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Germany–United States relations

April 04, 2023

Today, Germany and the United States are close and strong allies.[1] In the mid and late 19th century, millions of Germans migrated to farms and industrial jobs in the United States, especially in the Midwest. Later, the two nations fought each other in World War I (1917–1918) and World War II (1941–1945). After 1945 the U.S., with the United Kingdom and France, occupied Western Germany and built a demilitarized democratic society. West Germany achieved independence in 1949. It joined NATO in 1955, with the caveat that its security policy and military development would remain closely tied to that of France, the UK and the United States.[2] While West Germany was becoming closely integrated with the U.S. and NATO, East Germany became an Eastern Bloc satellite state closely tied to the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. After communist rule ended in Eastern Europe amid the Revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Germany was reunified. The reunified Federal Republic of Germany became a full member of the European Union (then European Community), NATO and one of the closest allies of the United States. In 2022 Germany is working with NATO and the European Union to defeat the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In the process Germany is sharply reducing its dependence on Russian oil and gas. Germany has the third-largest economy in the world, after the U.S. and China.[3] Today, both the countries enjoy a "special relationship".[4][5]

Overview

 
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz and U.S. President Joe Biden in March 2023

Before 1800, the main factors in German-American relations were very large movements of immigrants from Germany to American states (especially Pennsylvania, the Midwest, and central Texas) throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries.[6]

There also was a significant movement of philosophical ideals that influenced American thinking. German achievements in public schooling and higher education greatly impressed American educators; the American education system was based on the Prussian education system. Thousands of American advanced students, especially scientists and historians, studied at elite German universities. There was little movement in the other direction: few Americans ever moved permanently to Germany, and few German intellectuals studied in America or moved to the United States before 1933. Economic relations were of minor importance before 1920. Diplomatic relations were friendly but of minor importance to either side before the 1870s.[7]

After the Unification of Germany in 1871, Germany became a major world power. Both nations built world-class navies and began imperialistic expansion around the world. That led to a small-scale conflict over the Samoan islands: the Second Samoan Civil War. A crisis in 1898, when Germany and the United States disputed over who should take control, was resolved with the Tripartite Convention in 1899 when the two nations divided up Samoa between them to end the conflict.[8]

After 1898, the US itself became much more involved in international diplomacy and found itself sometimes in disagreement but more often in agreement with Germany. In the early 20th century, the rise of the powerful German Navy and its role in Latin America and the Caribbean troubled American military strategists. Relations were sometimes tense, as in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902–03, but all incidents were peacefully resolved.[9]

Germany acquisition of Philippines was almost proposal on 1910.[10]

The US tried to remain neutral in the First World War, but it provided far more trade and financial support to Britain and the Allies, which controlled the Atlantic routes. Germany worked to undermine American interests in Mexico. In 1917, the German offer of a military alliance against the US in the Zimmermann Telegram contributed to the American decision for war.[11] German U-boat attacks on British shipping, especially the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania without allowing the civilian passengers to reach the lifeboats, outraged US public opinion. Germany agreed to US demands to stop such attacks but reversed its position in early 1917 to win the war quickly since it mistakenly thought that the US military was too weak to play a decisive role.

The US public opposed the punitive 1919 Versailles Treaty, and both countries signed a separate peace treaty in 1921. In the 1920s, American diplomats and bankers provided major assistance to rebuilding the German economy. When Hitler and the Nazis took power in 1933, American public opinion was highly negative. Relations between the two nations turned sour after 1938.

Large numbers of intellectuals, scientists, and artists found refuge from the Nazis into Britain and France. Germany declared war on the United States, but American immigration policy strictly limited the number of Jewish refugees. The US provided significant military and financial aid to the United Kingdom and France. Germany declared war on the United States in December 1941, and Washington made the defeat of Nazi Germany its highest priority, above even the Japanese Empire after it directly militarily attacked the United States in the Pearl Harbor bombing. The United States played a major role in the occupation and reconstruction of Germany after 1945. The US provided billions of dollars in aid by the Marshall Plan to rebuild the West German economy. The two nations relationship became very positive, in terms of democratic ideals, anti-communism, and high levels of economic trade.

Today, the US is one of Germany's closest allies and partners outside of the European Union.[12] The people of the two countries see each other as reliable allies but disagree on some key policy issues. Americans want Germany to play a more active military role, but Germans strongly disagree.[13]

History

Relations between the United States and the different German states was generally friendly in the 19th century. Americans gave strong support to the revolutionary movements of 1848, and welcomed political refugees when that liberalizing revolution failed. The German states supported the United States during the Civil War, and gave no support to the Confederacy. At the time tensions between the United States and France were very high, and Americans generally supported the Germans in their war against France in 1870–71.[14]

German immigration to the United States

Main articles: German Americans and German language in the United States
 
Self-reported ancestry of the population of the United States (by counties, 2001)
 
Largest self-reported ancestries in the United States (2000)

For over three centuries, immigration from Germany accounted for a large share of all American immigrants. As of the 2000 US Census, more than 20% of all Americans, and 25% of white Americans, claim German descent. German-Americans are an assimilated group which influences political life in the US as a whole. They are the most common self-reported ethnic group in the Northern United States, especially in the Midwest. In most of the South, German Americans are less common, with the exception of Texas.[15]

1683–1848

Main article: Pennsylvania Dutch

The first records of German immigration date back to the 17th century and the foundation of Germantown, now part of Philadelphia, in 1683. Immigration from Germany reached its first peak between 1749 and 1754, when approximately 37,000 Germans came to North America. The main settlements were in Pennsylvania, where they are known as the Pennsylvania Dutch; nearby areas of upstate New York also attract the Germans in the colonial era.[16]

1848–1914

Further information: German Americans § 19th century

In 1840-1914 about seven million Germans emigrated to the United States. Farmers who sold their land in Germany bought larger farms in the Middle West. Mechanics settled in the cities of Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit and New York City. Few went to New England or the South, apart from a colony formed in Texas.[17] By 1890 more than 40 percent of the population of the cities of Cleveland, Milwaukee, Hoboken and Cincinnati were of German origin. By the end of the 19th century, Germans formed the largest self-described ethnic group in the United States, with a strong German—speaking element. They were generally permanent settlers; few returned to Germany and few showed a loyalty to the mother country. Some were political refugees; others were avoiding the universal conscription. They generally spoke German language until the First World War in 1917, although the younger generation was bilingual.[18]

The failed German Revolutions of 1848 forced political refugees to flee. Those who came to the U.S. were called the Forty-Eighters.[19] Many joined the new anti-slavery Republican Party, such as Carl Schurz, a nationally important politician. In the late 19th century Germans were active in the labor movement. Labor unions enabled skilled craftsmen to control their working conditions and to have a voice in American society.[20]

Since 1914

A combination of patriotism and anti-German sentiment along with civil strife during both world wars caused most German-Americans to cut their former ties and assimilate into mainstream American culture with disbanding of German cultural groups. There was a collapse in teaching the German language in schools and colleges. German-related placenames were changed.[21]

During the Third Reich (1933–1945) a wave of German Jews and other political anti-Nazi refugees left, but restrictive immigration policies blocked many of them from entering the U.S. Among those who did enter were Albert Einstein and Henry Kissinger.[22]

Today, German-Americans form the largest self-reported ancestry group in the United States, with California and Pennsylvania having the highest numbers with German ancestry.[23]

Education and culture

German culture was an important inspiration for American thinkers before 1914.

Philosophy

The influential literary, political, and philosophical movement of Transcendentalism emerged in New England in the early 19th century. It centered around Ralph Waldo Emerson and derived from European Romanticism, German Biblical criticism, and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and German idealism.[24] In the late 19th century German Hegelianism was taught by Friedrich August Rauch as well as William T. Harris and the St. Louis Hegelians. It represented an extreme idealism in opposition to pragmatism.[25]

Education

Upon becoming the secretary of education of Massachusetts in 1837, Horace Mann (1796–1859) worked to create a statewide system of professional teachers, based on the Prussian model of "common schools." Prussia was developing a system of education by which all students were entitled to the same content in their public classes. Mann initially focused on elementary education and on training teachers. The common-school movement quickly gained strength across the North. His crusading style attracted wide national support, providing a German roots for the school systems in most states. An important technique which Mann had learned in Prussia and introduced in Massachusetts in 1848 was to place students in grades by age. They progressed through the grades together, regardless of differences of aptitude. In addition, he used the lecture method common in European universities, which required students to receive professional instruction rather than teach one another.[26] American adopted the German kindergarten. German immigrants brought gymnastics and physical education through the Turner movement.[27]

Over 15,000 American scholars and scientists studied at German universities before 1914; 8% were women. They returned with PhDs and built research-oriented universities based on the German model, such as Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Chicago and Stanford, and upgraded established schools like Harvard, Columbia and Wisconsin.[28][29] Flush with dollars, they built research libraries overnight, often by purchasing major collections in Europe. Syracuse University purchased the research library of Germany's leading historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886).[30]

Music

In the colonial era, the Pennsylvania German sects brought their love of music. Moravian music proved widely influential.[31] In the mid to late late 19th century, Philadelphia, Boston, New York, Cincinnati, Chicago and other musically inclined cities created symphony orchestras which featured German classical music; prominent German conductors were hired, along with performers and teachers. Theodore Thomas (1835–1905) was the most influential figure, introducing modern European composers and orchestral technique to New York, Cincinnati and Chicago.[32][33]

In return, Matthias Hohne brought the harmonica to Germany in 1857, where hooty-tooty became popular.[34]

Science and medicine

Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843) was a German physician who created pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine called homeopathy. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram, a student of Hahnemann.[35] It became popular in the U.S. well before it caught on in Germany.[36] Physicians in Germany learned about narcotics for anesthesia from the U.S.[37]

Diplomacy and trade

1775 to 1870

During the American Revolution (1775–1783), King Frederick the Great of Prussia strongly hated the British. He favored the Kingdom of France and impeded Britain's war effort in subtle ways, such as blocking the passage of Hessian mercenaries. However, the importance of British trade and the risk of attack from Austria made him pursue a peace policy and maintain an official strict neutrality.[38][39]

After the war, direct trade was minimal. What existed ran between the American ports of Baltimore, Norfolk, and Philadelphia and the old Hanseatic League free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck grew steadily. Americans exported tobacco, rice, cotton, and imported textiles, metal products, colognes, brandies, and toiletries. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) and increasing instability in the German Confederation states led to a decline in the modest trade between the United States and the Hanse cities. The level of trade never came close to matching the trade with Britain. It further declined because the US delayed a commercial treaty until 1827. US diplomacy was ineffective, but the commercial consuls, local businessmen, handled their work so well that the US successfully developed diplomatic ties with the Kingdom of Prussia.[40]

The Kingdom of Prussia under Friedrich Wilhelm III took the initiative in sending trade experts to Washington in 1834. The first permanent American diplomat came in 1835, when Henry Wheaton was sent to Prussia. The American secretary of state (foreign minister) said in 1835 that "not a single point of controversy exists between the two countries calling for adjustment; and that their commercial intercourse, based upon treaty stipulations, is conducted upon those liberal and enlightened principles of reciprocity... which are gradually making their way against the narrow prejudices and blighting influences of the prohibitive system."[41] The German revolutions of 1848–1849 were celebrated in the U.S., which was the only major country to bestow diplomatic recognition on its short-lived National Assembly in Frankfort.[42] When the revolution was crushed, thousands of activists fled to the United States. The most important were Carl Schurz, Franz Sigel and Friedrich Hecker. The exiled Germans became known as the Forty-Eighters.[43] As the German element grew in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln worked to secure their support in the 1850s, including sponsoring a German language newspaper. However apart from the 48ers, most were Democrats[44]

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), all of the German states favored the northern Union but remained officially neutral. They did not support France's takeover of Mexico. Immigration flows continued and large numbers of immigrants and their sons enlisted in the Union Army. In St Louis, pro-Union German provided decisive support to suppress Confederate supporters.[45]

U.S. Consul General William Walton Murphy, based in Frankfurt on the Main, neutralized attempts by Confederates to borrow money. He solicited medical supplies, sold American bonds, facilitated German purchases of cotton seized by the U.S. Army, and promoted support for Lincoln's war goals in the German press.[46] After the war Washington was neutral but favored Prussia in its wars against Denmark and Austria and felt that consolidation under Prussia was a good idea. Prussia was planning a major war against France and cultivated American support.[47]

After 1871

Washington was neutral in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, but public opinion favored the German cause. Relations with the new German Empire started on a high note. German men who immigrated to the U.S. then returned home were liable for military service, but that was a minor irritant and was largely resolved by treaties negotiated by American minister George Bancroft in 1868.[48] In 1876, the German commissioner for the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia stated that the German armaments, machines, arts, and crafts on display were of inferior quality to British and American products. Germany industrialized rapidly under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1870–1890, but its competition was more with Britain than with the US. It imported increasing amounts of American farm products, especially cotton, wheat and tobacco.[49]

Pork war and protectionism

Main article: Pork war

In the 1880s, ten European countries (Germany, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Spain, France, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Romania, and Denmark) imposed a ban on importation of American pork.[50] They pointed to vague reports of trichinosis that supposedly originated with American hogs.[51] At issue was over 1.3 billion pounds of pork products in 1880, with a value of $100 million annually. European farmers were angry at cheap American food overrunning their home markets for wheat, pork, and beef; demanded for their governments to fight back; and called for a boycott.

European manufacturing interests were also threatened by growing American industrial exports, and were angry at the high American tariff on imports from European factories. Chancellor Bismarck took a hard line, rejected the pro-trade German businessmen, and refused to join in scientific studies proposed by President Chester A. Arthur. American investigations reported that American pork was safe. Bismarck, because of his political base of German landowners, insisted on protection and ignored the leading German expert, Professor Rudolf Virchow, who condemned the embargo as unjustified.[52][53] American public opinion grew angry at Berlin. President Grover Cleveland rejected retaliation, but it was threatened by his successor, Benjamin Harrison, who charged Whitelaw Reid, minister to France, and William Walter Phelps, minister to Germany, to end the boycott without delay. Harrison also persuaded Congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act of 1890 to guarantee the quality of the export product. President Harrison used his Agriculture Secretary Jeremiah McLain Rusk to threaten Berlin with retaliation by initiating an embargo against Germany's popular beet sugar. That proved decisive for Germany to relent in September 1891. Other nations soon followed, and the boycott was soon over.[54][55]

Samoan crisis

Main article: Samoan crisis

Bismarck himself did not want colonies, but he reversed course in the face of public and elite opinion that favored imperialistic expansion around the world. In 1889, the US, Britain and Germany were locked in a petty dispute over control of the Samoan Islands, in the Pacific. The islands provided an ideal location for coaling stations needed by steamships in the South Pacific.[56] The issue emerged in 1887 when the Germans tried to establish control over the island chain and President Cleveland responded by sending three naval vessels to defend the Samoan government. American and German warships faced off. Suddenly both sides were badly damaged by the 1889 Apia cyclone of March 15–17, 1889.[57] The two powers and Britain agreed to meet in Berlin to resolve the crisis.

