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Benjamin Harrison

March 14, 2023

This article is about the president of the United States. For other people with the same name, see Benjamin Harrison (disambiguation).

Benjamin Harrison (August 20, 1833 – March 13, 1901) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 23rd president of the United States from 1889 to 1893. He was a member of the Harrison family of Virginia–a grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison, and a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a Founding Father.

Benjamin Harrison
Portrait by Pach Brothers, 1896
23rd President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893
Vice PresidentLevi P. Morton
Preceded byGrover Cleveland
Succeeded byGrover Cleveland
United States Senator
from Indiana
In office
March 4, 1881 – March 3, 1887
Preceded byJoseph E. McDonald
Succeeded byDavid Turpie
Personal details
Born(1833-08-20)August 20, 1833
North Bend, Ohio, U.S.
DiedMarch 13, 1901(1901-03-13) (aged 67)
Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.
Cause of deathPneumonia
Resting placeCrown Hill Cemetery
Political party
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1853; died 1892)​
​
(m. 1896)​
Children
Parents
RelativesHarrison family
Education
Occupation
  • Politician
  • lawyer
Signature
Military service
AllegianceUnited States
Branch/serviceUnited States (Union Army)
Years of service1862–1865
Rank
UnitArmy of the Cumberland
Commands
Battles/warsAmerican Civil War
Benjamin Harrison's voice
On his presence at the first Pan-American Congress
Recorded 1889

Harrison was born on a farm by the Ohio River and graduated from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. After moving to Indianapolis, he established himself as a prominent local attorney, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indiana. During the American Civil War, he served in the Union Army as a colonel, and was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers in 1865. Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876. The Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six-year term in the Senate, where he served from 1881 to 1887.

A Republican, Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888, defeating the Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland in the Electoral College despite losing the popular vote. Hallmarks of Harrison's administration included unprecedented economic legislation, including the McKinley Tariff, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891. During his administration six western states were admitted to the Union. In addition, Harrison substantially strengthened and modernized the U.S. Navy and conducted an active foreign policy, but his proposals to secure federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans were unsuccessful.

Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term. The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 midterm elections. Cleveland defeated Harrison for reelection in 1892, due to the growing unpopularity of high tariffs and high federal spending. He returned to private life and his law practice in Indianapolis. In 1899 he represented Venezuela in its British Guiana boundary dispute with Great Britain. Harrison traveled to the court in Paris as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis. He died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza. Many have praised Harrison's commitment to African Americans' voting rights, but scholars and historians generally rank him in the bottom half among U.S. presidents.

Family and education

 
John Scott Harrison
 
Birthplace marker in North Bend, Ohio

Harrison was born on August 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio, the second of Elizabeth Ramsey (Irwin) and John Scott Harrison's ten children. His ancestors included immigrant Benjamin Harrison, who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, circa 1630 from England. Harrison was of entirely English ancestry, all of his ancestors having emigrated to America during the early colonial period.[1]

Harrison was a grandson of U.S. President William Henry Harrison and a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and succeeded Thomas Nelson, Jr. as governor of Virginia.[2][3][4][a]

Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected U.S. president, but he did not attend the inauguration.[5] His family was distinguished, but his parents were not wealthy. John Scott Harrison, a two-term U.S. congressman from Ohio, spent much of his farm income on his children's education.[6][7] Despite the family's modest resources, Harrison's boyhood was enjoyable, much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting.[8]

Harrison's early schooling took place in a log cabin near his home,[9] but his parents later arranged for a tutor to help him with college preparatory studies.[10] Fourteen-year-old Benjamin and his older brother, Irwin, enrolled in Farmer's College near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847.[11] He attended the college for two years[12][b] and while there met his future wife, Caroline "Carrie" Lavinia Scott, a daughter of John Witherspoon Scott, the school's science professor, who was also a Presbyterian minister.[13]

Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, in 1850, and graduated in 1852.[14][15] He joined the Phi Delta Theta fraternity, which he used as a network for much of his life. He was also a member of Delta Chi, a law fraternity that permitted dual membership.[16] Classmates included John Alexander Anderson,[17] who became a six-term U.S. congressman, and Whitelaw Reid, Harrison's vice presidential running mate in 1892. At Miami, Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop.[18] He also joined a Presbyterian church at college and, like his mother, became a lifelong Presbyterian.[19]

Marriage and early career

 
Benjamin Harrison c. 1850

After his college graduation in 1852, Harrison studied law with Judge Bellamy Storer of Cincinnati, but before he completed his studies, he returned to Oxford, Ohio, to marry Caroline Scott[20] on October 20, 1853. Caroline's father, a Presbyterian minister, performed the ceremony.[17] The Harrisons had two children, Russell Benjamin Harrison (August 12, 1854 – December 13, 1936) and Mary "Mamie" Scott Harrison (April 3, 1858 – October 28, 1930).[21]

Harrison and his wife returned to live at The Point, his father's farm in southwestern Ohio, while he finished his law studies. Harrison was admitted to the Ohio bar in early 1854,[22] the same year he sold property that he had inherited after the death of an aunt for $800 (equivalent to $24,127 in 2021), and used the funds to move with Caroline to Indianapolis, Indiana.[23][24] Harrison began practicing law in the office of John H. Ray in 1854 and became a crier for the federal court in Indianapolis, for which he was paid $2.50 per day.[21] He also served as a Commissioner for the U.S. Court of Claims.[25] Harrison became a founding member and first president of both the University Club, a private gentlemen's club in Indianapolis, and the Phi Delta Theta Alumni Club.[26] Harrison and his wife became members and assumed leadership positions at Indianapolis's First Presbyterian Church.[27]

Having grown up in a Whig household, Harrison initially favored that party's politics, but joined the Republican Party shortly after its formation in 1856 and campaigned on behalf of Republican presidential candidate John C. Frémont.[28] In 1857 Harrison was elected Indianapolis city attorney, a position that paid an annual salary of $400 (equivalent to $11,633 in 2021).[29][30]

In 1858, Harrison entered into a law partnership with William Wallace to form the law office of Wallace and Harrison.[31] In 1860, he was elected reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court.[30] Harrison was an active supporter of the Republican Party's platform and served as Republican State Committee's secretary. After Wallace, his law partner, was elected county clerk in 1860, Harrison established a new firm with William Fishback, Fishback and Harrison. The new partners worked together until Harrison entered the Union Army after the start of the American Civil War.[32]

Civil War

 
Harrison during the Battle of Resaca leading the 70th Indiana, May 1864; Harrison was a colonel at the time.
 
Brigadier General Harrison (left) with other commanders of the XX Corps, 1865

In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits for the Union Army; Harrison wanted to enlist, but worried about how to support his young family.[33] While visiting Governor Oliver Morton, Harrison found him distressed over the shortage of men answering the latest call. Harrison told the governor, "If I can be of any service, I will go."[34]

Morton asked Harrison if he could help recruit a regiment, although he would not ask him to serve. Harrison recruited throughout northern Indiana to raise a regiment. Morton offered him the command, but Harrison declined, as he had no military experience. He was initially commissioned as a captain and company commander on July 22, 1862. Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August 7, 1862, and the newly formed 70th Indiana was mustered into federal service on August 12, 1862. Once mustered, the regiment left Indiana to join the Union Army at Louisville, Kentucky.[35][36]

Atlanta campaign

For much of its first two years, the 70th Indiana performed reconnaissance duty and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee. In May 1864, Harrison and his regiment joined General William T. Sherman's Atlanta Campaign in the Army of the Cumberland and moved to the front lines.[37] On January 2, 1864, Harrison was promoted to command the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division of the XX Corps. He commanded the brigade at the battles of Resaca, Cassville, New Hope Church, Lost Mountain, Kennesaw Mountain, Marietta, Peachtree Creek, and Atlanta. When Sherman's main force began its March to the Sea, Harrison's brigade was transferred to the District of Etowah and participated in the Battle of Nashville.[38] While encamped near Nashville, during a particularly cold winter, Harrison prepared coffee and brought it to his freezing men at night; his constant catchphrase as he took lead of his men was: "Come on, boys!" Harrison earned a reputation as a strong leader and as an officer who did not abandon his soldiers in battle.[39]

Resaca

 
Battle of Resaca, in Georgia, where Harrison served under General Sherman

At the Battle of Resaca on May 15, 1864, Harrison faced Confederate Captain Max Van Den Corput’s artillery battery, which occupied a position "some eighty yards in front of the main Confederate lines".[40] Sherman, renewing his assault on the center of the Confederate lines begun the previous day, was halted by Corput's four-gun, parapet-protected artillery battery; the battery was well placed to bedevil the Union ranks, and became "the center of a furious struggle".[40] Corput's artillery redoubt was highly fortified "with three infantry regiments in...rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches".[41] Harrison, leading the 70th Indiana Infantry Regiment, massed his troops in a ravine opposite Corput's position, along with the rest of Brigadier General Ward’s brigade.[41] Harrison and his regiment, leading the assault, then emerged from the ravine, advanced over the artillery parapet, overcame the Confederate gunners, and eliminated the threat. The battery was captured by hand-to-hand combat, and intense combat continued throughout the afternoon.[41] Harrison's unit, now exposed, found itself immediately subjected to intense gunfire from the main Confederate ranks and was forced to take cover.[40] Although no longer in Confederate hands, Corput's four 121-pound Napoleon Cannons[41] sat in a "no man's land" for the rest of the day until nightfall, when Union soldiers "dug through the parapet, slipped ropes around the four cannons, and dragged them back to [their] lines".[40]

Peachtree Creek

During the Battle of Peachtree Creek, on July 20, 1864, Harrison commanded his brigade against General W. S. Featherston's Mississippi Brigade, stopping the latter's "fierce assault" over Collier Road.[42] At Peachtree Creek, Harrison's brigade comprised the 102nd, 105th, and 129th Illinois Infantry Regiments, the 79th Ohio Infantry Regiment, and his 70th Indiana Regiment; his brigade deployed in about the center of the Union line, engaging Maj. Gen. William Wing Loring’s Mississippi division and Alabama troops from General Alexander Stewart's corps.[43] In his report after the battle Harrison wrote how "at one time during the fight," after his ammunition was dangerously depleted, he sent his acting assistant inspector-general Captain Scott and others to cut "cartridge-boxes from the rebel dead within our lines" and distribute them to his soldiers.[44] According to Harrison's report, the losses from his brigade were "very slight" compared with those of Confederate forces; he thought this was because of battlefield topography, writing: "I believe, that the enemy, having the higher ground, fired too high."[45] Harrison later supported the creation of an Atlanta National Military Park which would have included "substantial portions" of the Peachtree battlefield, writing in 1900: "The military incidents connected with the investment and ultimate capture of Atlanta are certainly worthy of commemoration and I should be glad to see the project succeed."[46]

Surrender of Atlanta and promotion

After the conclusion of the Atlanta Campaign on September 2, 1864, Harrison was among the initial Union forces to enter the surrendered city of Atlanta; General Sherman opined that Harrison served with "foresight, discipline and a fighting spirit".[47] Following the Atlanta Campaign, Harrison reported to Governor Morton in Indiana for special duty, and while there he campaigned for the position of Indiana’s Supreme Court Reporter and for President Lincoln's reelection; after the election he left for Georgia to join Sherman's March to the Sea, but instead was "given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville."[48] Harrison led the brigade at the Battle of Nashville in December, in a "decisive" action against the forces of General John Bell Hood.[49][50] Notwithstanding his memorable military achievements and the praise he received for them, Harrison held a dim view of war; according to historian Allan B. Spetter he thought "war was a dirty business that no decent man would find pleasurable."[47] Later in 1888, the year he won the presidency, Harrison declared: "We Americans have no commission from God to police the world."[51]

Several weeks after the Battle of Nashville, Harrison "received orders to rejoin the 70th Indiana at Savannah, Georgia, after a brief furlough in Indianapolis"; however he caught scarlet fever and was delayed for a month, and then spent "several months training replacement troops in South Carolina."[48]

On January 23, 1865, Lincoln nominated Harrison to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from that date, and the Senate confirmed the nomination on February 14, 1865.[52] Harrison was promoted because of his success at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek.[53] Harrison finally returned to his old regiment the same day that news of President Lincoln’s assassination was received.[48] He rode in the Grand Review in Washington, D.C. before mustering out with the 70th Indiana on June 8, 1865.[38][48]

Post-war career

Indiana politics

While serving in the Union Army in October 1864, Harrison was once again elected reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court, although he did not seek the position, and served as the Court's reporter for four more years. The position was not a politically powerful one, but it provided Harrison with a steady income for his work preparing and publishing court opinions, which he sold to the legal profession.[54][55] Harrison also resumed his law practice in Indianapolis. He became a skilled orator and known as "one of the state's leading lawyers".[24]

