iphigenia in Tauris 221–224 and Hecuba 466–474, see Torrance, p. 155 n. 74. Later examples include Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 173 ff. (pp. 98–99) (see Vian and Moore 1988 p. 193; Mineur, p. 170).
  21. ^ Rose, The Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. "Typhon, Typhoeus"; Fontenrose, p. 80.
  22. ^ Gantz, pp. 450–451.
  23. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae Preface. For other examples of Typhon as a Giant, see Horace, Odes 3.4.53, (which has Typhon battling Athena, alongside the Giants Mimas, Porphyrion, and Enceladus); Manilius, Astronomica 2.874–880 (pp. 150–151); Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.176 (I pp. 16–17), 1.220 (I pp. 18–19), 1.244 (I pp. 20–21), 1.263 (I pp. 22–23), 1.291 (I pp. 24–25).
  24. ^ Hansen, p. 178; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162. See also Horace, Odes 3.4.42 ff., with Lyne p. 51. Plato had already associated the Aloadae with the Giants, Symposium 190b–c.
  25. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182–184: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven" (see Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia"), Fasti 4.593, with Fazer's note.
  26. ^ Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 141–146; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 4.6.
  27. ^ Homer, Odyssey 7.58–60. The translations given are A.T. Murray's. Richard Lattimore translates ὑπερθύμοισι as "high-hearted" and ἀτάσθαλος as "recklessly daring". See also Liddell and Scott, μεγαλήτωρ ("greathearted"), ὑπέρθυμος ("overweening"), and ἀτάσθαλος ("reckless, presumptuous, wicked").
  28. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 50, 185; Liddell and Scott κρατερός, μέγας; Hansen, p. 177.
  29. ^ Gantz, p. 446.
  30. ^ Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.
  31. ^ Bacchylides, 15.50 ff.; Castriota, p. 139, pp. 233–234.
  32. ^ Alcman fragment 1 Poetarum melicorum Graecorum fragmenta, see Cairns, p. 310; Wilkinson, p. 142; Ferrari, pp. 28, 109, 151 ff.; Hanfmann 1937, pp. 475–476.
  33. ^ According to Gantz, p. 446: "In all, the account rather suggests that the huge bulk of Antiphates' wife is not typical of the Laistrygones as a whole. But they are clearly thought of as good-sized, although whether it is in this respect that they are like the Gigantes and unlike men we cannot say; the Odyssey's emphasis might be thought to fall more on their uncivilized behjavior"
  34. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1.
  35. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182–184: "The time when serpent footed giants strove / to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven"; Newlands, p. 81. Here Ovid has apparently conflated the Giants with the Hundred-Handers, see Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia". Compare with Fasti 5.35–37, where Ovid says "Earth brought forth the Giants, a fierce brood, enormous monsters, who durst assault Jove's mansion; she gave them a thousand hands, and snakes for legs".
  36. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.18 (I, pp. 4–5).
  37. ^ Moore 1985, p. 21.
  38. ^ Beazley Archive 200059, LIMC 29890 (Gigantes 342).
  39. ^ Gantz, p. 15. For a survey of literary sources see Gantz, pp. 445–450, Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 191–196.
  40. ^ Gantz, p. 446.
  41. ^ A scholion to Odyssey 7.59 asserts that Homer does not know that the Giants fought against the gods, Gantz, p. 447.
  42. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 954; for the translation used here see Most 2006, p. 79.
  43. ^ Gantz, p. 446.
  44. ^ Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW, see Most 2007, p. 143. Gantz, p. 446, says that this line "with no link to what precedes or follows, might easily be an interpolation".
  45. ^ Hesiod fragment 195.28–29 MW, Most 2007, p. 5; Gantz, p. 446.
  46. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 50–52.
  47. ^ Xenophanes, 1.21 (Lesher, pp. 12, 13); Gantz, p. 446.
  48. ^ Since Chiron did apparently figure in a lost poem about the Titanomachy, and there is no obvious role for the centaur in a poem about the Gigantomachy, see Gantz, p. 447.
  49. ^ Wilkinson pp. 141–142; Gantz p. 447.
  50. ^ Pindar, Nemean 1.67–69.
  51. ^ Pindar, Nemean 7.90.
  52. ^ Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.
  53. ^ Euripides, Heracles 177–180; Gantz, p. 448.
  54. ^ Euripides, Ion 205–218.
  55. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3. 221
  56. ^ Beazley Archive 207774.
  57. ^ Tripp, p. 252.
  58. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1–2.
  59. ^ Gantz, pp. 16, 57, 448–449; Hard p. 88. According to Gantz, p. 449, it is possible but unlikely, that this is the incident being referred to in Odyssey 7, noting that the story of the rape of Hera by Eurymedon may be a later invention to explain Homer's remark.
  60. ^ Gantz, pp. 419, 448–449; Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Odes 6.47.
  61. ^ According to Apollodorus, Alcyoneus stole Helios' cattle from Erytheia, where the cattle of Geryon are usually found.
  62. ^ Gantz, p. 449; Grimal, p. 171; Tripp, p. 251. The late 4th century AD Latin poet Claudian expands on this notion in his Gigantomachia 1–35 (pp. 280–283) with Gaia, "jealous of the heavenly kingdoms and in pity for the ceasless woes of the Titans" (1–2), gave birth to the Giants, urging them to war saying "Up, army of avengers, the hour is come at last, free the Titans from their chains; defend your mother." (27–28)
  63. ^ Compare with Hesiod, Theogony 185–186 which seems to have the Giants born, like Athena and the Spartoi, fully grown and armed for battle (Apollodorus, 1.3.6, 1.3.6). Also compare with Plato, Sophist 246a, where comparing materialist philosophers with the Giants, says they "drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth, actually grasping rocks and trees with their hands".
  64. ^ Compare with Pindar, Nemean 1.67–69 (mentioned above) where Teiresias prophesies that Heracles will aid the gods in their battle with the Giants.
  65. ^ Antaeus, another offspring of Gaia who was an opponent of Heracles, was immortal as long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles killed Antaeus by crushing him while holding him off the ground. For Pindar, Hearacles' battle with Alcyoneus (whom he calls a herdsman) and the Gigantomachy were separate events, see: Isthmian 6.30–35, Nemean 4.24–30.
  66. ^ As noted above Pindar has Apollo kill Porphyrion.
  67. ^ As noted above, Euripides has Zeus kill Mimas; other accounts have Mimas killed by Ares: Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277); Claudian, Gigantomachia 85–91 (pp. 286–287).
  68. ^ Strabo, 10.5.16. The mention of a millstone, in the poem fragment by Alcman (mentioned above) may be an early reference to the island of Nisyros, see Hanfmann 1937, pp. 476; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.
  69. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162.
  70. ^ Ovid also refers to Giants piling up Pelion on top of Ossa elsewhere, see Amores 2.1.11–18, Fasti 1.307–308, 3.437–442; Green, p. 143.
  71. ^ Compare with Lycophron, Alexandra 1356–1358 (pp. 606–607), who has the Pelasgian race born from the "blood of the Sithonian giants", Sithonia being the middle spur of Chalcidice just north of the southern spur of Pallene, the traditional home of the Giants.
  72. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.182 ff..
  73. ^ Anderson, p. 170, note to line 184 "centum with bracchia". Ovid's Amores 2.1.11–18, see Knox, p. 209, likewise associates the Gigantomachy with the Hundred-Hander "Gyas", while in Fasti 5.35–37, Ovid has the Giants have a "thousand hands". This same conflation may already occur in Euphorion, fragment 169 (Lightfoot) (Lightfoot, pp. 394–395), see Vian and Moore 1988, p. 193.
  74. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 617–736, 815–819. For the Hundred-Handers as opponents of Zeus, see for example Virgil, Aeneid 10.565–568; O'Hara, p. 99.
  75. ^ Hard 2015, p. 66.
  76. ^ Hard 2015, p. 68.
  77. ^ Kerenyi 1951, p. 95.
  78. ^ Singleton, p. 235.
  79. ^ Aeschylus, Eumenides 294; Euripides, Heracles 1192–1194; Ion 987–997; Aristophanes, The Birds 824; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.232–234 (pp. 210–211), 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277). See also Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW (Most 2007, p. 143, Gantz, p. 446)
  80. ^ Herodotus, 7.123.1; Strabo, 7 Fragment 25, 27; Philostratus, On Heroes 8.16 (p. 14); Stephanus Byzantius, s.v. Παλλήνη (Hunter p. 81), Φλέγρα; Liddell and Scott, Φλέγρα
  81. ^ Gantz, p. 419; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants" pp. 314–315; Lycophron, Alexandra 115–127 (pp. 504–505), 1356–1358 (pp. 606–607), 1404–1408 (pp. 610–611); Diodorus Siculus, 4.15.1; Pausanias, 1.25.2, 8.29.1; AT-scholia to Iliad 15.27 (Hunter p. 81).
  82. ^ Strabo, 5.4.4, 5.4.6, 6.3.5; Diodorus Siculus, 4.21.5–7, 5.71.4.
  83. ^ Lycophron, Alexandra 688–693 (pp. 550–551).
  84. ^ Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil 3.578; Leigh, p. 122.
  85. ^ Pausanias, 8.29.1.
  86. ^ Scholiast A on Iliad 8.479 (Brown, p. 125).
  87. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 4.15.1, 4.21.5–7, 5.71.2–6.
  88. ^ Strabo, 11.2.10.
  89. ^ Hanfmann 1937, p. 475 n. 52.
  90. ^ Mayor, p. 197 ff.; Apollodorus 1.6.1 n. 3; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 8.29.1 "the legendary battle of the gods and the giants" pp. 314–315; Pausanias, 8.32.5; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501), On Heroes 8.15–16 (p. 14).
  91. ^ Schefold, p. 56; Beazley Archive 302261; LIMC 27185 (Gigantes 120).
  92. ^ Vian and Moore 1988; Schefold, p. 51, p. 64; Ogden, p. 82; See also Vian 1951; 1952; Morford, p. 72.
  93. ^ Barber 1992, pp. 103–104, 112, 117; Barber 1991, pp. 361–362, 380–381; Simon, p. 23; Euripides, Hecuba, 466–474, Iphigenia in Tauris 222–224; Aristophanes, The Birds 823–831, The Knights 565; Plato, Euthyphro 6b–c; Republic 2.378c; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 210 no. 32. For the importance of the Gigantomachy to the Athenian Acropolis see Hurwit, pp. 30–31.
  94. ^ Gantz, p. 450; Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, pp. 51–52; Robertson, Martin, pp. 16–17.
  95. ^ Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive 310147, LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105)); Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive 15673, LIMC 4867 (Gigantes 110)); Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 301942, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)); Akropolis 2211 (Beazley Archive 3363, LIMC 20013 (Gigantes 104)).
  96. ^ Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, p. 55, 57; Neils, p. 228.
  97. ^ Gantz, p. 451; Moore 1979, pp. 81–84, ILL. 1. & 2.; Moore 1985, p. 21; Schefold, 57; Beazley, pp. 38–39; Day, p. 163. Several examples from later in the sixth century BC depict a similar central group of Zeus, Heracles and Athena. Moore 1979, p. 83 n. 36 lists as examples: Tarquina 623 (Beazley Archive 310411, LIMC 29174 (Gigantes 114)), Munich 1485 (Beazley Archive 302287), British Museum B208 (Beazley Archive 302261; LIMC 27185 (Gigantes 120)). Arafat, p. 14 n. 12, in addition to British Museum B208, also gives as examples Vatican 422 (Beazley Archive 302040, LIMC 29187 (Gigantes 123)) and Vatican 365 (Beazley Archive 301601), however Moore says that Zeus is not present in Vatican 365. For British Museum B208, see also Schefold, p. 56. Euripides, perhaps referring to archaic vase paintings or to Athena's peplos, locates Heracles and Athena fighting near Zeus in the Gigantomachy, see Heracles 177–179; Ion 1528–1529; Vian and Moore 1988, p. 192.
  98. ^ Rightward was conventionally the "direction of victory", see Schefold, p. 62; Stewart, p. 128.
  99. ^ Schefold, pp. 56–57; Gantz p. 451; Moore 1985, p. 21
  100. ^ Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171).
  101. ^ Moore 1985, p. 28.
  102. ^ Moore 1985, pp. 30–31.
  103. ^ Moore 1985, p. 32.
  104. ^ Moore 1985, pp. 34–36.
  105. ^ Moore 1985, pp. 34–35.
  106. ^ Gantz, p. 451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170).
  107. ^ Gantz, p. 453; Moore 1985, p. 32; Cook, pp. 14–18; Frazer 1898a, note to Pausanias 1.2.4 "Poseidon on horseback hurling a spear at the giant Polybotes" pp. 48–49.
  108. ^ Gantz, pp. 451–452; Stewart, pp. 128–129, plates 195–198; Schefold, pp. 59–62; Morford, p. 73; Drawing: J.Boardman, Greek Sculpture Archaic Period fig.212.1; Perseus: Delphi, Siphnian Treasury Frieze--North (Sculpture); LIMC 5020 (Gigantes 2).
  109. ^ Brinkmann, N17 p. 101. According to Schefold, p. 62, Themis "appears here in the guise of Kybele".
  110. ^ Brinkmann, N5 p. 92, reads only Tharos.
  111. ^ Brinkmann, N7 p. 94.
  112. ^ Brinkmann, N6 p. 92, others have read Hypertas.
  113. ^ Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.
  114. ^ Possibly Aphrodite, has been identified as Hera, but Brinkmann, p. 94 finds no trace of that name.
  115. ^ Brinkmann, N22 p. 103, only the last four letters: ριον can be read.
  116. ^ Brinkmann, N10 p. 96; others have read Berektas.
  117. ^ Brinkmann, N12 p. 103; others have read Astartas.
  118. ^ Brinkmann, N11 p. 96.
  119. ^ Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125. The fallen Giant Mimon against Ares is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci (Berlin F2531): Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Mimon and Ares; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.
  120. ^ Gantz, p. 452. For the Temple of Apollo see: Schefold, p 64; Shapiro, p. 247; Stewart, pp. 86–87; Euripides, Ion 205–218; LIMC 18960 (Gigantes 3). For the Megarian Treasury see: Pollitt 1990, pp. 22–23; Pausanias, 6.19.12–14; Frazer 1898b, note to Pausanias 6.19.12 "The people of Megara — built a treasury" pp 65–67, note to 6.19.13 "In the gable — is wrought in relief the war of the giants" pp 67–69; ASCA Digital Collections, Megarian Treasury. For the Old Temple of Athena see: Schefold, pp. 64–67.
  121. ^ Arafat, pp 12–15; Cohen, pp. 177–178; Gantz p. 452; Beazley Archive 203909; LIMC 11564 (Gigantes 303).
  122. ^ For the Parthenon Gigantomachy metopes see Schwab, pp. 168–173, for the statue of Athena see Lapatin, pp. 262–263, for both see Kleiner, pp. 136—137.