Chancellor Bismarck decided to ignore the small issues involved and improve relations with Washington and London. The result was the Treaty of Berlin, which established a three-power protectorate in Samoa. The three powers agreed to Western Samoa's independence and neutrality. Historian George H. Ryden argues that President Harrison played a key role by taking a firm stand on every issue, which included the selection of the local ruler, the refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany, and the establishment of the three-power protectorate, a first for the U.S.[58][59] A serious long-term result was an American distrust of Germany's foreign policy after Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890.[60] When unrest continued, international tensions flared in 1899. Germany unilaterally pulled back the treaty and established a control over Western Samoa. It was seized by New Zealand in the First World War.[61][62]

Caribbean

Main article: German interest in the Caribbean

In the late 19th century, the Kaiserliche Marine (German Navy) sought to establish a coaling station somewhere in the Caribbean Sea area. Imperial Germany was rapidly building a blue-water navy, but coal-burning warships needed frequent refueling and so needed to operate within range of a coaling station. Preliminary plans were vetoed by Bismarck, who did not want to antagonize the US, but he was ousted in 1890 by the new emperor, Wilhelm II, and the Germans kept looking.[63]

Wilhelm did not publicly challenge Washington's Monroe Doctrine but his naval planners from 1890 to 1910 disliked it as a self-aggrandizing legal pretension and were even more concerned with the possible American canal at Panama, as it would lead to full American hegemony in the Caribbean. The stakes were laid out in the German war aims proposed by the German Navy in 1903: a "firm position in the West Indies," a "free hand in South America," and an official "revocation of the Monroe Doctrine" would provide a solid foundation for "our trade to the West Indies, Central and South America."[64] By 1900, American "naval planners were obsessed with German designs in the Western Hemisphere and countered with energetic efforts to secure naval sites in the Caribbean."[65]

By 1904, German naval strategists had turned its attention to Mexico, where they hoped to establish a naval base in a Mexican port on the Caribbean Sea. They dropped that plan, but it became active again after 1911, the start of the Mexican Revolution and subsequent Mexican Civil War.[66]

Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903
See also: Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903

Venezuela defaulted on its foreign loan repayments in 1902, and Britain and Germany sent warships to blockade its ports and force repayment. Germany intended to land troops and occupy Venezuelan ports, but President Theodore Roosevelt got all sides to enter arbitration, which ended the crisis. In the short run in 1904 Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary, telling Europe when European nations had serious grievances in the Caribbean, the United States would intervene and resolve the crisis for them.[67][68]

Years later in 1916, when Roosevelt was energetically campaigning for the U.S. to enter World War I against Germany, he claimed that in 1903 he issued an ultimatum threatening war with Germany, forcing Berlin to back down. There is no record of any stern warning in the archives in Berlin or Washington, nor in the papers of any top American official dealing with foreign or military policy, nor anyone in Congress. No observer in Washington or Berlin had ever mentioned the supposed ultimatum. According to historian George Herring in 2011:

No evidence has ever been discovered of a presidential ultimatum. Recent research concludes, on the contrary, that although the Germans behaved with their usual heavy-handedness, in general they followed Britain's lead. The British, in turn, went out of their way to avoid undermining their relations with the United States. Both nations accepted arbitration to extricate themselves from an untenable situation and stay on good terms with the United States.[69]

American images of Germany Before 1917

Main articles: American entry into World War I, Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration, and Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff

By 1900 American writers were criticizing German aggressiveness in foreign affairs, and warned against German militarism. Books on anti-German topics including politics, naval power, and diplomacy reached educated audiences. German-Americans stayed neutral and largely ignored Berlin; indeed many of them had left as young men to escape the German draft. The Venezuela episode of 1903 focused American media attention on Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was increasingly erratic and aggressive. The media highlighted his militarism and belligerent speeches and imperialistic goals. Meanwhile, London was becoming increasingly friendly toward Washington. However, when the U.S. was neutral in the First World War, Hollywood tried to be neutral.[70]

No one expected a war in 1914 until the July Crisis suddenly saw a major war between the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) and the Allied (France, Britain and Russia), with smaller nations also involved. The US insisted on neutrality. President Woodrow Wilson's highest priority was to broker a peace and he used his trusted aide, Colonel House on numerous efforts. For example, on June 1, 1914, House met secretly with the Kaiser in his palace, proposing that Germany, the United States, and Britain unite to ensure peace and develop Third World countries. The Kaiser was mildly interested but Britain was in a major domestic crisis over Ireland and nothing developed.[71][72]

Apart from an Anglophile element of British descent, America public opinion at first echoed Wilson. The sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans, and Scandinavian Americans as well as poor white southern farmers, cultural leaders, Protestant churchmen, and women in general.[73]

The British argument that the Allies were defending civilization against a German militaristic onslaught gained support after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914. Outrage followed the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915. Americans increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor who had to be stopped. Former President Roosevelt and many Republicans were war hawks, and demanded rapid American armament.[74] Wilson insisted on neutrality and minimized wartime preparations to be able to negotiate for peace. After the Lusitania was sunk, with over 100 American passengers drowned, Wilson demanded that Imperial German Navy U-boats follow international law and allow passengers and crew to reach their lifeboats before ships were sunk. Germany reluctantly stopped sinking padenger liners. However, in January 1917, it decided that a massive infantry attack on the Western Front, coupled with a full-scale attack on all food shipments to Britain, would win the war at last. Berlin realized the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare almost certainly meant war with the United States, but it calculated that the small American military would take years to mobilize and arrive, when Germany would have already won. Germany reached out to Mexico with the Zimmermann Telegram, offering a military alliance against the United States, hoping that Washington would divert most of its attention to attacking Mexico. London intercepted the telegram, the contents of which outraged American opinion.[75]

World War I: Democracy vs autocracy

Main article: United States home front during World War I

Wilson called on Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917 in order to make the world "safe for democracy" and defeat militarism and autocracy. Washington expected to provide money, munitions, food, and raw materials but did not expect to send large troop contingents until it realized how weak the Allies were on the Western Front. After the collapse of Russia and its exit from the war in late 1917, Germany could reallocate 600,000 experienced troops to the Western Front. But by summer, American troops were arriving at the rate of 10,000 a day, every day, replacing all the Allied losses while the German Army shrank day by day until it finally collapsed in November 1918. On the home front, the German-American community quietly supported the American effort, but there was much unfounded suspicion otherwise. Germany was portrayed as a threat to American freedom and way of life.[76]

 
Left World War I American poster for enlistment in the U.S. Army

Inside Germany, the United States was treated as just another enemy and denounced as a false liberator that wanted to dominate Europe itself. As the war ended, however, the German people embraced Wilson's 14 points and promises of the just peace treaty. At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Wilson used his enormous prestige and co-operated with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to block some of the harshest French demands against Germany in the Treaty of Versailles. Wilson devoted most of his strength to establishing the League of Nations, which he felt would end all wars. He also signed a treaty with France and Britain to guarantee American support to prevent Germany from invading France again. Wilson refused all compromises with the Republicans, who controlled Congress, and so the United States neither ratified the Treaty of Versailles nor joined the League of Nations.[77]

German dominance in chemicals and pharmaceuticals meant they controlled critical patents. The Congress abrogated the patents and licensed American companies to manufacture products such as Salvarsan, a major new German drug that could cure syphilis.[78] In similar fashion the German drug company Bayer lost control of its patent—and its very high profits—on the world's most popular drug, aspirin.[79]

Interwar period

Further information: International relations (1919–1939), Interwar period, and Jazz age

1920s

Economic and diplomatic relations were positive during the 1920s. According to Frank Costigliola, Washington and Wall Street sought a prosperous and stable Europe; they felt success depended upon a prosperous Germany. Key players included officials Charles G. Dawes and Owen D. Young, Wall Street bankers, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and the first postwar ambassador, Alanson B. Houghton (1922–1925). New York banks played a major role in financing the rebuilding of the German economy.[80][81] The policy worked after 1923, but depended upon a continuous flow of dollars. That flow largely ended with the start of the Great Depression in 1929.[82]

Washington rejected the harsh anti-German Versailles Treaty of 1920, and instead signed a new peace treaty that involved no punishment for Germany, and worked with Britain to create a viable Euro-Atlantic peace system.[83] Ambassador Houghton believed that peace, European stability, and American prosperity depended upon a reconstruction of Europe's economy and political systems. He saw his role as promoting American political engagement with Europe. He overcame US opposition and lack of interest and quickly realized that the central issues of the day were all entangled in economics, especially war debts owed by the Allies to the United States, reparations owed by Germany to the Allies, worldwide inflation, and international trade and investment. Solutions, he believed, required new US policies and close co-operation with Britain and Germany. He was a leading promoter of the Dawes Plan.[84]

The high culture of Germany looked down upon American culture, The German right was suspicious of modernity, as represented by imported American ideas and tastes.[85] However the younger German generation danced to American jazz. Hollywood had enormous influence on all age groups, with captions in German; after 1929 they flocked to sound films dubbed in German.[86][87][88] Henry Ford's model of industrial efficiency attracted attention.[89]

German influence on American society and culture was limited after 1914. The flow of migration into the United States was small, and American scholars rarely attended German universities. The public generally ignored German culture. The American musical elite, according to Geoffrey S. Cahn, was sharply negative toward the atonal and serial compositions of Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, and Paul Hindemith. They denounced it as dissonant and sterile.[90]

Nazi era 1933–41

Further information: Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration and Nazi foreign policy debate

Public opinion in the US was strongly hostile towards Nazi Germany and Adolf Hitler, but there was a strong aversion to war and to entanglement in European politics.[91][92] President Franklin D. Roosevelt was preoccupied with implementing domestic New Deal policies to handle the Great Depression and was unfocused on foreign policy.[93] The Roosevelt administration publicly hailed the Munich Agreement of 1938 for avoiding war but privately realized it was only a postponement that called for rapid rearming.[94] Adolf Hitler in the 1920s expressed favorable views of the United States because of immigration restrictions and mistreatment of African-Americans and Native Americans.[95] Historian Jens-Uwe Guettel denies there were any real links between American west and Nazi Germany's eastward expansion. He argues that Hitler rarely mentioned the American West or the extermination of Indians and "the Nazis did not use the settlement of western North America as a model for their occupation, colonization and extermination policies."[96] After he gained power in 1933 Hitler increasingly identified the United States as his main enemy, and became convinced that Jews controlled Roosevelt. According to Jeffrey Herf, "Nazi attitudes towards FDR and the United States went from dubious assertions of common interests, during the New Deal, to growing hostility and then rage."[97] Formal relations were cool until November 1938 and then turned very cold. The key event was American revulsion against Kristallnacht, the nationwide German assault on Jews and their institutions on 9–10 November 1938. Religious groups which had been pacifistic also turned hostile.[98]

While the total flow of refugees from Germany to the US was relatively small during the 1930s, many intellectuals escaped and resettled in the United States.[99] Many were Jewish, including Albert Einstein and Henry Kissinger, but Washington's restrictions on immigration kept out most of the Jews who wanted to come. .[100][101] Catholic universities were strengthened by the arrival of German Catholic intellectuals in exile, such as Waldemar Gurian at the University of Notre Dame.[102]

The American major film studios, with the exception of Warner Bros. Pictures which had a strongly anti-Nazi policy, censored and edited films so that they could be exported to Germany.[103][104]

World War II

Further information: Anti-German sentiment § United States in World War II

When World War II began with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the US was officially neutral until December 11, 1941, when Germany declared war on the US and Washington followed suit. Roosevelt's foreign policy had strongly favored Britain and France over Germany in 1939 to 1941. In 1940–1941, before the US entered the war officially, there was a massive buildup of American armaments, as well as the first peacetime draft for young men. Public opinion was bitterly divided, with isolationism strong at first but growing weaker month by month. German-Americans rarely supported Nazi Germany, but most called for American neutrality, as they had done in 1914–1917.[105] The attack on Pearl Harbor evoked strong pro-American patriotic sentiments among German Americans, few of whom by then had contacts with distant relatives in the old country.[106][107][108]

Roosevelt was determined to avoid the mistakes made during the First World War. He made deliberate efforts to suppress anti-German-American sentiments. Private companies sometimes refused to hire any non-citizen, or American citizens of German or Italian ancestry. This threatened the morale of loyal Americans. Roosevelt considered this "stupid" and "unjust". In June 1941 he issued Executive Order 8802 and set up the Fair Employment Practice Committee, which also protected Blacks, Jews and other minorities.[109]

President Roosevelt sought out Americans of German ancestry for top war jobs, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, and General Carl Andrew Spaatz. He appointed Republican Wendell Willkie as a personal representative; Willkie, the son of German immigrants, had been his Republican opponent in the 1940 election. German Americans who had fluent German language skills were an important asset to wartime intelligence, and they served as translators and as spies for the United States.[110]

 
"Liberators", Nazi propaganda poster from 1944 brings together Nazi ridicule of American culture.

The US played a central role in the defeat of the Axis powers and Hitler was bitterly anti-American. Berlin attacked American participation with extensive propaganda value. The notorious "LIBERATORS" poster from 1944, shown here, was a revealing example. See Anti-Americanism#"Liberators" poster It depicts America as a monstrous, vicious war machine seeking to destroy European culture. The poster alludes to many negative aspects of American history, including the Ku Klux Klan, the oppression of Native Americans, and the lynching of blacks. The poster condemns American capitalism and says America is controlled by Jews. It shows American bombs destroying a helpless European village. Roosevelt was cautious about propaganda.[citation needed] The Nazis were targets, not the German people.[citation needed] In sharp contrast with 1917, atrocity stories were avoided.[111]

Cold War

Main article: Cold War

Following the defeat of the Third Reich, American forces were one of the occupation powers in postwar Germany. In parallel to denazification and "industrial disarmament" American citizens fraternized with Germans. The Berlin Airlift from 1948 to 1949 and the Marshall Plan (1948–1952) further improved the Germans' perception of Americans.[citation needed]

West Germany

 
John F. Kennedy meeting with Willy Brandt, in the White House, March 13, 1961.

The emergence of the Cold War made the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) the frontier of a democratic Western Europe and American military presence became an integral part in West German society. During the Cold War, West Germany developed into the largest economy in Europe and West German-US relations developed into a new transatlantic partnership. Germany and the US shared a large portion of their culture, established intensive global trade environment, and continued to co-operate on new high technologies. However, tensions remained between differing approaches on both sides of the Atlantic. The fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent German reunification marked a new era in German-American co-operation.

East Germany

Main article: East Germany–United States relations
 
Interessengemeinschaft Mandan-Indianer Leipzig 1970, the popular image of Native Americans made Indian living history quite popular in communist East Germany

Relations between the United States and East Germany were hostile. The United States followed Konrad Adenauer's Hallstein Doctrine, which declared that recognition of East Germany by any country would be treated as an unfriendly act by West Germany. Relations between the two German state thawed somewhat in the 1970s, as part of Détente between East and West and the 'Ostpolitik' policies of the Brandt government. United States recognized East Germany officially in September 1974, when Erich Honecker was the leader of the ruling Socialist Unity Party.

 
Map showing the division of East and West Germany until 1990, with West Berlin in yellow.

Reunification 1989-1990

Further information: Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration and German reunification

President George H. W. Bush (1989–1993) played a large part by his constant support of unification, and several US historians argue that Bush had a significant role in ensuring the unified Germany committed to NATO.[112] While Britain and France were wary of a re-unified Germany, Bush strongly supported West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in pushing for rapid German reunification in 1990.[113] Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve U.S. interests, but he also saw reunification as providing a final symbolic end to World War II.[114] After extensive negotiations, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO under the condition that the former territory of the German Democratic Republic would not be remiliterised, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990. This was a situation previously considered unthinkable, given the previous status of the Soviet Union, but it was made feasible by the time of the fall of the East German regime.[115][116] Bush paid attention to domestic public opinion. Serious doubts about reunification were voiced by the Jewish-American and Polish-American communities—whose families had suffered immensely from Nazism. However, the largely positive public opinion towards German unification in the United States generally corresponded to the sentiments of the usually passive German-American community.[117]

Reunified Germany

During the early 1990s, the reunified Germany was called a "partnership in leadership" as the US emerged as the world's sole superpower. Germany's effort to incorporate any major military actions into the European Union's slowly-progressing Common Security and Defence Policy did not meet the expectations of the U.S. during the Gulf War of 1990–1991.