In 1869 President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Harrison to represent the federal government in a civil suit filed by Lambdin P. Milligan, whose controversial wartime conviction for treason in 1864 led to the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan.[56][57] The civil case was referred to the U.S. Circuit Court for Indiana at Indianapolis, where it evolved into Milligan v. Hovey.[58] Although the jury found in Milligan's favor and he had sought hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages, state and federal statutes limited the amount the federal government had to award to Milligan to five dollars plus court costs.[58][59][60]

With his increasing reputation, local Republicans urged Harrison to run for Congress. He initially confined his political activities to speaking on behalf of other Republican candidates, a task for which he received high praise from his colleagues.[61] In 1872, Harrison campaigned for the Republican nomination for governor of Indiana. Former governor Oliver Morton favored his opponent, Thomas M. Browne, and Harrison lost his bid for statewide office.[62] He returned to his law practice and, despite the Panic of 1873, was financially successful enough to build a grand new home in Indianapolis in 1874.[63] He continued to make speeches on behalf of Republican candidates and policies.[64]

In 1876, when a scandal forced the original Republican nominee, Godlove Stein Orth, to drop out of the gubernatorial race, Harrison accepted the party's invitation to take his place on the ticket.[65][66] Harrison centered his campaign on economic policy and favored deflating the national currency. He was defeated in a plurality by James D. Williams, losing by 5,084 votes out 434,457 cast,[67] but Harrison built on his new prominence in state politics. When the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 reached Indianapolis, he gathered a citizen militia to make a show of support for owners and management,[24][68] and helped to mediate an agreement between the workers and management and to prevent the strike from widening.[69]

When United States Senator Morton died in 1877, the Republicans nominated Harrison to run for the seat, but the party failed to gain a majority in the state legislature, which at that time elected senators; the Democratic majority elected Daniel W. Voorhees instead.[70][c] In 1879, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Harrison to the Mississippi River Commission, which worked to develop internal improvements on the river.[71] As a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention the following year,[72] he was instrumental in breaking a deadlock on candidates, and James A. Garfield won the nomination.

U.S. Senator from Indiana

 
Walter Q. Gresham, Harrison's rival within the Indiana Republican Party

After Harrison led Indiana's Republican delegation at the 1880 Republican National Convention, he was considered the state's presumptive candidate for the U.S. Senate. He gave speeches in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York, further raising his profile in the party. When the Republicans retook the majority in the state legislature, Harrison's election to a six-year term in the U.S. Senate was threatened by Judge Walter Q. Gresham, his intraparty rival, but Harrison was ultimately chosen.[73] After Garfield's election as president in 1880, his administration offered Harrison a cabinet position, but Harrison declined in favor of continuing his service in the U.S. Senate.[74]

Harrison served in the Senate from March 4, 1881, to March 3, 1887, and chaired the U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard (47th Congress) and the U.S. Senate Committee on Territories (48th and 49th Congresses).[75]

In 1881, the major issue confronting Senator Harrison was the budget surplus. Democrats wanted to reduce the tariff and limit the amount of money the government took in; Republicans instead wanted to spend the money on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War veterans. Harrison took his party's side and advocated for generous pensions for veterans and their widows.[76] He also unsuccessfully supported aid for the education of Southerners, especially children of the freedmen; he believed that education was necessary to help the black population rise to political and economic equality with whites.[77] Harrison opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which his party supported, because he thought it violated existing treaties with China.[78]

In 1884, Harrison and Gresham competed for influence at the 1884 Republican National Convention; the delegation ended up supporting Senator James G. Blaine, the eventual nominee.[79] During the Mugwump rebellion led by reform Republicans against Blaine's candidacy, Harrison at first stood aloof, "refusing to put his hat in the presidential ring," but after walking the middle ground he eventually supported Blaine "with energy and enthusiasm."[80] In the Senate, Harrison achieved passage of his Dependent Pension Bill, only to see it vetoed by President Grover Cleveland. His efforts to further the admission of new western states were stymied by Democrats, who feared that the new states would elect Republicans to Congress.[81]

In 1885 the Democrats redistricted the Indiana state legislature, which resulted in an increased Democratic majority in 1886, despite an overall Republican majority statewide.[82] In 1887, largely as a result of the Democratic gerrymandering of Indiana's legislative districts, Harrison was defeated in his bid for reelection.[24] Following a deadlock in the state senate, the state legislature eventually chose Democrat David Turpie as Harrison's successor in the Senate.[83] Harrison returned to Indianapolis and resumed his law practice, but stayed active in state and national politics.[84] A year after his senatorial defeat, Harrison declared his candidacy for the Republican nomination; he dubbed himself a "living and rejuvenated Republican," a reference to his lack of a power base.[80] Thereafter, the phrase "'Rejuvenated Republicanism' became the slogan of his presidential campaign."[80]

Election of 1888

Main article: 1888 United States presidential election

Nomination for president

Main article: 1888 Republican National Convention
 
Harrison–Morton campaign poster

The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nominee, James G. Blaine of Maine. After his narrow defeat against Cleveland in 1884 Blaine became the front-runner for 1888, but decided to remove his name from contention.[85] After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination, his supporters divided among other candidates, with Senator John Sherman of Ohio as the leader among them.[86] Others, including Chauncey Depew of New York, Russell Alger of Michigan, and Harrison's old nemesis Walter Q. Gresham—now a federal appellate court judge in Chicago—also sought the delegates' support at the 1888 Republican National Convention.[86] Harrison "marshaled his troops" to stop Gresham from gaining control of the Indiana delegation while simultaneously presenting himself "as an attractive alternative to Blaine."[85] Blaine did not publicly endorse any of the candidates, but on March 1, 1888, he privately wrote that "the one man remaining who in my judgment can make the best one is Benjamin Harrison."[71] Later at the National Convention, which took place in June, Blaine "threw his support to Harrison in the hope of uniting the party" against President Cleveland; nonetheless, the nomination fight that followed was "hotly contested."[80]

The convention opened on June 19 at the Auditorium Building in Chicago, Illinois.[87] Proceedings began with an announcement of the party platform; Lincoln was extolled as the "first great leader" of the Republican Party and an "immortal champion of liberty and the rights of the people."[88] Republican presidents Grant, Garfield, and Arthur were likewise acknowledged with "remembrance and gratitude." The "fundamental idea of the Republican party" was declared to be "hostility to all forms of despotism and oppression," and the Brazilian people were congratulated for their recent abolition of slavery.[88] The convention alleged that the "present Administration and the Democratic majority in Congress owe their existence to the suppression of the ballot by a criminal nullification of the Constitution." Anticipating a principal part of Harrison's campaign, the convention also declared itself "uncompromisingly in favor of the American system of protection," and protested "against its destruction as proposed by the President and his party."[89] The tariff was later to become the "main issue of the campaign" in 1888.[85] The admission of six new states during Harrison's term, between 1889 and 1890, was anticipated with the declaration: "whenever the conditions of population, material resources...and morality are such as to insure a stable local government," the people "should be permitted...to form for themselves constitutions and State government, and be admitted into the Union."[88] The convention insisted that "The pending bills in the Senate to enable the people of Washington, North Dakota and Montana Territories to...establish State governments, should be passed without unnecessary delay."[88] The convention began with seventeen candidates for the nomination.[87]

Harrison placed fifth on the first ballot, with Senator Sherman in the lead, and the next few ballots showed little change.[90] As the convention moved forward, Harrison became "everyone's second choice in a field of seven candidates."[80] Then, after Sherman "faltered in the balloting,"[80] Harrison gained support. Blaine supporters shifted their support among candidates they found acceptable, and when they shifted to Harrison, they found a candidate who could attract the votes of many other delegations.[91] Intending to make it undeniably clear he would not be a candidate, Blaine left the country and was staying with Andrew Carnegie in Scotland when the National Convention began, not returning to the United States until August; the delegates finally accepted Blaine's refusal to be nominated.[92] After New York switched to Harrison's column, he gained the needed momentum for victory.[85] Harrison was nominated as the party's presidential candidate on the eighth ballot, by a count of 544 to 108 votes.[93] Levi P. Morton of New York—a banker, former U.S. Minister to France, and former U.S. congressman—was chosen as his running mate.[94][80] At their National Convention in St. Louis, Democrats rallied behind President Cleveland and his running-mate, Senator Allen G. Thurman from Ohio; Vice President Hendricks had died in office on November 25, 1885.[80] After returning to America, Blaine visited Harrison at his home in October.[92]

Campaign against Cleveland

Harrison campaign paraphernalia
 
1888 Harrison campaign handkerchief
 
Ribbon with photo
 
Results of the 1888 election

Harrison's opponent in the general election was incumbent President Grover Cleveland. Harrison reprised a more traditional front-porch campaign, abandoned by his immediate predecessors; he received visiting delegations to Indianapolis and made over 90 pronouncements from his hometown.[95] The Republicans campaigned heavily in favor of protective tariffs, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North. The election took place on Tuesday, November 6, 1888; it focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Harrison's home state of Indiana.[96] Harrison and Cleveland split the four, with Harrison winning New York and Indiana.[97] Voter turnout was 79.3%, reflecting large interest in the campaign; nearly eleven million votes were cast.[98] Harrison received 90,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland, but carried the Electoral College 233 to 168.[99] Allegations were made against Republicans for engaging in irregular ballot practices; an example was described as Blocks of Five.[100] On October 31 the Indiana Sentinel published a letter allegedly by Harrison's friend and supporter, William Wade Dudley, offering to bribe voters in "blocks of five" to ensure Harrison's election. Harrison neither defended nor repudiated Dudley, but allowed him to remain on the campaign for the remaining few days. After the election, Harrison never spoke to Dudley again.[101]

Harrison had made no political bargains, but his supporters had made many pledges on his behalf. When Boss Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania, who was rebuffed for a Cabinet position for his political support during the convention, heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know "how close a number of men were compelled to approach...the penitentiary to make him president".[102] Harrison was known as the Centennial President because his inauguration celebrated the centenary of the first inauguration of George Washington in 1789.[103] In the congressional elections, Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by 19 seats.[104]

Presidency (1889–1893)

Main article: Presidency of Benjamin Harrison

Inauguration and cabinet

 
BEP engraved portrait of Harrison as President
1889 inaugural ribbons
 
New York Republican Assn. ribbon
 
Souvenir ribbon with portraits

Harrison was sworn into office on Monday, March 4, 1889, by Chief Justice Melville Fuller. His speech was brief—half as long as that of his grandfather, William Henry Harrison, whose speech remains the longest inaugural address of a U.S. president.[105] In his speech, Benjamin Harrison credited the nation's growth to the influences of education and religion, urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states and promised a protective tariff. Of commerce, he said, "If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal obligations and duties, they would have less call to complain of the limitations of their rights or of interference with their operations."[106] Harrison also urged early statehood for the territories and advocated pensions for veterans, a call that met with enthusiastic applause. In foreign affairs, Harrison reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine as a mainstay of foreign policy, while urging modernization of the Navy and a merchant marine force. He gave his commitment to international peace through noninterference in the affairs of foreign governments.[107]

John Philip Sousa's Marine Corps band played at the Inaugural Ball inside the Pension Building with a large crowd attending.[108] After moving into the White House, Harrison noted, quite prophetically, "There is only a door—one that is never locked—between the president's office and what are not very accurately called his private apartments. There should be an executive office building, not too far away, but wholly distinct from the dwelling house. For everyone else in the public service, there is an unroofed space between the bedroom and the desk."[109]

 
Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison, March 4, 1889. Cleveland held Harrison's umbrella.
 