  123. ^ Dwyer, p. 295; Gantz, pp. 446, 447, 452–453; Hard, p. 90. For an example of a particularly "handsome" Giant see Schefold, p. 67: British Museum E 8 (Beazley Archive 302261, LIMC 11609 (Gigantes 365), image 1 of 2), for Giants with animal skins fighting with boulders see a calyx krater from Ruvo, c. 400: Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive 217517, LIMC 10553 (Gigantes 316), image 2 of 5.
  124. ^ Robertson, Martin, pp. 106–107; Dwyer, p. 295; Cook, p. 56; Arafat, p. 25; Louvre MNB810 (Beazley Archive 217568, LIMC 11533 (Gigantes 322); Naples 81521 (Beazley Archive 217517, LIMC 10553 (Gigantes 316)).
  125. ^ Ogden, pp. 82–83, Gantz, p. 453; Berlin V.I. 3375 (Beazley Archive 6987, LIMC 30005 (Gigantes 389)). Snake-legged Giants may exist in earlier Etruscan art, for example a winged and snake-footed monster depicted on a late sixth century Etruscan hydria (British Museum B62, LIMC 2639 (Typhon 30)), might be a Giant, see de Grummond, p. 259, compare with Ogden, p. 71. For more on snake-legged Giants see Ogden, pp. 82–86, and Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 253–254.
  126. ^ Pollitt 1986, p. 109; Ogden, p. 83; Hesiod, Theogony 820 ff.. The similarities between Typhon and the Giants are several, both "monstrous children produced by Earth in a spirit of revenge, with the mission to attack and overthrow the gods in heaven, and whose fate they share, blasted by thunderbolts and, in Enceladus' case buried under Sicily." (Ogden, p. 83).
  127. ^ Kleiner, pp. 155–156; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 33; Smith, R. R. R. 1991, p. 159; Queyrel, p. 49; Pergamon Altar (LIMC 617 (Gigantes 24)).
  128. ^ Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005. The names of the gods and goddesses were inscribed on the upper molding of the frieze, with the exception of Gaia whose name was inscribed on the background next to her head, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 32. For the total number of gods and goddesses, see Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 54 n. 35.
  129. ^ The names of the Giants were inscribed on the lower molding or, for the walls flanking the stairs where the moulding was omitted, on the background of the frieze between the figures, see Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 32, p. 54 n. 34. Queyrel, p. 52, lists the names of 27 Giants fully or partly preserved in the inscriptions which have so far been found. For Queyrel's identification of the various figures, see Fig. 33, pp. 50–51.
  130. ^ Pollitt 1986, p. 109.
  131. ^ Cunningham, p. 113; Kleiner, p. 156 FIG. 5-79; Queyrel, pp. 52–53; Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 39, pp. 59–60 n. 59. Supporting the identification of this Giant as Alcyoneus, is the fragmentary inscription "neus", that may belong to this scene, for doubts concerning this identification, see Ridgway.
  132. ^ Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2000, p. 54 n. 35; Queyrel, pp. 53–54.
  133. ^ Ridgway, Brunilde Sismondo 2005. Though virtually nothing of Heracles remains, only part of a linonskin, and a left hand holding a bow, the location of the hero is identified by inscription, see Queyrel, pp. 54–55.
  134. ^ Queyrel, pp. 56–58; Ling, p. 50; Apollodorus 1.6.2.
  135. ^ Queyrel, pp. 55–56. This figure, now identified by inscription as Udaeus, was previously supposed to be Ephialtes, who Apollodorus, 1.6.2 has Apollo shoot in the left eye. Udaeus (earthy) was also the name of one of the Spartoi, who were sometimes called Gegeneis or Gigantes, see Fontenrose, p. 316; Apollodorus; 3.4.1; Pausanias, 9.5.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 178. Pelorus (monstrous), the name of another Spartoi, is a possible restoration of the fragmentary inscription "oreus" listed by Queyrel, p. 52.
  136. ^ Queyrel, p. 55; Moore 1977, p. 324 n. 70; McKay, p. 93; Callimachus, Hymn 6 (to Demeter) 25 ff. (pp. 126 ff.).
  137. ^ Pollitt 1986, p. 109; Smith, R. R. R. p. 162.
  138. ^ Pollitt 1986, p. 109.
  139. ^ Queyrel, p. 52.
  140. ^ Hall, James, Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, p. 140, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray, ISBN 0719541476
  141. ^ Morford, pp. 82–83.
  142. ^ Morford, p. 72; Schefold, p. 50; Kleiner, p. 118, p. 136, p. 156; Lyne, p. 50; Castriota, p. 139; Dwyer, p. 295.
  143. ^ Castriota, p. 139; Dwyer, p. 295; Gale, p. 121; Wilkinson, p. 142; Cairns, p. 310; Commager, pp. 119, 199.
  144. ^ Schefold, p. 51.
  145. ^ Plato, Sophist 246a–c; Chaudhuri, pp.60–61.
  146. ^ Peck, Gigantes.
  147. ^ Lovatt, pp. 115 ff..
  148. ^ Cicero, De Senectute 5; Powell, p. 110 "Gigantum modo bellare"; Chaudhuri, p. 7 n. 22.
  149. ^ Chaudhuri, pp. 58–63; Hardie 2007, p. 116; Gale, pp. 120–121, p. 140; Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 1.62–79, 5.110–125.
  150. ^ Gale, pp. 140–141; Gee, pp. 56–57.
  151. ^ Lyne, pp. 52–54, pp. 167–168; Commager, p. 199; Horace, Odes 3.4.42 ff..
  152. ^ Wheeler, pp. 23–26; Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.151–162.
  153. ^ Hardie 2014, p. 101.
  154. ^ Dinter, p. 296; Lucan, Pharsalia 9.654–658.
  155. ^ Zissos, pp. 79 ff.; For more on the use of Gigantomachy imagery in the Argonautica see Stover, pp. 5–6, 71–73, 79–150.
  156. ^ Mayor, p. 195; Claudian, Gigantomachia 62–73 (pp. 284–287).
  157. ^ It has been common for cultures (including the ancient Greeks) to attribute earthquakes and volcanoes to the movements of buried "giants", see Andrews, "Earthquakes" pp. 62–63, "Giants" p. 81, "Volcanoes" pp. 218–219; Cook, n. 5 pp. 2–3; Frazer 1914, p. 197: "The people of Timor, in the East Indies, think that the earth rests on the shoulders of a mighty giant, and that when he is weary of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other and so causes the ground to quake"; pp. 200–201: "The Tongans think that the earth is supported on the prostrate form of the god Móooi. When he is tired of lying in one posture, he tries to turn himself about, and that causes an earthquake"; Hanfmann 1937, p. 475; Lemprière "MYCŎNOS" p. 456; Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).
  158. ^ Callimachus, fragment 117 (382) (pp. 342–343); Statius, Thebaid 11.8 (pp. 390–391); Aetna (perhaps written by Lucilius Junior), 71–73 (pp. 8–9); Apollodorus, 1.6.2; Virgil, Aeneid 3.578 ff. (with Conington's note to 3.578); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 1.153–159 (pp. 304–305), 2.151–162 (pp. 328–331), 3.186–187 (pp. 358–359); Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica (or Fall of Troy) 5.641–643 (pp. 252–253), 14.582–585 (pp. 606–607). Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201) has Enceladus buried in Italy rather than Sicily.
  159. ^ Pindar, Pythian 1.15–29, Olympian 4.6–7; Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 353–374; Nicander, apud Antoninus Liberalis 28; Ovid, Fasti 4.491–492 (pp. 224–225), Metamorphoses 5.346 ff. (which has Typhon buried under all of Sicily, with his left and right hands under Pelorus and Pachynus, his feet under Lilybaeus, and his head under Etna); Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 2.23 ff. 2016-09-09 at the Wayback Machine; Manilius, Astronomica 2.874–880 (pp. 150–151); Seneca, Hercules Furens 46–62 (pp. 52–53), Thyestes 808–809 (pp. 298–299) (where the Chorus asks if Typhon has thrown the mountain (presumably Etna) off "and stretched his limbs"); Apollodorus, 1.6.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 152; b scholia to Iliad 2.783 (Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. pp. 59–60 no. 52); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp. 498–501); Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201); Nonnus Dionysiaca 2.622–624 (I pp. 90–91) (buried under Sicily). Typhon was also said to be buried under the volcanic island of Ischia the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples, see Lycophron, Alexandra 688–693 (pp. 550–551); Virgil, Aeneid 9.715–716 (calling the island "Inarime"); Strabo, 5.4.9 (calling the island "Pithecussae"); Ridgway, David, pp. 35–36; Silius Italicus, Punica 8.540–541 (I pp. 432–422); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).
  160. ^ Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) 141–146 (pp. 96–97); Mineur. p. 153.
  161. ^ Philostratus, On Heroes 8.15–16 (p. 14); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359).
  162. ^ Silius Italicus, Punica 12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159), which also has the Titan Iapetus buried under Inarime.
  163. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  164. ^ Cassius Dio 66.22–23.
  165. ^ Vian and Moore 1988, pp. 268–269.
  166. ^ Juríková, Erika (2017-06-11). "Antiquitates Romanae - Ancient History Textbook of the Jesuit Trnava University". Historica Olomucensia. 52: 71–85. doi:10.5507/ho.2017.003. ISSN 1803-9561.
  167. ^ "Dionysius of Halicarnassus", Wikipedia, 2023-03-23, retrieved 2023-05-06
  168. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  169. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1.
  170. ^ Pindar, Isthmian 6.30–35, Nemean 4.24–30.
  171. ^ Gantz, p. 420.
  172. ^ Brinkmann, N8 p. 94.
  173. ^ Queyrel, p. 52.
  174. ^ Suda s.v. Ἀρισταῖος, Αἰτναῖος κάνθαρος
  175. ^ Gantz, p. 451; Beazley, p. 39; Richards, pp. 287, 383; Schefold, p. 57; Beazley Archive 310147; LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105), image 13 of 14).
  176. ^ Barber 1991 p. 381.
  177. ^ Parker 2011, p. 201; Parker 2006, p. 255; Connelly, p. 47; Scheid, pp. 18–19, p. 178 n. 48. Pausanias, 1.35.6 tells of Asterius, a son of Anax the "son of Earth", buried on the island of Asterius, near the Island of Lade, off the coast of Miletus, having bones ten cubits in length, see also Pausanius 7.2.5.
  178. ^ Brinkmann p. 128 n. 194.
  179. ^ Robertson, Noel, p. 42, pp. 43–44; Yasumura, pp. 50, 173 n. 44; Janko, pp. 191–192 (14.250–61).
  180. ^ For Heracles' expedition to Kos see Homer, Iliad 14.250–256; Pindar, Isthmian 6.31–35, Nemean 4.24–30; Apollodorus, 2.7.1. For the Meropes as Giants see Yasumura, p. 50; Janko, p. 191; Philostratus, On Heroes 8.14 (pp. 13–14).
  181. ^ Robertson, Noel, p. 42.
  182. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  183. ^ Euripides, Ion 987–997.
  184. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  185. ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6 "Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; six were born; when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot and confided him to Chiron. The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was buried at Pallene -- Damysos was the fastest of all the giants -- removed the 'astragale' and incorporated it into Achilles' foot using 'ingredients'. This 'astragale' fell when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles, fallen, was killed. It is said, on the other hand, that he was called Podarkes by the Poet, because, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce."
  186. ^ Gantz, pp. 450–451; Arafat, p. 16; Beazley 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170), image 4 of 4.
  187. ^ Euripides, Ion 205–218.
  188. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  189. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 3.578 ff. (with Conington's note to 3.578); Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 1.153–159 (pp. 304–305), 2.151–162 (pp. 328–331), 3.186–187 (pp. 358–359)
  190. ^ Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201).
  191. ^ Gantz, 450–451.
  192. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  193. ^ Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 9922, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170)).
  194. ^ Moore 1985, p. 34.
  195. ^ Gantz, pp. 451–452; Brinkmann, N7 p. 94; LIMC 5020 (Gigantes 2).
  196. ^ Schefold, p. 52, Beazley Archive 1409; Gantz p. 450 notes that the pinax might represent Ares encounter with the Aloadae in Iliad 5.
  197. ^ Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Ephialtes with shield and spear v. Apollo with sword and bow; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.
  198. ^ Beazley Archive 202916; LIMC 11561 (Gigantes 361); Cook, pp. 14–18, p. 17 fig. 5.
  199. ^ Arafat, pp.16, 183, 184; Akropolis 2.211 (Beazley Archive 200125; LIMC Gigantes 299 2016-10-07 at the Wayback Machine); British Museum E 47 (Beazley Archive 203256; LIMC 4663 (Gigantes 301)).
  200. ^ Homer, Odyssey 7.54 ff..
  201. ^ Gantz, pp. 16, 57; Hard, p. 88; Scholia on Homer's Iliad 14.295.
  202. ^ Gantz, p. 451; Akropolis 2134 (Beazley Archive 9922, LIMC 26166 (Gigantes 106)).
  203. ^ Propertius, Elegies 3.9.47–48 (pp. 266–267); Keith, p. 135; Heyworth, pp. 325–326.
  204. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  205. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  206. ^ Frazer 1921, note 1 to Apollodorus 1.6.2, p. 46: "Γρατίωνα probably corrupt. Various emendations have been suggested, as Αἰγαίωνα (Heyne, M. Mayer, op. cit. pp. 201 sq.), Εὐρυτίωνα, Ῥαίωνα (Hercher)."
  207. ^ Moore 1985, p. 31; Beazley, p. 39; Akropolis 607 (Beazley Archive 310147, LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105)); Getty 81.AE.211 (Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)).
  208. ^ Pausanias, 8.32.5, 8.36.2.
  209. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  210. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2 n. 6; Homer, Iliad 2.5.844 ff.; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 226 ff..
  211. ^ Photius, Bibliotheca Codex 190.
  212. ^ Pollitt 1986, p. 105; Pergamon Altar image viewer 2013-11-26 at the Wayback Machine. See also Akropolis 1632 (Beazley Archive 15673, LIMC 4867 (Gigantes 110)).
  213. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  214. ^ Euripides, Ion 205–218; Stewart, pp. 86–87.
  215. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277); Claudian, Gigantomachia 85–91 (pp. 286–287).
  216. ^ Beazley, p. 39; Beazley Archive 310147; LIMC 9257 (Gigantes 105), image 1 of 14.
  217. ^ Silius Italicus, Punica 12.143–151 (II pp. 156–159).
  218. ^ Siphnian Treasury: Brinkmann, N14 pp. 98, 124–125; Vulci cup: Arafat, p. 16; Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Mimon and Ares; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.
  219. ^ Giuliani, Luca. Schefold, Karl. Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art. Cambridge University Press. Dec. 3, 1992. pgs. 57-59.