Since 2001

 
U.S. President Barack Obama with German President Joachim Gauck in Berlin, June 2013

After the September 11 attacks in 2001, German-American political relations were strengthened in an effort to combat terrorism, and Germany sent troops to Afghanistan as part of the NATO force. Yet, discord continued over the Iraq War, when German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer made efforts to prevent war and did not join the US and the UK, which both led multinational force in Iraq.[118][119] Anti-Americanism rose to the surface after the attacks of 11 September 2001 as hostile German intellectuals argued there were ugly links between globalization, Americanization, and terrorism.[120]

 
Protestors rally against National Security Agency's mass surveillance, Berlin, June 2013

In response to the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures, in which it was revealed that the NSA may have wiretapped major German instutions, including the phone line of Chancellor Merkel,[121] Germany cancelled the 1968 intelligence sharing agreement with the US and UK.[122] New cases of spying on Germany by US agents are subsequently revealed.[123]

Longstanding close relations with the United States flourished especially under the Obama Administration (2009–2017). In 2016 President Barack Obama hailed Chancellor Angela Merkel as his “closest international partner.”[124]

However relations worsened dramatically during the Trump administration (2017–2021), especially regarding NATO funding, trade, tariffs, and Germany's energy dependence upon the Russian Federation.[125][126] In May 2017, Merkel met Donald Trump, the paternal grandson of German immigrants. His statements that the U.S. had been taken advantage of in trade deals during previous administrations had already strained relations with several EU countries and other American allies. Without mentioning Trump specifically, Merkel said after a NATO summit "The times when we could completely rely on others are, to an extent, over,"[127] This came after Trump had said "The Germans are bad, very bad" and "See the millions of cars they are selling to the U.S. Terrible. We will stop this."[128]

In 2021 talks and meetings with Merkel and other European leaders, President Joe Biden spoke of bilateral relations, bolstering transatlantic relations through NATO and the European Union, and closely coordinating on key issues, such as Iran, China, Russia, Afghanistan, climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic and multilateral organizations.[129] In early February 2021, Biden froze the Trump administration's withdrawal of 9,500 troops from U.S. military bases in Germany. Biden's freeze was welcomed by Berlin, which said that the move "serves European and transatlantic security and hence is in our mutual interest."[130]

Merkel met Biden in Washington on July 15, 2021, with an agenda covering COVID-19 pandemic, global warming and economic issues. Trump's opposition to the $11 billion Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline remains an unresolved issue under Biden.[131]

Perceptions and values in the two countries

The exploits of gunslingers on the American frontier played a major role in American folklore, fiction and film. The same stories became immensely popular in Germany, which produced its own novels and films about the American frontier. Karl May (1842–1912) was a German writer best known for his adventure novels set in the American Old West. His main protagonists are Winnetou and Old Shatterhand.[132][133] The German fascination with Amerindians dates to the early 19th century, with a volumous literature. Typical writings focus on "Indianness" and authenticity.[134]

Germany and the US are civil societies. Germany's philosophical heritage and American spirit for "freedom" interlock to a central aspect of Western culture and Western civilization.[citation needed] Even though developed under different geographical settings, the Age of Enlightenment is fundamental to the self-esteem and understanding of both nations.[citation needed]

The American-led invasion of Iraq changed the perception of the US in Germany significantly. A 2013 BBC World Service poll shows found that 35% find American influence to be positive while 39% view it to be negative.[135] Both countries differ in many key areas, such as energy and military intervention.

A survey conducted on behalf of the German embassy in 2007 showed that Americans continued to regard Germany's failure to support the war in Iraq as the main irritant in relations between the two nations. The issue was of declining importance, however, and Americans still considered Germany to be their fourth most important international partner behind the United Kingdom, Canada and Japan. Americans considered economic cooperation to be the most positive aspect of US-German relations with a much smaller role played by Germany in U.S. politics.[136]

Among the nations of Western Europe, German public perception of the US is unusual in that it has continually fluctuated back and forth from fairly positive in 2002 (60%), to considerably negative in 2007 (30%), back to mildly positive in 2012 (52%), and back to considerably negative in 2017 (35%)[137] reflecting the sharply polarized and mixed feelings of the German people for the United States.

According to findings from the Pew Research Center and Körber-Stiftung in 2021 Americans considered Germany to be their fifth most important foreign policy partner, while Germans in turn regarded the US as their most important partner.[138]

Hostilities and tensions

Main articles: Anti-American sentiment in Germany and Anti-German sentiment

German observers took a keen interest in American race relations, especially the inferior status of Blacks in the South. Visitors stressed the incongruity of American democratic ideals and the system of segregation prevalent before 1965.[139]

While musical connoisseurs deplored the low state of classical music in America, dixieland black jazz music became popular with youth in Berlin and other cities in the 1920s. Germans came to appreciate country music in the 1950s.[140] During World War I, German compositions were dropped from the classical music repertoire temporarily. Dr. Karl Muck, conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, was arrested and deported in 1919. The Metropolitan Opera in New York City restored Wagner's "Ring cycle" in 1924.[141]

In the postwar era 1945–1970, as the United States helped rebuild West Germany, anti-Americanism was weak. However, in the late 1960s, West Germany's youth contrasted the images of Woodstock—which they liked—and Vietnam—which they hated.[citation needed] Young rebels turned to violence to destroy the foundations of a society that backed American cultural imperialism. Anti-Americanism reappeared among intellectuals after the attacks on 11 September 2001 because some of them linked globalization, Americanization, and terrorism.[142] The War in Iraq in 2003 was highly unpopular at all levels of German society.[143]

During the Cold War, anti-Americanism was the official government policy in East Germany, and pro-American dissenters were punished. In West Germany, anti-Americanism was the common position on the left, but a majority of the population held positive views towards the United States.[144] Germany's refusal to support the American-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was often seen in the United States itself as a manifestation of anti-Americanism.[145]

Anti-Americanism had been muted on the right since 1945, but reemerged in the 21st century especially in the Alternative for Germany (AfD) party that began in opposition to European Union, and now has become both anti-American and anti-immigrant. Annoyance or distrust of the Americans was heightened in 2013 by revelations of American spying on top German officials, including Chancellor Angela Merkel.[146]

Military relations

 
Statue of General von Steuben at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania
 
U.S. Army 3rd Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment soldiers returning to their garrison in Vilseck during Operation Dragoon Ride in 2015.
 
Defence ministers James Mattis (U.S.) and Ursula von der Leyen (Germany) meeting in Washington, DC

History

German-American military relations began in the American Revolution when German troops fought on both sides. Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a former Captain in the Prussian Army, was appointed Inspector General of the Continental Army and played the major role in training American soldiers to the best European standards. Von Steuben is considered to be one of the founding fathers of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Another German that served during the American Revolution was Major General Johann de Kalb, who served under Horatio Gates at the Battle of Camden and died as a result of several wounds he sustained during the fighting.

About 30,000 German mercenaries fought for the British, with 17,000 hired from Hesse, about one in four of the adult male population of the principality. The Hessians fought under their own officers under British command. Leopold Philip de Heister, Wilhelm von Knyphausen, and Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg were the principal generals who commanded these troops with Frederick Christian Arnold, Freiherr von Jungkenn as the senior German officer.[147]

German Americans have been very influential in the American military. Some notable figures include Brigadier General August Kautz, Major General Franz Sigel, General of the Armies John J. Pershing, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, and General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.

Today

 
US Navy ships USS Tulsa (LCS-16) (left) and USS Jackson (LCS-6) (right) conduct a joint exercise with German frigate FGS Bayern (F-217) (center) in the Philippine Sea in 2021

The United States established a permanent military presence in Germany at the end of the Second World War that continued throughout the Cold War, with a peak level of over 274,000 U.S. troops stationed in Germany in 1962,[148] and was drawn down in the early 21st century. The last American tanks were withdrawn from Germany in 2013,[149] but they returned the following year to address a gap in multinational training opportunities.[150] The U.S. had 35,000 American troops in Germany in 2017.[148]

Germany and the United States are joint NATO members. Both nations have cooperated closely in the War on Terror, for which Germany provided more troops than any other nation. Germany hosts the headquarters of the US Africa Command and the Ramstein Air Base, a U.S. Air Force base.[151]

The two nations had opposing public policy positions in the War in Iraq; Germany blocked US efforts to secure UN resolutions in the buildup to war, but Germany quietly supported some US interests in southwest Asia.[citation needed] German soldiers operated military biological and chemical cleanup equipment at Camp Doha in Kuwait; German Navy ships secured sea lanes to deter attacks by Al Qaeda on U.S. Forces and equipment in the Persian Gulf; and soldiers from Germany's Bundeswehr deployed all across southern Germany to US military bases to conduct force protection duties in place of German-based U.S. Soldiers who were deployed to the Iraq War. The latter mission lasted from 2002 until 2006, by which time nearly all these Bundeswehr were demobilized.[152] U.S. soldiers wounded in Iraq received medical treatment at the Landstuhl Regional Medical Center, a US military hospital located in Rheinland Pfalz.

In March 2019, Trump was reportedly drafting a demand several countries, including Germany, to pay the United States 150% of the cost of the American troops deployed on their soil. The proposed demand was criticized by experts. Douglas Lute, a retired general and former US ambassador to NATO, said that Trump was using "a misinformed narrative that these facilities are there for the benefits of those countries. The truth is they're there and we maintain them because they're in our interest."[153]

In a sharp deterioration of relations, in summer 2020, Washington announced plans to significantly cut the number of US military personnel stationed in Germany, from 34,500 to 25,000.[154] Members of the German government criticized the move, calling it "unacceptable" and stating that current US-German relations are "complicated."[155] President Trump told reporters that US troops:

are there to protect Germany, right? And Germany is supposed to pay for it....Germany’s not paying for it. We don’t want to be the suckers any more. The United States has been taken advantage of for 25 years, both on trade and on the military. So we’re reducing the force because they’re not paying their bills.[156]

As of August 2020, the plan was to move 11,900 troops out of Germany and reassign them elsewhere in Europe, either immediately or after first returning them to the United States for a while. The movement is estimated to cost billions of dollars.[157] In February 2021 President Biden decided to freeze the withdrawal of the troops initiated by his predecessor for further review of the troop deployment around the world.[158]

Economic relations

 
U.S. trade deficit (in billions, goods only) by country in 2014

Economic relations between Germany and the United States are average. The Transatlantic Economic Partnership between the US and the EU, which was launched in 2007 on Germany's initiative, and the subsequently created Transatlantic Economic Council open up additional opportunities. The US is Germany's principal trading partner outside the EU and Germany is the US's most important trading partner in Europe. In terms of the total volume of U.S. bilateral trade (imports and exports), Germany remains in fourth place, behind Canada, China and Mexico. The US ranks fourth among Germany's trading partners, after the Netherlands, China and France. At the end of 2013, bilateral trade was worth $162 billion.[159]

Germany and the US are important to each other as investment destinations. At the end of 2012, bilateral investment was worth $320 billion, German direct investment in the US amounting to $266billion and U.S. direct investment in Germany $121 billion. At the end of 2012, US direct investment in Germany stood at approximately $121 billion, an increase of nearly 14% over the previous year (approximately $106 billion). During the same period, German direct investment in the US amounted to some $199 billion, below the previous year's level (approximately $215 billion). Germany is the second largest foreign investor in the US, only after the United Kingdom, and ranks third as a destination for US foreign direct investment.

In 2019 the United States Senate[160] announced intention of passing controversial legislation which threatened to place sanctions on German or European Union companies which work to complete a petrol-chemical pipeline between Germany and Russia.[161]

Cultural relations

Karl May was a prolific German writer who specialized in writing Westerns. Although he visited America only once towards the end of his life, May was well known for his series of frontier novels, which provided Germans with an imaginary view of America.

Notable German-American architects, artist, musicians and writers include:

A German-American Friendship Garden was built in Washington, DC, and stands as a symbol of the positive and co-operative relations between the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany. It is on the historic axis between the White House and the Washington Monument on the National Mall, the garden borders Constitution Avenue between 15th and 17th Streets, where an estimated seven million visitors pass each year. The garden features plants native to both Germany and the United States and provides seating and cooling fountains.[162] Commissioned to commemorate the 300th anniversary of German immigration to America, the garden was dedicated on November 15, 1988.[163]

Research and academia

See also: List of German aerospace engineers in the United States
 
Von Braun, with his arm in a cast from a car accident, surrendered to the Americans just before this May 3, 1945 photo.

Following the Nazi rise to power in 1933, and in particular the passing of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which removed opponents and persons with one Jewish grandparent from government positions (including academia), hundreds of physicists and other academics fled Germany and many came to the United States. James Franck and Albert Einstein were among the more notable scientists who ended up in the United States. Many of the physicists who fled were subsequently instrumental in the wartime Manhattan Project to develop the nuclear bomb. Following the World War II, some of these academics returned to Germany but many remained in the United States.[164][165]

After WWII and during the Cold War, Operation Paperclip was a secret United States Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA) program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians (many of whom were formerly registered members of the Nazi Party and some of whom had leadership roles in the Nazi Party), including Wernher von Braun's rocket team, were recruited and brought to the United States for government employment from post-Nazi Germany.[166][167] Wernher von Braun, who built the German V-2 rockets, and his team of scientists came to the United States and were central in building the American space exploration program.[168]

Researchers at German and American universities run various exchange programs and projects, and focus on space exploration, the International Space Station, environmental technology, and medical science. Import cooperations are also in the fields of biochemistry, engineering, information and communication technologies and life sciences (networks through: Bacatec, DAAD). The United States and Germany signed a bilateral Agreement on Science and Technology Cooperation in February 2010.[169]

American cultural institutions in Germany

In the postwar era, a number of institutions, devoted to highlighting American culture and society in Germany, were established and are in existence today, especially in the south of Germany, the area of the former U.S. Occupied Zone. They offer English courses as well as cultural programs.

Resident diplomatic missions

  •  

    Embassy of Germany in Washington, D.C.

  •  

    Consulate-General of Germany in New York City

  •  

    Consulate-General of Germany in San Francisco

  •  

    Embassy of the United States in Berlin

  •  

    Consulate-General of the United States in Frankfurt

  •  

    Consulate-General of the United States in Hamburg

  •  

    Consulate-General of the United States in Munich

See also

Notable organizations

U.S. relations with former German states

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Bibliography

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Pre 1933

Further information: Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration § Further reading
  • Adam, Thomas and Ruth Gross, ed. Traveling Between Worlds: German-American Encounters (Texas A&M UP, 2006), primary sources.
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  • Dippel, Horst. Germany and the American Revolution, 1770–1800 (1977), Showed a deep intellectual impact on Germany of the American Revolution.
  • Doerries, Reinhard R. "Imperial Berlin and Washington: New Light on Germany's Foreign Policy and America's Entry into World War I." Central European History 11.1 (1978): 23–49. online.
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  • Keim, Jeannette. Forty years of German-American political relations (1919) online, Comprehensive analysis of major issues, including tariff, China, Monroe Doctrine.
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  • Lingelbach, William E. "Saxon-American Relations, 1778–1828." American Historical Review 17#3 (1912): 517–539. online
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  • Maurer, John H. "American naval concentration and the German battle fleet, 1900–1918." Journal of Strategic Studies 6#2 (1983): 147–181.
  • Mitchell, Nancy. The danger of dreams: German and American imperialism in Latin America (1999).
  • Mustafa, Sam A. Merchants and Migrations: Germans and Americans in Connection, 1776–1835 (2001).
  • Oehling, Richard A. "Germans in Hollywood Films: The Changing Image, 1914-1939." Film & History 3.2 (1973): 1-26.
  • Oren, Ido. "The subjectivity of the 'democratic' peace: changing US perceptions of imperial Germany." International Security 20.2 (1995): 147–184. online
  • Parsons, James Russell. Prussian schools through American eyes ; a report to the New York state Department of public instruction (1891) online
  • Pochmann, Henry A. German Culture in America: Philosophical and Literary Influences 1600–1900 (1957). 890pp; comprehensive review of German influence on Americans esp 19th century. online
  • Reeves, Jesse S. "The Prussian-American Treaties" American Journal of International Law (1917) vol. 11 online
  • Röhrs, Hermann. The Classical German Concept of the University and Its Influence on Higher Education in the United States (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1995).
  • Schoonover, Thomas. Germany in Central America: Competitive Imperialism, 1821–1929(1998) online
  • Schröder, Hans-Jürgen, ed. Confrontation and cooperation: Germany and the United States in the era of World War I, 1900–1924 (1993).
  • Schwabe, Klaus "Anti-Americanism within the German Right, 1917–1933," Amerikastudien/American Studies (1976) 21#1 pp 89–108.
  • Schwabe, Klaus. Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany, and Peacemaking, 1918–1919, University of North Carolina Press, 1985.
  • Shippee, Lester Burrell. "German-American Relations, 1890-1914." Journal of Modern History 8.4 (1936): 479–488. online, focus on trade wars.
  • Sides, Ashley. What Americans Said about Saxony, and what this Says about Them: Interpreting Travel Writings of the Ticknors and Other Privileged Americans, 1800—1850 (MA Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington, 2008). online
  • Singer, Sandra L. Adventures abroad : North American women at German-speaking universities, 1868-1915 (2003) online
  • Small, Melvin. "The United States and the German 'Threat' to the Hemisphere, 1905–1914." The Americas 28#3 (1972): 252–270. Says there was no threat because Germany accepted the Monroe Doctrine.
  • Trommler, Frank. "The Lusitania Effect: America's Mobilization against Germany in World War I." German Studies Review (2009): 241–266. online
  • Vagts, Alfred. Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik (2 vols.) (New York: Dornan, 1935), a major study of 2000 pages that was never translated.
    • Vagts, Alfred. "Hopes and Fears of an American-German War, 1870–1915 I." Political Science Quarterly 54#4 (1939): 514–535. in JSTOR
    • Vagts, Alfred. "Hopes and Fears of an American-German War, 1870–1915 II." Political Science Quarterly 55#1 (1940): 53–76. in JSTOR
  • Wittke, Carl. Refugees of Revolution: The German Forty-Eighters in America (1952). at archive.org
  • Wittke, Carl. "American Germans in Two World Wars." Wisconsin Magazine of History (1943): 6–16. online
  • Zacharasiewicz, Waldemar. Images of Germany in American literature (2007).