Harrison hounded by office seekers at the beginning of his term, May 1889, from Puck

Harrison acted quite independently in selecting his cabinet, much to the Republican bosses' dismay. He began by delaying the presumed nomination of James G. Blaine as Secretary of State so as to preclude Blaine's involvement in the formation of the administration, as had occurred in President Garfield's term.[110] In fact, other than Blaine, the only Republican boss initially nominated was Redfield Proctor, as Secretary of War. Senator Shelby Cullom's comment symbolizes Harrison's steadfast aversion to use federal positions for patronage: "I suppose Harrison treated me as well as he did any other Senator; but whenever he did anything for me, it was done so ungraciously that the concession tended to anger rather than please."[111] Harrison's selections shared particular alliances, such as their service in the Civil War, Indiana citizenship and membership in the Presbyterian Church.[112] Nevertheless, Harrison had alienated pivotal Republican operatives from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa with these choices and prematurely compromised his political power and future.[113] His normal schedule provided for two full cabinet meetings per week, as well as separate weekly one-on-one meetings with each cabinet member.[114]

In June 1890, Harrison's Postmaster General John Wanamaker and several Philadelphia friends purchased a large new cottage at Cape May Point for Harrison's wife, Caroline. Many believed the cottage gift appeared improper and amounted to a bribe for a cabinet position. Harrison made no comment on the matter for two weeks, then said he had always intended to purchase the cottage once Caroline approved. On July 2, perhaps a little tardily to avoid suspicion, Harrison gave Wanamaker a check for $10,000 (equivalent to $301,593 in 2021) for the cottage.[115]

Civil service reform and pensions

 
Eastman Johnson's portrait of Benjamin Harrison, c. 1890–1900

Civil service reform was a prominent issue following Harrison's election. Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the merit system, as opposed to the spoils system.[116] Although some of the civil service had been classified under the Pendleton Act by previous administrations, Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments.[117] Congress was widely divided on the issue and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of either side. The issue became a political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned "What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?"[118] Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson, both reformers, to the Civil Service Commission, but otherwise did little to further the reform cause.[119]

Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act in 1890, a cause he had championed while in Congress. In addition to providing pensions to disabled Civil War veterans (regardless of the cause of their disability), the Act depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus. Pension expenditures reached $135 million under Harrison (equivalent to $4.1 billion in 2021), the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history, a problem exacerbated by Pension Bureau commissioner James R. Tanner's expansive interpretation of the pension laws.[120] An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Harrison's Secretary of Interior John Willock Noble found evidence of lavish and illegal handouts under Tanner.[121] Harrison, who privately believed that appointing Tanner had been a mistake, due to his apparent loose management style and tongue, asked Tanner to resign and replaced him with Green B. Raum.[122] Raum was also accused of accepting loan payments in return for expediting pension cases. Harrison, having accepted a dissenting congressional Republican investigation report that exonerated Raum, kept him in office for the rest of his administration.[123]

One of the first appointments Harrison was forced to reverse was that of James S. Clarkson as an assistant postmaster. Clarkson, who had expected a full cabinet position, began sabotaging the appointment from the outset, gaining the reputation for "decapitating a fourth class postmaster every three minutes". Clarkson himself stated, "I am simply on detail from the Republican Committee ... I am most anxious to get through this task and leave." He resigned in September 1890.[122]

Tariff

 
Harrison and the Billion-Dollar Congress are portrayed as wasting the surplus in this cartoon from Puck.

The tariff levels had been a major political issue since before the Civil War, and they became the most dominant matter of the 1888 election.[124] The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury, which led many Democrats (as well as the growing Populist movement) to call for lowering them. Most Republicans preferred to maintain the rates, spend the surplus on internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes.[125]

Representative William McKinley and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich framed the McKinley Tariff that would raise the tariff even higher, including making some rates intentionally prohibitive.[126] At Secretary of State James Blaine's urging, Harrison attempted to make the tariff more acceptable by urging Congress to add reciprocity provisions, which would allow the president to reduce rates when other countries reduced their rates on American exports.[124] The tariff was removed from imported raw sugar, and sugar growers in the United States were given a two cent per pound subsidy on their production.[126] Even with the reductions and reciprocity, the McKinley Tariff enacted the highest average rate in American history, and the spending associated with it contributed to the reputation of the Billion-Dollar Congress.[124]

Antitrust laws and the currency

 
Senator John Sherman worked closely with Harrison, writing bills regulating monopolies and monetary policy.

Members of both parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies, and one of the first acts of the 51st Congress was to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act, sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio. The Act passed by wide margins in both houses, and Harrison signed it into law.[127] The Sherman Act was the first Federal act of its kind, and marked a new use of federal government power.[128] While Harrison approved of the law and its intent, his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it.[129] However, the government successfully concluded a case during Harrison's time in office (against a Tennessee coal company),[d] and had initiated several other cases against trusts.[129]

One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone.[130] The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard. Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation's gold supply. Owing to worldwide deflation in the late 19th century, however, a strict gold standard had resulted in reduction of incomes without the equivalent reduction in debts, pushing debtors and the poor to call for silver coinage as an inflationary measure.[131]

The silver coinage issue had not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign and Harrison is said to have favored a bimetallist position.[127] However, his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary, William Windom, encouraged the free silver supporters.[132] Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions, advocating a free coinage of silver, but at its own value, not at a fixed ratio to gold.[133] This failed to facilitate a compromise between the factions. In July 1890, Senator Sherman achieved passage of a bill, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, in both houses.[133] Harrison thought that the bill would end the controversy, and he signed it into law.[134] The effect of the bill, however, was the increased depletion of the nation's gold supply, a problem that would persist until the second Cleveland administration resolved it.[135]

Civil rights

 
Harrison with Secretary Blaine and Representative Henry Cabot Lodge off the coast of Maine, 1889

After regaining the majority in both Houses of Congress, some Republicans, led by Harrison, attempted to pass legislation to protect black Americans' civil rights. Harrison's Attorney General, William H. H. Miller, through the Justice Department, ordered the prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South; however, white juries often failed to convict or indict violators. This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would "secure all our people a free exercise of the right of suffrage and every other civil right under the Constitution and laws".[136] Harrison endorsed the proposed Federal Elections Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Senator George Frisbie Hoar in 1890, but the bill was defeated in the Senate.[137] Following the failure to pass the bill, Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress. Most notably, on December 3, 1889, Harrison had gone before Congress and stated:

The colored people did not intrude themselves upon us; they were brought here in chains and held in communities where they are now chiefly bound by a cruel slave code...when and under what conditions is the black man to have a free ballot? When is he in fact to have those full civil rights which have so long been his in law? When is that quality of influence which our form of government was intended to secure to the electors to be restored? … in many parts of our country where the colored population is large the people of that race are by various devices deprived of any effective exercise of their political rights and of many of their civil rights. The wrong does not expend itself upon those whose votes are suppressed. Every constituency in the Union is wronged.[138]

He severely questioned the states' civil rights records, arguing that if states have the authority over civil rights, then "we have a right to ask whether they are at work upon it."[137] Harrison also supported a bill proposed by Senator Henry W. Blair, which would have granted federal funding to schools regardless of the students' races.[139] He also endorsed a proposed constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court ruling in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) that declared much of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. None of these measures gained congressional approval.[140]

National forests

In March 1891 Congress enacted, and Harrison signed, the Land Revision Act of 1891. This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus lands that had been, up to that point, granted from the public domain, for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates. As the law's drafting was finalized, Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble, which read as follows:

That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests, in any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the president shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof.[141]

Within a month of the enactment of this law Harrison authorized the first forest reserve, to be located on public domain adjacent to Yellowstone National Park, in Wyoming. Other areas were so designated by Harrison, bringing the first forest reservations total to 22 million acres in his term.[142] Harrison was also the first to give a prehistoric Indian Ruin, Casa Grande in Arizona, federal protection.[143]

Native American policy

During Harrison's administration, the Lakota Sioux, previously confined to reservations in South Dakota, grew restive under the influence of Wovoka, a medicine man, who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the Ghost Dance.[144] Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance, and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government. On December 29, 1890, troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with the Sioux at Wounded Knee. The result was a massacre of at least 146 Sioux, including many women and children; the dead Sioux were buried in a mass grave.[145][146] In reaction Harrison directed Major General Nelson A. Miles to investigate and ordered 3,500 federal troops to South Dakota; the uprising was brought to an end.[144] Wounded Knee is considered the last major American Indian battle in the 19th century.[145] Harrison's general policy on American Indians was to encourage assimilation into white society and, despite the massacre, he believed the policy to have been generally successful.[147] This policy, known as the allotment system and embodied in the Dawes Act, was favored by liberal reformers at the time, but eventually proved detrimental to American Indians as they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators.[148]

Technology and naval modernization

 
USS Texas, America's first battleship, built in 1892

During Harrison's time in office, the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology. A recording of his voice is the earliest extant recording of a president while he was in office. That   thirty-six-second recording (help·info) was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini.[149] Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company, but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on.[150]

Over the course of his administration, Harrison marshaled the country's technology to clothe the nation with a credible naval power. When he took office there were only two commissioned warships in the Navy. In his inaugural address he said, "construction of a sufficient number of warships and their necessary armaments should progress as rapidly as is consistent with care and perfection."[151] Harrison's Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy spearheaded the rapid construction of vessels, and within a year congressional approval was obtained for building of the warships Indiana, Texas, Oregon, and Columbia. By 1898, with the help of the Carnegie Corporation, no less than ten modern warships, including steel hulls and greater displacements and armaments, had transformed the United States into a legitimate naval power. Seven of these had begun during the Harrison term.[152]

Foreign policy

Latin America and Samoa

Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine were often not the most cordial of friends, but harmonized in an aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other nations.[153] Blaine's persistent medical problems warranted more of a hands-on effort by Harrison in the conduct of foreign policy. In San Francisco, while on tour of the United States in 1891, Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a "new epoch" of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad.[154] The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference, led by John B. Henderson and Andrew Carnegie. The conference failed to achieve any diplomatic breakthrough, due in large part to an atmosphere of suspicion fostered by the Argentinian delegation. It did succeed in establishing an information center that became the Pan American Union.[155] In response to the diplomatic bust, Harrison and Blaine pivoted diplomatically and initiated a crusade for tariff reciprocity with Latin American nations; the Harrison administration concluded eight reciprocity treaties among these countries.[156] On another front, Harrison sent Frederick Douglass as ambassador to Haiti, but failed in his attempts to establish a naval base there.[157]

In 1889, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the German Empire were locked in a dispute over control of the Samoan Islands. Historian George H. Ryden's research indicates Harrison played a key role in determining the status of this Pacific outpost by taking a firm stand on every aspect of Samoa conference negotiations; this included selection of the local ruler, refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany, as well as the establishment of a three power protectorate, a first for the U.S.. These arrangements facilitated the future dominant power of the U.S. in the Pacific; Secretary of State Blaine was absent due to complication of lumbago.[158]

European embargo of U.S. pork

Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on importation of United States pork out of an unconfirmed concern of trichinosis; at issue was over one billion pounds of pork products with a value of $80 million annually (equivalent to $2.4 billion in 2021). Harrison engaged Whitelaw Reid, minister to France, and William Walter Phelps, minister to Germany, to restore these exports for the country without delay. Harrison also successfully asked the congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act to eliminate the accusations of product compromise. The president also partnered with Agriculture Secretary Rusk to threaten Germany with retaliation – by initiating an embargo in the U.S. against Germany's highly demanded beet sugar. By September 1891 Germany relented, and was soon followed by Denmark, France and Austria-Hungary.[159]

Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile

The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast. Canada claimed fishing and sealing rights around many of the Aleutian Islands, in violation of U.S. law. As a result, the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships.[160] In 1891, the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration, with the British government paying compensation in 1898.[161][162]

In 1891, a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile, otherwise known as the Baltimore Crisis. The American minister to Chile, Patrick Egan, granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the 1891 Chilean Civil War. Egan, previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U.S., was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain's influence in Chile;[163] his action increased tensions between Chile and the United States, which began in the early 1880s when Secretary Blaine had alienated the Chileans in the War of the Pacific.

 
Attack on sailors from USS Baltimore spawned the 1891 Chilean crisis.

The crisis began in earnest when sailors from USS Baltimore took shore leave in Valparaiso and a fight ensued, resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the arrest of three dozen others.[164] Baltimore's captain, Winfield Schley, based on the nature of the sailors' wounds, insisted the sailors had been bayonet-attacked by Chilean police without provocation. With Blaine incapacitated, Harrison drafted a demand for reparations. The Chilean Minister of Foreign Affairs Manuel Matta replied that Harrison's message was "erroneous or deliberately incorrect," and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter.[165]

Tensions increased to the brink of war – Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology, and said the situation required, "grave and patriotic consideration". The president also remarked, "If the dignity as well as the prestige and influence of the United States are not to be wholly sacrificed, we must protect those who in foreign ports display the flag or wear the colors."[166] The Navy was also placed on a high level of preparedness.[165] A recuperated Blaine made brief conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government which had no support in the administration; he then reversed course, joined the chorus for unconditional concessions and apology by the Chileans, who ultimately obliged, and war was averted. Theodore Roosevelt later applauded Harrison for his use of the "big stick" in the matter.[167][168]

Annexation of Hawaii

In the last days of his administration, Harrison dealt with the issue of Hawaiian annexation. Following a coup d'état against Queen Liliuokalani, the new government of Hawaii led by Sanford Dole petitioned for annexation by the United States.[169] Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at Pearl Harbor but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands.[170] The United States consul in Hawaii, John L. Stevens, recognized the new government on February 1, 1893, and forwarded their proposals to Washington. With just one month left before leaving office, the administration signed a treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day with Harrison's recommendation.[169] The Senate failed to act, and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office.[171][172]

Cabinet

 
Harrison's cabinet in 1889
Front row, left to right: Harrison, William Windom, John Wanamaker, Redfield Proctor, James G. Blaine
Back row, left to right: William H. H. Miller, John Willock Noble, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Benjamin F. Tracy

Judicial appointments

Main article: Benjamin Harrison judicial appointments
 
Harrison appointed four Supreme Court justices, including David Josiah Brewer.