  220. ^ Beazley Archive 220533; Arafat, pp. 24, 25, 186; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI; LIMC 10641 (Gigantes 318), image 3 of 4; Perseus Berlin F 2531 (Vase)
  221. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  222. ^ Claudian, Gigantomachia 91–103 (pp. 286–289).
  223. ^ Claudian, Gigantomachia 75–84 (pp. 286–287).
  224. ^ Rahner, pp. 203–204; Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 10.305 (Zucker and Le Feuvre: "Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale: Picoloos, one of the Giants, by fleeing from the war led against Zeus, reached Circe’s island and tried to chase her away. Her father Helios killed him, protecting his daughter with his shield;"); Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 4 (Photius, Bibliotheca 190.32: "The plant moly of which Homer speaks; this plant had, it is said, grown from the blood of the giant killed in the isle of Circe; it has a white flower; the ally of Circe who killed the giant was Helios; the combat was hard (mâlos) from which the name of this plant."
  225. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2.
  226. ^ Getty 81.AE.211 (Moore 1985, pp. 30–31, Beazley Archive 10047, LIMC 10415 (Gigantes 171)); Louvre E732 (Gantz, p. 451, Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170), image 4 of 4).
  227. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.2. Compare with Aristophanes, The Birds 1249 ff.: "a single Porphyrion gave him [Zeus] enough to do."
  228. ^ Pindar, Pythian 8.12–18.
  229. ^ Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Zeus v. Porphyrion; Cook, p. 56, Plate VI.
  230. ^ Brinkmann, N22 p.103, which finds traces of "rion"; Stewart, plate 196.
  231. ^ Parada, s.v. Thoas 5; Grant, pp. 519–520; Smith, s.v. Thoon; Apollodorus, 1.6.2. Frazer translates Apollodorus 1.6.2 Θόωνα as "Thoas". Citing only Apollodorus 1.6.2, Parada names the Giant "Thoas" (Θόας), and Smith names the Giant "Thoon (Θόων)". Grant, citing no sources, names the Giant "Thoas", but says "he was also called Thoon".

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External links edit

 
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  • The Siphnian Treasury: The North side of the frieze (The Gigantomachy - Hall V)

January 01, 1970
giants, greek, mythology, gigantes, redirects, here, other, uses, gigantes, disambiguation, greek, roman, mythology, giants, also, called, gigantes, greek, Γίγαντες, gígantes, singular, Γίγας, gígas, were, race, great, strength, aggression, though, necessarily. Gigantes redirects here For other uses see Gigantes disambiguation In Greek and Roman mythology the Giants also called Gigantes Greek Gigantes Gigantes singular Gigas Gigas were a race of great strength and aggression though not necessarily of great size They were known for the Gigantomachy or Gigantomachia their battle with the Olympian gods 2 According to Hesiod the Giants were the offspring of Gaia Earth born from the blood that fell when Uranus Sky was castrated by his Titan son Cronus 3 Poseidon left holding a trident with the island Nisyros on his shoulder battling a Giant probably Polybotes red figure cup c 500 450 BC Cabinet des Medailles 573 1 Archaic and Classical representations show Gigantes as man sized hoplites heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldiers fully human in form 4 Later representations after c 380 BC show Gigantes with snakes for legs 5 In later traditions the Giants were often confused with other opponents of the Olympians particularly the Titans an earlier generation of large and powerful children of Gaia and Uranus The vanquished Giants were said to be buried under volcanoes and to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes Contents 1 Origins 2 Confusion with Titans and others 3 Descriptions 4 The Gigantomachy 4 1 Early sources 4 2 Apollodorus 4 3 Ovid 4 4 Other late sources 4 5 Location 4 6 In art 4 6 1 Sixth century BC 4 6 2 Fifth century BC 4 6 3 Fourth century BC and later 4 6 4 In post classical art 5 Symbolism meaning and interpretations 6 Association with volcanoes and earthquakes 7 Named Giants 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External linksOrigins editThe name Gigantes is usually taken to imply earth born 6 and Hesiod s Theogony makes this explicit by having the Giants be the offspring of Gaia Earth According to Hesiod Gaia mating with Uranus bore many children the first generation of Titans the Cyclopes and the Hundred Handers 7 However Uranus hated his children and as soon as they were born he imprisoned them inside of Gaia causing her much distress Therefore Gaia made a sickle of adamant which she gave to Cronus the youngest of her Titan sons and hid him presumably still inside Gaia s body to wait in ambush 8 When Uranus came to lie with Gaia Cronus castrated his father and the bloody drops that gushed forth Gaia received and as the seasons moved round she bore the great Giants 9 From these same drops of blood also came the Erinyes Furies and the Meliai ash tree nymphs while the severed genitals of Uranus falling into the sea resulted in a white foam from which Aphrodite grew The mythographer Apollodorus also has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Uranus though he makes no connection with Uranus castration saying simply that Gaia vexed on account of the Titans brought forth the Giants 10 There are three brief references to the Gigantes in Homer s Odyssey though it is not entirely clear that Homer and Hesiod understood the term to mean the same thing 11 Homer has Giants among the ancestors of the Phaiakians a race of men encountered by Odysseus their ruler Alcinous being the son of Nausithous who was the son of Poseidon and Periboea the daughter of the Giant king Eurymedon 12 Elsewhere in the Odyssey Alcinous says that the Phaiakians like the Cyclopes and the Giants are near kin to the gods 13 Odysseus describes the Laestrygonians another race encountered by Odysseus in his travels as more like Giants than men 14 Pausanias the 2nd century AD geographer read these lines of the Odyssey to mean that for Homer the Giants were a race of mortal men 15 The 6th 5th century BC lyric poet Bacchylides calls the Giants sons of the Earth 16 Later the term gegeneis earthborn became a common epithet of the Giants 17 The first century Latin writer Hyginus has the Giants being the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus another primordial Greek deity 18 Confusion with Titans and others editThough distinct in early traditions 19 Hellenistic and later writers often confused or conflated the Giants and their Gigantomachy with an earlier set of offspring of Gaia and Uranus the Titans and their war with the Olympian gods the Titanomachy 20 This confusion extended to other opponents of the Olympians including the huge monster Typhon 21 the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus whom Zeus finally defeated with his thunderbolt and the Aloadae the large strong and aggressive brothers Otus and Ephialtes who piled Pelion on top of Ossa in order to scale the heavens and attack the Olympians though in the case of Ephialtes there was probably a Giant with the same name 22 For example Hyginus includes the names of three Titans Coeus Iapetus and Astraeus along with Typhon and the Aloadae in his list of Giants 23 and Ovid seems to conflate the Gigantomachy with the later siege of Olympus by the Aloadae 24 Ovid also seems to confuse the Hundred Handers with the Giants whom he gives a hundred arms 25 So perhaps do Callimachus and Philostratus since they both make Aegaeon the cause of earthquakes as was often said about the Giants see below 26 Descriptions editHomer describes the Giant king Eurymedon as great hearted megalhtoros and his people as insolent ὑper8ymoisi and froward ἀtas8alos 27 Hesiod calls the Giants strong kraterῶn and great megaloys which may or may not be a reference to their size 28 Though a possible later addition the Theogony also has the Giants born with gleaming armour holding long spears in their hands 29 Other early sources characterize the Giants by their excesses Pindar describes the excessive violence of the Giant Porphyrion as having provoked beyond all measure 30 Bacchylides calls the Giants arrogant saying that they were destroyed by Hybris the Greek word hubris personified 31 The earlier seventh century BC poet Alcman perhaps had already used the Giants as an example of hubris with the phrases vengeance of the gods and they suffered unforgettable punishments for the evil they did being possible references to the Gigantomachy 32 Homer s comparison of the Giants to the Laestrygonians is suggestive of similarities between the two races The Laestrygonians who hurled rocks huge as a man could lift certainly possessed great strength and possibly great size as their king s wife is described as being as big as a mountain 33 Over time descriptions of the Giants make them less human more monstrous and more gigantic According to Apollodorus the Giants had great size and strength a frightening appearance with long hair and beards and scaly feet 34 Ovid makes them serpent footed with a hundred arms 35 and Nonnus has them serpent haired 36 The Gigantomachy edit Gigantomachy redirects here For the painting see Gigantomachy by the Suessula Painter The most important divine struggle in Greek mythology was the Gigantomachy the battle fought between the Giants and the Olympian gods for supremacy of the cosmos 37 It is primarily for this battle that the Giants are known and its importance to Greek culture is attested by the frequent depiction of the Gigantomachy in Greek art Early sources edit nbsp Athena left fighting the Giant Enceladus inscribed retrograde on an Attic red figure dish c 550 500 BC Louvre CA3662 38 The references to the Gigantomachy in archaic sources are sparse 39 Neither Homer nor Hesiod mention anything explicit about the Giants battling the gods 40 Homer s remark that Eurymedon brought destruction on his froward people might possibly be a reference to the Gigantomachy 41 and Hesiod s remark that Heracles performed a great work among the immortals 42 is probably a reference to Heracles crucial role in the gods victory over the Giants 43 The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women or the Ehoia following mentions of Heracles sacks of Troy and of Kos refers to his having slain presumptious Giants 44 Another probable reference to the Gigantomachy in the Catalogue has Zeus produce Heracles to be a protector against ruin for gods and men 45 There are indications that there might have been a lost epic poem a Gigantomachia which gave an account of the war Hesiod s Theogony says that the Muses sing of the Giants 46 and the sixth century BC poet Xenophanes mentions the Gigantomachy as a subject to be avoided at table 47 The Apollonius scholia refers to a Gigantomachia in which the Titan Cronus as a horse sires the centaur Chiron by mating with Philyra the daughter of two Titans but the scholiast may be confusing the Titans and Giants 48 Other possible archaic sources include the lyric poets Alcman mentioned above and the sixth century Ibycus 49 The late sixth early fifth century BC lyric poet Pindar provides some of the earliest details of the battle between the Giants and the Olympians He locates it on the plain of Phlegra and has Teiresias foretell Heracles killing Giants beneath his rushing arrows 50 He calls Heracles you who subdued the Giants 51 and has Porphyrion whom he calls the king of the Giants being overcome by the bow of Apollo 52 Euripides Heracles has its hero shooting Giants with arrows 53 and his Ion has the chorus describe seeing a depiction of the Gigantomachy on the late sixth century Temple of Apollo at Delphi with Athena fighting the Giant Enceladus with her gorgon shield Zeus burning the Giant Mimas with his mighty thunderbolt blazing at both ends and Dionysus killing an unnamed Giant with his ivy staff 54 The early 3rd century BC author Apollonius of Rhodes briefly describes an incident where the sun god Helios takes up Hephaestus exhausted from the fight in Phlegra on his chariot 55 Apollodorus edit nbsp Dionysus left with ivy crown and thyrsus attacking a Giant Attic red figure pelike c 475 425 BC Louvre G434 56 The most detailed account of the Gigantomachy 57 is that of the first or second century AD mythographer Apollodorus 58 None of the early sources give any reasons for the war Scholia to the Iliad mention the rape of Hera by the Giant Eurymedon 59 while according to the scholia to Pindar s Isthmian 6 it was the theft of the cattle of Helios by the Giant Alcyoneus that started the war 60 Apollodorus who also mentions the theft of Helios cattle by Alcyoneus 61 suggests a mother s revenge as the motive for the war saying that Gaia bore the Giants because of her anger over the Titans who had been vanquished and imprisoned by the Olympians 62 Seemingly as soon as the Giants are born they begin hurling rocks and burning oaks at the sky 63 There was a prophecy that the Giants could not be killed by the gods alone but they could be killed with the help of a mortal 64 Hearing this Gaia sought for a certain plant pharmakon that would protect the Giants Before Gaia or anyone else could find this plant Zeus forbade Eos Dawn Selene Moon and Helios Sun to shine harvested all of the plant himself and then he had Athena summon Heracles According to Apollodorus Alcyoneus and Porphyrion were the two strongest Giants Heracles shot Alcyoneus who fell to the ground but then revived for Alcyoneus was immortal within his native land So Heracles on Athena s advice dragged him beyond the borders of that land where Alcyoneus then died compare with Antaeus 65 Porphyrion attacked Heracles and Hera but Zeus caused Porphyrion to become enamoured of Hera whom Porphyrion then tried to rape but Zeus struck Porphyrion with his thunderbolt and Heracles killed him with an arrow 66 Other Giants and their fates are mentioned by Apollodorus Ephialtes was blinded by an arrow from Apollo in his left eye and another arrow from Heracles in his right Eurytus was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus Clytius by Hecate with her torches and Mimas by Hephaestus with missiles of red hot metal from his forge 67 Athena crushed Enceladus under the Island of Sicily and flayed Pallas using his skin as a shield Poseidon broke off a piece of the island of Kos called Nisyros and threw it on top of Polybotes Strabo also relates the story of Polybotes buried under Nisyros but adds that some say Polybotes lies under Kos instead 68 Hermes wearing Hades helmet killed Hippolytus Artemis killed Gration and the Moirai Fates killed Agrius and Thoas with bronze clubs The rest of the giants were destroyed by thunderbolts thrown by Zeus with each Giant being shot with arrows by Heracles as the prophecy seemingly required Ovid edit The Latin poet Ovid gives a brief account of the Gigantomachy in his poem Metamorphoses 69 Ovid apparently including the Aloadae s attack upon Olympus as part of the Gigantomachy has the Giants attempt to seize the throne of Heaven by piling mountain on mountain to the lofty stars but Jove i e Jupiter the Roman Zeus overwhelms the Giants with his thunderbolts overturning from Ossa huge enormous Pelion 70 Ovid says that as fame reports from the blood of the Giants came a new race of beings in human form 71 According to Ovid Earth Gaia did not want the Giants to perish without a trace so reeking with the copious blood of her gigantic sons she gave life to the steaming gore of the blood soaked battleground These new offspring like their fathers the Giants also hated the gods and possessed a bloodthirsty desire for savage