1933–1941

  • Bell, Leland V. "The Failure of Nazism in America: The German American Bund, 1936–1941." Political Science Quarterly 85#4 (1970): 585–599. in JSTOR
  • Dallek Robert. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy (Oxford University Press, 1979)
  • Fischer, Klaus P. Hitler & America (2011) online
  • Freidel, Frank. "FDR vs. Hitler: American Foreign Policy, 1933-1941" Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Vol. 99 (1987), pp. 25–43 online.
  • Frye, Alton. Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933–1941 (1967).
  • Haag, John. "Gone With the Wind in Nazi Germany." Georgia Historical Quarterly 73#2 (1989): 278–304. in JSTOR
  • Heilbut, Anthony. Exiled in Paradise: German Refugee Artists and Intellectuals in America from the 1930s to the Present (1983).
  • Margolick, David. Beyond Glory: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling and a World on the Brink. (2005), world heavyweight boxing championship.
  • Nagorski, Andrew. Hitlerland: American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power (2012).
  • Norden, Margaret K. "American Editorial Response to the Rise of Adolf Hitler: A Preliminary Consideration." American Jewish Historical Quarterly 59#3 (1970): 290–301. in JSTOR
  • Offner, Arnold A. American Appeasement: United States Foreign Policy and Germany, 1933–1938 (Harvard University Press, 1969) online edition
  • Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) online pp 636–52, FDR's policies
  • Rosenbaum, Robert A. Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 (2010) online
  • Sandeen, Eric J. "Anti-Nazi sentiment in film: Confessions of a Nazi spy and the German-American Bund." American Studies (1979): 69–81, on Hollywood online.
  • Schuler, Friedrich E. Mexico between Hitler and Roosevelt: Mexican foreign relations in the age of Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934–1940 (1999).
  • Weinberg, Gerhard L. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (2 vols. (1980)
  • Weinberg, Gerhard L. "Hitler's image of the United States." American Historical Review 69#4 (1964): 1006–1021. in JSTOR

After 1941

  • Backer, John H. The Decision to Divide Germany: American Foreign Policy in Transition (1978)
  • Bark, Dennis L. and David R. Gress. A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963 (1989); A History of West Germany Vol 2: Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1988 (1989), the standard scholarly history in English
  • Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations? Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. ISBN 9781138731349 .
  • Brady, Steven J. Eisenhower and Adenauer: Alliance maintenance under pressure, 1953–1960 (Rowman & Littlefield, 2009). online review
  • Casey, Stephen, Cautious Crusade: Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Public Opinion, and the War against Nazi Germany (2004)
  • Clark, Claudia. Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel (2021)
  • Costigliola, Frank. "An 'Arm around the Shoulder': The United States, NATO and German Reunification, 1989-90." Contemporary European History (1994) pp: 87–110. online
  • Costigliola, Frank. "Lyndon B. Johnson, Germany, and ‘The End of the Cold War.’." in Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World: American Foreign Policy, 1963–1968 (1963) pp: 173-210.
  • Gimbel John F. American Occupation of Germany (Stanford UP, 1968)
  • Granieri, Ronald J. The Ambivalent Alliance: Konrad Adenauer, the CDU/CSU, and the West, 1949-1966 (Berghahn Books, 2003).
  • Hanrieder Wolfram. West German Foreign Policy, 1949–1979 (Westview, 1980)
  • Höhn, Maria H. GIs and Frèauleins: The German-American Encounter in 1950s West Germany (U of North Carolina Press, 2002)
  • Immerfall, Stefan. Safeguarding German-American Relations in the New Century: Understanding and Accepting Mutual Differences (2006)
  • Ingimundarson, Valur. "The Eisenhower Administration, the Adenauer Government, and the Political Uses of the East German Uprising in 1953." Diplomatic History 20.3 (1996): 381–410. online
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  • Junker, Detlef, et al. eds. The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945–1968: A Handbook, Vol. 1: 1945–1968; (2004) excerpt and text search; Vol. 2: 1968–1990 (2004) excerpt and text search, comprehensive coverage.
  • Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern. "The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance." Atlantic Council: Issue Brief (2021) online
  • Kuklick, Bruce. American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations (Cornell University Press, 1972)
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  • Large, David Clay. Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era (U of North Carolina Press, 1996).
  • Ninkovich, Frank. Germany and the United States: The Transformation of the German Question since 1945 (1988)
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  • Pells, Richard. Not like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated and Transformed American Culture since World War II (1997) online
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  • Szabo, Stephen F. "Different Approaches to Russia: The German–American–Russian Strategic Triangle." German Politics 27.2 (2018): 230–243, regarding the Cold War

Historiography and memory

  • Adams, Willi Paul. "American History Abroad: Personal Reflections on the Conditions of Scholarship in West Germany." Reviews in American History 14.4 (1986): 557–568. online
  • Depkat, Volker. "Introduction: American History/ies in Germany: Assessments, Transformations, Perspectives." Amerikastudien/American Studies (2009): 337–343. in JSTOR
  • Doerries, Reinhard R. "The Unknown Republic: American History at German Universities." Amerikastudien/American Studies (2005): 99–125. in JSTOR
  • Fiebig-von Hase, Ragnhild, and Ursula Lehmkuhl, eds. Enemy images in American history (Berghahn Books, 1998).
  • Gassert, Philipp. "Writing about the (American) past, thinking of the (German) present: The history of US foreign relations in Germany." Amerikastudien/American Studies (2009): 345–382. in JSTOR
  • Gassert, Philipp. "The Study of U.S. History in Germany." European Contributions to American Studies (2007), Vol. 66, pp 117–132.
  • Schröder, Hans-Jürgen. "Twentieth-Century German-American Relations: Historiography and Research Perspectives" in Frank Trommler, Joseph McVeigh eds., America and the Germans, Volume 2: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred Year History--The Relationship in the Twentieth Century (1985) online
  • Sielke, Sabine. "Theorizing American Studies: German Interventions into an Ongoing Debate." European journal of American studies 1.1-1 (2006) online
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  • Strunz, Gisela. American Studies oder Amerikanistik?: Die deutsche Amerikawissenchaft und die Hoffnung auf Erneuerung der Hochschulen und der politischen Kultur nach 1945 (Springer-Verlag, 2013).
  • Tuttle, William M. "American higher education and the Nazis: the case of James B. Conant and Harvard University's" diplomatic relations" with Germany." American Studies 20.1 (1979): 49-70. online
  • Wilhelm, Cornelia. "Nazi Propaganda and the Uses of the Past: Heinz Kloss and the Making of a" German America"." Amerikastudien/American Studies (2002): 55–83. online

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Relations of Germany and the United States.
  • U.S. Embassy and Consulates in Germany (in English and German)
    • List of U.S. Embassy and Consulates in Germany (in English and German)
  • German Missions in the United States (in English and German)
    • (in English and German)
  • "A Guide to the United States’ History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Germany". United States Department of State. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  • American Chamber of Commerce in Germany
  • AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies in Washington, D.C.
  • American Council on Germany
  • Atlantische Akademie Rheinland-Pfalz e.V.
  • The Atlantic Times German reports on USA
  • DAAD New York, for Germans studying in USA