Harrison appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first was David Josiah Brewer, a judge on the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. Brewer, the nephew of Justice Field, had previously been considered for a cabinet position. Shortly after Brewer's nomination, Justice Matthews died, creating another vacancy. Harrison had considered Henry Billings Brown, a Michigan judge and admiralty law expert, for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second. For the third vacancy, which arose in 1892, Harrison nominated George Shiras. Shiras's appointment was somewhat controversial because his age—sixty—was older than usual for a newly appointed Justice. Shiras also drew the opposition of Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania because they were in different factions of the Pennsylvania Republican party, but his nomination was nonetheless approved. Finally, at the end of his term, Harrison nominated Howell Edmunds Jackson to replace Justice Lamar, who died in January 1893. Harrison knew the incoming Senate would be controlled by Democrats, so he selected Jackson, a respected Tennessee Democrat with whom he was friendly to ensure his nominee would not be rejected. Jackson's nomination was indeed successful, but he died after only two years on the Court.[173]

In addition to his Supreme Court appointments, Harrison appointed ten judges to the courts of appeals, two judges to the circuit courts, and 26 judges to the district courts.

States admitted to the Union

Six new states were admitted to the Union while Harrison was in office:[174]

More states were admitted during Harrison's presidency than any other.

Vacations and travel

Harrison attended a grand, three-day centennial celebration of George Washington's inauguration in New York City on April 30, 1889, and made the following remarks "We have come into the serious but always inspiring presence of Washington. He was the incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this great lesson: that those who would associate their names with events that shall outlive a century can only do so by high consecration to duty. Self-seeking has no public observance or anniversary."[175]

The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital, which included speeches at most stops – including Philadelphia, New England, Indianapolis and Chicago. The President typically made his best impression speaking before large audiences, as opposed to more intimate settings.[176] The most notable of his presidential trips, theretofore unequaled, was a five-week tour of the west in the spring of 1891, aboard a lavishly outfitted train.[177] Harrison enjoyed a number of short trips out of the capital—usually for hunting—to nearby Virginia or Maryland.[178]

During the hot Washington summers, the Harrisons took refuge in Deer Park, Maryland and Cape May Point, New Jersey. In 1890, John Wanamaker joined with other Philadelphia devotees of the Harrisons and made a gift to them of a summer cottage at Cape May. Harrison, though appreciative, was uncomfortable with the appearance of impropriety; a month later, he paid Wanamaker $10,000 (equivalent to $301,593 in 2021) as reimbursement to the donors. Nevertheless, Harrison's opponents made the gift the subject of national ridicule, and Mrs. Harrison and the president were vigorously criticized.[179]

Reelection campaign in 1892

Main article: 1892 United States presidential election
 
Official White House portrait of Benjamin Harrison, painted by Eastman Johnson

The treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation's economic health was worsening – precursors to the eventual Panic of 1893.[180] Congressional elections in 1890 had gone against the Republicans; and although Harrison had cooperated with congressional Republicans on legislation, several party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his adamant refusal to give party members the nod in the course of his executive appointments. Specifically, Thomas C. Platt, Matthew S. Quay, Thomas B. Reed and James Clarkson quietly organized the Grievance Committee, the ambition of which was to initiate a dump-Harrison offensive. They solicited the support of Blaine, without effect however, and Harrison in reaction resolved to run for re-election – seemingly forced to choose one of two options – "become a candidate or forever wear the name of a political coward".[181]

It was clear that Harrison would not be re-nominated unanimously.[182] Many of Harrison's detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine, though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892.[182] Some party leaders still hoped to draft Blaine into running, and speculation increased when he resigned at the 11th hour as Secretary of State in June.[183] At the convention in Minneapolis, Harrison prevailed on the first ballot, but encountered significant opposition.[184]

The Democrats renominated former President Cleveland, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. The tariff revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that now many voters shifted to the reform position.[185] Many westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to the new Populist Party candidate, James Weaver, who promised free silver, generous veterans' pensions, and an eight-hour work day. The effects of the suppression of the Homestead Strike rebounded against the Republicans as well, although the federal government did not take action.[186]

Harrison's wife Caroline began a critical struggle with tuberculosis earlier in 1892, and two weeks before the election, on October 25, she died from the disease.[187] Their daughter Mary Harrison McKee assumed the role of First Lady after her mother's death. Mrs. Harrison's terminal illness and the fact that both candidates had served in the White House called for a low key campaign, and resulted in neither of the candidates actively campaigning personally.[188]

Cleveland ultimately won the election by 277 electoral votes to Harrison's 145, and also won the popular vote by 5,556,918 to 5,176,108; this was the most decisive presidential election in 20 years.[189][190] It gave Harrison the distinction of being the only president whose predecessor and successor were the same man.

Post-presidency (1893–1901)

 
Grave of President Harrison and his two wives in Indianapolis, Indiana

After he left office, Harrison visited the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in June 1893.[191] After the Expo, Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis. Harrison had been elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1882, and was elected as commander (president) of the Ohio Commandery on May 3, 1893. For a few months in 1894, Harrison lived in San Francisco, California, where he gave law lectures at Stanford University.[192] In 1896, some of Harrison's friends in the Republican party tried to convince him to seek the presidency again, but he declined. He traveled around the nation making appearances and speeches in support of William McKinley's candidacy for president.[193]

From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University, where Harrison Hall, a dormitory, was named in his honor.[191] He wrote a series of articles about the federal government and the presidency which were republished in 1897 as a book titled This Country of Ours.[194] In 1896, Harrison at age 62 remarried, to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick, the widowed 37-year-old niece and former secretary of his deceased wife. Harrison's two adult children, Russell, 41 years old at the time, and Mary (Mamie) McKee, 38, disapproved of the marriage and did not attend the wedding. Benjamin and Mary had one child together, Elizabeth (February 21, 1897 – December 26, 1955).[195]

In 1898, Harrison served as an attorney for the Republic of Venezuela in their British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom.[196] An international trial was agreed upon; he filed an 800-page brief and traveled to Paris where he spent more than 25 hours in court on Venezuela's behalf. Although he lost the case, his legal arguments won him international renown.[197] In 1899 Harrison attended the First Peace Conference at The Hague.

 
Presbyterian General Assembly special committee on creed revision, including Benjamin Harrison and Judge Edward William Cornelius Humphrey

Harrison was an active Presbyterian and served as an Elder in the First Presbyterian Church of Indianapolis and on a special committee on creed revision in the national Presbyterian General Assembly. However, he died before he could cast his vote at the meeting.[198][199][200][201]

Death

Harrison developed what was thought to be influenza (then referred to as grippe), which later proved to be pneumonia, in February 1901. He was treated with steam vapor inhalation and oxygen, but his condition worsened. Harrison died from pneumonia at his home in Indianapolis on March 13, 1901, at the age of 67. His last words were reported to be, "Are the doctors here? Doctor, my lungs...". Harrison's remains are interred in Indianapolis's Crown Hill Cemetery, next to the remains of his first wife, Caroline. After her death in 1948, Mary Dimmick Harrison, his second wife, was buried beside him.[202]

Historical reputation and memorials

 
Benjamin Harrison Statue, Indianapolis, Indiana
 
Victory Portraits of Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. Morton for the 1888 election, from Judge

Historian Charles Calhoun gives Harrison major credit for innovative legislation in antitrust, monetary policy and tariffs. Historians have often given Secretary of State Blaine credit for foreign-policy initiatives. However, Calhoun argues that Harrison was even more responsible for the success of trade negotiations, the buildup of the steel Navy, overseas expansion, and emphasis on the American role in dominating the Western Hemisphere through the Monroe Doctrine. The major weakness which Calhoun sees was that the public and indeed the grassroots Republican Party was not fully prepared for this onslaught of major activity. The Democrats scored a sweeping landslide in 1890 by attacking the flagship legislation, especially the McKinley tariff, because it would raise the cost of living of the average American family. McKinley himself was defeated for reelection.[203][204]

According to historian R. Hal Williams, Harrison had a "widespread reputation for personal and official integrity". Closely scrutinized by Democrats, Harrison's reputation was largely intact when he left the White House. Having an advantage few 19th-century presidents had, Harrison's own party, the Republicans, controlled Congress, while his administration actively advanced a Republican program of a higher tariff, moderate control of corporations, protecting African American voting rights, a generous Civil War pension, and compromising over the controversial silver issue. Historians have not raised "serious questions about Harrison's own integrity or the integrity of his administration". [205]

Following the Panic of 1893, Harrison became more popular in retirement.[206] Scholars have argued that Harrison's economic policies contributed to the Panic of 1893.[207] His legacy among historians is scant, and "general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher".[208] More recently,

historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration—and Harrison himself—in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century. The administration faced challenges throughout the hemisphere, in the Pacific, and in relations with the European powers, involvements that would be taken for granted in the twenty first century.[208]

Harrison's presidency belongs properly to the 19th century, but he "clearly pointed the way" to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley.[209] The bi-partisan Sherman Anti-Trust Act signed into law by Harrison remains in effect over 120 years later and was the most important legislation passed by the Fifty-first Congress. Harrison's support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect civil rights until the 1930s. Harrison's tenacity at foreign policy was emulated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt.[210]

 
The 1st Harrison stamp
Issue of 1902

Harrison was memorialized on several postage stamps. The first was a 13-cent stamp issued on November 18, 1902, with the engraved likeness of Harrison modeled after a photo provided by his widow.[211] In all Harrison has been honored on six U.S. Postage stamps, more than most other U.S. Presidents. Harrison also was featured on the five-dollar National Bank Notes from the third charter period, beginning in 1902.[212] In 2012, a dollar coin with his image, part of the Presidential $1 Coin Program, was issued.[213]

In 1908, the people of Indianapolis erected the Benjamin Harrison memorial statue, created by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon, in honor of Harrison's lifetime achievements as military leader, U.S. Senator, and President of the United States.[214] The statue occupies a site on the south edge of University Park, facing the Birch Bayh Federal Building and United States Courthouse across New York Avenue.[215]

In 1951, Harrison's home was opened to the public as a library and museum. It had been used as a dormitory for a music school from 1937 to 1950.[216] The house was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964.[217]

Theodore Roosevelt dedicated Fort Benjamin Harrison in the former president's honor in 1906. It is located in Lawrence, Indiana, a northeastern suburb of Indianapolis. The federal government decommissioned Fort Harrison in 1991 and transferred 1,700 of its 2,500 acres to Indiana's state government in 1995 to establish Fort Harrison State Park.[218] The site has been redeveloped to include residential neighborhoods and a golf course.