slaughter Later in the Metamorphoses Ovid refers to the Gigantomachy as The time when serpent footed giants strove to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven 72 Here Ovid apparently conflates the Giants with the Hundred Handers 73 who though in Hesiod fought alongside Zeus and the Olympians in some traditions fought against them 74 Other late sources edit Eratosthenes records that Dionysus Hephaestus and several satyrs mounted on donkeys and charged against the Giants As they drew closer and before the Giants had spotted them the donkeys brayed scaring off some Giants who ran away in terror of the unseen enemies for they had never heard a donkey s bray before 75 Dionysus placed the donkeys in the skies in gratitude and in vase paintings from the classical period satyrs and Maenads can sometimes be seen confronting their gigantic opponents 76 A late Latin grammarian of the fifth century AD Servius mentions that during the battle the eagle of Zeus who once had been the boy Aetos before his metamorphosis assisted his master by placing the lightning bolts on his hands 77 Location edit Various places have been associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy As noted above Pindar has the battle occur at Phlegra the place of burning 78 as do other early sources 79 Phlegra was said to be an ancient name for Pallene modern Kassandra 80 and Phlegra Pallene was the usual birthplace of the Giants and site of the battle 81 Apollodorus who placed the battle at Pallene says the Giants were born as some say in Phlegrae but according to others in Pallene The name Phlegra and the Gigantomachy were also often associated by later writers with a volcanic plain in Italy west of Naples and east of Cumae called the Phlegraean Fields 82 The third century BC poet Lycophron apparently locates a battle of gods and Giants in the vicinity of the volcanic island of Ischia the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples where he says the Giants along with Typhon were crushed under the island 83 At least one tradition placed Phlegra in Thessaly 84 According to the geographer Pausanias the Arcadians claimed that battle took place not at Pellene in Thrace but in the plain of Megalopolis where rises up fire 85 Another tradition apparently placed the battle at Tartessus in Spain 86 Diodorus Siculus presents a war with multiple battles with one at Pallene one on the Phlegraean Fields and one on Crete 87 Strabo mentions an account of Heracles battling Giants at Phanagoria a Greek colony on the shores of the Black Sea 88 Even when as in Apollodorus the battle starts at one place Individual battles between a Giant and a god might range farther afield with Enceladus buried beneath Sicily and Polybotes under the island of Nisyros or Kos Other locales associated with Giants include Attica Corinth Cyzicus Lipara Lycia Lydia Miletus and Rhodes 89 The presence of volcanic phenomena and the frequent unearthing of the fossilized bones of large prehistoric animals throughout these locations may explain why such sites became associated with the Giants 90 In art edit Sixth century BC edit nbsp A depiction of the Gigantomachy showing a typical central group of Zeus Heracles and Athena black figure amphora in the style of the Lysippides Painter c 530 520 BC British Museum B208 91 From the sixth century BC onwards the Gigantomachy was a popular and important theme in Greek art with over six hundred representations cataloged in the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae LIMC 92 The Gigantomachy was depicted on the new peplos robe presented to Athena on the Acropolis of Athens as part of the Panathenaic festival celebrating her victory over the Giants a practice dating from perhaps as early as the second millennium BC 93 The earliest extant indisputable representations of Gigantes are found on votive pinakes from Corinth and Eleusis and Attic black figure pots dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC this excludes early depictions of Zeus battling single snake footed creatures which probably represent his battle with Typhon as well as Zeus opponent on the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis on Kerkyra modern Corfu which is probably not a Giant 94 Though all these early Attic vases 95 are fragmentary the many common features in their depictions of the Gigantomachy suggest that a common model or template was used as a prototype possibly Athena s peplos 96 These vases depict large battles including most of the Olympians and contain a central group which appears to consist of Zeus Heracles Athena and sometimes Gaia 97 Zeus Heracles and Athena are attacking Giants to the right 98 Zeus mounts a chariot brandishing his thunderbolt in his right hand Heracles in the chariot bends forward with drawn bow and left foot on the chariot pole Athena beside the chariot strides forward toward one or two Giants and the four chariot horses trample a fallen Giant When present Gaia is shielded behind Herakles apparently pleading with Zeus to spare her children On either side of the central group are the rest of the gods engaged in combat with particular Giants While the gods can be identified by characteristic features for example Hermes with his hat petasos and Dionysus his ivy crown the Giants are not individually characterized and can only be identified by inscriptions which sometimes name the Giant 99 The fragments of one vase from this same period Getty 81 AE 211 100 name five Giants Pankrates against Heracles 101 Polybotes against Zeus 102 Oranion against Dionysus 103 Euboios and Euphorbus fallen 104 and Ephialtes 105 Also named on two other of these early vases are Aristaeus battling Hephaestus Akropolis 607 Eurymedon and again Ephialtes Akropolis 2134 An amphora from Caere from later in the sixth century gives the names of more Giants Hyperbios and Agasthenes along with Ephialtes fighting Zeus Harpolykos against Hera Enceladus against Athena and again Polybotes who in this case battles Poseidon with his trident holding the island of Nisyros on his shoulder Louvre E732 106 This motif of Poseidon holding the island of Nisyros ready to hurl it at his opponent is another frequent feature of these early Gigantomachies 107 nbsp Siphnian Treasury at Delphi North frieze c 525 BC Detail showing gods facing right and Giants facing left The Gigantomachy was also a popular theme in late sixth century sculpture The most comprehensive treatment is found on the north frieze of the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi c 525 BC with more than thirty figures named by inscription 108 From left to right these include Hephaestus with bellows two females fighting two Giants Dionysus striding toward an advancing Giant Themis 109 in a chariot drawn by a team of lions which are attacking a fleeing Giant the archers Apollo and Artemis another fleeing Giant Tharos or possibly Kantharos 110 the Giant Ephialtes lying on the ground 111 and a group of three Giants which include Hyperphas 112 and Alektos 113 opposing Apollo and Artemis Next comes a missing central section presumably containing Zeus and possibly Heracles with chariot only parts of a team of horses remain To the right of this comes a female stabbing her spear 114 at a fallen Giant probably Porphyrion 115 Athena fighting Eriktypos 116 and a second Giant a male stepping over the fallen Astarias 117 to attack Biatas 118 and another Giant and Hermes against two Giants Then follows a gap which probably contained Poseidon and finally on the far right a male fighting two Giants one fallen the other the Giant Mimon possibly the same as the Giant Mimas mentioned by Apollodorus 119 The Gigantomachy also appeared on several other late sixth century buildings including the west pediment of the Alkmeonid Temple of Apollo at Delphi the pediment of the Megarian Treasury at Olympia the east pediment of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis of Athens and the metopes of Temple F at Selinous 120 Fifth century BC edit The theme continued to be popular in the fifth century BC A particularly fine example is found on a red figure cup c 490 485 BC by the Brygos Painter Berlin F2293 On one side of the cup is the same central group of gods minus Gaia as described above Zeus wielding his thunderbolt stepping into a quadriga Heracles with lion skin behind the chariot rather than on it drawing his unseen bow and ahead Athena thrusting her spear into a fallen Giant On the other side are Hephaestus flinging flaming missiles of red hot metal from two pairs of tongs Poseidon with Nisyros on his shoulder stabbing a fallen Giant with his trident and Hermes with his petasos hanging in back of his head attacking another fallen Giant None of the Giants are named 121 Phidias used the theme for the metopes of the east facade of the Parthenon c 445 BC and for the interior of the shield of Athena Parthenos 122 Phidias work perhaps marks the beginning of a change in the way the Giants are presented While previously the Giants had been portrayed as typical hoplite warriors armed with the usual helmets shields spears and swords in the fifth century the Giants begin to be depicted as less handsome in appearance primitive and wild clothed in animal skins or naked often without armor and using boulders as weapons 123 A series of red figure pots from c 400 BC which may have used Phidas shield of Athena Parthenos as their model show the Olympians fighting from above and the Giants fighting with large stones from below 124 Fourth century BC and later edit nbsp In the Gigantomachy from a 1st century AD frieze in the agora of Aphrodisias the Giants are depicted with scaly coils like Typhon nbsp Winged Giant usually identified as Alcyoneus Athena Gaia rising from the ground and Nike detail of the Gigantomachy frieze Pergamon Altar Pergamon museum Berlin With the beginning of the fourth century BC probably comes the first portrayal of the Giants in Greek art as anything other than fully human in form with legs that become coiled serpents having snake heads at the ends in place of feet 125 Such depictions were perhaps borrowed from Typhon the monstrous son of Gaia and Tartarus described by Hesiod as having a hundred snake heads growing from his shoulders 126 This snake legged motif becomes the standard for the rest of antiquity culminating in the monumental Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar Measuring nearly 400 feet long and over seven feet high here the Gigantomachy receives its most extensive treatment with over one hundred figures 127 Although fragmentary much of the Gigantomachy frieze has been restored The general sequence of the figures and the identifications of most of the approximately sixty gods and goddesses have been more or less established 128 The names and positions of most Giants remain uncertain Some of the names of the Giants have been determined by inscription 129 while their positions are often conjectured on the basis of which gods fought which Giants in Apollodorus account 130 The same central group of Zeus Athena Heracles and Gaia found on many early Attic vases also featured prominently on the Pergamon Altar On the right side of the East frieze the first encountered by a visitor a winged Giant usually identified as Alcyoneus fights Athena 131 Below and to the right of Athena Gaia rises from the ground touching Athena s robe in supplication Flying above Gaia a winged Nike crowns the victorious Athena To the left of this grouping a snake legged Porphyrion battles Zeus 132 and to the left of Zeus is Heracles 133 On the far left side of the East frieze a triple Hecate with torch battles a snake legged Giant usually identified following Apollodorus as Clytius 134 To the right lays the fallen Udaeus shot in his left eye by an arrow from Apollo 135 along with Demeter who wields a pair of torches against Erysichthon 136 The Giants are depicted in a variety of ways Some Giants are fully human in form while others are a combination of human and animal forms Some are snake legged some have wings one has bird claws one is lion headed and another is bull headed Some Giants wear helmets carry shields and fight with swords Others are naked or clothed in animal skins and fight with clubs or rocks 137 The large size of the frieze probably necessitated the addition of many more Giants than had been previously known Some like Typhon and Tityus who were not strictly speaking Giants were perhaps included Others were probably invented 138 The partial inscription Mim may mean that the Giant Mimas was also depicted Other less familiar or otherwise unknown Giant names include Allektos Chthonophylos Eurybias Molodros Obrimos Ochthaios and Olyktor 139 In post classical art edit nbsp Detail of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te Mantua c 1530 Giulio Romano The subject was revived in the Renaissance most famously in the frescos of the Sala dei Giganti in the Palazzo del Te Mantua These were painted around 1530 by Giulio Romano and his workshop and aimed to give the viewer the unsettling idea that the large hall was in the process of collapsing The subject was also popular in Northern Mannerism around 1600 especially among the Haarlem Mannerists and continued to be painted into the 18th century 140 Symbolism meaning and interpretations editHistorically the myth of the Gigantomachy as well as the Titanomachy may reflect the triumph of the new imported gods of the invading Greek speaking peoples from the north c 2000 BC over the old gods of the existing peoples of the Greek peninsula 141 For the Greeks the Gigantomachy represented a victory for order over chaos the victory of the divine order and rationalism of the Olympian gods over the discord and excessive violence of the earth born chthonic Giants More specifically for sixth and fifth century BC Greeks it represented a victory for civilization over barbarism and as such was used by Phidias on the metopes of the Parthenon and the shield of Athena Parthenos to symbolize the victory of the Athenians over the Persians Later the Attalids similarly used the Gigantomachy on the Pergamon Altar to symbolize their victory over the Galatians of Asia Minor 142 The attempt of the Giants to overthrow the Olympians also represented the ultimate example of hubris with the gods themselves punishing the Giants for their arrogant challenge to the gods divine authority 143 The Gigantomachy can also be seen as a continuation of the struggle between Gaia Mother Earth and Uranus Father Sky and thus as part of the primal opposition between female and male 144 Plato compares the Gigantomachy to a philosophical dispute about existence wherein the materialist philosophers who believe that only physical things exist like the Giants wish to drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth 145 nbsp A Giant fighting Artemis Illustration of a Roman relief in the Vatican Museum 146 In Latin literature in which the Giants the Titans Typhon and the Aloadae are all often conflated Gigantomachy imagery is a frequent occurrence 147 Cicero while urging the acceptance of aging and death as natural and inevitable allegorizes the Gigantomachy as fighting against Nature 148 The rationalist Epicurean poet Lucretius for whom such things as lightning earthquakes and volcanic eruptions had natural rather than divine causes used the Gigantomachy to celebrate the victory of philosophy over mythology and superstition In the triumph of science and reason over traditional religious belief the Gigantomachy symbolized for him Epicurus storming heaven In a reversal of their usual meaning he represents the Giants as heroic rebels against the tyranny of Olympus 149 Virgil reversing Lucretius reversal