April 04, 2023
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Today Germany and the United States are close and strong allies 1 In the mid and late 19th century millions of Germans migrated to farms and industrial jobs in the United States especially in the Midwest Later the two nations fought each other in World War I 1917 1918 and World War II 1941 1945 After 1945 the U S with the United Kingdom and France occupied Western Germany and built a demilitarized democratic society West Germany achieved independence in 1949 It joined NATO in 1955 with the caveat that its security policy and military development would remain closely tied to that of France the UK and the United States 2 While West Germany was becoming closely integrated with the U S and NATO East Germany became an Eastern Bloc satellite state closely tied to the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact After communist rule ended in Eastern Europe amid the Revolutions of 1989 and the fall of the Berlin Wall Germany was reunified The reunified Federal Republic of Germany became a full member of the European Union then European Community NATO and one of the closest allies of the United States In 2022 Germany is working with NATO and the European Union to defeat the Russian invasion of Ukraine In the process Germany is sharply reducing its dependence on Russian oil and gas Germany has the third largest economy in the world after the U S and China 3 Today both the countries enjoy a special relationship 4 5 German American relationsGermany United StatesDiplomatic missionEmbassy of Germany Washington D C Embassy of the United States BerlinEnvoyAmbassador Emily Margarethe HaberAmbassador Amy Gutmann Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2 1 German immigration to the United States 2 1 1 1683 1848 2 1 2 1848 1914 2 1 3 Since 1914 2 2 Education and culture 2 2 1 Philosophy 2 2 2 Education 2 2 3 Music 2 2 4 Science and medicine 2 3 Diplomacy and trade 2 3 1 1775 to 1870 2 3 2 After 1871 2 3 3 Pork war and protectionism 2 3 4 Samoan crisis 2 3 5 Caribbean 2 3 5 1 Venezuelan crisis of 1902 1903 2 4 American images of Germany Before 1917 2 5 World War I Democracy vs autocracy 2 6 Interwar period 2 6 1 1920s 2 6 2 Nazi era 1933 41 2 7 World War II 2 8 Cold War 2 8 1 West Germany 2 8 2 East Germany 2 9 Reunification 1989 1990 2 10 Reunified Germany 2 11 Since 2001 3 Perceptions and values in the two countries 3 1 Hostilities and tensions 4 Military relations 4 1 History 4 2 Today 5 Economic relations 6 Cultural relations 7 Research and academia 8 American cultural institutions in Germany 9 Resident diplomatic missions 10 See also 10 1 Notable organizations 10 2 U S relations with former German states 11 References 12 Bibliography 12 1 Pre 1933 12 2 1933 1941 12 3 After 1941 12 4 Historiography and memory 13 External linksOverview Edit German Chancellor Olaf Scholz and U S President Joe Biden in March 2023 Before 1800 the main factors in German American relations were very large movements of immigrants from Germany to American states especially Pennsylvania the Midwest and central Texas throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries 6 There also was a significant movement of philosophical ideals that influenced American thinking German achievements in public schooling and higher education greatly impressed American educators the American education system was based on the Prussian education system Thousands of American advanced students especially scientists and historians studied at elite German universities There was little movement in the other direction few Americans ever moved permanently to Germany and few German intellectuals studied in America or moved to the United States before 1933 Economic relations were of minor importance before 1920 Diplomatic relations were friendly but of minor importance to either side before the 1870s 7 After the Unification of Germany in 1871 Germany became a major world power Both nations built world class navies and began imperialistic expansion around the world That led to a small scale conflict over the Samoan islands the Second Samoan Civil War A crisis in 1898 when Germany and the United States disputed over who should take control was resolved with the Tripartite Convention in 1899 when the two nations divided up Samoa between them to end the conflict 8 After 1898 the US itself became much more involved in international diplomacy and found itself sometimes in disagreement but more often in agreement with Germany In the early 20th century the rise of the powerful German Navy and its role in Latin America and the Caribbean troubled American military strategists Relations were sometimes tense as in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 03 but all incidents were peacefully resolved 9 Germany acquisition of Philippines was almost proposal on 1910 10 The US tried to remain neutral in the First World War but it provided far more trade and financial support to Britain and the Allies which controlled the Atlantic routes Germany worked to undermine American interests in Mexico In 1917 the German offer of a military alliance against the US in the Zimmermann Telegram contributed to the American decision for war 11 German U boat attacks on British shipping especially the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania without allowing the civilian passengers to reach the lifeboats outraged US public opinion Germany agreed to US demands to stop such attacks but reversed its position in early 1917 to win the war quickly since it mistakenly thought that the US military was too weak to play a decisive role The US public opposed the punitive 1919 Versailles Treaty and both countries signed a separate peace treaty in 1921 In the 1920s American diplomats and bankers provided major assistance to rebuilding the German economy When Hitler and the Nazis took power in 1933 American public opinion was highly negative Relations between the two nations turned sour after 1938 Large numbers of intellectuals scientists and artists found refuge from the Nazis into Britain and France Germany declared war on the United States but American immigration policy strictly limited the number of Jewish refugees The US provided significant military and financial aid to the United Kingdom and France Germany declared war on the United States in December 1941 and Washington made the defeat of Nazi Germany its highest priority above even the Japanese Empire after it directly militarily attacked the United States in the Pearl Harbor bombing The United States played a major role in the occupation and reconstruction of Germany after 1945 The US provided billions of dollars in aid by the Marshall Plan to rebuild the West German economy The two nations relationship became very positive in terms of democratic ideals anti communism and high levels of economic trade Today the US is one of Germany s closest allies and partners outside of the European Union 12 The people of the two countries see each other as reliable allies but disagree on some key policy issues Americans want Germany to play a more active military role but Germans strongly disagree 13 History EditRelations between the United States and the different German states was generally friendly in the 19th century Americans gave strong support to the revolutionary movements of 1848 and welcomed political refugees when that liberalizing revolution failed The German states supported the United States during the Civil War and gave no support to the Confederacy At the time tensions between the United States and France were very high and Americans generally supported the Germans in their war against France in 1870 71 14 German immigration to the United States Edit Main articles German Americans and German language in the United States Self reported ancestry of the population of the United States by counties 2001 Largest self reported ancestries in the United States 2000 For over three centuries immigration from Germany accounted for a large share of all American immigrants As of the 2000 US Census more than 20 of all Americans and 25 of white Americans claim German descent German Americans are an assimilated group which influences political life in the US as a whole They are the most common self reported ethnic group in the Northern United States especially in the Midwest In most of the South German Americans are less common with the exception of Texas 15 1683 1848 Edit Main article Pennsylvania Dutch The first records of German immigration date back to the 17th century and the foundation of Germantown now part of Philadelphia in 1683 Immigration from Germany reached its first peak between 1749 and 1754 when approximately 37 000 Germans came to North America The main settlements were in Pennsylvania where they are known as the Pennsylvania Dutch nearby areas of upstate New York also attract the Germans in the colonial era 16 1848 1914 Edit Further information German Americans 19th century In 1840 1914 about seven million Germans emigrated to the United States Farmers who sold their land in Germany bought larger farms in the Middle West Mechanics settled in the cities of Baltimore Cincinnati St Louis Chicago Detroit and New York City Few went to New England or the South apart from a colony formed in Texas 17 By 1890 more than 40 percent of the population of the cities of Cleveland Milwaukee Hoboken and Cincinnati were of German origin By the end of the 19th century Germans formed the largest self described ethnic group in the United States with a strong German speaking element They were generally permanent settlers few returned to Germany and few showed a loyalty to the mother country Some were political refugees others were avoiding the universal conscription They generally spoke German language until the First World War in 1917 although the younger generation was bilingual 18 The failed German Revolutions of 1848 forced political refugees to flee Those who came to the U S were called the Forty Eighters 19 Many joined the new anti slavery Republican Party such as Carl Schurz a nationally important politician In the late 19th century Germans were active in the labor movement Labor unions enabled skilled craftsmen to control their working conditions and to have a voice in American society 20 Since 1914 Edit A combination of patriotism and anti German sentiment along with civil strife during both world wars caused most German Americans to cut their former ties and assimilate into mainstream American culture with disbanding of German cultural groups There was a collapse in teaching the German language in schools and colleges German related placenames were changed 21 During the Third Reich 1933 1945 a wave of German Jews and other political anti Nazi refugees left but restrictive immigration policies blocked many of them from entering the U S Among those who did enter were Albert Einstein and Henry Kissinger 22 Today German Americans form the largest self reported ancestry group in the United States with California and Pennsylvania having the highest numbers with German ancestry 23 Education and culture Edit German culture was an important inspiration for American thinkers before 1914 Philosophy Edit The influential literary political and philosophical movement of Transcendentalism emerged in New England in the early 19th century It centered around Ralph Waldo Emerson and derived from European Romanticism German Biblical criticism and the transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant and German idealism 24 In the late 19th century German Hegelianism was taught by Friedrich August Rauch as well as William T Harris and the St Louis Hegelians It represented an extreme idealism in opposition to pragmatism 25 Education Edit Upon becoming the secretary of education of Massachusetts in 1837 Horace Mann 1796 1859 worked to create a statewide system of professional teachers based on the Prussian model of common schools Prussia was developing a system of education by which all students were entitled to the same content in their public classes Mann initially focused on elementary education and on training teachers The common school movement quickly gained strength across the North His crusading style attracted wide national support providing a German roots for the school systems in most states An important technique which Mann had learned in Prussia and introduced in Massachusetts in 1848 was to place students in grades by age They progressed through the grades together regardless of differences of aptitude In addition he used the lecture method common in European universities which required students to receive professional instruction rather than teach one another 26 American adopted the German kindergarten German immigrants brought gymnastics and physical education through the Turner movement 27 Over 15 000 American scholars and scientists studied at German universities before 1914 8 were women They returned with PhDs and built research oriented universities based on the German model such as Cornell Johns Hopkins Chicago and Stanford and upgraded established schools like Harvard Columbia and Wisconsin 28 29 Flush with dollars they built research libraries overnight often by purchasing major collections in Europe Syracuse University purchased the research library of Germany s leading historian Leopold von Ranke 1795 1886 30 Music Edit In the colonial era the Pennsylvania German sects brought their love of music Moravian music proved widely influential 31 In the mid to late late 19th century Philadelphia Boston New York Cincinnati Chicago and other musically inclined cities created symphony orchestras which featured German classical music prominent German conductors were hired along with performers and teachers Theodore Thomas 1835 1905 was the most influential figure introducing modern European composers and orchestral technique to New York Cincinnati and Chicago 32 33 In return Matthias Hohne brought the harmonica to Germany in 1857 where hooty tooty became popular 34 Science and medicine Edit Samuel Hahnemann 1755 1843 was a German physician who created pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine called homeopathy It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram a student of Hahnemann 35 It became popular in the U S well before it caught on in Germany 36 Physicians in Germany learned about narcotics for anesthesia from the U S 37 Diplomacy and trade Edit 1775 to 1870 Edit During the American Revolution 1775 1783 King Frederick the Great of Prussia strongly hated the British He favored the Kingdom of France and impeded Britain s war effort in subtle ways such as blocking the passage of Hessian mercenaries However the importance of British trade and the risk of attack from Austria made him pursue a peace policy and maintain an official strict neutrality 38 39 After the war direct trade was minimal What existed ran between the American ports of Baltimore Norfolk and Philadelphia and the old Hanseatic League free cities of Bremen Hamburg and Lubeck grew steadily Americans exported tobacco rice cotton and imported textiles metal products colognes brandies and toiletries The Napoleonic Wars 1803 1815 and increasing instability in the German Confederation states led to a decline in the modest trade between the United States and the Hanse cities The level of trade never came close to matching the trade with Britain It further declined because the US delayed a commercial treaty until 1827 US diplomacy was ineffective but the commercial consuls local businessmen handled their work so well that the US successfully developed diplomatic ties with the Kingdom of Prussia 40 The Kingdom of Prussia under Friedrich Wilhelm III took the initiative in sending trade experts to Washington in 1834 The first permanent American diplomat came in 1835 when Henry Wheaton was sent to Prussia The American secretary of state foreign minister said in 1835 that not a single point of controversy exists between the two countries calling for adjustment and that their commercial intercourse based upon treaty stipulations is conducted upon those liberal and enlightened principles of reciprocity which are gradually making their way against the narrow prejudices and blighting influences of the prohibitive system 41 The German revolutions of 1848 1849 were celebrated in the U S which was the only major country to bestow diplomatic recognition on its short lived National Assembly in Frankfort 42 When the revolution was crushed thousands of activists fled to the United States The most important were Carl Schurz Franz Sigel and Friedrich Hecker The exiled Germans became known as the Forty Eighters 43 As the German element grew in Illinois Abraham Lincoln worked to secure their support in the 1850s including sponsoring a German language newspaper However apart from the 48ers most were Democrats 44 During the American Civil War 1861 1865 all of the German states favored the northern Union but remained officially neutral They did not support France s takeover of Mexico Immigration flows continued and large numbers of immigrants and their sons enlisted in the Union Army In St Louis pro Union German provided decisive support to suppress Confederate supporters 45 U S Consul General William Walton Murphy based in Frankfurt on the Main neutralized attempts by Confederates to borrow money He solicited medical supplies sold American bonds facilitated German purchases of cotton seized by the U S Army and promoted support for Lincoln s war goals in the German press 46 After the war Washington was neutral but favored Prussia in its wars against Denmark and Austria and felt that consolidation under Prussia was a good idea Prussia was planning a major war against France and cultivated American support 47 After 1871 Edit Washington was neutral in the Franco Prussian War of 1870 71 but public opinion favored the German cause Relations with the new German Empire started on a high note German men who immigrated to the U S then returned home were liable for military service but that was a minor irritant and was largely resolved by treaties negotiated by American minister George Bancroft in 1868 48 In 1876 the German commissioner for the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia stated that the German armaments machines arts and crafts on display were of inferior quality to British and American products Germany industrialized rapidly under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1870 1890 but its competition was more with Britain than with the US It imported increasing amounts of American farm products especially cotton wheat and tobacco 49 Pork war and protectionism Edit Main article Pork war In the 1880s ten European countries Germany Italy Portugal Greece Spain France Austria Hungary the Ottoman Empire Romania and Denmark imposed a ban on importation of American pork 50 They pointed to vague reports of trichinosis that supposedly originated with American hogs 51 At issue was over 1 3 billion pounds of pork products in 1880 with a value of 100 million annually European farmers were angry at cheap American food overrunning their home markets for wheat pork and beef demanded for their governments to fight back and called for a boycott European manufacturing interests were also threatened by growing American industrial exports and were angry at the high American tariff on imports from European factories Chancellor Bismarck took a hard line rejected the pro trade German businessmen and refused to join in scientific studies proposed by President Chester A Arthur American investigations reported that American pork was safe Bismarck because of his political base of German landowners insisted on protection and ignored the leading German expert Professor Rudolf Virchow who condemned the embargo as unjustified 52 53 American public opinion grew angry at Berlin President Grover Cleveland rejected retaliation but it was threatened by his successor Benjamin Harrison who charged Whitelaw Reid minister to France and William Walter Phelps minister to Germany to end the boycott without delay Harrison also persuaded Congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act of 1890 to guarantee the quality of the export product President Harrison used his Agriculture Secretary Jeremiah McLain Rusk to threaten Berlin with retaliation by initiating an embargo against Germany s popular beet sugar That proved decisive for Germany to relent in September 1891 Other nations soon followed and the boycott was soon over 54 55 Samoan crisis Edit Main article Samoan crisis Bismarck himself did not want colonies but he reversed course in the face of public and elite opinion that favored imperialistic expansion around the world In 1889 the US Britain and Germany were locked in a petty dispute over control of the Samoan Islands in the Pacific The islands provided an ideal location for coaling stations needed by steamships in the South Pacific 56 The issue emerged in 1887 when the Germans tried to establish control over the island chain and President Cleveland responded by sending three naval vessels to defend the Samoan government American and German warships faced off Suddenly both sides were badly damaged by the 1889 Apia cyclone of March 15 17 1889 57 The two powers and Britain agreed to meet in Berlin to resolve the crisis Chancellor Bismarck decided to ignore the small issues involved and improve relations with Washington and London The result was the Treaty of Berlin which established a three power protectorate in Samoa The three powers agreed to Western Samoa s independence and neutrality Historian George H Ryden argues that President Harrison played a key role by taking a firm stand on every issue which included the selection of the local ruler the refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany and the establishment of the three power protectorate a first for the U S 58 59 A serious long term result was an American distrust of Germany s foreign policy after Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890 60 When unrest continued international tensions flared in 1899 Germany unilaterally pulled back the treaty and established a control over Western Samoa It was seized by New Zealand in the First World War 61 62 Caribbean Edit Main article German interest in