In 1931, Franklin Hall at Miami University, Harrison's alma mater, was renamed Harrison Hall. It was replaced by a new building of the same name in 1960 and houses the college's political science department. In 1966, Purdue University opened Harrison Hall, an 8-floor, 400-room residence hall. Harrison served as a Purdue University Trustee for the last six years of his life.[219]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Although he was the eighth Benjamin Harrison in his family, Harrison is known simply as Benjamin Harrison, rather than Benjamin Harrison VIII.
  2. ^ The school was later known as Belmont College. After Belmont closed, the campus was transferred to the Ohio Military Institute, which closed in 1958.
  3. ^ Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Senators were elected by state legislatures.
  4. ^ The case was United States v. Jellico Mountain Coal, 46 Fed. 432. June 4, 1891

References

  1. ^ Philip Alexander Bruce; William Glover Stanard (1894). The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. Virginia Historical Society. pp. 229–.
  2. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 7–8.
  3. ^ Barnhart & Riker 1971, p. 315.
  4. ^ Owens 2007, p. 6.
  5. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 8.
  6. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 9; Sievers 1968, v. 1, pp. 21–23.
  7. ^ Boomhower, p. 49.
  8. ^ Sievers 1968, pp. 22–23, v. 1.
  9. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 10.
  10. ^ Sievers 1968, pp. 24–29, v. 1.
  11. ^ Sievers 1968, pp. 29–30, v. 1.
  12. ^ Wallace 1888, p. 53.
  13. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 11, 15.
  14. ^ Moore & Hale 2006, pp. 21–23.
  15. ^ Sievers 1968, v. 1, p. 58.
  16. ^
    • Delta Chi Fraternity
    • The Delta Chi Fraternity at Coastal Carolina University September 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ a b Calhoun 2005, p. 23.
  18. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 10–11; Sievers 1968, v. 1, pp. 31–34.
  19. ^ Wallace 1888, p. 58.
  20. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 11–12, 15–15, 23.
  21. ^ a b Calhoun 2005, pp. 27, 29.
  22. ^ "Benjamin Harrison: Life Before the Presidency – Miller Center". October 4, 2016.
  23. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 26.
  24. ^ a b c d Gugin and St. Clair, p. 159.
  25. ^ Cowen et al., pp. 92.
  26. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 22.
  27. ^ Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 7.
  28. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 18.
  29. ^ Moore & Hale 2006, p. 29.
  30. ^ a b Boomhower, p. 50.
  31. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 28; Sievers 1968, v. 1, p. 105.
  32. ^ Sievers 1968, p. 171, v. 1.
  33. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 20.
  34. ^ Wallace 1888, p. 180; Calhoun 2005, p. 34.
  35. ^ Wallace 1888, pp. 180–181; Calhoun 2005, pp. 21–23, 41, 44.
  36. ^ Terrell, W.H.H. (1865). Report of the Adjutant General of the State of Indiana (Volume II ed.). Indianapolis: W.R. Holloway. pp. 639–640.
  37. ^ "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 12, 2022. In May 1864, Colonel Harrison and the regiment joined General Sherman's Atlanta campaign in the Army of the Cumberland.
  38. ^ a b Calhoun 2005, pp. 36–44; Wallace 1888, pp. 209–225.
  39. ^ "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 11, 2022. Harrison's reputation became that of a strong leader. He earned the respect of his men and did not leave them in battle...Mr. Richard Smock remembered an incident while they were camped near Nashville during a very cold winter. Men on the picket line were nearly frozen to death, and Colonel Harrison fixed coffee and took it to them in the middle of the night. Harrison always led the men saying "Come on, boys!" as he took the lead.
  40. ^ a b c d "Battle of Resaca". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 11, 2022.
  41. ^ a b c d "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 11, 2022. Brigadier General Ward's brigade, of which Harrison was a part, was ordered to assault and capture this redoubt. The brigade attacked in a column formation, the 70th having the honor of leading the charge. The redoubt was heavily fortified with three infantry regiments in the rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches...Harrison captured the battery in hand-to-hand fighting with the gunners. Fierce fighting continued all afternoon. At nightfall, the 70th carried the four captured 121-pound Napoleon Cannons to the rear
  42. ^ "A Missed Opportunity". American Battlefield Trust. September 30, 2014. Retrieved March 12, 2022. Thirty-three years old in 1864, Harrison led his brigade forward and helped stop the fierce assault made by Featherston's Mississippi brigade...Featherston's Mississippi brigade charged up and over Collier Road and engaged future United States President Benjamin Harrison's Union brigade.
  43. ^ "Future President Benjamin Harrison's Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek". July 16, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2022. Harrison now found himself in command of a brigade consisting of the 102nd, 105th, and 129th Illinois Infantry regiments, plus the 79th Ohio Infantry and his own 70th Indiana. The brigade was deployed roughly in the center of the Union line and was heavily engaged with Major General William W. Loring's division of Mississippi and Alabama troops of Stewart's Corps.
  44. ^ "Future President Benjamin Harrison's Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek". July 16, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2022. HDQRS. FIRST BRIG., THIRD DIV., TWENTIETH CORPS, Before Atlanta, Ga., August 12, 1864...At one time during the fight our ammunition began to get low and considerable uneasiness was felt lest it might be exhausted. I at once dispatched Lieutenant Mitchell, aide-de-camp, to have a supply brought up, while Captain Scott, acting assistant inspector-general, and others busied themselves in cutting the cartridge-boxes from the rebel dead within our lines and distributing them to the men.
  45. ^ "Future President Benjamin Harrison's Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek". July 16, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2022.
  46. ^ "A Missed Opportunity". American Battlefield Trust. September 30, 2014. Retrieved March 12, 2022.
  47. ^ a b Spetter, Allan B. (October 4, 2016). "Benjamin Harrison: Life Before the Presidency | Miller Center". millercenter.org. Retrieved March 12, 2022.
  48. ^ a b c d "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
  49. ^ "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 19, 2022. After the November election, he left for Georgia to rejoin his old regiment for Sherman's "March to the Sea." Instead he was given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville and led them in a decisive battle against Confederate General Hood.
  50. ^ "Benjamin Harrision Eulogy Signed". The Raab Collection. Retrieved March 19, 2022. Harrison's brigade participated in the Battle of Nashville in December 1864
  51. ^ "Benjamin Harrison – Wikiquote". en.wikiquote.org. Retrieved March 13, 2022. Statement of 1888, as quoted in Treasury of Presidential Quotations (1964) by Caroline T. Hamsberger
  52. ^ Eicher, John H.; Eicher, David J. (2001), Civil War High Commands, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, p. 747, ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1
  53. ^ "The Civil War". Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site. Retrieved March 12, 2022. For Harrison's achievements at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek, he was promoted to Brigadier General.
  54. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 19.
  55. ^ Kinzer, pp. 146–47.
  56. ^ Bodenhamer & Barrows 1994, pp. 444–445.
  57. ^ Text of Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866) is available from: Findlaw 
  58. ^ a b Sharp, Allen (Summer 2003). "An Echo of the War: The Aftermath of the Ex Parte Milligan Case". Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. 15 (3): 46–47. See also: Nolan, Alan T., "Ex Parte Milligan: A Curb of Executive and Military Power" in We The People: Indiana and the United States Constitution: Lectures in Observance of the Bicentennial of the Constitution. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. 1987. pp. 45–46. ISBN 0871950073. See also: Klement, Frank L. (1984). Dark Lanterns: Secret Political Societies, Conspiracies, and Treason Trials in the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-8071-1174-0.
  59. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 28.
  60. ^ Wallace 1888, pp. 93–94, 119.
  61. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 27–28; Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 8.
  62. ^ Moore & Hale 2006, p. 28.
  63. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 29.
  64. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 30.
  65. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 32; Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 8.
  66. ^ Gugin and St. Clair, p. 159; Kinzer, p. 148.
  67. ^ Wallace 1888, p. 266; Calhoun 2005, pp. 32 & 58.
  68. ^ Foner, p. 584.
  69. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 33–34.
  70. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 35–36.
  71. ^ a b Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 8.
  72. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 36.
  73. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 37.
  74. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 60; Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 8.
  75. ^ Wallace 1888, pp. 265–267; Calhoun 2005, p. 59.
  76. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 39.
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  78. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 40.
  79. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 41–42.
  80. ^ a b c d e f g h Spetter, Allan B. (October 4, 2016). "Benjamin Harrison: Campaigns and Elections | Miller Center". millercenter.org. Retrieved March 18, 2022.
  81. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 42.
  82. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 43–44.
  83. ^ Moore & Hale 2006, p. 66.
  84. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 45–46.
  85. ^ a b c d "HarpWeek | Elections | 1888 Biographies". elections.harpweek.com. Retrieved March 18, 2022.
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  87. ^ a b "Guide to the Republican National Convention Collection 1884–1888". www.lib.uchicago.edu. Retrieved March 18, 2022.
  88. ^ a b c d "Republican Party Platform of 1888 | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved March 18, 2022.
  89. ^ "Republican Party Platform of 1888 | The American Presidency Project". www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved March 18, 2022. We are uncompromisingly in favor of the American system of protection; we protest against its destruction as proposed by the President and his party. They serve the interests of Europe; we will support the interests of America. We accept the issue, and confidently appeal to the people for their judgment. The protective system must be maintained. Its abandonment has always been followed by general disaster to all interests, except those of the usurer and the sheriff. We denounce the Mills bill as destructive to the general business, the labor and the farming interests of the country, and we heartily indorse the consistent and patriotic action of the Republican Representatives in Congress in opposing its passage.
  90. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 50.
  91. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 51–52.
  92. ^ a b Muzzey, David Saville (1934). James G. Blaine: A Political Idol of Other Days. New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company. pp. 372–374, 383.
  93. ^ Wallace 1888, p. 271.
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  95. ^ Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 11.
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  99. ^ "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
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  143. ^ Administrator, Joomla!. . www.presidentbenjaminharrison.org. Archived from the original on September 18, 2016. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
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  149. ^ . Vincent Voice Library. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
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  181. ^ Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 81.
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  184. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 140–141.
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  189. ^ "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
  190. ^ Socolofsky & Spetter, p. 199.
  191. ^ a b Moore & Hale 2006, p. 150.
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  193. ^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 160–161.
  194. ^ Harrison, Benjamin (1897). This Country of Ours. Charles Scribner's Sons.
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  198. ^ Administrator, Joomla!. . www.presidentbenjaminharrison.org. Archived from the original on February 13, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
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  200. ^ . starship.python.net. Archived from the original on February 3, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
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  203. ^ Charles Calhoun, Benjamin Harrison (2005).
  204. ^ Charles Calhoun, "Reimagining the "Lost Men" of the Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Late Nineteenth Century Presidents". Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2002) 1#3: 225–257.
  205. ^ Williams, p. 191.
  206. ^ Calhoun 2005, p. 6.
  207. ^ Taylor, Mark Zachary (March 23, 2021). "Ideas and Their Consequences: Benjamin Harrison and the Seeds of Economic Crisis, 1889–1893". Critical Review. 33: 102–127. doi:10.1080/08913811.2020.1881354. ISSN 0891-3811. S2CID 233706114.
  208. ^ a b Socolofsky & Spetter, p. x.
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  212. ^ Hudgeons, Marc; Hudgeons, Tom (2000). 2000 Blackbook Price Guide to United States Paper Money (32nd ed.). New York: Ballantine Publishing Group. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-0-676-60072-8.
  213. ^ "Presidential Dollar Coin Release Schedule". United States Mint. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
  214. ^ INgov, Accessdate September 18, 2012
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  217. ^ . President Benjamin Harrison Foundation. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
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  219. ^ "Harrison Hall History". Purdue University. Retrieved April 27, 2020.

Sources

External video
  Q&A interview with Charles W. Calhoun on Benjamin Harrison, September 2, 2018, C-SPAN
Further information: Presidency of Benjamin Harrison § Works cited
  • Barnhart, John D.; Riker, Dorothy L. (1971). Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period. The History of Indiana. Vol. I. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society.
  • Batten, Donna, ed. (2010). Gale Encyclopedia of American Law. Vol. 5 (3rd ed.). Detroit. pp. 208–209.
  • Bodenhamer, David J.; Barrows, Robert G. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 444–45. ISBN 0-253-31222-1.
  • Boomhower, Ray E. (2000). Destination Indiana: Travels Through Hoosier History. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. pp. 48–57. ISBN 0871951479.
  • Calhoun, Charles William (2005). Benjamin Harrison. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-6952-5.
  • Conn, Earl L. (2007). My Indiana: 101 Places to See. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society. pp. 94–95. ISBN 9780871951953.
  • Cowen, Wilson; Nichols, Philip Jr.; Bennett, Marion T. (1978). The United States Court of Claims: A History; Part II: Origin, Development, Jurisdiction, 1855–1978. Washington, D.C.: Committee on the Bicentennial of Independence and the Constitution of the Judicial Conference of the United States. p. 92.
  • Eicher, John H.; Eicher, David J. (2001). Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.
  • Foner, Eric (2002). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. p. 584. ISBN 9780060937164.
  • Greiff, Glory-June (2005). Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. p. 173. ISBN 0-87195-180-0.
  • Gugin, Linda C.; St. Clair, James E., eds. (2015). Indiana's 200: The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. pp. 158–60. ISBN 978-0-87195-387-2.
  • Harrison, Benjamin (1897). This Country of Ours. Charles Scribner's Sons.
  • Kinzer, Donald L. (1977). "Benjamin Harrison and the Politics of Availability". In Gray, Ralph D. (ed.). Gentlemen from Indiana: National Party Candidates, 1836–1940. Indiana Historical Collections. Vol. 50. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau. pp. 141–69.
  • Moore, Chieko; Hale, Hester Anne (2006). Benjamin Harrison: Centennial President. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60021-066-2.
  • Owens, Robert M. (2007). Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8061-3842-8.
  • Sievers, Harry J. (1968). Benjamin Harrison: v1 Hoosier Warrior, 1833–1865; v2: Hoosier Statesman From The Civil War To The White House 1865–1888; v3: Benjamin Harrison. Hoosier President. The White House and After. University Publishers Inc.
  • Smith, Robert C., ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of African-American Politics. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-4475-7.
  • Socolofsky, Homer E.; Spetter, Allan B. (1987). The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0320-6.
  • Stuart, Paul (September 1977). "United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission". Social Service Review. 51 (3): 451–463. doi:10.1086/643524. JSTOR 30015511. S2CID 143506388.
  • Wallace, Lew (1888). Life and Public Services of Benjamin Harrison. Edgewood Publishing Company.
  • Williams, R. Hal (1974). "Benjamin Harrison 1889–1893". In Woodward, C. Vann (ed.). Responses of the Presidents to the Charges of Misconduct. Dell Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 191–195. ISBN 0-440-05923-2.
  • Wilson, Kirt H. (2005). "The Politics of Place and Presidential Rhetoric in the United States, 1875–1901". In Rigsby, Enrique D.; Aune, James Arnt (eds.). Civil Rights Rhetoric and the American Presidency. TAMU Press. pp. 16–40. ISBN 978-1-58544-440-3.