restores the conventional meaning making the Giants once again enemies of order and civilization 150 Horace makes use of this same meaning to symbolize the victory of Augustus at the Battle of Actium as a victory for the civilized West over the barbaric East 151 Ovid in his Metamorphoses describes mankind s moral decline through the ages of gold silver bronze and iron and presents the Gigantomachy as a part of that same descent from natural order into chaos 152 Lucan in his Pharsalia which contains many Gigantomachy references 153 makes the Gorgon s gaze turn the Giants into mountains 154 Valerius Flaccus in his Argonautica makes frequent use of Gigantomachy imagery with the Argo the world s first ship constituting a Gigantomachy like offense against natural law and example of hubristic excess 155 Claudian the fourth century AD court poet of emperor Honorius composed a Gigantomachia that viewed the battle as a metaphor for vast geomorphic change The puissant company of the giants confounds all differences between things islands abandon the deep mountains lie hidden in the sea Many a river is left dry or has altered its ancient course robbed of her mountains Earth sank into level plains parted among her own sons 156 Association with volcanoes and earthquakes editVarious locations associated with the Giants and the Gigantomachy were areas of volcanic and seismic activity e g the Phlegraean Fields west of Naples and the vanquished Gigantes along with other giants were said to be buried under volcanos Their subterranean movements were said to be the cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes 157 The Giant Enceladus was thought to lay buried under Mount Etna the volcano s eruptions being the breath of Enceladus and its tremors caused by the Giant rolling over from side to side beneath the mountain 158 the monster Typhon 159 and the Hundred Hander Briareus 160 were also said to be buried under Etna The Giant Alcyoneus along with many giants were said to lie under Mount Vesuvius 161 Prochyte modern Procida one of the volcanic Phlegraean Islands was supposed to sit atop the Giant Mimas 162 and Polybotes was said to lie pinned beneath the volcanic island of Nisyros supposedly a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon 163 Describing the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD which buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum Cassius Dio relates accounts of the appearance of many Giant like creatures on the mountain and in the surrounding area followed by violent earthquakes and the final cataclysmic eruption saying some thought that the Giants were rising again in revolt for at this time also many of their forms could be discerned in the smoke and moreover a sound as of trumpets was heard 164 Named Giants editNames for the Giants can be found in ancient literary sources and inscriptions Vian and Moore provide a list with over seventy entries some of which are based upon inscriptions which are only partially preserved 165 Some of the Giants identified by name are Aezeius Aἰzeios His son Lycaon was possibly the maternal grandfather of a Lycaon who was king of Arcadia 166 167 Agrius Ἄgrios According to Apollodorus he was killed by the Moirai Fates with bronze clubs 168 Alcyoneus Ἀlkyoneys According to Apollodorus he was along with Porphyrion the greatest of the Giants Immortal while fighting in his native land he was dragged from his homeland and killed by Heracles 169 According to Pindar he was a herdsman and in a separate battle from the Gigantomachy he was killed by Heracles and Telamon while they were traveling through Phlegra 170 Representations of Heracles fighting Alcyoneus are found on many sixth century BC and later works of art 171 Alektos Allektos Ἀlektos Ἀllektos Named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury Alektos 172 and the second century BC Pergamon Altar Allektos 173 Aristaeus Ἀristaῖos According to the Suda he was the only Giant to survive 174 He is probably named on an Attic black figure dinos by Lydos Akropolis 607 dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC fighting Hephaestus 175 Astarias Ἀsterias See Asterius below Aster Ἀsthr See Asterius below Asterius Ἀsterios Bright one or Glitterer 176 A Giant also called Aster killed by Athena whose death according to some accounts was celebrated by the Panathenaea 177 Probably the same as the Giant Astarias named on the late sixth century Siphnian Treasury 178 Probably also the same as Asterus mentioned in the epic poem Meropis as an invulnerable warrior killed by Athena 179 In the poem Heracles while fighting the Meropes a race of Giants on the Island of Kos would have been killed but for Athena s intervention 180 Athena kills and flays Asterus and uses his impenetrable skin for her aegis Other accounts name others whose hide provided Athena s aegis 181 Apollodorus has Athena flay the Giant Pallas 182 while Euripides Ion has the Gorgon an offspring of Gaia born by her as an ally for the Giant as Athena s victim 183 Asterus Ἀsteros See Asterius above Clytius Klytios According to Apollodorus he was killed by Hecate with her torches 184 nbsp Gilt bronze Enceladus by Gaspar Mercy in the Bosquet de l Encelade in the gardens of Versailles Damysus Damysos The fastest of the Giants Chiron exhumed his body removed the ankle and incorporated it into Achilles burnt foot 185 Enceladus Ἐgkelados A Giant named Enceladus fighting Athena is attested in art as early as an Attic Black figure pot dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC Louvre E732 186 Euripides has Athena fighting him with her Gorgon shield her aegis 187 According to Apollodorus he was crushed by Athena under the Island of Sicily 188 Virgil has him struck by Zeus lightning bolt and both Virgil and Claudian have him buried under Mount Etna 189 other traditions had Typhon or Briareus buried under Etna For some Enceladus was instead buried in Italy 190 Ephialtes Ἐfialths probably different from the Aload Giant who was also named Ephialtes 191 According to Apollodorus he was blinded by arrows from Apollo and Heracles 192 He is named on three Attic black figure pots Akropolis 2134 Getty 81 AE 211 Louvre E732 dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC 193 On Louvre E732 he is along with Hyperbios and Agasthenes opposed by Zeus while on Getty 81 AE 211 his opponents are apparently Apollo and Artemis 194 He is also named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury 195 where he is probably one of the opponents of Apollo and Artemis and probably as well on what might be the earliest representation of the Gigantomachy a pinax fragment from Eleusis Eleusis 349 196 He is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci Berlin F2531 shown battling Apollo 197 Although the usual opponent of Poseidon among the Giants is Polybotes one early fifth century red figure column krater Vienna 688 has Poseidon attacking Ephialtes 198 Euryalus Eὐryalos He is named on a late sixth century red figure cup Akropolis 2 211 and an early fifth century red figure cup British Museum E 47 fighting Hephaestos 199 Eurymedon Eὐrymedwn According to Homer he was a king of the Giants and father of Periboea mother of Nausithous king of the Phaeacians by Poseidon who brought destruction on his froward people 200 He was possibly the Eurymedon who raped Hera producing Prometheus as offspring according to an account attributed to the Hellenistic poet Euphorion 201 He is probably named on Akropolis 2134 202 He is possibly mentioned by the Latin poet Propertius as an opponent of Jove 203 Eurytus Eὔrytos According to Apollodorus he was killed by Dionysus with his thyrsus 204 Gration Gratiwn According to Apollodorus he was killed by Artemis 205 His name may have been corrupted text as various emendations have been suggested including Aigaion Aἰgaiwn goatish stormy Eurytion Eὐrytiwn fine flowing widely honored and Rhaion Ῥaiwn more adaptable more relaxed 206 Hopladamas or Hopladamus Ὁpladamas or Ὁpladamos Possibly named as Hopladamas on two vases dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC on one Akropolis 607 being speared by Apollo while on the other Getty 81 AE 211 attacking Zeus 207 Mentioned as Hopladamus by the geographer Pausanias as being a leader of Giants enlisted by the Titaness Rhea pregnant with Zeus to defend herself from her husband Cronus 208 Hippolytus Ἱppolytos According to Apollodorus he was killed by Hermes who was wearing Hades helmet 209 which made its wearer invisible 210 Lion or Leon Lewn Possibly a Giant he is mentioned by Photius as ascribed to Ptolemy Hephaestion as a giant who was challenged to single combat by Heracles and killed 211 Lion headed Giants are shown on the Gigantomachy frieze of the second century BC Pergamon Altar 212 Mimas Mimas According to Apollodorus he was killed by Hephaestus 213 Euripides has Zeus burning him to ashes with his thunderbolt 214 According to others he was killed by Ares 215 Mimos possibly in error for Mimas is inscribed retrograde on Akropolis 607 216 He was said to be buried under Prochyte 217 Mimas is possibly the same as the Giant named Mimon on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury as well as on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci Berlin F2531 shown fighting Ares 218 Several depictions in Greek art though show Aphrodite as the opponent of Mimas 219 Mimon Mimwn See Mimas above Mimos Mimos See Mimas above nbsp Poseidon attacks Polybotes in the presence of Gaia red figure cup late fifth century BC Antikensammlung Berlin F2531 220 Pallas Pallas According to Apollodorus he was flayed by Athena who used his skin as a shield 221 Other accounts name others whose hyde provided Athena s aegis see Asterus above Claudian names Pallas as one of several Giants turned to stone by Minerva s Gorgon shield 222 Pelorus Peloros According to Claudian he was killed by Mars the Roman equivalent of Ares 223 Picolous Pikoloos A Giant who fled the battle and came to Circe s island and attempted to chase her away only to be killed by Helios It is said that the legendary moly plant first sprang forth from Picolous blood as it seeped into the ground 224 Polybotes Polyboths According to Apollodorus he was crushed under Nisyros a piece of the island of Kos broken off and thrown by Poseidon 225 He is named on two sixth century BC pots on one Getty 81 AE 211 he is opposed by Zeus on the other Louvre E732 he is opposed by Poseidon carrying Nisyros on his shoulder 226 Porphyrion Porfyriwn According to Apollodorus he was along with Alcyoneus the greatest of the Giants He attacked Heracles and Hera but Zeus smote him with a thunderbolt and Hercules shot him dead with an arrow 227 According to Pindar who calls him king of the Giants he was slain by an arrow from the bow of Apollo 228 He is named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci Berlin F2531 where he is battling with Zeus 229 He was also probably named on the late sixth century BC Siphnian Treasury 230 Thoas or Thoon 8oas or 8own According to Apollodorus he was killed by the Moirai Fates with bronze clubs 231 See also editAmazonomachy Centauromachy Giant mythology NephilimNotes edit Beazley Archive 204546 Cook Plate III A Hansen pp 177 179 Gantz pp 445 454 As for their size Hansen p 177 Hesiod describes them as being great referring perhaps to their stature but the Giants are not always represented as being huge Although the word giants derives ultimately from the Greek Gigantes the most persistent traits of the Gigantes are strength and hubristic aggression Hesiod Theogony 185 Hyginus Fabulae Preface gives Tartarus as the father of the Giants A parallel to the Giants birth is the birth of Aphrodite from the similarly fertilized sea Gantz pp 446 447 Gantz p 453 Hanfmann 1992 The Oxford Classical Dictionary s v Giants Frazer 1898b note to Pausanias 8 29 3 That the giants have serpents instead of feet pp 315 316 Hard p 86 Gantz p 16 Merry Homer s Odyssey 7 59 Douglas Harper mentions that a Pre Greek origin has also been proposed giant Online Etymology Dictionary Hesiod Theogony 132 153 Hesiod Theogony 154 175 Gantz p 10 Hesiod Theogony 176 ff Apollodorus 1 6 1 Hansen p 178 Gantz p 446 Ogden p 82 n 74 says that the Odyssey s Giants stand a little outside the remainder of the tradition in so far as they are ethnologized into a wild arrogant and doomed race formerly presided over by a king Eurymedon Hanfmann 1937 p 175 sees in the conflicting descriptions of Homer and Hesiod two different local traditions Homer Odyssey 7 56 63 Alcaeus and Acusilaus make the Phaiakians like the Giants offspring of the castration of Uranus Gantz p 16 Homer Odyssey 7 199 207 Homer Odyssey 10 119 120 Pausanias 8 29 1 4 Smith William Gigantes and Hanfmann 1992 The Oxford Classical Dictionary s v Giants following Pausanias both assert that for Homer the Giants were a savage race of men For the mythographer Diodorus Siculus the Giants were also a race of men see 4 21 5 Gantz p 449 Bacchylides 15 63 Castriota pp 233 234 Gegeneis Brills New Pauly Crusius p 93 Batrachomyomachia 7 pp 542 543 Sophocles Women of Trachis 1058 Euripides The Phoenician Women 1131 Lycophron Alexandra 127 pp 504 505 1408 pp 610 611 Hyginus Fabulae Preface Latin Gantz p 450 Smith William Gigantes Gantz p 447 Hansen p 178 Grimal p 171 Tripp p 250 Morford pp 82 83 A probable early confusion or at least a possible cause of later confusion can be seen in Euripides Iphigenia in Tauris 221 224 and Hecuba 466 474 see Torrance p 155 n 74 Later examples include Callimachus Hymn 4 to Delos 173 ff pp 98 99 see Vian and Moore 1988 p 193 Mineur p 170 Rose The Oxford Classical Dictionary s v Typhon Typhoeus Fontenrose p 80 Gantz pp 450 451 Hyginus Fabulae Preface For other examples of Typhon as a Giant see Horace Odes 3 4 53 which has Typhon battling Athena alongside the Giants Mimas Porphyrion and Enceladus Manilius Astronomica 2 874 880 pp 150 151 Nonnus Dionysiaca 1 176 I pp 16 17 1 220 I pp 18 19 1 244 I pp 20 21 1 263 I pp 22 23 1 291 I pp 24 25 Hansen p 178 Ovid Metamorphoses 1 151 162 See also Horace Odes 3 4 42 ff with Lyne p 51 Plato had already associated the Aloadae with the Giants Symposium 190b c Ovid Metamorphoses 1 182 184 The time when serpent footed giants strove to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven see Anderson p 170 note to line 184 centum with bracchia Fasti 4 593 with Fazer s note Callimachus Hymn 4 to Delos 141 146 Philostratus Life of Apollonius of Tyana 4 6 Homer Odyssey 7 58 60 The translations given are A T Murray s Richard Lattimore translates ὑper8ymoisi as high hearted and ἀtas8alos as recklessly daring See also Liddell and Scott megalhtwr greathearted ὑper8ymos overweening and ἀtas8alos reckless presumptuous wicked Hesiod Theogony 50 185 Liddell and Scott krateros megas Hansen p 177 Gantz p 446 Pindar Pythian 8 12 18 Bacchylides 15 50 ff Castriota p 139 pp 233 234 Alcman fragment 1 Poetarum melicorum Graecorum fragmenta see Cairns p 310 Wilkinson p 142 Ferrari pp 28 109 151 ff Hanfmann 1937 pp 475 476 According to Gantz p 446 In all the account rather suggests that the huge bulk of Antiphates wife is not typical of the Laistrygones as a whole But they are clearly thought of as good sized although whether it is in this respect that they are like the Gigantes and unlike men we cannot say the Odyssey s emphasis might be thought to fall more on their uncivilized behjavior Apollodorus 1 6 1 Ovid Metamorphoses 1 182 184 The time when serpent footed giants strove to fix their hundred arms on captive Heaven Newlands p 81 Here Ovid has apparently conflated the Giants with the Hundred Handers see Anderson p 170 note to line 184 centum with bracchia Compare with Fasti 5 35 