the Caribbean In the late 19th century the Kaiserliche Marine German Navy sought to establish a coaling station somewhere in the Caribbean Sea area Imperial Germany was rapidly building a blue water navy but coal burning warships needed frequent refueling and so needed to operate within range of a coaling station Preliminary plans were vetoed by Bismarck who did not want to antagonize the US but he was ousted in 1890 by the new emperor Wilhelm II and the Germans kept looking 63 Wilhelm did not publicly challenge Washington s Monroe Doctrine but his naval planners from 1890 to 1910 disliked it as a self aggrandizing legal pretension and were even more concerned with the possible American canal at Panama as it would lead to full American hegemony in the Caribbean The stakes were laid out in the German war aims proposed by the German Navy in 1903 a firm position in the West Indies a free hand in South America and an official revocation of the Monroe Doctrine would provide a solid foundation for our trade to the West Indies Central and South America 64 By 1900 American naval planners were obsessed with German designs in the Western Hemisphere and countered with energetic efforts to secure naval sites in the Caribbean 65 By 1904 German naval strategists had turned its attention to Mexico where they hoped to establish a naval base in a Mexican port on the Caribbean Sea They dropped that plan but it became active again after 1911 the start of the Mexican Revolution and subsequent Mexican Civil War 66 Venezuelan crisis of 1902 1903 Edit See also Venezuelan crisis of 1902 1903 Venezuela defaulted on its foreign loan repayments in 1902 and Britain and Germany sent warships to blockade its ports and force repayment Germany intended to land troops and occupy Venezuelan ports but President Theodore Roosevelt got all sides to enter arbitration which ended the crisis In the short run in 1904 Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary telling Europe when European nations had serious grievances in the Caribbean the United States would intervene and resolve the crisis for them 67 68 Years later in 1916 when Roosevelt was energetically campaigning for the U S to enter World War I against Germany he claimed that in 1903 he issued an ultimatum threatening war with Germany forcing Berlin to back down There is no record of any stern warning in the archives in Berlin or Washington nor in the papers of any top American official dealing with foreign or military policy nor anyone in Congress No observer in Washington or Berlin had ever mentioned the supposed ultimatum According to historian George Herring in 2011 No evidence has ever been discovered of a presidential ultimatum Recent research concludes on the contrary that although the Germans behaved with their usual heavy handedness in general they followed Britain s lead The British in turn went out of their way to avoid undermining their relations with the United States Both nations accepted arbitration to extricate themselves from an untenable situation and stay on good terms with the United States 69 American images of Germany Before 1917 Edit Main articles American entry into World War I Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration and Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff By 1900 American writers were criticizing German aggressiveness in foreign affairs and warned against German militarism Books on anti German topics including politics naval power and diplomacy reached educated audiences German Americans stayed neutral and largely ignored Berlin indeed many of them had left as young men to escape the German draft The Venezuela episode of 1903 focused American media attention on Kaiser Wilhelm II who was increasingly erratic and aggressive The media highlighted his militarism and belligerent speeches and imperialistic goals Meanwhile London was becoming increasingly friendly toward Washington However when the U S was neutral in the First World War Hollywood tried to be neutral 70 No one expected a war in 1914 until the July Crisis suddenly saw a major war between the Central Powers Germany and Austria Hungary and the Allied France Britain and Russia with smaller nations also involved The US insisted on neutrality President Woodrow Wilson s highest priority was to broker a peace and he used his trusted aide Colonel House on numerous efforts For example on June 1 1914 House met secretly with the Kaiser in his palace proposing that Germany the United States and Britain unite to ensure peace and develop Third World countries The Kaiser was mildly interested but Britain was in a major domestic crisis over Ireland and nothing developed 71 72 Apart from an Anglophile element of British descent America public opinion at first echoed Wilson The sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans German Americans and Scandinavian Americans as well as poor white southern farmers cultural leaders Protestant churchmen and women in general 73 The British argument that the Allies were defending civilization against a German militaristic onslaught gained support after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 Outrage followed the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 Americans increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor who had to be stopped Former President Roosevelt and many Republicans were war hawks and demanded rapid American armament 74 Wilson insisted on neutrality and minimized wartime preparations to be able to negotiate for peace After the Lusitania was sunk with over 100 American passengers drowned Wilson demanded that Imperial German Navy U boats follow international law and allow passengers and crew to reach their lifeboats before ships were sunk Germany reluctantly stopped sinking padenger liners However in January 1917 it decided that a massive infantry attack on the Western Front coupled with a full scale attack on all food shipments to Britain would win the war at last Berlin realized the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare almost certainly meant war with the United States but it calculated that the small American military would take years to mobilize and arrive when Germany would have already won Germany reached out to Mexico with the Zimmermann Telegram offering a military alliance against the United States hoping that Washington would divert most of its attention to attacking Mexico London intercepted the telegram the contents of which outraged American opinion 75 World War I Democracy vs autocracy Edit Main article United States home front during World War I Wilson called on Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917 in order to make the world safe for democracy and defeat militarism and autocracy Washington expected to provide money munitions food and raw materials but did not expect to send large troop contingents until it realized how weak the Allies were on the Western Front After the collapse of Russia and its exit from the war in late 1917 Germany could reallocate 600 000 experienced troops to the Western Front But by summer American troops were arriving at the rate of 10 000 a day every day replacing all the Allied losses while the German Army shrank day by day until it finally collapsed in November 1918 On the home front the German American community quietly supported the American effort but there was much unfounded suspicion otherwise Germany was portrayed as a threat to American freedom and way of life 76 Left World War I American poster for enlistment in the U S Army Inside Germany the United States was treated as just another enemy and denounced as a false liberator that wanted to dominate Europe itself As the war ended however the German people embraced Wilson s 14 points and promises of the just peace treaty At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Wilson used his enormous prestige and co operated with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to block some of the harshest French demands against Germany in the Treaty of Versailles Wilson devoted most of his strength to establishing the League of Nations which he felt would end all wars He also signed a treaty with France and Britain to guarantee American support to prevent Germany from invading France again Wilson refused all compromises with the Republicans who controlled Congress and so the United States neither ratified the Treaty of Versailles nor joined the League of Nations 77 German dominance in chemicals and pharmaceuticals meant they controlled critical patents The Congress abrogated the patents and licensed American companies to manufacture products such as Salvarsan a major new German drug that could cure syphilis 78 In similar fashion the German drug company Bayer lost control of its patent and its very high profits on the world s most popular drug aspirin 79 Interwar period Edit Further information International relations 1919 1939 Interwar period and Jazz age 1920s Edit Economic and diplomatic relations were positive during the 1920s According to Frank Costigliola Washington and Wall Street sought a prosperous and stable Europe they felt success depended upon a prosperous Germany Key players included officials Charles G Dawes and Owen D Young Wall Street bankers the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and the first postwar ambassador Alanson B Houghton 1922 1925 New York banks played a major role in financing the rebuilding of the German economy 80 81 The policy worked after 1923 but depended upon a continuous flow of dollars That flow largely ended with the start of the Great Depression in 1929 82 Washington rejected the harsh anti German Versailles Treaty of 1920 and instead signed a new peace treaty that involved no punishment for Germany and worked with Britain to create a viable Euro Atlantic peace system 83 Ambassador Houghton believed that peace European stability and American prosperity depended upon a reconstruction of Europe s economy and political systems He saw his role as promoting American political engagement with Europe He overcame US opposition and lack of interest and quickly realized that the central issues of the day were all entangled in economics especially war debts owed by the Allies to the United States reparations owed by Germany to the Allies worldwide inflation and international trade and investment Solutions he believed required new US policies and close co operation with Britain and Germany He was a leading promoter of the Dawes Plan 84 The high culture of Germany looked down upon American culture The German right was suspicious of modernity as represented by imported American ideas and tastes 85 However the younger German generation danced to American jazz Hollywood had enormous influence on all age groups with captions in German after 1929 they flocked to sound films dubbed in German 86 87 88 Henry Ford s model of industrial efficiency attracted attention 89 German influence on American society and culture was limited after 1914 The flow of migration into the United States was small and American scholars rarely attended German universities The public generally ignored German culture The American musical elite according to Geoffrey S Cahn was sharply negative toward the atonal and serial compositions of Arnold Schoenberg Alban Berg and Paul Hindemith They denounced it as dissonant and sterile 90 Nazi era 1933 41 Edit Further information Foreign policy of the Franklin D Roosevelt administration and Nazi foreign policy debate Public opinion in the US was strongly hostile towards Nazi Germany and Adolf Hitler but there was a strong aversion to war and to entanglement in European politics 91 92 President Franklin D Roosevelt was preoccupied with implementing domestic New Deal policies to handle the Great Depression and was unfocused on foreign policy 93 The Roosevelt administration publicly hailed the Munich Agreement of 1938 for avoiding war but privately realized it was only a postponement that called for rapid rearming 94 Adolf Hitler in the 1920s expressed favorable views of the United States because of immigration restrictions and mistreatment of African Americans and Native Americans 95 Historian Jens Uwe Guettel denies there were any real links between American west and Nazi Germany s eastward expansion He argues that Hitler rarely mentioned the American West or the extermination of Indians and the Nazis did not use the settlement of western North America as a model for their occupation colonization and extermination policies 96 After he gained power in 1933 Hitler increasingly identified the United States as his main enemy and became convinced that Jews controlled Roosevelt According to Jeffrey Herf Nazi attitudes towards FDR and the United States went from dubious assertions of common interests during the New Deal to growing hostility and then rage 97 Formal relations were cool until November 1938 and then turned very cold The key event was American revulsion against Kristallnacht the nationwide German assault on Jews and their institutions on 9 10 November 1938 Religious groups which had been pacifistic also turned hostile 98 While the total flow of refugees from Germany to the US was relatively small during the 1930s many intellectuals escaped and resettled in the United States 99 Many were Jewish including Albert Einstein and Henry Kissinger but Washington s restrictions on immigration kept out most of the Jews who wanted to come 100 101 Catholic universities were strengthened by the arrival of German Catholic intellectuals in exile such as Waldemar Gurian at the University of Notre Dame 102 The American major film studios with the exception of Warner Bros Pictures which had a strongly anti Nazi policy censored and edited films so that they could be exported to Germany 103 104 World War II Edit Further information Anti German sentiment United States in World War II When World War II began with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 the US was officially neutral until December 11 1941 when Germany declared war on the US and Washington followed suit Roosevelt s foreign policy had strongly favored Britain and France over Germany in 1939 to 1941 In 1940 1941 before the US entered the war officially there was a massive buildup of American armaments as well as the first peacetime draft for young men Public opinion was bitterly divided with isolationism strong at first but growing weaker month by month German Americans rarely supported Nazi Germany but most called for American neutrality as they had done in 1914 1917 105 The attack on Pearl Harbor evoked strong pro American patriotic sentiments among German Americans few of whom by then had contacts with distant relatives in the old country 106 107 108 Roosevelt was determined to avoid the mistakes made during the First World War He made deliberate efforts to suppress anti German American sentiments Private companies sometimes refused to hire any non citizen or American citizens of German or Italian ancestry This threatened the morale of loyal Americans Roosevelt considered this stupid and unjust In June 1941 he issued Executive Order 8802 and set up the Fair Employment Practice Committee which also protected Blacks Jews and other minorities 109 President Roosevelt sought out Americans of German ancestry for top war jobs including General Dwight D Eisenhower Admiral Chester W Nimitz and General Carl Andrew Spaatz He appointed Republican Wendell Willkie as a personal representative Willkie the son of German immigrants had been his Republican opponent in the 1940 election German Americans who had fluent German language skills were an important asset to wartime intelligence and they served as translators and as spies for the United States 110 Liberators Nazi propaganda poster from 1944 brings together Nazi ridicule of American culture The US played a central role in the defeat of the Axis powers and Hitler was bitterly anti American Berlin attacked American participation with extensive propaganda value The notorious LIBERATORS poster from 1944 shown here was a revealing example See Anti Americanism Liberators posterIt depicts America as a monstrous vicious war machine seeking to destroy European culture The poster alludes to many negative aspects of American history including the Ku Klux Klan the oppression of Native Americans and the lynching of blacks The poster condemns American capitalism and says America is controlled by Jews It shows American bombs destroying a helpless European village Roosevelt was cautious about propaganda citation needed The Nazis were targets not the German people citation needed In sharp contrast with 1917 atrocity stories were avoided 111 Cold War Edit Main article Cold War Following the defeat of the Third Reich American forces were one of the occupation powers in postwar Germany In parallel to denazification and industrial disarmament American citizens fraternized with Germans The Berlin Airlift from 1948 to 1949 and the Marshall Plan 1948 1952 further improved the Germans perception of Americans citation needed West Germany Edit John F Kennedy meeting with Willy Brandt in the White House March 13 1961 The emergence of the Cold War made the Federal Republic of Germany West Germany the frontier of a democratic Western Europe and American military presence became an integral part in West German society During the Cold War West Germany developed into the largest economy in Europe and West German US relations developed into a new transatlantic partnership Germany and the US shared a large portion of their culture established intensive global trade environment and continued to co operate on new high technologies However tensions remained between differing approaches on both sides of the Atlantic The fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent German reunification marked a new era in German American co operation East Germany Edit Main article East Germany United States relations Interessengemeinschaft Mandan Indianer Leipzig 1970 the popular image of Native Americans made Indian living history quite popular in communist East Germany Relations between the United States and East Germany were hostile The United States followed Konrad Adenauer s Hallstein Doctrine which declared that recognition of East Germany by any country would be treated as an unfriendly act by West Germany Relations between the two German state thawed somewhat in the 1970s as part of Detente between East and West and the Ostpolitik policies of the Brandt government United States recognized East Germany officially in September 1974 when Erich Honecker was the leader of the ruling Socialist Unity Party Map showing the division of East and West Germany until 1990 with West Berlin in yellow Reunification 1989 1990 Edit Further information Foreign policy of the George H W Bush administration and German reunification President George H W Bush 1989 1993 played a large part by his constant support of unification and several US historians argue that Bush had a significant role in ensuring the unified Germany committed to NATO 112 While Britain and France were wary of a re unified Germany Bush strongly supported West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in pushing for rapid German reunification in 1990 113 Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve U S interests but he also saw reunification as providing a final symbolic end to World War II 114 After extensive negotiations Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO under the condition that the former territory of the German Democratic Republic would not be remiliterised and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 This was a situation previously considered unthinkable given the previous status of the Soviet Union but it was made feasible by the time of the fall of the East German regime 115 116 Bush paid attention to domestic public opinion Serious doubts about reunification were voiced by the Jewish American and Polish American communities whose families had suffered immensely from Nazism However the largely positive public opinion towards German unification in the United States generally corresponded to the sentiments of the usually passive German American community 117 Reunified Germany Edit During the early 1990s the reunified Germany was called a partnership in leadership as the US emerged as the world s sole superpower Germany s effort to incorporate any major military actions into the European Union s slowly progressing Common Security and Defence Policy did not meet the expectations of the U S during the Gulf War of 1990 1991 Since 2001 Edit U S President Barack Obama with German President Joachim Gauck in Berlin June 2013 After the September 11 attacks in 2001 German American political relations were strengthened in an effort to combat terrorism and Germany sent troops to Afghanistan as part of the NATO force Yet discord continued over the Iraq War when German Chancellor Gerhard Schroder and Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer made efforts to prevent war and did not join the US and the UK which both led multinational force in Iraq 118 119 Anti Americanism rose to the surface after the attacks of 11 September 2001 as hostile German intellectuals argued there were ugly links between globalization Americanization and terrorism 120 Protestors rally against National Security Agency s mass surveillance Berlin June 2013 In response to the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures in which it was revealed that the NSA may have wiretapped major German instutions including the phone line of Chancellor Merkel 121 Germany cancelled the 1968 intelligence sharing agreement with the US and UK 122 New cases of spying on Germany by US agents are subsequently revealed 123 Longstanding close relations with the United States flourished especially under the Obama Administration 2009 2017 In 2016 President Barack Obama hailed Chancellor Angela Merkel as his closest international partner 124 However relations worsened dramatically during the Trump administration 2017 2021 especially regarding NATO funding trade tariffs and Germany s energy dependence upon the Russian Federation 125 126 In May 2017 Merkel met Donald Trump the paternal grandson of German immigrants His statements that the U S had been taken advantage