Further reading

  • Adleson, Bruce (2006). Benjamin Harrison. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-1497-8.
  • Bourdon, Jeffrey Normand. "Trains, Canes, and Replica Log Cabins: Benjamin Harrison's 1888 Front-Porch Campaign for the Presidency." Indiana Magazine of History 110.3 (2014): 246–269. online
  • Calhoun, Charles W. "Benjamin Harrison, Centennial President: A Review Essay." Indiana Magazine of History (1988). [ online]
  • Dewey, Davis R. National Problems: 1880–1897 (1907)
  • Gallagher, Douglas Steven. "The" smallest mistake": explaining the failures of the Hayes and Harrison presidencies." White House Studies 2.4 (2002): 395–414.
  • Morgan, H. Wayne, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (1969)

Primary sources

  • Debs, Eugene V. "General Benjamin Harrison — Relentless Foe of Labor: A Democratic Campaign Speech in Terre Haute, IN, Oct. 27, 1888," Terre Haute Weekly Gazette, November 1, 1888, section 2, pp. 1, 4.
  • Harrison, Benjamin. Speeches of Benjamin Harrison, Twenty-third President of the United States (1892), compiled by Charles Hedges.
  • Harrison, Benjamin (1901). Harrison, Mary Lord (ed.). Views of an ex-president. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bowen-Merrill Co.