37 where Ovid says Earth brought forth the Giants a fierce brood enormous monsters who durst assault Jove s mansion she gave them a thousand hands and snakes for legs Nonnus Dionysiaca 1 18 I pp 4 5 Moore 1985 p 21 Beazley Archive 200059 LIMC 29890 Gigantes 342 Gantz p 15 For a survey of literary sources see Gantz pp 445 450 Vian and Moore 1988 pp 191 196 Gantz p 446 A scholion to Odyssey 7 59 asserts that Homer does not know that the Giants fought against the gods Gantz p 447 Hesiod Theogony 954 for the translation used here see Most 2006 p 79 Gantz p 446 Hesiod fragment 43a 65 MW see Most 2007 p 143 Gantz p 446 says that this line with no link to what precedes or follows might easily be an interpolation Hesiod fragment 195 28 29 MW Most 2007 p 5 Gantz p 446 Hesiod Theogony 50 52 Xenophanes 1 21 Lesher pp 12 13 Gantz p 446 Since Chiron did apparently figure in a lost poem about the Titanomachy and there is no obvious role for the centaur in a poem about the Gigantomachy see Gantz p 447 Wilkinson pp 141 142 Gantz p 447 Pindar Nemean 1 67 69 Pindar Nemean 7 90 Pindar Pythian 8 12 18 Euripides Heracles 177 180 Gantz p 448 Euripides Ion 205 218 Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 3 221 Beazley Archive 207774 Tripp p 252 Apollodorus 1 6 1 2 Gantz pp 16 57 448 449 Hard p 88 According to Gantz p 449 it is possible but unlikely that this is the incident being referred to in Odyssey 7 noting that the story of the rape of Hera by Eurymedon may be a later invention to explain Homer s remark Gantz pp 419 448 449 Scholia on Pindar Isthmian Odes 6 47 According to Apollodorus Alcyoneus stole Helios cattle from Erytheia where the cattle of Geryon are usually found Gantz p 449 Grimal p 171 Tripp p 251 The late 4th century AD Latin poet Claudian expands on this notion in his Gigantomachia 1 35 pp 280 283 with Gaia jealous of the heavenly kingdoms and in pity for the ceasless woes of the Titans 1 2 gave birth to the Giants urging them to war saying Up army of avengers the hour is come at last free the Titans from their chains defend your mother 27 28 Compare with Hesiod Theogony 185 186 which seems to have the Giants born like Athena and the Spartoi fully grown and armed for battle Apollodorus 1 3 6 1 3 6 Also compare with Plato Sophist 246a where comparing materialist philosophers with the Giants says they drag down everything from heaven and the invisible to earth actually grasping rocks and trees with their hands Compare with Pindar Nemean 1 67 69 mentioned above where Teiresias prophesies that Heracles will aid the gods in their battle with the Giants Antaeus another offspring of Gaia who was an opponent of Heracles was immortal as long as he was in contact with the earth Heracles killed Antaeus by crushing him while holding him off the ground For Pindar Hearacles battle with Alcyoneus whom he calls a herdsman and the Gigantomachy were separate events see Isthmian 6 30 35 Nemean 4 24 30 As noted above Pindar has Apollo kill Porphyrion As noted above Euripides has Zeus kill Mimas other accounts have Mimas killed by Ares Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 3 1225 7 pp 276 277 Claudian Gigantomachia 85 91 pp 286 287 Strabo 10 5 16 The mention of a millstone in the poem fragment by Alcman mentioned above may be an early reference to the island of Nisyros see Hanfmann 1937 pp 476 Vian and Moore 1988 p 192 Ovid Metamorphoses 1 151 162 Ovid also refers to Giants piling up Pelion on top of Ossa elsewhere see Amores 2 1 11 18 Fasti 1 307 308 3 437 442 Green p 143 Compare with Lycophron Alexandra 1356 1358 pp 606 607 who has the Pelasgian race born from the blood of the Sithonian giants Sithonia being the middle spur of Chalcidice just north of the southern spur of Pallene the traditional home of the Giants Ovid Metamorphoses 1 182 ff Anderson p 170 note to line 184 centum with bracchia Ovid s Amores 2 1 11 18 see Knox p 209 likewise associates the Gigantomachy with the Hundred Hander Gyas while in Fasti 5 35 37 Ovid has the Giants have a thousand hands This same conflation may already occur in Euphorion fragment 169 Lightfoot Lightfoot pp 394 395 see Vian and Moore 1988 p 193 Hesiod Theogony 617 736 815 819 For the Hundred Handers as opponents of Zeus see for example Virgil Aeneid 10 565 568 O Hara p 99 Hard 2015 p 66 Hard 2015 p 68 Kerenyi 1951 p 95 Singleton p 235 Aeschylus Eumenides 294 Euripides Heracles 1192 1194 Ion 987 997 Aristophanes The Birds 824 Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 3 232 234 pp 210 211 3 1225 7 pp 276 277 See also Hesiod fragment 43a 65 MW Most 2007 p 143 Gantz p 446 Herodotus 7 123 1 Strabo 7 Fragment 25 27 Philostratus On Heroes 8 16 p 14 Stephanus Byzantius s v Pallhnh Hunter p 81 Flegra Liddell and Scott Flegra Gantz p 419 Frazer 1898b note to Pausanias 8 29 1 the legendary battle of the gods and the giants pp 314 315 Lycophron Alexandra 115 127 pp 504 505 1356 1358 pp 606 607 1404 1408 pp 610 611 Diodorus Siculus 4 15 1 Pausanias 1 25 2 8 29 1 AT scholia to Iliad 15 27 Hunter p 81 Strabo 5 4 4 5 4 6 6 3 5 Diodorus Siculus 4 21 5 7 5 71 4 Lycophron Alexandra 688 693 pp 550 551 Servius Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil 3 578 Leigh p 122 Pausanias 8 29 1 Scholiast A on Iliad 8 479 Brown p 125 Diodorus Siculus 4 15 1 4 21 5 7 5 71 2 6 Strabo 11 2 10 Hanfmann 1937 p 475 n 52 Mayor p 197 ff Apollodorus 1 6 1 n 3 Frazer 1898b note to Pausanias 8 29 1 the legendary battle of the gods and the giants pp 314 315 Pausanias 8 32 5 Philostratus Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5 16 pp 498 501 On Heroes 8 15 16 p 14 Schefold p 56 Beazley Archive 302261 LIMC 27185 Gigantes 120 Vian and Moore 1988 Schefold p 51 p 64 Ogden p 82 See also Vian 1951 1952 Morford p 72 Barber 1992 pp 103 104 112 117 Barber 1991 pp 361 362 380 381 Simon p 23 Euripides Hecuba 466 474 Iphigenia in Tauris 222 224 Aristophanes The Birds 823 831 The Knights 565 Plato Euthyphro 6b c Republic 2 378c Vian and Moore 1988 p 210 no 32 For the importance of the Gigantomachy to the Athenian Acropolis see Hurwit pp 30 31 Gantz p 450 Moore 1985 p 21 Schefold pp 51 52 Robertson Martin pp 16 17 Akropolis 607 Beazley Archive 310147 LIMC 9257 Gigantes 105 Akropolis 1632 Beazley Archive 15673 LIMC 4867 Gigantes 110 Akropolis 2134 Beazley Archive 301942 LIMC 26166 Gigantes 106 Akropolis 2211 Beazley Archive 3363 LIMC 20013 Gigantes 104 Moore 1985 p 21 Schefold p 55 57 Neils p 228 Gantz p 451 Moore 1979 pp 81 84 ILL 1 amp 2 Moore 1985 p 21 Schefold 57 Beazley pp 38 39 Day p 163 Several examples from later in the sixth century BC depict a similar central group of Zeus Heracles and Athena Moore 1979 p 83 n 36 lists as examples Tarquina 623 Beazley Archive 310411 LIMC 29174 Gigantes 114 Munich 1485 Beazley Archive 302287 British Museum B208 Beazley Archive 302261 LIMC 27185 Gigantes 120 Arafat p 14 n 12 in addition to British Museum B208 also gives as examples Vatican 422 Beazley Archive 302040 LIMC 29187 Gigantes 123 and Vatican 365 Beazley Archive 301601 however Moore says that Zeus is not present in Vatican 365 For British Museum B208 see also Schefold p 56 Euripides perhaps referring to archaic vase paintings or to Athena s peplos locates Heracles and Athena fighting near Zeus in the Gigantomachy see Heracles 177 179 Ion 1528 1529 Vian and Moore 1988 p 192 Rightward was conventionally the direction of victory see Schefold p 62 Stewart p 128 Schefold pp 56 57 Gantz p 451 Moore 1985 p 21 Beazley Archive 10047 LIMC 10415 Gigantes 171 Moore 1985 p 28 Moore 1985 pp 30 31 Moore 1985 p 32 Moore 1985 pp 34 36 Moore 1985 pp 34 35 Gantz p 451 Arafat p 16 Beazley Archive 14590 LIMC 52 Gigantes 170 Gantz p 453 Moore 1985 p 32 Cook pp 14 18 Frazer 1898a note to Pausanias 1 2 4 Poseidon on horseback hurling a spear at the giant Polybotes pp 48 49 Gantz pp 451 452 Stewart pp 128 129 plates 195 198 Schefold pp 59 62 Morford p 73 Drawing J Boardman Greek Sculpture Archaic Period fig 212 1 Perseus Delphi Siphnian Treasury Frieze North Sculpture LIMC 5020 Gigantes 2 Brinkmann N17 p 101 According to Schefold p 62 Themis appears here in the guise of Kybele Brinkmann N5 p 92 reads only Tharos Brinkmann N7 p 94 Brinkmann N6 p 92 others have read Hypertas Brinkmann N8 p 94 Possibly Aphrodite has been identified as Hera but Brinkmann p 94 finds no trace of that name Brinkmann N22 p 103 only the last four letters rion can be read Brinkmann N10 p 96 others have read Berektas Brinkmann N12 p 103 others have read Astartas Brinkmann N11 p 96 Brinkmann N14 pp 98 124 125 The fallen Giant Mimon against Ares is also named on a late fifth century BC cup from Vulci Berlin F2531 Beazley Archive 220533 detail showing Mimon and Ares Cook p 56 Plate VI Gantz p 452 For the Temple of Apollo see Schefold p 64 Shapiro p 247 Stewart pp 86 87 Euripides Ion 205 218 LIMC 18960 Gigantes 3 For the Megarian Treasury see Pollitt 1990 pp 22 23 Pausanias 6 19 12 14 Frazer 1898b note to Pausanias 6 19 12 The people of Megara built a treasury pp 65 67 note to 6 19 13 In the gable is wrought in relief the war of the giants pp 67 69 ASCA Digital Collections Megarian Treasury For the Old Temple of Athena see Schefold pp 64 67 Arafat pp 12 15 Cohen pp 177 178 Gantz p 452 Beazley Archive 203909 LIMC 11564 Gigantes 303 For the Parthenon Gigantomachy metopes see Schwab pp 168 173 for the statue of Athena see Lapatin pp 262 263 for both see Kleiner pp 136 137 Dwyer p 295 Gantz pp 446 447 452 453 Hard p 90 For an example of a particularly handsome Giant see Schefold p 67 British Museum E 8 Beazley Archive 302261 LIMC 11609 Gigantes 365 image 1 of 2 for Giants with animal skins fighting with boulders see a calyx krater from Ruvo c 400 Naples 81521 Beazley Archive 217517 LIMC 10553 Gigantes 316 image 2 of 5 Robertson Martin pp 106 107 Dwyer p 295 Cook p 56 Arafat p 25 Louvre MNB810 Beazley Archive 217568 LIMC 11533 Gigantes 322 Naples 81521 Beazley Archive 217517 LIMC 10553 Gigantes 316 Ogden pp 82 83 Gantz p 453 Berlin V I 3375 Beazley Archive 6987 LIMC 30005 Gigantes 389 Snake legged Giants may exist in earlier Etruscan art for example a winged and snake footed monster depicted on a late sixth century Etruscan hydria British Museum B62 LIMC 2639 Typhon 30 might be a Giant see de Grummond p 259 compare with Ogden p 71 For more on snake legged Giants see Ogden pp 82 86 and Vian and Moore 1988 pp 253 254 Pollitt 1986 p 109 Ogden p 83 Hesiod Theogony 820 ff The similarities between Typhon and the Giants are several both monstrous children produced by Earth in a spirit of revenge with the mission to attack and overthrow the gods in heaven and whose fate they share blasted by thunderbolts and in Enceladus case buried under Sicily Ogden p 83 Kleiner pp 155 156 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 33 Smith R R R 1991 p 159 Queyrel p 49 Pergamon Altar LIMC 617 Gigantes 24 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2005 The names of the gods and goddesses were inscribed on the upper molding of the frieze with the exception of Gaia whose name was inscribed on the background next to her head see Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 32 For the total number of gods and goddesses see Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 54 n 35 The names of the Giants were inscribed on the lower molding or for the walls flanking the stairs where the moulding was omitted on the background of the frieze between the figures see Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 32 p 54 n 34 Queyrel p 52 lists the names of 27 Giants fully or partly preserved in the inscriptions which have so far been found For Queyrel s identification of the various figures see Fig 33 pp 50 51 Pollitt 1986 p 109 Cunningham p 113 Kleiner p 156 FIG 5 79 Queyrel pp 52 53 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 39 pp 59 60 n 59 Supporting the identification of this Giant as Alcyoneus is the fragmentary inscription neus that may belong to this scene for doubts concerning this identification see Ridgway Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 p 54 n 35 Queyrel pp 53 54 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2005 Though virtually nothing of Heracles remains only part of a linonskin and a left hand holding a bow the location of the hero is identified by inscription see Queyrel pp 54 55 Queyrel pp 56 58 Ling p 50 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Queyrel pp 55 56 This figure now identified by inscription as Udaeus was previously supposed to be Ephialtes who Apollodorus 1 6 2 has Apollo shoot in the left eye Udaeus earthy was also the name of one of the Spartoi who were sometimes called Gegeneis or Gigantes see Fontenrose p 316 Apollodorus 3 4 1 Pausanias 9 5 3 Hyginus Fabulae 178 Pelorus monstrous the name of another Spartoi is a possible restoration of the fragmentary inscription oreus listed by Queyrel p 52 Queyrel p 55 Moore 1977 p 324 n 70 McKay p 93 Callimachus Hymn 6 to Demeter 25 ff pp 126 ff Pollitt 1986 p 109 Smith R R R p 162 Pollitt 1986 p 109 Queyrel p 52 Hall James Hall s Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art p 140 1996 2nd edn John Murray ISBN 0719541476 Morford pp 82 83 Morford p 72 Schefold p 50 Kleiner p 118 p 136 p 156 Lyne p 50 Castriota p 139 Dwyer p 295 Castriota p 139 Dwyer p 295 Gale p 121 Wilkinson p 142 Cairns p 310 Commager pp 119 199 Schefold p 51 Plato Sophist 246a c Chaudhuri pp 60 61 Peck Gigantes Lovatt pp 115 ff Cicero De Senectute 5 Powell p 110 Gigantum modo bellare Chaudhuri p 7 n 22 Chaudhuri pp 58 63 Hardie 2007 p 116 Gale pp 120 121 p 140 Lucretius De Rerum Natura 1 62 79 5 110 125 Gale pp 140 141 Gee pp 56 57 Lyne pp 52 54 pp 167 168 Commager p 199 Horace Odes 3 4 42 ff Wheeler pp 23 26 Ovid Metamorphoses 1 151 162 Hardie 2014 p 101 Dinter p 296 Lucan Pharsalia 9 654 658 Zissos pp 79 ff For more on the use of Gigantomachy imagery in the Argonautica see Stover pp 5 6 71 73 79 150 Mayor p 195 Claudian Gigantomachia 62 73 pp 284 287 It has been common for cultures including the ancient Greeks to attribute earthquakes and volcanoes to the movements of buried giants see Andrews Earthquakes pp 62 63 Giants p 81 Volcanoes pp 218 219 Cook n 5 pp 2 3 Frazer 1914 p 197 The people of Timor in the East Indies think that the earth rests on the shoulders of a mighty giant and that when he is weary of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other and so causes the ground to quake pp 200 201 The Tongans think that the earth is supported on the prostrate form of the god Moooi When he is tired of lying in one posture he tries to turn himself about and that causes an earthquake Hanfmann 1937 p 475 Lempriere MYCŎNOS p 456 Philostratus the Elder Imagines 2 17 5 pp 198 201 Callimachus fragment 117 382 pp 342 343 Statius Thebaid 11 8 pp 390 391 Aetna perhaps written by Lucilius Junior 71 73 pp 8 9 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Virgil Aeneid 3 578 ff with Conington s note to 3 578 Philostratus Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5 16 pp 498 501 Claudian Rape of Proserpine 1 153 159 pp 304 305 2 151 162 pp 328 331 3 186 187 pp 358 359 Quintus Smyrnaeus Posthomerica or Fall of Troy 5 641 643 pp 252 253 14 582 585 pp 606 607 Philostratus the Elder Imagines 2 17 5 pp 198 201 has Enceladus buried in Italy rather than Sicily Pindar Pythian 1 15 29 Olympian 4 6 7 Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 353 374 Nicander apud Antoninus Liberalis 28 Ovid Fasti 4 491 492 pp 224 225 Metamorphoses 5 346 ff which has Typhon buried under all of Sicily with his left and right hands under Pelorus and Pachynus his feet under Lilybaeus and his head under Etna Valerius Flaccus Argonautica 2 23 ff Archived 2016 09 09 at the Wayback Machine Manilius Astronomica 