of in trade deals during previous administrations had already strained relations with several EU countries and other American allies Without mentioning Trump specifically Merkel said after a NATO summit The times when we could completely rely on others are to an extent over 127 This came after Trump had said The Germans are bad very bad and See the millions of cars they are selling to the U S Terrible We will stop this 128 In 2021 talks and meetings with Merkel and other European leaders President Joe Biden spoke of bilateral relations bolstering transatlantic relations through NATO and the European Union and closely coordinating on key issues such as Iran China Russia Afghanistan climate change the COVID 19 pandemic and multilateral organizations 129 In early February 2021 Biden froze the Trump administration s withdrawal of 9 500 troops from U S military bases in Germany Biden s freeze was welcomed by Berlin which said that the move serves European and transatlantic security and hence is in our mutual interest 130 Merkel met Biden in Washington on July 15 2021 with an agenda covering COVID 19 pandemic global warming and economic issues Trump s opposition to the 11 billion Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline remains an unresolved issue under Biden 131 Perceptions and values in the two countries EditThe exploits of gunslingers on the American frontier played a major role in American folklore fiction and film The same stories became immensely popular in Germany which produced its own novels and films about the American frontier Karl May 1842 1912 was a German writer best known for his adventure novels set in the American Old West His main protagonists are Winnetou and Old Shatterhand 132 133 The German fascination with Amerindians dates to the early 19th century with a volumous literature Typical writings focus on Indianness and authenticity 134 Germany and the US are civil societies Germany s philosophical heritage and American spirit for freedom interlock to a central aspect of Western culture and Western civilization citation needed Even though developed under different geographical settings the Age of Enlightenment is fundamental to the self esteem and understanding of both nations citation needed The American led invasion of Iraq changed the perception of the US in Germany significantly A 2013 BBC World Service poll shows found that 35 find American influence to be positive while 39 view it to be negative 135 Both countries differ in many key areas such as energy and military intervention A survey conducted on behalf of the German embassy in 2007 showed that Americans continued to regard Germany s failure to support the war in Iraq as the main irritant in relations between the two nations The issue was of declining importance however and Americans still considered Germany to be their fourth most important international partner behind the United Kingdom Canada and Japan Americans considered economic cooperation to be the most positive aspect of US German relations with a much smaller role played by Germany in U S politics 136 Among the nations of Western Europe German public perception of the US is unusual in that it has continually fluctuated back and forth from fairly positive in 2002 60 to considerably negative in 2007 30 back to mildly positive in 2012 52 and back to considerably negative in 2017 35 137 reflecting the sharply polarized and mixed feelings of the German people for the United States According to findings from the Pew Research Center and Korber Stiftung in 2021 Americans considered Germany to be their fifth most important foreign policy partner while Germans in turn regarded the US as their most important partner 138 Hostilities and tensions Edit Main articles Anti American sentiment in Germany and Anti German sentiment German observers took a keen interest in American race relations especially the inferior status of Blacks in the South Visitors stressed the incongruity of American democratic ideals and the system of segregation prevalent before 1965 139 While musical connoisseurs deplored the low state of classical music in America dixieland black jazz music became popular with youth in Berlin and other cities in the 1920s Germans came to appreciate country music in the 1950s 140 During World War I German compositions were dropped from the classical music repertoire temporarily Dr Karl Muck conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra was arrested and deported in 1919 The Metropolitan Opera in New York City restored Wagner s Ring cycle in 1924 141 In the postwar era 1945 1970 as the United States helped rebuild West Germany anti Americanism was weak However in the late 1960s West Germany s youth contrasted the images of Woodstock which they liked and Vietnam which they hated citation needed Young rebels turned to violence to destroy the foundations of a society that backed American cultural imperialism Anti Americanism reappeared among intellectuals after the attacks on 11 September 2001 because some of them linked globalization Americanization and terrorism 142 The War in Iraq in 2003 was highly unpopular at all levels of German society 143 During the Cold War anti Americanism was the official government policy in East Germany and pro American dissenters were punished In West Germany anti Americanism was the common position on the left but a majority of the population held positive views towards the United States 144 Germany s refusal to support the American led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was often seen in the United States itself as a manifestation of anti Americanism 145 Anti Americanism had been muted on the right since 1945 but reemerged in the 21st century especially in the Alternative for Germany AfD party that began in opposition to European Union and now has become both anti American and anti immigrant Annoyance or distrust of the Americans was heightened in 2013 by revelations of American spying on top German officials including Chancellor Angela Merkel 146 Military relations Edit Statue of General von Steuben at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania U S Army 3rd Squadron 2nd Cavalry Regiment soldiers returning to their garrison in Vilseck during Operation Dragoon Ride in 2015 Defence ministers James Mattis U S and Ursula von der Leyen Germany meeting in Washington DC History Edit German American military relations began in the American Revolution when German troops fought on both sides Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben a former Captain in the Prussian Army was appointed Inspector General of the Continental Army and played the major role in training American soldiers to the best European standards Von Steuben is considered to be one of the founding fathers of the United States Army citation needed Another German that served during the American Revolution was Major General Johann de Kalb who served under Horatio Gates at the Battle of Camden and died as a result of several wounds he sustained during the fighting About 30 000 German mercenaries fought for the British with 17 000 hired from Hesse about one in four of the adult male population of the principality The Hessians fought under their own officers under British command Leopold Philip de Heister Wilhelm von Knyphausen and Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg were the principal generals who commanded these troops with Frederick Christian Arnold Freiherr von Jungkenn as the senior German officer 147 German Americans have been very influential in the American military Some notable figures include Brigadier General August Kautz Major General Franz Sigel General of the Armies John J Pershing General of the Army Dwight D Eisenhower Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz and General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr Today Edit US Navy ships USS Tulsa LCS 16 left and USS Jackson LCS 6 right conduct a joint exercise with German frigate FGS Bayern F 217 center in the Philippine Sea in 2021 The United States established a permanent military presence in Germany at the end of the Second World War that continued throughout the Cold War with a peak level of over 274 000 U S troops stationed in Germany in 1962 148 and was drawn down in the early 21st century The last American tanks were withdrawn from Germany in 2013 149 but they returned the following year to address a gap in multinational training opportunities 150 The U S had 35 000 American troops in Germany in 2017 148 Germany and the United States are joint NATO members Both nations have cooperated closely in the War on Terror for which Germany provided more troops than any other nation Germany hosts the headquarters of the US Africa Command and the Ramstein Air Base a U S Air Force base 151 The two nations had opposing public policy positions in the War in Iraq Germany blocked US efforts to secure UN resolutions in the buildup to war but Germany quietly supported some US interests in southwest Asia citation needed German soldiers operated military biological and chemical cleanup equipment at Camp Doha in Kuwait German Navy ships secured sea lanes to deter attacks by Al Qaeda on U S Forces and equipment in the Persian Gulf and soldiers from Germany s Bundeswehr deployed all across southern Germany to US military bases to conduct force protection duties in place of German based U S Soldiers who were deployed to the Iraq War The latter mission lasted from 2002 until 2006 by which time nearly all these Bundeswehr were demobilized 152 U S soldiers wounded in Iraq received medical treatment at the Landstuhl Regional Medical Center a US military hospital located in Rheinland Pfalz In March 2019 Trump was reportedly drafting a demand several countries including Germany to pay the United States 150 of the cost of the American troops deployed on their soil The proposed demand was criticized by experts Douglas Lute a retired general and former US ambassador to NATO said that Trump was using a misinformed narrative that these facilities are there for the benefits of those countries The truth is they re there and we maintain them because they re in our interest 153 In a sharp deterioration of relations in summer 2020 Washington announced plans to significantly cut the number of US military personnel stationed in Germany from 34 500 to 25 000 154 Members of the German government criticized the move calling it unacceptable and stating that current US German relations are complicated 155 President Trump told reporters that US troops are there to protect Germany right And Germany is supposed to pay for it Germany s not paying for it We don t want to be the suckers any more The United States has been taken advantage of for 25 years both on trade and on the military So we re reducing the force because they re not paying their bills 156 As of August 2020 the plan was to move 11 900 troops out of Germany and reassign them elsewhere in Europe either immediately or after first returning them to the United States for a while The movement is estimated to cost billions of dollars 157 In February 2021 President Biden decided to freeze the withdrawal of the troops initiated by his predecessor for further review of the troop deployment around the world 158 Economic relations Edit U S trade deficit in billions goods only by country in 2014 Economic relations between Germany and the United States are average The Transatlantic Economic Partnership between the US and the EU which was launched in 2007 on Germany s initiative and the subsequently created Transatlantic Economic Council open up additional opportunities The US is Germany s principal trading partner outside the EU and Germany is the US s most important trading partner in Europe In terms of the total volume of U S bilateral trade imports and exports Germany remains in fourth place behind Canada China and Mexico The US ranks fourth among Germany s trading partners after the Netherlands China and France At the end of 2013 bilateral trade was worth 162 billion 159 Germany and the US are important to each other as investment destinations At the end of 2012 bilateral investment was worth 320 billion German direct investment in the US amounting to 266billion and U S direct investment in Germany 121 billion At the end of 2012 US direct investment in Germany stood at approximately 121 billion an increase of nearly 14 over the previous year approximately 106 billion During the same period German direct investment in the US amounted to some 199 billion below the previous year s level approximately 215 billion Germany is the second largest foreign investor in the US only after the United Kingdom and ranks third as a destination for US foreign direct investment In 2019 the United States Senate 160 announced intention of passing controversial legislation which threatened to place sanctions on German or European Union companies which work to complete a petrol chemical pipeline between Germany and Russia 161 Cultural relations EditKarl May was a prolific German writer who specialized in writing Westerns Although he visited America only once towards the end of his life May was well known for his series of frontier novels which provided Germans with an imaginary view of America Notable German American architects artist musicians and writers include Josef Albers artist and educator Albert Bierstadt known for his lavish sweeping landscapes of the American West Philip K Dick writer Walter Gropius architect Albert Kahn architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe architect Paul Hindemith composer Philip Johnson architect Otto Klemperer conductor Henry Miller writer Les Paul guitarist Carl Schurz politician and writer Dr Seuss writer and illustrator Alfred Stieglitz photographer Kurt Vonnegut writerA German American Friendship Garden was built in Washington DC and stands as a symbol of the positive and co operative relations between the United States and the Federal Republic of Germany It is on the historic axis between the White House and the Washington Monument on the National Mall the garden borders Constitution Avenue between 15th and 17th Streets where an estimated seven million visitors pass each year The garden features plants native to both Germany and the United States and provides seating and cooling fountains 162 Commissioned to commemorate the 300th anniversary of German immigration to America the garden was dedicated on November 15 1988 163 Research and academia EditSee also List of German aerospace engineers in the United States Von Braun with his arm in a cast from a car accident surrendered to the Americans just before this May 3 1945 photo Following the Nazi rise to power in 1933 and in particular the passing of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which removed opponents and persons with one Jewish grandparent from government positions including academia hundreds of physicists and other academics fled Germany and many came to the United States James Franck and Albert Einstein were among the more notable scientists who ended up in the United States Many of the physicists who fled were subsequently instrumental in the wartime Manhattan Project to develop the nuclear bomb Following the World War II some of these academics returned to Germany but many remained in the United States 164 165 After WWII and during the Cold War Operation Paperclip was a secret United States Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency JIOA program in which more than 1 600 German scientists engineers and technicians many of whom were formerly registered members of the Nazi Party and some of whom had leadership roles in the Nazi Party including Wernher von Braun s rocket team were recruited and brought to the United States for government employment from post Nazi Germany 166 167 Wernher von Braun who built the German V 2 rockets and his team of scientists came to the United States and were central in building the American space exploration program 168 Researchers at German and American universities run various exchange programs and projects and focus on space exploration the International Space Station environmental technology and medical science Import cooperations are also in the fields of biochemistry engineering information and communication technologies and life sciences networks through Bacatec DAAD The United States and Germany signed a bilateral Agreement on Science and Technology Cooperation in February 2010 169 American cultural institutions in Germany EditIn the postwar era a number of institutions devoted to highlighting American culture and society in Germany were established and are in existence today especially in the south of Germany the area of the former U S Occupied Zone They offer English courses as well as cultural programs Resident diplomatic missions EditResident diplomatic missions of Germany in the United StatesWashington D C Embassy 170 Atlanta Consulate General Boston Consulate General Chicago Consulate General Houston Consulate General Los Angeles Consulate General Miami Consulate General New York City Consulate General San Francisco Consulate General Resident diplomatic missions of the United States in GermanyBerlin Embassy 171 Dusseldorf Consulate General Frankfurt Consulate General Hamburg Consulate General Leipzig Consulate General Munich Consulate General Embassy of Germany in Washington D C Consulate General of Germany in New York City Consulate General of Germany in San Francisco Embassy of the United States in Berlin Consulate General of the United States in Frankfurt Consulate General of the United States in Hamburg Consulate General of the United States in MunichSee also Edit Germany portal United States portal Politics portalForeign relations of Germany Foreign relations of the United States Embassy of Germany Washington D C Embassy of the United States Berlin Ambassadors of Germany to the United States Ambassadors of the United States to Germany German Americans German interest in the Caribbean German language in the United States German Parliamentary Committee investigation of the NSA spying scandalNotable organizations Edit American Academy in Berlin Atlantik Brucke German Marshall FundU S relations with former German states Edit East Germany United States relations United States West Germany relations Prussia United States relations Grand Duchy of Baden United States relations Kingdom of Bavaria United States relations Duchy of Brunswick Luneburg United States relations Kingdom of Hanover United States relations German Empire United States relations Hanseatic Republics United States relations Grand Duchy of Hesse United States relations Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin United States relations Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Strelitz United States relations Duchy of Nassau United States relations North German Confederation United States relations Grand Duchy of Oldenburg United States relations Principality of Schaumburg Lippe United States relations Kingdom of Wurttemberg United States relationsReferences Edit U S Relations with Germany Helga Haftendorn Coming of Age German Foreign Policy Since 1945 Munchen 2006 p 3 Bajpai Prableen 2020 01 22 The 5 Largest Economies In The World And Their Growth In 2020 www nasdaq com Retrieved 2021 06 16 Berghahn Volker R 29 June 2016 The U S s Special Relationship is with Germany Not Britain Harvard Business Review Germany America s real special relationship Politico A B Faust The German Element in the United States with Special Reference to Its Political Moral Social and Educational Influence 2 vol 1909 vol 1 Hans Wilhelm Gatzke Germany and the United States a special Relationship Harvard UP 1980 Paul M Kennedy The Samoan Tangle A Study in Anglo German American Relations 1878 1900 University of Queensland Press 2013 Holger H Herwig Politics of frustration the United States in German naval planning 1889 1941 1976 https www esquiremag ph culture lifestyle mindanao germany americans a1926 20190916 bare URL Thomas Boghardt The Zimmermann telegram intelligence diplomacy and America s entry into World War I Naval Institute Press 2012 United States of America Federal Foreign Office October 2006 Archived from the original on 2007 03 23 Retrieved 2016 04 02 Germany and the United States Reliable Allies But Disagreement on Russia Global Leadership and Tarde Pew Research Center Global Attitudes and Trends 7 May 2015 Manfred Jonas The United States and Germany a diplomatic history 1985 pp 15 35 Kathleen Neils Conzen Germans in Thernstrom Stephan Orlov Ann Handlin Oscar eds Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups Harvard University Press 1980 pp 405 425 Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh eds America and the Germans Volume 1 An Assessment of a Three Hundred Year History Immigration Language Ethnicity U of Pennsylvania Press 1985 pp 3 13 Terry G Jordon German Seed in Texas Soil Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth century Texas 1966 Trommler and McVeigh eds America and the Germans Volume 1 pp 14 24 223 240 Carl Wittke Refugees of Revolution The German Forty Eighters in America 1952 online Dorothee Schneider Trade Unions and Community The German Working Class in New York City 1870 1900 1994 Hartmut Keil and John B Jentz eds German Workers in Industrial Chicago 1850 1910 A Comparative Perspective 1983 Trommler and McVeigh eds America and the Germans Volume 2 pp 183 231 Trommler and McVeigh eds America and the Germans Volume 2 pp 232 272 Ancestry 2000 Census 2000 Brief PDF Census gov Archived from the original PDF on 2004 09 20 Retrieved 2016 08 27 Goodman Russell 2015 Transcendentalism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Transcendentalism is an American literary political and philosophical movement of the early nineteenth century centered around Ralph Waldo Emerson Michael H DeArmey ed The Saint Louis Hegelians Thoemmes Press 2001 p 14 Peterson Paul E 2010 Saving Schools From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning pp 21 36 Gertrud Pfister The role of German Turners in American physical education International Journal of the History of Sport 26 13 2009 pp 1893 1925 Lawrence R Veysey The Emergence of the American University 1965 pp 127 133 Hermann Rohrs The Classical German Concept of the