External links

Official

  • Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site

Media coverage

Other

March 14, 2023
benjamin, harrison, this, article, about, president, united, states, other, people, with, same, name, disambiguation, august, 1833, march, 1901, american, lawyer, politician, served, 23rd, president, united, states, from, 1889, 1893, member, harrison, family, . This article is about the president of the United States For other people with the same name see Benjamin Harrison disambiguation Benjamin Harrison August 20 1833 March 13 1901 was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 23rd president of the United States from 1889 to 1893 He was a member of the Harrison family of Virginia a grandson of the ninth president William Henry Harrison and a great grandson of Benjamin Harrison V a Founding Father Benjamin HarrisonPortrait by Pach Brothers 189623rd President of the United StatesIn office March 4 1889 March 4 1893Vice PresidentLevi P MortonPreceded byGrover ClevelandSucceeded byGrover ClevelandUnited States Senatorfrom IndianaIn office March 4 1881 March 3 1887Preceded byJoseph E McDonaldSucceeded byDavid TurpiePersonal detailsBorn 1833 08 20 August 20 1833North Bend Ohio U S DiedMarch 13 1901 1901 03 13 aged 67 Indianapolis Indiana U S Cause of deathPneumoniaResting placeCrown Hill CemeteryPolitical partyWhig before 1856 Republican 1856 1901 SpousesCaroline Scott m 1853 died 1892 wbr Mary Lord Dimmick m 1896 wbr ChildrenRussell Mary ElizabethParentsJohn Scott Harrison Elizabeth Ramsey IrwinRelativesHarrison familyEducationFarmer s College Miami University BA OccupationPoliticianlawyerSignatureMilitary serviceAllegianceUnited StatesBranch serviceUnited States Union Army Years of service1862 1865RankColonel USVBrevet Brig Gen USVUnitArmy of the CumberlandCommands70th Ind Infantry Reg 1st Brigade 1st Division XX CorpsBattles warsAmerican Civil WarBenjamin Harrison s voice source source On his presence at the first Pan American CongressRecorded 1889Harrison was born on a farm by the Ohio River and graduated from Miami University in Oxford Ohio After moving to Indianapolis he established himself as a prominent local attorney Presbyterian church leader and politician in Indiana During the American Civil War he served in the Union Army as a colonel and was confirmed by the U S Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers in 1865 Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876 The Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six year term in the Senate where he served from 1881 to 1887 A Republican Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888 defeating the Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland in the Electoral College despite losing the popular vote Hallmarks of Harrison s administration included unprecedented economic legislation including the McKinley Tariff which imposed historic protective trade rates and the Sherman Antitrust Act Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891 During his administration six western states were admitted to the Union In addition Harrison substantially strengthened and modernized the U S Navy and conducted an active foreign policy but his proposals to secure federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans were unsuccessful Due in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 midterm elections Cleveland defeated Harrison for reelection in 1892 due to the growing unpopularity of high tariffs and high federal spending He returned to private life and his law practice in Indianapolis In 1899 he represented Venezuela in its British Guiana boundary dispute with Great Britain Harrison traveled to the court in Paris as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis He died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza Many have praised Harrison s commitment to African Americans voting rights but scholars and historians generally rank him in the bottom half among U S presidents Contents 1 Family and education 2 Marriage and early career 3 Civil War 3 1 Atlanta campaign 3 1 1 Resaca 3 1 2 Peachtree Creek 3 1 3 Surrender of Atlanta and promotion 4 Post war career 4 1 Indiana politics 4 2 U S Senator from Indiana 5 Election of 1888 5 1 Nomination for president 5 2 Campaign against Cleveland 6 Presidency 1889 1893 6 1 Inauguration and cabinet 6 2 Civil service reform and pensions 6 3 Tariff 6 4 Antitrust laws and the currency 6 5 Civil rights 6 6 National forests 6 7 Native American policy 6 8 Technology and naval modernization 6 9 Foreign policy 6 9 1 Latin America and Samoa 6 9 2 European embargo of U S pork 6 9 3 Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile 6 9 4 Annexation of Hawaii 6 10 Cabinet 6 11 Judicial appointments 6 12 States admitted to the Union 6 13 Vacations and travel 6 14 Reelection campaign in 1892 7 Post presidency 1893 1901 7 1 Death 8 Historical reputation and memorials 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 Further reading 13 1 Primary sources 14 External links 14 1 Official 14 2 Media coverage 14 3 OtherFamily and education John Scott Harrison Birthplace marker in North Bend Ohio Harrison was born on August 20 1833 in North Bend Ohio the second of Elizabeth Ramsey Irwin and John Scott Harrison s ten children His ancestors included immigrant Benjamin Harrison who arrived in Jamestown Virginia circa 1630 from England Harrison was of entirely English ancestry all of his ancestors having emigrated to America during the early colonial period 1 Harrison was a grandson of U S President William Henry Harrison and a great grandson of Benjamin Harrison V a Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and succeeded Thomas Nelson Jr as governor of Virginia 2 3 4 a Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected U S president but he did not attend the inauguration 5 His family was distinguished but his parents were not wealthy John Scott Harrison a two term U S congressman from Ohio spent much of his farm income on his children s education 6 7 Despite the family s modest resources Harrison s boyhood was enjoyable much of it spent outdoors fishing or hunting 8 Harrison s early schooling took place in a log cabin near his home 9 but his parents later arranged for a tutor to help him with college preparatory studies 10 Fourteen year old Benjamin and his older brother Irwin enrolled in Farmer s College near Cincinnati Ohio in 1847 11 He attended the college for two years 12 b and while there met his future wife Caroline Carrie Lavinia Scott a daughter of John Witherspoon Scott the school s science professor who was also a Presbyterian minister 13 Harrison transferred to Miami University in Oxford Ohio in 1850 and graduated in 1852 14 15 He joined the Phi Delta Theta fraternity which he used as a network for much of his life He was also a member of Delta Chi a law fraternity that permitted dual membership 16 Classmates included John Alexander Anderson 17 who became a six term U S congressman and Whitelaw Reid Harrison s vice presidential running mate in 1892 At Miami Harrison was strongly influenced by history and political economy professor Robert Hamilton Bishop 18 He also joined a Presbyterian church at college and like his mother became a lifelong Presbyterian 19 Marriage and early career Benjamin Harrison c 1850 After his college graduation in 1852 Harrison studied law with Judge Bellamy Storer of Cincinnati but before he completed his studies he returned to Oxford Ohio to marry Caroline Scott 20 on October 20 1853 Caroline s father a Presbyterian minister performed the ceremony 17 The Harrisons had two children Russell Benjamin Harrison August 12 1854 December 13 1936 and Mary Mamie Scott Harrison April 3 1858 October 28 1930 21 Harrison and his wife returned to live at The Point his father s farm in southwestern Ohio while he finished his law studies Harrison was admitted to the Ohio bar in early 1854 22 the same year he sold property that he had inherited after the death of an aunt for 800 equivalent to 24 127 in 2021 and used the funds to move with Caroline to Indianapolis Indiana 23 24 Harrison began practicing law in the office of John H Ray in 1854 and became a crier for the federal court in Indianapolis for which he was paid 2 50 per day 21 He also served as a Commissioner for the U S Court of Claims 25 Harrison became a founding member and first president of both the University Club a private gentlemen s club in Indianapolis and the Phi Delta Theta Alumni Club 26 Harrison and his wife became members and assumed leadership positions at Indianapolis s First Presbyterian Church 27 Having grown up in a Whig household Harrison initially favored that party s politics but joined the Republican Party shortly after its formation in 1856 and campaigned on behalf of Republican presidential candidate John C Fremont 28 In 1857 Harrison was elected Indianapolis city attorney a position that paid an annual salary of 400 equivalent to 11 633 in 2021 29 30 In 1858 Harrison entered into a law partnership with William Wallace to form the law office of Wallace and Harrison 31 In 1860 he was elected reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court 30 Harrison was an active supporter of the Republican Party s platform and served as Republican State Committee s secretary After Wallace his law partner was elected county clerk in 1860 Harrison established a new firm with William Fishback Fishback and Harrison The new partners worked together until Harrison entered the Union Army after the start of the American Civil War 32 Civil War Harrison during the Battle of Resaca leading the 70th Indiana May 1864 Harrison was a colonel at the time Brigadier General Harrison left with other commanders of the XX Corps 1865 In 1862 President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits for the Union Army Harrison wanted to enlist but worried about how to support his young family 33 While visiting Governor Oliver Morton Harrison found him distressed over the shortage of men answering the latest call Harrison told the governor If I can be of any service I will go 34 Morton asked Harrison if he could help recruit a regiment although he would not ask him to serve Harrison recruited throughout northern Indiana to raise a regiment Morton offered him the command but Harrison declined as he had no military experience He was initially commissioned as a captain and company commander on July 22 1862 Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August 7 1862 and the newly formed 70th Indiana was mustered into federal service on August 12 1862 Once mustered the regiment left Indiana to join the Union Army at Louisville Kentucky 35 36 Atlanta campaign For much of its first two years the 70th Indiana performed reconnaissance duty and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee In May 1864 Harrison and his regiment joined General William T Sherman s Atlanta Campaign in the Army of the Cumberland and moved to the front lines 37 On January 2 1864 Harrison was promoted to command the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division of the XX Corps He commanded the brigade at the battles of Resaca Cassville New Hope Church Lost Mountain Kennesaw Mountain Marietta Peachtree Creek and Atlanta When Sherman s main force began its March to the Sea Harrison s brigade was transferred to the District of Etowah and participated in the Battle of Nashville 38 While encamped near Nashville during a particularly cold winter Harrison prepared coffee and brought it to his freezing men at night his constant catchphrase as he took lead of his men was Come on boys Harrison earned a reputation as a strong leader and as an officer who did not abandon his soldiers in battle 39 Resaca Battle of Resaca in Georgia where Harrison served under General Sherman At the Battle of Resaca on May 15 1864 Harrison faced Confederate Captain Max Van Den Corput s artillery battery which occupied a position some eighty yards in front of the main Confederate lines 40 Sherman renewing his assault on the center of the Confederate lines begun the previous day was halted by Corput s four gun parapet protected artillery battery the battery was well placed to bedevil the Union ranks and became the center of a furious struggle 40 Corput s artillery redoubt was highly fortified with three infantry regiments in rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches 41 Harrison leading the 70th Indiana Infantry Regiment massed his troops in a ravine opposite Corput s position along with the rest of Brigadier General Ward s brigade 41 Harrison and his regiment leading the assault then emerged from the ravine advanced over the artillery parapet overcame the Confederate gunners and eliminated the threat The battery was captured by hand to hand combat and intense combat continued throughout the afternoon 41 Harrison s unit now exposed found itself immediately subjected to intense gunfire from the main Confederate ranks and was forced to take cover 40 Although no longer in Confederate hands Corput s four 121 pound Napoleon Cannons 41 sat in a no man s land for the rest of the day until nightfall when Union soldiers dug through the parapet slipped ropes around the four cannons and dragged them back to their lines 40 Peachtree Creek During the Battle of Peachtree Creek on July 20 1864 Harrison commanded his brigade against General W S Featherston s Mississippi Brigade stopping the latter s fierce assault over Collier Road 42 At Peachtree Creek Harrison s brigade comprised the 102nd 105th and 129th Illinois Infantry Regiments the 79th Ohio Infantry Regiment and his 70th Indiana Regiment his brigade deployed in about the center of the Union line engaging Maj Gen William Wing Loring s Mississippi division and Alabama troops from General Alexander Stewart s corps 43 In his report after the battle Harrison wrote how at one time during the fight after his ammunition was dangerously depleted he sent his acting assistant inspector general Captain Scott and others to cut cartridge boxes from the rebel dead within our lines and distribute them to his soldiers 44 According to Harrison s report the losses from his brigade were very slight compared with those of Confederate forces he thought this was because of battlefield topography writing I believe that the enemy having the higher ground fired too high 45 Harrison later supported the creation of an Atlanta National Military Park which would have included substantial portions of the Peachtree battlefield writing in 1900 The military incidents connected with the investment and ultimate capture of Atlanta are certainly worthy of commemoration and I should be glad to see the project succeed 46 Surrender of Atlanta and promotion After the conclusion of the Atlanta Campaign on September 2 1864 Harrison was among the initial Union forces to enter the surrendered city of Atlanta General Sherman opined that Harrison served with foresight discipline and a fighting spirit 47 Following the Atlanta Campaign Harrison reported to Governor Morton in Indiana for special duty and while there he campaigned for the position of Indiana s Supreme Court Reporter and for President Lincoln s reelection after the election he left for Georgia to join Sherman s March to the Sea but instead was given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville 48 Harrison led the brigade at the Battle of Nashville in December in a decisive action against the forces of General John Bell Hood 49 50 Notwithstanding his memorable military achievements and the praise he received for them Harrison held a dim view of war according to historian Allan B Spetter he thought war was a dirty business that no decent man would find pleasurable 47 Later in 1888 the year he won the presidency Harrison declared We Americans have no commission from God to police the world 51 Several weeks after the Battle of Nashville Harrison received orders to rejoin the 70th Indiana at Savannah Georgia after a brief furlough in Indianapolis however he caught scarlet fever and was delayed for a month and then spent several months training replacement troops in South Carolina 48 On January 23 1865 Lincoln nominated Harrison to the grade of brevet brigadier general of volunteers to rank from that date and the Senate confirmed the nomination on February 14 1865 52 Harrison was promoted because of his success at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek 53 Harrison finally returned to his old regiment the same day that news of President Lincoln s assassination was received 48 He rode in the Grand Review in Washington D C before mustering out with the 70th Indiana on June 8 1865 38 48 Post war careerIndiana politics While serving in the Union Army in October 1864 Harrison was once again elected reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court although he did not seek the position and served as the Court s reporter for four more years The position was not a politically powerful one but it provided Harrison with a steady income for his work preparing and publishing court opinions which he sold to the legal profession 54 55 Harrison also resumed his law practice in Indianapolis He became a skilled orator and known as one of the state s leading lawyers 24 In 1869 President Ulysses S Grant appointed Harrison to represent the federal government in a civil suit filed by Lambdin P Milligan whose controversial wartime conviction for treason in 1864 led to the landmark U S Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan 56 57 The civil case was referred to the U S Circuit Court for Indiana at Indianapolis where it evolved into Milligan v Hovey 58 Although the jury found in Milligan s favor and he had sought hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages state and federal statutes limited the amount the federal government had to award to Milligan to five dollars plus court costs 58 59 60 Benjamin Harrison Home in Indianapolis Indiana With his increasing reputation local Republicans urged Harrison to run for Congress He initially confined his political activities to speaking on behalf of other Republican candidates a task for which he received high praise from his colleagues 61 In 1872 Harrison campaigned for the Republican nomination for governor of Indiana Former governor Oliver Morton favored his opponent Thomas M Browne and Harrison lost his bid for statewide office 62 He returned to his law practice and despite the Panic of 1873 was financially successful enough to build a grand new home in Indianapolis in 1874 63 He continued to make speeches on behalf of Republican candidates and policies 64 In 1876 when a scandal forced the original Republican nominee Godlove Stein Orth to drop out of the gubernatorial race Harrison accepted the party s invitation to take his place on the ticket 65 66 Harrison centered his campaign on economic policy and favored deflating the national currency He was defeated in a plurality by James D Williams losing by 5 084 votes out 434 457 cast 67 but Harrison built on his new prominence in state politics When the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 reached Indianapolis he gathered a citizen militia to make a show of support for owners and management 24 68 and helped to mediate an agreement between the workers and management and to prevent the strike from widening 69 When United States Senator Morton died in 1877 the Republicans nominated Harrison to run for the seat but the party failed to gain a majority in the state legislature which at that time elected senators the Democratic majority elected Daniel W Voorhees instead 70 c In 1879 President Rutherford B Hayes appointed Harrison to the Mississippi River Commission which worked to develop internal improvements on the river 71 As a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention the following year 72 he was instrumental in breaking a deadlock on candidates and James A Garfield won the nomination U S Senator from Indiana Walter Q Gresham Harrison s rival within the Indiana Republican Party After Harrison led Indiana s Republican delegation at the 1880 Republican National Convention he was considered the state s presumptive candidate for the U S Senate He gave speeches in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York further raising his profile in the party When the Republicans retook the majority in the state legislature Harrison s election to a six year term in the U S Senate was threatened by Judge Walter Q Gresham his intraparty rival but Harrison was ultimately chosen 73 After Garfield s election as president in 1880 his administration offered Harrison a cabinet position but Harrison declined in favor of continuing his service in the U S Senate 74 Harrison served in the Senate from March 4 1881 to March 3 1887 and chaired the U S Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard 47th Congress and the U S Senate Committee on Territories 48th and 49th Congresses 75 In 1881 the major issue confronting Senator Harrison was the budget surplus Democrats wanted to reduce the tariff and limit the amount of money the government took in Republicans instead wanted to spend the money on internal improvements and pensions for Civil War veterans Harrison took his party s side and advocated for generous pensions for veterans and their widows 76 He also unsuccessfully supported aid for the education of Southerners especially children of the freedmen he believed that education was necessary to help the black population rise to political and economic equality with whites 77 Harrison opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 which his party supported because he thought it violated existing treaties with China 78 In 1884 Harrison and Gresham competed for influence at the 1884 Republican National Convention the delegation ended up supporting Senator James G Blaine the eventual nominee 79 During the Mugwump rebellion led by reform Republicans against Blaine s candidacy Harrison at first stood aloof refusing to put his hat in the presidential ring but after walking the middle ground he eventually supported Blaine with energy and enthusiasm 80 In the Senate Harrison achieved passage of his Dependent Pension Bill only to see it vetoed by President Grover Cleveland His efforts to further the admission of new western states were stymied by Democrats who feared that the new states would elect Republicans to Congress 81 In 1885 the Democrats redistricted the Indiana state legislature which resulted in an increased Democratic majority in 1886 despite an overall Republican majority statewide 82 In 1887 largely as a result of the Democratic gerrymandering of Indiana s legislative districts Harrison was defeated in his bid for reelection 24 Following a deadlock in the state senate the state legislature eventually chose Democrat David Turpie as Harrison s successor in the Senate 83 Harrison returned to Indianapolis and resumed his law practice but stayed active in state and national politics 84 A year after his senatorial defeat Harrison declared his candidacy for the Republican nomination he dubbed himself a living and rejuvenated Republican a reference to his lack of a power base 80 Thereafter the phrase Rejuvenated Republicanism became the slogan of his presidential campaign 80 Election of 1888Main article 1888 United States presidential election Nomination for president Main article 1888 Republican National Convention Harrison Morton campaign poster The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nominee James G Blaine of Maine After his narrow defeat against Cleveland in 1884 Blaine became the front runner for 1888 but decided to remove his name from contention 85 After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination his supporters divided among other candidates with Senator John Sherman of Ohio as the leader among them 86 Others including Chauncey Depew of New York Russell Alger of Michigan and Harrison s old nemesis Walter Q Gresham now a federal appellate court judge in Chicago also sought the delegates support at the 1888 Republican National Convention 86 Harrison marshaled his troops to stop