2 874 880 pp 150 151 Seneca Hercules Furens 46 62 pp 52 53 Thyestes 808 809 pp 298 299 where the Chorus asks if Typhon has thrown the mountain presumably Etna off and stretched his limbs Apollodorus 1 6 3 Hyginus Fabulae 152 b scholia to Iliad 2 783 Kirk Raven and Schofield pp 59 60 no 52 Philostratus Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5 16 pp 498 501 Philostratus the Elder Imagines 2 17 5 pp 198 201 Nonnus Dionysiaca 2 622 624 I pp 90 91 buried under Sicily Typhon was also said to be buried under the volcanic island of Ischia the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples see Lycophron Alexandra 688 693 pp 550 551 Virgil Aeneid 9 715 716 calling the island Inarime Strabo 5 4 9 calling the island Pithecussae Ridgway David pp 35 36 Silius Italicus Punica 8 540 541 I pp 432 422 Claudian Rape of Proserpine 3 183 184 pp 358 359 Callimachus Hymn 4 to Delos 141 146 pp 96 97 Mineur p 153 Philostratus On Heroes 8 15 16 p 14 Claudian Rape of Proserpine 3 183 184 pp 358 359 Silius Italicus Punica 12 143 151 II pp 156 159 which also has the Titan Iapetus buried under Inarime Apollodorus 1 6 2 Cassius Dio 66 22 23 Vian and Moore 1988 pp 268 269 Jurikova Erika 2017 06 11 Antiquitates Romanae Ancient History Textbook of the Jesuit Trnava University Historica Olomucensia 52 71 85 doi 10 5507 ho 2017 003 ISSN 1803 9561 Dionysius of Halicarnassus Wikipedia 2023 03 23 retrieved 2023 05 06 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Apollodorus 1 6 1 Pindar Isthmian 6 30 35 Nemean 4 24 30 Gantz p 420 Brinkmann N8 p 94 Queyrel p 52 Suda s v Ἀristaῖos Aἰtnaῖos kan8aros Gantz p 451 Beazley p 39 Richards pp 287 383 Schefold p 57 Beazley Archive 310147 LIMC 9257 Gigantes 105 image 13 of 14 Barber 1991 p 381 Parker 2011 p 201 Parker 2006 p 255 Connelly p 47 Scheid pp 18 19 p 178 n 48 Pausanias 1 35 6 tells of Asterius a son of Anax the son of Earth buried on the island of Asterius near the Island of Lade off the coast of Miletus having bones ten cubits in length see also Pausanius 7 2 5 Brinkmann p 128 n 194 Robertson Noel p 42 pp 43 44 Yasumura pp 50 173 n 44 Janko pp 191 192 14 250 61 For Heracles expedition to Kos see Homer Iliad 14 250 256 Pindar Isthmian 6 31 35 Nemean 4 24 30 Apollodorus 2 7 1 For the Meropes as Giants see Yasumura p 50 Janko p 191 Philostratus On Heroes 8 14 pp 13 14 Robertson Noel p 42 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Euripides Ion 987 997 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Ptolemy Hephaestion New History Book 6 Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus six were born when she had Achilles Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot and confided him to Chiron The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was buried at Pallene Damysos was the fastest of all the giants removed the astragale and incorporated it into Achilles foot using ingredients This astragale fell when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles fallen was killed It is said on the other hand that he was called Podarkes by the Poet because it is said Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce Gantz pp 450 451 Arafat p 16 Beazley 14590 LIMC 52 Gigantes 170 image 4 of 4 Euripides Ion 205 218 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Virgil Aeneid 3 578 ff with Conington s note to 3 578 Claudian Rape of Proserpine 1 153 159 pp 304 305 2 151 162 pp 328 331 3 186 187 pp 358 359 Philostratus the Elder Imagines 2 17 5 pp 198 201 Gantz 450 451 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Gantz p 451 Akropolis 2134 Beazley Archive 9922 LIMC 26166 Gigantes 106 Getty 81 AE 211 Beazley Archive 10047 LIMC 10415 Gigantes 171 Louvre E732 Beazley Archive 14590 LIMC 52 Gigantes 170 Moore 1985 p 34 Gantz pp 451 452 Brinkmann N7 p 94 LIMC 5020 Gigantes 2 Schefold p 52 Beazley Archive 1409 Gantz p 450 notes that the pinax might represent Ares encounter with the Aloadae in Iliad 5 Beazley Archive 220533 detail showing Ephialtes with shield and spear v Apollo with sword and bow Cook p 56 Plate VI Beazley Archive 202916 LIMC 11561 Gigantes 361 Cook pp 14 18 p 17 fig 5 Arafat pp 16 183 184 Akropolis 2 211 Beazley Archive 200125 LIMC Gigantes 299 Archived 2016 10 07 at the Wayback Machine British Museum E 47 Beazley Archive 203256 LIMC 4663 Gigantes 301 Homer Odyssey 7 54 ff Gantz pp 16 57 Hard p 88 Scholia on Homer s Iliad 14 295 Gantz p 451 Akropolis 2134 Beazley Archive 9922 LIMC 26166 Gigantes 106 Propertius Elegies 3 9 47 48 pp 266 267 Keith p 135 Heyworth pp 325 326 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Frazer 1921 note 1 to Apollodorus 1 6 2 p 46 Gratiwna probably corrupt Various emendations have been suggested as Aἰgaiwna Heyne M Mayer op cit pp 201 sq Eὐrytiwna Ῥaiwna Hercher Moore 1985 p 31 Beazley p 39 Akropolis 607 Beazley Archive 310147 LIMC 9257 Gigantes 105 Getty 81 AE 211 Beazley Archive 10047 LIMC 10415 Gigantes 171 Pausanias 8 32 5 8 36 2 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Apollodorus 1 6 2 n 6 Homer Iliad 2 5 844 ff Hesiod Shield of Heracles 226 ff Photius Bibliotheca Codex 190 Pollitt 1986 p 105 Pergamon Altar image viewer Archived 2013 11 26 at the Wayback Machine See also Akropolis 1632 Beazley Archive 15673 LIMC 4867 Gigantes 110 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Euripides Ion 205 218 Stewart pp 86 87 Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica 3 1225 7 pp 276 277 Claudian Gigantomachia 85 91 pp 286 287 Beazley p 39 Beazley Archive 310147 LIMC 9257 Gigantes 105 image 1 of 14 Silius Italicus Punica 12 143 151 II pp 156 159 Siphnian Treasury Brinkmann N14 pp 98 124 125 Vulci cup Arafat p 16 Beazley Archive 220533 detail showing Mimon and Ares Cook p 56 Plate VI Giuliani Luca Schefold Karl Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art Cambridge University Press Dec 3 1992 pgs 57 59 Beazley Archive 220533 Arafat pp 24 25 186 Cook p 56 Plate VI LIMC 10641 Gigantes 318 image 3 of 4 Perseus Berlin F 2531 Vase Apollodorus 1 6 2 Claudian Gigantomachia 91 103 pp 286 289 Claudian Gigantomachia 75 84 pp 286 287 Rahner pp 203 204 Eustathius Ad Odysseam 10 305 Zucker and Le Feuvre Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale Picoloos one of the Giants by fleeing from the war led against Zeus reached Circe s island and tried to chase her away Her father Helios killed him protecting his daughter with his shield Ptolemy Hephaestion New History Book 4 Photius Bibliotheca 190 32 The plant moly of which Homer speaks this plant had it is said grown from the blood of the giant killed in the isle of Circe it has a white flower the ally of Circe who killed the giant was Helios the combat was hard malos from which the name of this plant Apollodorus 1 6 2 Getty 81 AE 211 Moore 1985 pp 30 31 Beazley Archive 10047 LIMC 10415 Gigantes 171 Louvre E732 Gantz p 451 Beazley Archive 14590 LIMC 52 Gigantes 170 image 4 of 4 Apollodorus 1 6 2 Compare with Aristophanes The Birds 1249 ff a single Porphyrion gave him Zeus enough to do Pindar Pythian 8 12 18 Beazley Archive 220533 detail showing Zeus v Porphyrion Cook p 56 Plate VI Brinkmann N22 p 103 which finds traces of rion Stewart plate 196 Parada s v Thoas 5 Grant pp 519 520 Smith s v Thoon Apollodorus 1 6 2 Frazer translates Apollodorus 1 6 2 8owna as Thoas Citing only Apollodorus 1 6 2 Parada names the Giant Thoas 8oas and Smith names the Giant Thoon 8own Grant citing no sources names the Giant Thoas but says he was also called Thoon References editAeschylus The Eumenides in Aeschylus with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth Ph D in two volumes Vol 2 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 1926 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Aeschylus Prometheus Bound in Aeschylus with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth Ph D in two volumes Vol 2 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 1926 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Anderson William S Ovid s Metamorphoses Books 1 5 University of Oklahoma Press 1997 ISBN 9780806128948 Andrews Tamra Dictionary of Nature Myths Legends of the Earth Sea and Sky Oxford University Press 2000 ISBN 9780195136777 Apollodorus Apollodorus The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer F B A F R S in 2 Volumes Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1921 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Apollonius of Rhodes Apollonius Rhodius the Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton W Heinemann 1912 Internet Archive Arafat K W Classical Zeus A Study in Art and Literature Oxford Clarendon Press 1990 ISBN 0 19 814912 3 Aristophanes Birds in The Complete Greek Drama vol 2 Eugene O Neill Jr New York Random House 1938 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Aristophanes Knights in The Complete Greek Drama vol 2 Eugene O Neill Jr New York Random House 1938 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Barber E J W 1991 Prehistoric Textiles The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean Princeton University Press ISBN 9780691002248 Barber E J W 1992 The Peplos of Athena in Goddess and Polis The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient Athens Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0691002231 Bacchylides Odes Translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien 1991 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Batrachomyomachia in Hesiod the Homeric hymns and Homerica with an English translation by Hugh G Evelyn White W Heinemann The Macmillan Co in London New York 1914 Internet Archive Beazley John D The Development of Attic Black Figure Revised edition University of California Press 1986 ISBN 9780520055933 Online version at University of California Press E Books Collection Brill s New Pauly Antiquity volumes edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider Brill Online 2014 Reference 1 March 2014 Gegeneis Brinkmann Vinzenz Die aufgemalten Namensbeischriften an Nord und Ostfries des Siphnierschatzhauses Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique 109 77 130 1985 Brown John Pairman Israel and Hellas Walter de Gruyter 1995 ISBN 9783110142334 Burkert Walter 1991 Greek Religion Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 0631156246 Cairns Francis Roman Lyric Collected Papers on Catullus and Horace Walter de Gruyter 2012 ISBN 9783110267228 Callimachus Hymn 4 to Delos in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A W Mair Aratus with an English translation by G R Mair London W Heinemann New York G P Putnam 1921 Internet Archive Castriota David Myth Ethos and Actuality Official Art in Fifth century B C Athens Univ of Wisconsin Press 1992 ISBN 9780299133542 Chaudhuri Pramit The War with God Theomachy in Roman Imperial Poetry Oxford University Press 2014 ISBN 9780199993390 Cicero On Old Age On Friendship On Divination translation by William Armistead Falconer Loeb Classical Library Volume 154 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 1923 ISBN 978 0674991705 Claudian Claudian with an English translation by Maurice Platnauer Volume II Loeb Classical Library No 136 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1922 ISBN 978 0674991514 Internet Archive Cohen Beth Outline as a Special Technique in Black and Red figure Vase painting in The Colors of Clay Special Techniques in Athenian Vases Getty Publications 2006 ISBN 9780892369423 Commager Steele The Odes of Horace A Critical Study University of Oklahoma Press 1995 ISBN 9780806127293 Conington John The works of Virgil with a Commentary by John Conington M A Late Corpus Professor of Latin in the University of Oxford London Whittaker and Co Ave Maria Lane 1876 Connelly Joan Breton The Parthenon Enigma Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group 2014 ISBN 978 0385350501 Cook Arthur Bernard Zeus A Study in Ancient Religion Volume III Zeus God of the Dark Sky Earthquakes Clouds Wind Dew Rain Meteorites Part I Text and Notes Cambridge University Press 1940 Internet Archive Cunningham Lawrence John Reich Lois Fichner Rathus Culture and Values A Survey of the Western Humanities Volume 1 Cengage Learning 2014 ISBN 9781285974460 Day Joseph W Archaic Greek Epigram and Dedication Representation and Reperformance Cambridge University Press 2010 ISBN 9780521896306 de Grummond Nancy Thomson Gauls Giants Skylla and the Palladion in From Pergamon to Sperlonga Sculpture and Context Nancy Thomson de Grummond Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway editors University of California Press 2000 ISBN 9780520223271 Dinter Martin Lucan s Epic Body in Lucan im 21 Jahrhundert Christine Walde editor Walter de Gruyter 2005 ISBN 9783598730269 Diodorus Siculus Diodorus Siculus The Library of History Translated by C H Oldfather Twelve volumes Loeb Classical Library Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1989 Durling Robert M The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri Volume 1 Inferno Oxford University Press 1996 ISBN 9780195087444 Dwyer Eugene Excess in Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography Themes Depicted in Works of Art edited by Helene E Roberts Routledge 2013 ISBN 9781136787935 Ellis Robinson Aetna A Critical Recension of the Text Based on a New Examination of Mss With Prolegomena Translation Textual and Exegetical Commentary Excursus and Complete Index of the Words Oxford Clarendon Press 1901 Euripides Hecuba translated by E P Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama edited by Whitney J Oates and Eugene O Neill Jr Volume 1 New York Random House 1938 Euripides Heracles translated by E P Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama edited by Whitney J Oates and Eugene O Neill Jr Volume 1 New York Random House 1938 Euripides Iphigenia in Tauris translated by Robert Potter in The Complete Greek Drama edited by Whitney J Oates and Eugene O Neill Jr Volume 2 New York Random House 1938 Euripides Ion translated by Robert Potter in The Complete Greek Drama edited by Whitney J Oates and Eugene O Neill Jr Volume 1 New York Random House 1938 Euripides The Phoenician Women translated by E P Coleridge in The Complete Greek Drama edited by Whitney J Oates and Eugene O Neill Jr Volume 2 New York Random House 1938 Ferrari Gloria Alcman and the Cosmos of Sparta University of Chicago Press 2008 ISBN 9780226668673 Frazer J G 1898a Pausanias s Description of Greece Translated with a Commentary by J G Frazer Vol II Commentary on Book I Macmillan 1898 Internet Archive Frazer J G 1898b Pausanias s Description of Greece Translated with a Commentary by J G Frazer Vol IV Commentary on Books VI VIII Macmillan 1898 Internet Archive Frazer J G 1914 Adonis Attis Osiris Studies in the History of Oriental Religion Macmillan and Co Limited London 1914 Internet Archive Fontenrose Joseph Eddy Python A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins University of California Press 1959 ISBN 9780520040915 Gantz Timothy Early Greek Myth A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources Johns Hopkins University Press 1996 Two volumes ISBN 978 0 8018 5360 9 Vol 1 ISBN 978 0 8018 5362 3 Vol 2 Gale Monica Virgil on the Nature of Things The Georgics Lucretius and the Didactic Tradition Cambridge University Press 2000 ISBN 9781139428477 Gee Emma Ovid Aratus and Augustus Astronomy in Ovid s Fasti Cambridge University Press 2000 ISBN 9780521651875 Grant Michael John Hazel Who s Who in Classical Mythology Routledge 2004 ISBN 9781134509430 Green Steven J Ovid Fasti 1 A Commentary BRILL 2004 ISBN 9789004139855 Grimal Pierre The Dictionary of Classical Mythology Wiley Blackwell 1996 ISBN 9780631201021 Hanfmann George M A 1937 Studies in Etruscan Bronze Reliefs The Gigantomachy