University and Its Influence on Higher Education in the United States 1995 Pochmann and Schultz pp xx xxi Max J Skidmore Ideas and the arts Germanic music in early Pennsylvania Journal of popular culture 31 3 1997 105 113 Albert Bernhardt Faust The German Element in the United States 1909 pp 260 293 Brenda Nelson Strauss Theodore Thomas and the Cultivation of American Music in American Orchestras in the Nineteenth Century U of Chicago Press 2012 pp 395 434 Rudolph Chelminski Harmonicas are hooty wheezy twangy and tooty Smithsonian 26 8 1995 122 129 Miller Timothy 1995 America s alternative religions State University of New York Press Albany pp 80 ISBN 978 0 7914 2397 4 Thomas Nipperdey Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck 1966 p 123 Nipperdey p 433 Paul Leland Haworth Frederick the Great and the American Revolution American Historical Review 1904 9 3 pp 460 478 online Henry Mason Adams Prussian American Relations 1775 1871 1960 Sam A Mustafa Merchants and Migrations Germans and Americans in Connection 1776 1835 2001 Manfred Jonas The United States and Germany 1985 p 17 Jonas pp 19 20 Carl Wittke Refugees of Revolution The German Forty Eighters in America 1952 online Jay Monaghan Did Abraham Lincoln Receive the Illinois German Vote Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 1942 133 139 online Adam Goodheart Civil Warfare in the Streets American Scholar 80 2 2011 20 32 online Dorothea S Michelman Gold Cotton and Newsprint Lincoln Herald 68 3 1966 190198 Manfred Jonas pp 21 34 Jonas pp 27 34 Andrew Bonnell Cheap and Nasty German Goods Socialism and the 1876 Philadelphia World Fair International Review of Social History 46 2 2001 207 226 Hoy Suellen Nugent Walter 1989 Public Health or Protectionism The German American Pork War 1880 1891 Bulletin of the History of Medicine 63 2 198 224 ISSN 0007 5140 JSTOR 44451379 PMID 2667661 Uwe Spiekermann Dangerous Meat German American Quarrels Over Pork And Beef 1870 1900 Bulletin of the GHI vol 46 Spring 2010 online Archived 2019 05 31 at the Wayback Machine Louis L Snyder The American German Pork Dispute 1879 1891 Journal of Modern History 17 1 1945 16 28 online John L Gignilliat Pigs Politics and Protection The European Boycott of American Pork 1879 1891 Agricultural History 35 1 1961 3 12 online Homer E Socolofsky and Allan B Spetter The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison 1987 pp 131 36 Suellen Hoy and Walter Nugent Public health or protectionism The German American pork war 1880 1891 Bulletin of the History of Medicine 63 2 1989 198 224 online Tucker Spencer C ed 2009 The Encyclopedia of the Spanish American and Philippine American Wars A Political Social and Military History ABC CLIO pp 569 70 ISBN 9781851099511 Noah Andre Trudeau An Appalling Calamity In the teeth of the Great Samoan Typhoon of 1889 a standoff between the German and US navies suddenly didn t matter Naval History Magazine 25 2 2011 54 59 Homer E Socolofsky and Allan B Spetter The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison 1987 pp 114 16 George Herbert Ryden The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa 1933 Walter LaFeber The New Empire An Interpretation of American Expansion 1860 1898 1963 pp 138 40 323 Jonas 60 64 Paul M Kennedy The Samoan Tangle A Study in Anglo German American Relations 1878 1900 2013 p 601 David H Olivier 2004 German Naval Strategy 1856 1888 Forerunners to Tirpitz Routledge p 87 ISBN 9780203323236 Dirk 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by the number of US troops stationed in Germany and expressed interest in pulling some of them out Business Insider Retrieved 2019 03 08 US Army s last tanks depart from Germany Stars and Stripes Retrieved 2 April 2016 Darnell Michael S 31 January 2014 American tanks return to Europe after brief leave Stars and Stripes Retrieved 3 February 2014 Trump Seeks Huge Premium From Allies Hosting U S Troops 2019 03 07 Retrieved 2019 03 08 Gordon Michael and Trainor Bernard Cobra II The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq New York 2006 ISBN 0 375 42262 5 Wadhams Nick Jacobs Jennifer 2019 03 07 Trump Seeks Huge Premium From Allies Hosting U S Troops Bloomberg Retrieved 2019 03 08 Trump orders massive cut to US troop numbers in Germany report U S decision to withdraw troops from Germany unacceptable Merkel ally Reuters Reuters Julian Borger US to pull 12 000 troops out of Germany as Trump blasts delinquent Berlin The Guardian 29 July 2020 Lendon Brad 22 August 2020 Trump s planned 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Women Scientists Who Fled the Holocaust for the United States Lorraine Boissoneault Smithsonianmag 9 November 2017 Jacobsen Annie 2014 Operation Paperclip the secret intelligence program to bring Nazi scientists to America New York Little Brown and Company p Prologue ix ISBN 978 0 316 22105 4 Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency U S National Archives and Records Administration Retrieved October 9 2008 Michael Neufeld 2008 Von Braun Dreamer of Space Engineer of War Random House Digital Inc ISBN 9780307389374 Dolan Bridget M December 10 2012 Science and Technology Agreements as Tools for Science Diplomacy Science amp Diplomacy 1 4 Embassy of Germany in Washington D C Embassy of the United States in BerlinBibliography EditAdam Thomas ed Germany and the Americas Culture Politics and History 3 vol ABC CLIO 2005 1300pp of articles by experts excerpt Barclay David E and Elisabeth Glaser Schmidt eds Transatlantic Images and Perceptions Germany and America since 1776 Cambridge UP 1997 excerpt Bailey Thomas A A Diplomatic History of the American People 10th edition 1980 online free to borrow Gatzke Hans W Germany and the United States A Special Relationship Harvard UP 1980 popular history of diplomatic relations Herring George From colony to superpower U S foreign relations since 1776 2011 Jonas Manfred The United States and Germany a diplomatic history Cornell UP 1985 a standard scholarly survey excerpt Meyer Heinz Dieter The design of the university German American and world class Routledge 2016 Trefousse Hans Louis ed Germany and America essays on problems of international relations and immigration Brooklyn College Press 1980 essays by scholars Trommler Frank and Joseph McVeigh eds America and the Germans An Assessment of a Three Hundred Year History 2 vol U of Pennsylvania Press 1990 vol 2 online detailed coverage in vol 2 Trommler Frank and Elliott Shore eds The German American Encounter conflict and cooperation between two cultures 1800 2000 2001 essays by cultural scholars Pre 1933 Edit Further information Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration Further reading Adam Thomas and Ruth Gross ed Traveling Between Worlds German American Encounters Texas A amp M UP 2006 primary sources Adams Henry Mason Prussian American Relations 1775 1871 1960 Beale Howard K Theodore Roosevelt and the rise of America to world power 1956 pp 335 447 online Bonker Dirk 2012 Militarism in a Global Age Naval Ambitions in Germany and the United States before World War I Cornell U P ISBN 978 0801464355 Bonner Thomas N German Doctors in America 1887 1914 Their Views and Impressions of American Life and Medicine Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences 1959 1 17 online Diehl Carl Innocents abroad American students in German universities 1810 1870 History of Education Quarterly 16 3 1976 321 341 in JSTOR Dippel Horst Germany and the American Revolution 1770 1800 1977 Showed a deep intellectual impact on Germany of the American Revolution Doerries Reinhard R Imperial Berlin and Washington New Light on Germany s Foreign Policy and America s Entry into World War I Central European History 11 1 1978 23 49 online Doerries Reinhard R Imperial Challenge Ambassador Count Bernstorff and German American Relations 1908 1917 1989 Faust Albert Bernhardt The German Element in the United States with Special Reference to Its Political Moral Social and Educational Influence 2 vol 1909 vol 1 vol 2 Flanagan Jason C Woodrow Wilson s Rhetorical Restructuring The Transformation of the American Self and the Construction of the German Enemy Rhetoric amp Public Affairs 7 2 2004 115 148 online dead link Gazley John Gerow American Opinion of German Unification 1848 1871 1926 Noonan online Gienow Hecht Jessica C E Trumpeting Down the Walls of Jericho The Politics of Art Music and Emotion in German American Relations 1870 1920 Journal of Social History 2003 36 3 online Haworth Paul Leland Frederick the Great and the American Revolution American Historical Review 1904 9 3 pp 460 478 open access in JSTOR Frederick hated England but kept Prussia neutral Herwig Holger H Politics of frustration the United States in German naval planning 1889 1941 1976 Holthaus Leonie The liberal internationalist self and the construction of an undemocratic German other at the beginning of the twentieth century in Prussians Nazis and Peaceniks Manchester UP 2020 Jones Kenneth Paul ed U S Diplomats in Europe 1919 41 ABC CLIO 1981 scholarly essays coiver the Ruhr crisis Dawes Plan Young Plan and Nazi Germany online Junker Detlef The Manichaean Trap American Perceptions of the German Empire 1871 1945 German Historical Institute 1995 Keim Jeannette Forty years of German American political relations 1919 online Comprehensive analysis of major issues including tariff China Monroe Doctrine Kennedy Paul Samoan Tangle A Study in Anglo German American Relations 1878 1900 1974 Kennedy Paul The Rise of the Anglo German Antagonism 1860 1914 1980 Leab Daniel J Screen Images of the Other in Wilhelmine Germany and the United States 1890 1918 Film History 9 1 1997 49 70 in JSTOR Lingelbach William E Saxon American Relations 1778 1828 American Historical Review 17 3 1912 517 539 online Link Arthur S Wilson The Struggle for Neutrality 1914 1915 1960 vol 3 of his biography of Woodrow Wilson vol 4 and 5 cover 1915 1917 Marin Severine Antigone Personalized Competition Theodore Roosevelt and Kaiser Wilhelm in German American Relations in Hans Krabbendam and John Thompson eds America s Transatlantic Turn Palgrave Macmillan New York 2012 pp 121 140 Maurer John H American naval concentration and the German battle fleet 1900 1918 Journal of Strategic Studies 6 2 1983 147 181 Mitchell Nancy The danger of dreams German and American imperialism in Latin America 1999 Mustafa Sam A Merchants and Migrations Germans and Americans in Connection 1776 1835 2001 Oehling Richard A Germans in Hollywood Films The Changing Image 1914 1939 Film amp History 3 2 1973 1 26 Oren Ido The subjectivity of the democratic peace changing US perceptions of imperial Germany International Security 20 2 1995 147 184 online Parsons James Russell Prussian schools through American eyes a report to the New York state Department of public instruction 1891 online Pochmann Henry A German Culture in America Philosophical and Literary Influences 1600 1900 1957 890pp comprehensive review of German influence on Americans esp 19th century online Reeves Jesse S The Prussian American Treaties American Journal of International Law 1917 vol 11 online Rohrs Hermann The Classical German Concept of the University and Its Influence on Higher Education in the United States Frankfurt am Main Peter Lang 1995 Schoonover Thomas Germany in Central America Competitive Imperialism 1821 1929 1998 online Schroder Hans Jurgen ed Confrontation and cooperation Germany and the United States in the era of World War I 1900 1924 1993 Schwabe Klaus Anti Americanism within the German Right 1917 1933 Amerikastudien American Studies 1976 21 1 pp 89 108 Schwabe Klaus Woodrow Wilson Revolutionary Germany and Peacemaking 1918 1919 University of North Carolina Press 1985 Shippee Lester Burrell German American Relations 1890 1914 Journal of Modern History 8 4 1936 479 488 online focus on trade wars Sides Ashley What Americans Said about Saxony and what this Says about Them Interpreting Travel Writings of the Ticknors and Other Privileged Americans 1800 1850 MA Thesis University of Texas at Arlington 2008 online Singer Sandra L Adventures abroad North American women at German speaking universities 1868 1915 2003 online Small Melvin The United States and the German Threat to the Hemisphere 1905 1914 The Americas 28 3 1972 252 270 Says there was no threat because Germany accepted the Monroe Doctrine Trommler Frank The Lusitania Effect America s Mobilization against Germany in World War I German Studies Review 2009 241 266 online Vagts Alfred Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten in der Weltpolitik 2 vols New York Dornan 1935 a major study of 2000 pages that was never translated Vagts Alfred Hopes and Fears of an American German War 1870 1915 I Political Science Quarterly 54 4 1939 514 535 in JSTOR Vagts Alfred Hopes and Fears of an American German War 1870 1915 II Political Science Quarterly 55 1 1940 53 76 in JSTOR Wittke Carl Refugees of Revolution The German Forty Eighters in America 1952 at archive org Wittke Carl American Germans in Two World Wars Wisconsin Magazine of History 1943 6 16 online Zacharasiewicz Waldemar Images of Germany in American literature 2007 1933 1941 Edit Bell Leland V The Failure of Nazism in America The German American Bund 1936 1941 Political Science Quarterly 85 4 1970 585 599 in JSTOR Dallek Robert Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy Oxford University Press 1979 Fischer Klaus P Hitler amp America 2011 online Freidel Frank FDR vs Hitler American Foreign Policy 1933 1941 Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Vol 99 1987 pp 25 43 online Frye Alton Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere 1933 1941 1967 Haag John Gone With the Wind in Nazi Germany Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 2 1989 278 304 in JSTOR Heilbut Anthony Exiled in Paradise German Refugee Artists and Intellectuals in America from the 1930s to the Present 1983 Margolick David Beyond Glory Joe Louis vs Max Schmeling and a World on the Brink 2005 world heavyweight boxing championship Nagorski Andrew Hitlerland American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power 2012 Norden Margaret K American Editorial Response to the Rise of Adolf Hitler A Preliminary Consideration American Jewish Historical Quarterly 59 3 1970 290 301 in JSTOR Offner Arnold A American Appeasement United States Foreign Policy and Germany 1933 1938 Harvard University Press 1969 online edition Pederson William D ed A Companion to Franklin D Roosevelt 2011 online pp 636 52 FDR s policies Rosenbaum Robert A Waking to Danger Americans and Nazi Germany 1933 1941 2010 online Sandeen Eric J Anti Nazi sentiment in film Confessions of a Nazi spy and the German American Bund American Studies 1979 69 81 on Hollywood online Schuler Friedrich E Mexico between Hitler and Roosevelt Mexican foreign relations in the age of Lazaro Cardenas 1934 1940 1999 Weinberg Gerhard L The Foreign Policy of Hitler s Germany 2 vols 1980 Weinberg Gerhard L Hitler s image of the United States American Historical Review 69 4 1964 1006 1021 in JSTORAfter 1941 Edit Backer John H The Decision to Divide Germany American Foreign Policy in Transition 1978 Bark Dennis L and David R Gress A History of West Germany Vol 1 From Shadow to Substance 1945 1963 1989 A History of West Germany Vol 2 Democracy and Its Discontents 1963 1988 1989 the standard scholarly history in English Blumenau Bernhard German Foreign Policy and the German Problem During and After the Cold War Changes and Continuities in B Blumenau J Hanhimaki amp B Zanchetta eds New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War Unexpected Transformations Ch 5 London Routledge 2018 ISBN 9781138731349 Brady Steven J Eisenhower and Adenauer Alliance maintenance under pressure 1953 1960 Rowman amp Littlefield 2009 online review Casey Stephen Cautious Crusade Franklin D Roosevelt American Public Opinion and the War against Nazi Germany 2004 Clark Claudia Dear Barack The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel 2021 Costigliola Frank An Arm around the Shoulder The United States NATO and German Reunification 1989 90 Contemporary European History 1994 pp 87 110 online Costigliola Frank Lyndon B Johnson Germany and The End of the Cold War in Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World American Foreign Policy 1963 1968 1963 pp 173 210 Gimbel John F American Occupation of Germany Stanford UP 1968 Granieri Ronald J The Ambivalent Alliance Konrad Adenauer the CDU CSU and the West 1949 1966 Berghahn Books 2003 Hanrieder Wolfram West German Foreign Policy 1949 1979 Westview 1980 Hohn Maria H GIs and Freauleins The German American Encounter in 1950s West Germany U of North Carolina Press 2002 Immerfall Stefan Safeguarding German American Relations in the New Century Understanding and Accepting Mutual Differences 2006 Ingimundarson Valur The Eisenhower Administration the Adenauer Government and the Political Uses of the East German Uprising in 1953 Diplomatic History 20 3 1996 381 410 online Ingimundarson Valur Containing the Offensive The Chief of the Cold War and the Eisenhower Administration s German Policy Presidential Studies Quarterly 27 3 1997 480 495 online Junker Detlef et al eds The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War 1945 1968 A Handbook Vol 1 1945 1968 2004 excerpt and text search Vol 2 1968 1990 2004 excerpt and text search comprehensive coverage Kefferputz Roderick and Jeremy Stern The United States Germany and World Order New Priorities for a Changing Alliance Atlantic Council Issue Brief 2021 online Kuklick Bruce American Policy and the Division of Germany The Clash with Russia over Reparations Cornell University Press 1972 Langenbacher Eric and Ruth Wittlinger The End of Memory German American Relations under Donald Trump German Politics 27 2 2018 174 192 Large David Clay Germans to the Front West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era U of North Carolina Press 1996 Ninkovich Frank Germany and the United States The Transformation of the German Question since 1945 1988 Nolan Mary Anti Americanism and Americanization in Germany Politics amp Society 2005 33 1 pp 88 122 Pells Richard Not like Us How Europeans Have Loved Hated and Transformed American Culture since World War II 1997 online Pettersson Lucas Changing images of the USA in German media discourse during four American presidencies International Journal of Cultural Studies 2011 14 1 pp 35 51 Poiger Uta G Jazz Rock and Rebels Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany 2000 Pommerin Reiner The American Impact on Postwar Germany Berghahn Books 1995 Smith Gaddis American Diplomacy During the Second World War 1941 1945 1965 online Smith Jean E Lucius D Clay 1990 scholarly biography excerpt Smyser William R Restive Partners Washington and Bonn Diverge Routledge 2019 excerpt Spohr Kristina Precluded or precedent setting The NATO enlargement question in the triangular Bonn Washington Moscow diplomacy of 1990 1991 Journal of Cold War Studies 14 4 2012 4 54 online Stephan Alexander ed Americanization and anti Americanism the German encounter with American culture after 1945 Berghahn Books 2013 Szabo Stephen F Different Approaches to Russia The German American Russian Strategic Triangle German Politics 27 2 2018 230 243 regarding the Cold WarHistoriography and memory Edit Adams Willi Paul American History Abroad Personal Reflections on the Conditions of Scholarship in West Germany Reviews in American History 14 4 1986 557 568 online Depkat Volker Introduction American History ies in Germany Assessments Transformations Perspectives Amerikastudien American Studies 2009 337 343 in JSTOR Doerries Reinhard R The Unknown Republic American History at German Universities Amerikastudien American Studies 2005 99 125 in JSTOR Fiebig von Hase Ragnhild and Ursula Lehmkuhl eds Enemy images in American history Berghahn Books 1998 Gassert Philipp Writing about the American past thinking of the German present The history of US foreign relations in Germany Amerikastudien American Studies 2009 345 382 in JSTOR Gassert Philipp The Study of U S History in Germany European Contributions to American Studies 2007 Vol 66 pp 117 132 Schroder Hans Jurgen Twentieth Century German American Relations Historiography and Research Perspectives in Frank Trommler Joseph McVeigh eds America and the Germans Volume 2 An Assessment of a Three Hundred Year History The Relationship in the Twentieth Century 1985 online Sielke Sabine Theorizing American Studies German Interventions into an Ongoing Debate European journal of American studies 1 1 1 2006 online Stelzel Philipp Working toward a common goal American views on German historiography and German American scholarly relations during the 1960s Central European History 41 4 2008 639 671 online dead link Strunz Gisela American Studies oder Amerikanistik Die deutsche Amerikawissenchaft und die Hoffnung auf Erneuerung der Hochschulen und der politischen Kultur nach 1945 Springer Verlag 2013 Tuttle William M American higher education and the Nazis the case of James B Conant and Harvard University s diplomatic relations with Germany American Studies 20 1 1979 49 70 online Wilhelm Cornelia Nazi Propaganda and the Uses of the Past Heinz Kloss and the Making of a German America Amerikastudien American Studies 2002 55 83 onlineExternal links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Relations of Germany and the United States U S Embassy and Consulates in Germany in English and German List of U S Embassy and Consulates in Germany in English and German German Missions in the United States in English and German List of German Embassy and Consulates General in the United States in English and German A Guide to the United States History of Recognition Diplomatic and Consular Relations by Country since 1776 Germany United States Department of State Retrieved June 1 2017 American Chamber of Commerce in Germany AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies in Washington D C American Council on Germany Atlantische Akademie Rheinland Pfalz e V The Atlantic Times German reports on USA DAAD New York for Germans studying in USA Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Germany United States relations amp oldid 1148153590, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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