The Art Bulletin 19 463 85 1937 George M A Hanfmann 1992 Giants in The Oxford Classical Dictionary second edition Hammond N G L and Howard Hayes Scullard editors Oxford University Press 1992 ISBN 0 19 869117 3 Hansen William Handbook of Classical Mythology ABC CLIO 2004 ISBN 978 1576072264 Hard Robin 2015 Constellation Myths With Aratus s Phaenomena Oxford World s Classics Oxford UK Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 871698 3 Hard Robin The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology Based on H J Rose s Handbook of Greek Mythology Psychology Press 2004 ISBN 9780415186360 Hardie Philip 2007 Lucretius and later Latin literature in antiquity in The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius edited by Stuart Gillespie Philip Hardie Cambridge University Press 2007 ISBN 9781139827522 Hardie Philip 2014 The Last Trojan Hero A Cultural History of Virgil s Aeneid I B Tauris 2014 ISBN 9781780762470 Hesiod Theogony in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G Evelyn White Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1914 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Hesiod Shield of Heracles in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G Evelyn White Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1914 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Heyworth S J Cynthia A Companion to the Text of Propertius Oxford University Press 2007 ISBN 9780191527920 Homer The Iliad with an English Translation by A T Murray Ph D in two volumes Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1924 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Homer The Odyssey of Homer translated by Lattimore Richard Harper Perennial Modern Classics 2006 ISBN 978 0061244186 Homer The Odyssey with an English Translation by A T Murray PH D in two volumes Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1919 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Horace The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace John Conington trans London George Bell and Sons 1882 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Hunter Richard L The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women Cambridge University Press 2008 ISBN 9781139444040 Hurwit Jeffery M The Athenian Acropolis History Mythology and Archaeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present Cambridge University Press 1999 ISBN 0 521 41786 4 Hyginus Gaius Julius Fabulae in The Myths of Hyginus edited and translated by Mary A Grant Lawrence University of Kansas Press 1960 Online version at ToposText Janko Richard The Iliad A Commentary Volume 4 Books 13 16 Cambridge University Press 1992 ISBN 978 0521237123 Keith A M Propertius Poet of Love and Leisure A amp C Black 2008 ISBN 9780715634530 Kerenyi Karl 1951 The Gods of the Greeks London UK Thames and Hudson Kirk G S J E Raven M Schofield The Presocratic Philosophers A Critical History with a Selection of Texts Cambridge University Press Dec 29 1983 ISBN 9780521274555 Kleiner Fred S Gardner s Art Through the Ages A Global History Fourteenth Edition Cengage Learning 2012 ISBN 9781285288673 Knox Peter A Companion to Ovid Wiley Blackwell 2012 ISBN 978 1118451342 Lempriere John A Classical Dictionary E Duyckinck G Long 1825 Lapatin Kenneth The Statue of Athena and Other Treasures in the Parthenon in The Parthenon From Antiquity to the Present edited by Jenifer Neils Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 9780521820936 Leigh Matthew Lucan Spectacle and Engagement Oxford University Press 1997 ISBN 9780198150671 Lescher James H Xenophanes of Colophon Fragments a Text and Translation with a Commentary University of Toronto Press 2001 ISBN 9780802085085 Liddell Henry George Robert Scott A Greek English Lexicon Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie Oxford Clarendon Press 1940 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Lightfoot J L Hellenistic Collection Philitas Alexander of Aetolia Hermesianax Euphorion Parthenius Harvard University Press 2009 ISBN 9780674996366 Ling Roger The Cambridge Ancient History Plates to Volume VII Part 1 Cambridge University Press 1984 ISBN 9780521243544 Lovatt Helen Statius and Epic Games Sport Politics and Poetics in the Thebaid Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 9780521847421 Lucan Pharsalia Sir Edward Ridley London Longmans Green and Co 1905 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Lucretius De Rerum Natura William Ellery Leonard Ed Dutton 1916 Lyne R O A M Horace Behind the Public Poetry Yale University Press 1995 ISBN 9780300063226 Lycophron Alexandra or Cassandra in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A W Mair Aratus with an English translation by G R Mair London W Heinemann New York G P Putnam 1921 Internet Archive Manilius Astronomica edited and translated by G P Goold Loeb Classical Library No 469 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 1977 Online version at Harvard University Press Mayor Adrienne The First Fossil Hunters Dinosaurs Mammoths and Myth in Greek and Roman Times Princeton University Press 2011 ISBN 9781400838448 McKay Kenneth John Erysichthon Brill Archive 1962 Merry W Walter James Riddell D B Monro Homer s Odyssey Clarendon Press 1886 1901 Mineur W H Callimachus Hymn to Delos Brill Archive 1984 ISBN 9789004072305 Moore Mary B 1979 Lydos and the Gigantomachy in American Journal of Archaeology 83 1979 79 99 Moore Mary B 1985 Giants at the Getty in Greek Vases in the J Paul Getty Museum Volume 2 Getty Publications Moore Mary B 1997 The Gigantomachy of the Siphnian Treasury Reconstruction of the three Lacunae in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique Suppl 4 1977 pp 305 335 Morford Mark P O Robert J Lenardon Classical Mythology Eighth Edition Oxford University Press 2007 ISBN 978 0 19 530805 1 Most G W 2006 Hesiod Theogony Works and Days Testimonia Loeb Classical Library vol 57 Cambridge Massachusetts ISBN 978 0 674 99622 9 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Most G W 2007 Hesiod The Shield Catalogue of Women Other Fragments Loeb Classical Library vol 503 Cambridge Massachusetts ISBN 978 0 674 99623 6 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint location missing publisher link English translation with facing Greek text takes much recent scholarship into consideration Neils Jenifer Chapter Twelve Athena Alter Ego of Zeus in Athena in the Classical World edited by Susan Deacy Alexandra Villing Brill Academic Pub 2001 ISBN 9789004121423 Newlands Carole E An Ovid Reader Selections from Seven Works Bolchazy Carducci Publishers 2014 ISBN 9781610411189 Nonnus Dionysiaca translated by Rouse W H D I Books I XV Loeb Classical Library No 344 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1940 Internet Archive Ogden Daniel Drakon Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds Oxford University Press 2013 ISBN 9780199557325 O Hara James J Inconsistency in Roman Epic Studies in Catullus Lucretius Vergil Ovid and Lucan Cambridge University Press 2007 ISBN 9781139461320 Ovid Amores Christopher Marlowe Ed Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Ovid Ovid s Fasti With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer London W Heinemann LTD Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 1959 Internet Archive Ovid Metamorphoses Brookes More Boston Cornhill Publishing Co 1922 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Parada Carlos Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology Jonsered Paul Astroms Forlag 1993 ISBN 978 91 7081 062 6 Parker Robert B 2006 Polytheism and Society at Athens Oxford GBR Oxford University Press UK ISBN 978 0199274833 Parker Robert B 2011 On Greek Religion Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0801462016 Pausanias Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W H S Jones Litt D and H A Ormerod M A in 4 Volumes Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1918 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Peck Harry Thurston Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities New York Harper and Brothers 1898 Gigantes Philostratus The Life of Apollonius of Tyana Volume I Books 1 5 translated by F C Conybeare Loeb Classical Library No 16 Harvard University Press Cambridge Massachusetts 1912 ISBN 978 0674990180 Internet Archive Philostratus On Heroes editors Jennifer K Berenson MacLean Ellen Bradshaw Aitken BRILL 2003 ISBN 9789004127012 Philostratus the Elder Imagines translated by A Fairbanks Loeb Classical Library No 256 Harvard University Press Cambridge Massachusetts 1931 ISBN 978 0674992825 Internet Archive Pindar Odes Diane Arnson Svarlien 1990 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Plato Euthyphro in Plato in Twelve Volumes Vol 1 translated by Harold North Fowler Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1966 Plato Republic in Plato in Twelve Volumes Vols 5 amp 6 translated by Paul Shorey Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1969 Plato Sophist in Plato in Twelve Volumes Vol 12 translated by Harold N Fowler Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1921 Plumptre Edward Hayes AEschylos Tragedies and Fragments Heath 1901 Powell J G F Cicero Cato Maior de Senectute Cambridge University Press 1988 ISBN 9780521335010 Propertius The Complete Elegies of Sextus Propertius translated by Vincent Katz Princeton University Press 2004 ISBN 9780691115825 Rahner Hugo Greek Myths and Christian Mystery New York Biblo amp Tannen Publishers 1971 Richards G C Selected Vase fragments from the Acropolis of Athens I The Journal of Hellenic Studies 13 The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies 1893 pp 281 292 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2000 Hellenistic Sculpture II The Styles of ca 200 100 B C University of Wisconsin Press 2000 ISBN 978 0299167103 Ridgway Brunilde Sismondo 2005 Review of Francois Queyrel L Autel de Pergame Images et pouvoir en Grece d Asie Antiqua vol 9 in Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005 08 39 Ridgway David The First Western Greeks CUP Archive 1992 ISBN 9780521421645 Rose Herbert Jennings Typhon Typhoeus in The Oxford Classical Dictionary second edition Hammond N G L and Howard Hayes Scullard editors Oxford University Press 1992 ISBN 0 19 869117 3 Queyrel Francois L Autel de Pergame Images et pouvoir en Grece d Asie Paris Editions A et J Picard 2005 ISBN 2 7084 0734 1 Quintus Smyrnaeus Quintus Smyrnaeus The Fall of Troy Translator A S Way Harvard University Press Cambridge MA 1913 Internet Archive Robertson Martin A Shorter History of Greek Art Cambridge University Press 1981 ISBN 9780521280846 Robertson Noel Chapter Two Athena as Weather Goddess the Aigis in Myth and Ritual in Athena in the Classical World edited by Susan Deacy Alexandra Villing Brill Academic Pub 2001 ISBN 9789004121423 Pollitt Jerome Jordan 1986 Art in the Hellenistic Age Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521276726 Pollitt Jerome Jordan 1990 The Art of Ancient Greece Sources and Documents Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521273664 Schefold Karl Luca Giuliani Gods and Heroes in Late Archaic Greek Art Cambridge University Press 1992 ISBN 9780521327183 Scheid John Jesper Svenbro The Craft of Zeus Myths of Weaving and Fabric Penn State Press 2001 ISBN 978 0674005785 Schwab Katherine A Celebrations of victory The Metopes of the Parthenon in The Parthenon From Antiquity to the Present edited by Jenifer Neils Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 9780521820936 Seneca Tragedies Volume I Hercules Trojan Women Phoenician Women Medea Phaedra Edited and translated by John G Fitch Loeb Classical Library No 62 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 2002 ISBN 978 0 674 99602 1 Online version at Harvard University Press Seneca Tragedies Volume II Oedipus Agamemnon Thyestes Hercules on Oeta Octavia Edited and translated by John G Fitch Loeb Classical Library No 78 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press 2004 ISBN 978 0 674 99610 6 Online version at Harvard University Press Shapiro H A The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece Cambridge University Press 2007 ISBN 9781139826990 Silius Italicus Punica with an English translation by J D Duff Volume I Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1927 Internet Archive Silius Italicus Punica with an English translation by J D Duff Volume II Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1934 Internet Archive Simon Erika Theseus and Athenian Festivals in Worshipping Athena Panathenaia and Parthenon edited by Jenifer Neils Univ of Wisconsin Press 1996 ISBN 9780299151140 Singleton George S The Divine Comedy Inferno 2 Commentary Princeton University Press 1989 ISBN 9780691018959 Smith R R R Hellenistic Sculpture a handbook Thames and Hudson 1991 ISBN 9780500202494 Smith William Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology London 1873 Gigantes Sophocles Women of Trachis Translated by Robert Torrance Houghton Mifflin 1966 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Statius Statius with an English Translation by J H Mozley Volume II Thebaid Books V XII Achilleid Loeb Classical Library No 207 London William Heinemann Ltd New York G P Putnamm s Sons 1928 ISBN 978 0674992283 Internet Archive Stewart Andrew F Greek Sculpture An Exploration Yale University Press 1990 Stover Epic and Empire in Vespasianic Rome A New Reading of Valerius Flaccus Argonautica Oxford University Press 2012 ISBN 9780199644087 Strabo Geography translated by Horace Leonard Jones Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1924 LacusCurtis Books 6 14 at the Perseus Digital Library Torrance Isabelle Metapoetry in Euripides Oxford University Press 2013 ISBN 9780199657834 Tripp Edward Crowell s Handbook of Classical Mythology Thomas Y Crowell Co First edition June 1970 ISBN 069022608X Valerius Flaccus Gaius Argonautica translated by J H Mozley Loeb Classical Library Volume 286 Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press London William Heinemann Ltd 1928 Vian Francis 1951 Repertoire des gigantomachie figurees dans l art grec et romain Paris Vian Francis 1952 La guerre des Geants Le mythe avant l epoque hellenistique Paris Vian Francis Moore Mary B 1988 Gigantes in Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae LIMC IV 1 Artemis Verlag Zurich and Munich 1988 ISBN 3760887511 Virgil Aeneid Theodore C Williams trans Boston Houghton Mifflin Co 1910 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Wheeler Stephen Michael Narrative Dynamics in Ovid s Metamorphoses Gunter Narr Verlag 2000 ISBN 9783823348795 Wilkinson Claire Louise The Lyric of Ibycus Introduction Text and Commentary Walter de Gruyter 2012 ISBN 9783110295146 Yasumura Noriko Challenges to the Power of Zeus in Early Greek Poetry Bloomsbury Academic 2013 ISBN 978 1472504470 Zissos Andrew Sailing and Sea Storm in Valerius Flaccus Argonautica 1 574 642 The Rhetoric of Inundation in Flavian Poetry Ruurd Robijn Nauta Harm Jan Van Dam Johannes Jacobus Louis Smolenaars editors BRILL 2006 ISBN 9789004147942 Zucker Arnaud Clair Le Feuvre Ancient and Medieval Greek Etymology Theory and Practice I Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG 2021 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gigantes nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gigantomachy Gigantomachy Sculpture amp Vase Representations Wesleyan The Siphnian Treasury The North side of the frieze The Gigantomachy Hall V Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Giants Greek mythology amp oldid 1220126757, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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