Gresham from gaining control of the Indiana delegation while simultaneously presenting himself as an attractive alternative to Blaine 85 Blaine did not publicly endorse any of the candidates but on March 1 1888 he privately wrote that the one man remaining who in my judgment can make the best one is Benjamin Harrison 71 Later at the National Convention which took place in June Blaine threw his support to Harrison in the hope of uniting the party against President Cleveland nonetheless the nomination fight that followed was hotly contested 80 The convention opened on June 19 at the Auditorium Building in Chicago Illinois 87 Proceedings began with an announcement of the party platform Lincoln was extolled as the first great leader of the Republican Party and an immortal champion of liberty and the rights of the people 88 Republican presidents Grant Garfield and Arthur were likewise acknowledged with remembrance and gratitude The fundamental idea of the Republican party was declared to be hostility to all forms of despotism and oppression and the Brazilian people were congratulated for their recent abolition of slavery 88 The convention alleged that the present Administration and the Democratic majority in Congress owe their existence to the suppression of the ballot by a criminal nullification of the Constitution Anticipating a principal part of Harrison s campaign the convention also declared itself uncompromisingly in favor of the American system of protection and protested against its destruction as proposed by the President and his party 89 The tariff was later to become the main issue of the campaign in 1888 85 The admission of six new states during Harrison s term between 1889 and 1890 was anticipated with the declaration whenever the conditions of population material resources and morality are such as to insure a stable local government the people should be permitted to form for themselves constitutions and State government and be admitted into the Union 88 The convention insisted that The pending bills in the Senate to enable the people of Washington North Dakota and Montana Territories to establish State governments should be passed without unnecessary delay 88 The convention began with seventeen candidates for the nomination 87 Harrison placed fifth on the first ballot with Senator Sherman in the lead and the next few ballots showed little change 90 As the convention moved forward Harrison became everyone s second choice in a field of seven candidates 80 Then after Sherman faltered in the balloting 80 Harrison gained support Blaine supporters shifted their support among candidates they found acceptable and when they shifted to Harrison they found a candidate who could attract the votes of many other delegations 91 Intending to make it undeniably clear he would not be a candidate Blaine left the country and was staying with Andrew Carnegie in Scotland when the National Convention began not returning to the United States until August the delegates finally accepted Blaine s refusal to be nominated 92 After New York switched to Harrison s column he gained the needed momentum for victory 85 Harrison was nominated as the party s presidential candidate on the eighth ballot by a count of 544 to 108 votes 93 Levi P Morton of New York a banker former U S Minister to France and former U S congressman was chosen as his running mate 94 80 At their National Convention in St Louis Democrats rallied behind President Cleveland and his running mate Senator Allen G Thurman from Ohio Vice President Hendricks had died in office on November 25 1885 80 After returning to America Blaine visited Harrison at his home in October 92 Campaign against Cleveland Harrison campaign paraphernalia 1888 Harrison campaign handkerchief Ribbon with photo Results of the 1888 election Harrison s opponent in the general election was incumbent President Grover Cleveland Harrison reprised a more traditional front porch campaign abandoned by his immediate predecessors he received visiting delegations to Indianapolis and made over 90 pronouncements from his hometown 95 The Republicans campaigned heavily in favor of protective tariffs turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North The election took place on Tuesday November 6 1888 it focused on the swing states of New York New Jersey Connecticut and Harrison s home state of Indiana 96 Harrison and Cleveland split the four with Harrison winning New York and Indiana 97 Voter turnout was 79 3 reflecting large interest in the campaign nearly eleven million votes were cast 98 Harrison received 90 000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland but carried the Electoral College 233 to 168 99 Allegations were made against Republicans for engaging in irregular ballot practices an example was described as Blocks of Five 100 On October 31 the Indiana Sentinel published a letter allegedly by Harrison s friend and supporter William Wade Dudley offering to bribe voters in blocks of five to ensure Harrison s election Harrison neither defended nor repudiated Dudley but allowed him to remain on the campaign for the remaining few days After the election Harrison never spoke to Dudley again 101 Harrison had made no political bargains but his supporters had made many pledges on his behalf When Boss Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania who was rebuffed for a Cabinet position for his political support during the convention heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know how close a number of men were compelled to approach the penitentiary to make him president 102 Harrison was known as the Centennial President because his inauguration celebrated the centenary of the first inauguration of George Washington in 1789 103 In the congressional elections Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by 19 seats 104 Presidency 1889 1893 Main article Presidency of Benjamin Harrison Inauguration and cabinet BEP engraved portrait of Harrison as President 1889 inaugural ribbons New York Republican Assn ribbon Souvenir ribbon with portraits Harrison was sworn into office on Monday March 4 1889 by Chief Justice Melville Fuller His speech was brief half as long as that of his grandfather William Henry Harrison whose speech remains the longest inaugural address of a U S president 105 In his speech Benjamin Harrison credited the nation s growth to the influences of education and religion urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states and promised a protective tariff Of commerce he said If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal obligations and duties they would have less call to complain of the limitations of their rights or of interference with their operations 106 Harrison also urged early statehood for the territories and advocated pensions for veterans a call that met with enthusiastic applause In foreign affairs Harrison reaffirmed the Monroe Doctrine as a mainstay of foreign policy while urging modernization of the Navy and a merchant marine force He gave his commitment to international peace through noninterference in the affairs of foreign governments 107 John Philip Sousa s Marine Corps band played at the Inaugural Ball inside the Pension Building with a large crowd attending 108 After moving into the White House Harrison noted quite prophetically There is only a door one that is never locked between the president s office and what are not very accurately called his private apartments There should be an executive office building not too far away but wholly distinct from the dwelling house For everyone else in the public service there is an unroofed space between the bedroom and the desk 109 Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison March 4 1889 Cleveland held Harrison s umbrella Harrison hounded by office seekers at the beginning of his term May 1889 from Puck Harrison acted quite independently in selecting his cabinet much to the Republican bosses dismay He began by delaying the presumed nomination of James G Blaine as Secretary of State so as to preclude Blaine s involvement in the formation of the administration as had occurred in President Garfield s term 110 In fact other than Blaine the only Republican boss initially nominated was Redfield Proctor as Secretary of War Senator Shelby Cullom s comment symbolizes Harrison s steadfast aversion to use federal positions for patronage I suppose Harrison treated me as well as he did any other Senator but whenever he did anything for me it was done so ungraciously that the concession tended to anger rather than please 111 Harrison s selections shared particular alliances such as their service in the Civil War Indiana citizenship and membership in the Presbyterian Church 112 Nevertheless Harrison had alienated pivotal Republican operatives from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa with these choices and prematurely compromised his political power and future 113 His normal schedule provided for two full cabinet meetings per week as well as separate weekly one on one meetings with each cabinet member 114 In June 1890 Harrison s Postmaster General John Wanamaker and several Philadelphia friends purchased a large new cottage at Cape May Point for Harrison s wife Caroline Many believed the cottage gift appeared improper and amounted to a bribe for a cabinet position Harrison made no comment on the matter for two weeks then said he had always intended to purchase the cottage once Caroline approved On July 2 perhaps a little tardily to avoid suspicion Harrison gave Wanamaker a check for 10 000 equivalent to 301 593 in 2021 for the cottage 115 Civil service reform and pensions Eastman Johnson s portrait of Benjamin Harrison c 1890 1900 Civil service reform was a prominent issue following Harrison s election Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the merit system as opposed to the spoils system 116 Although some of the civil service had been classified under the Pendleton Act by previous administrations Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments 117 Congress was widely divided on the issue and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of either side The issue became a political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned What can I do when both parties insist on kicking 118 Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson both reformers to the Civil Service Commission but otherwise did little to further the reform cause 119 Political football Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act in 1890 a cause he had championed while in Congress In addition to providing pensions to disabled Civil War veterans regardless of the cause of their disability the Act depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus Pension expenditures reached 135 million under Harrison equivalent to 4 1 billion in 2021 the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history a problem exacerbated by Pension Bureau commissioner James R Tanner s expansive interpretation of the pension laws 120 An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Harrison s Secretary of Interior John Willock Noble found evidence of lavish and illegal handouts under Tanner 121 Harrison who privately believed that appointing Tanner had been a mistake due to his apparent loose management style and tongue asked Tanner to resign and replaced him with Green B Raum 122 Raum was also accused of accepting loan payments in return for expediting pension cases Harrison having accepted a dissenting congressional Republican investigation report that exonerated Raum kept him in office for the rest of his administration 123 One of the first appointments Harrison was forced to reverse was that of James S Clarkson as an assistant postmaster Clarkson who had expected a full cabinet position began sabotaging the appointment from the outset gaining the reputation for decapitating a fourth class postmaster every three minutes Clarkson himself stated I am simply on detail from the Republican Committee I am most anxious to get through this task and leave He resigned in September 1890 122 Tariff Harrison and the Billion Dollar Congress are portrayed as wasting the surplus in this cartoon from Puck The tariff levels had been a major political issue since before the Civil War and they became the most dominant matter of the 1888 election 124 The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury which led many Democrats as well as the growing Populist movement to call for lowering them Most Republicans preferred to maintain the rates spend the surplus on internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes 125 Representative William McKinley and Senator Nelson W Aldrich framed the McKinley Tariff that would raise the tariff even higher including making some rates intentionally prohibitive 126 At Secretary of State James Blaine s urging Harrison attempted to make the tariff more acceptable by urging Congress to add reciprocity provisions which would allow the president to reduce rates when other countries reduced their rates on American exports 124 The tariff was removed from imported raw sugar and sugar growers in the United States were given a two cent per pound subsidy on their production 126 Even with the reductions and reciprocity the McKinley Tariff enacted the highest average rate in American history and the spending associated with it contributed to the reputation of the Billion Dollar Congress 124 Antitrust laws and the currency Senator John Sherman worked closely with Harrison writing bills regulating monopolies and monetary policy Members of both parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies and one of the first acts of the 51st Congress was to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio The Act passed by wide margins in both houses and Harrison signed it into law 127 The Sherman Act was the first Federal act of its kind and marked a new use of federal government power 128 While Harrison approved of the law and its intent his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it 129 However the government successfully concluded a case during Harrison s time in office against a Tennessee coal company d and had initiated several other cases against trusts 129 One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver or by gold alone 130 The issue cut across party lines with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver and both parties representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold taxpayers paid their government bills in silver while international creditors demanded payment in gold resulting in a depletion of the nation s gold supply Owing to worldwide deflation in the late 19th century however a strict gold standard had resulted in reduction of incomes without the equivalent reduction in debts pushing debtors and the poor to call for silver coinage as an inflationary measure 131 The silver coinage issue had not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign and Harrison is said to have favored a bimetallist position 127 However his appointment of a silverite Treasury Secretary William Windom encouraged the free silver supporters 132 Harrison attempted to steer a middle course between the two positions advocating a free coinage of silver but at its own value not at a fixed ratio to gold 133 This failed to facilitate a compromise between the factions In July 1890 Senator Sherman achieved passage of a bill the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in both houses 133 Harrison thought that the bill would end the controversy and he signed it into law 134 The effect of the bill however was the increased depletion of the nation s gold supply a problem that would persist until the second Cleveland administration resolved it 135 Civil rights Harrison with Secretary Blaine and Representative Henry Cabot Lodge off the coast of Maine 1889 After regaining the majority in both Houses of Congress some Republicans led by Harrison attempted to pass legislation to protect black Americans civil rights Harrison s Attorney General William H H Miller through the Justice Department ordered the prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South however white juries often failed to convict or indict violators This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would secure all our people a free exercise of the right of suffrage and every other civil right under the Constitution and laws 136 Harrison endorsed the proposed Federal Elections Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Senator George Frisbie Hoar in 1890 but the bill was defeated in the Senate 137 Following the failure to pass the bill Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress Most notably on December 3 1889 Harrison had gone before Congress and stated The colored people did not intrude themselves upon us they were brought here in chains and held in communities where they are now chiefly bound by a cruel slave code when and under what conditions is the black man to have a free ballot When is he in fact to have those full civil rights which have so long been his in law When is that quality of influence which our form of government was intended to secure to the electors to be restored in many parts of our country where the colored population is large the people of that race are by various devices deprived of any effective exercise of their political rights and of many of their civil rights The wrong does not expend itself upon those whose votes are suppressed Every constituency in the Union is wronged 138 He severely questioned the states civil rights records arguing that if states have the authority over civil rights then we have a right to ask whether they are at work upon it 137 Harrison also supported a bill proposed by Senator Henry W Blair which would have granted federal funding to schools regardless of the students races 139 He also endorsed a proposed constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court ruling in the Civil Rights Cases 1883 that declared much of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional None of these measures gained congressional approval 140 National forests In March 1891 Congress enacted and Harrison signed the Land Revision Act of 1891 This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus lands that had been up to that point granted from the public domain for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates As the law s drafting was finalized Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble which read as follows That the President of the United States may from time to time set apart and reserve in any State or Territory having public land bearing forests in any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber or undergrowth whether of commercial value or not as public reservations and the president shall by public proclamation declare the establishment of such reservations and the limits thereof 141 Within a month of the enactment of this law Harrison authorized the first forest reserve to be located on public domain adjacent to Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming Other areas were so designated by Harrison bringing the first forest reservations total to 22 million acres in his term 142 Harrison was also the first to give a prehistoric Indian Ruin Casa Grande in Arizona federal protection 143 Native American policy During Harrison s administration the Lakota Sioux previously confined to reservations in South Dakota grew restive under the influence of Wovoka a medicine man who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the Ghost Dance 144 Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government On December 29 1890 troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with the Sioux at Wounded Knee The result was a massacre of at least 146 Sioux including many women and children the dead Sioux were buried in a mass grave 145 146 In reaction Harrison directed Major General Nelson A Miles to investigate and ordered 3 500 federal troops to South Dakota the uprising was brought to an end 144 Wounded Knee is considered the last major American Indian battle in the 19th century 145 Harrison s general policy on American Indians was to encourage assimilation into white society and despite the massacre he believed the policy to have been generally successful 147 This policy known as the allotment system and embodied in the Dawes Act was favored by liberal reformers at the time but eventually proved detrimental to American Indians as they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators 148 Technology and naval modernization USS Texas America s first battleship built in 1892 During Harrison s time in office the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology A recording of his voice is the earliest extant recording of a president while he was in office That thirty six second recording help info was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini 149 Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on 150 Over the course of his administration Harrison marshaled the country s technology to clothe the nation with a credible naval power When he took office there were only two commissioned warships in the Navy In his inaugural address he said construction of a sufficient number of warships and their necessary armaments should progress as rapidly as is consistent with care and perfection 151 Harrison s Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F Tracy spearheaded the rapid construction of vessels and within a year congressional approval was obtained for building of the warships Indiana Texas Oregon and Columbia By 1898 with the help of the Carnegie Corporation no less than ten modern warships including steel hulls and greater displacements and armaments had transformed the United States into a legitimate naval power Seven of these had begun during the Harrison term 152 Foreign policy Latin America and Samoa Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine were often not the most cordial of friends but harmonized in an aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other nations 153 Blaine s persistent medical problems warranted more of a hands on effort by Harrison in the conduct of foreign policy In San Francisco while on tour of the United States in 1891 Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a new epoch of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad 154 The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889 Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference led by John B Henderson and Andrew Carnegie The conference failed to achieve any diplomatic breakthrough due in large part to an atmosphere of suspicion fostered by the Argentinian delegation It did succeed in establishing an information center that became the Pan American Union 155 In response to the diplomatic bust Harrison and Blaine pivoted diplomatically and initiated a crusade for tariff reciprocity with Latin American nations the Harrison administration concluded eight reciprocity treaties among these countries 156 On another front Harrison sent Frederick Douglass as ambassador to Haiti but failed in his attempts to establish a naval base there 157 In 1889 the United States the United Kingdom and the German Empire were locked in a dispute over control of the Samoan Islands Historian George H Ryden s research indicates Harrison played a key role in determining the status of this Pacific outpost by taking a firm stand on every aspect of Samoa conference negotiations this included selection of the local ruler refusal to allow an indemnity for Germany as well as the establishment of a three power protectorate a first for the U S These arrangements facilitated the future dominant power of the U S in the Pacific Secretary of State Blaine was absent due to complication of lumbago 158 European embargo of U S pork Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on importation of United States pork out of an unconfirmed concern of trichinosis at issue was over one billion pounds of pork products with a value of 80 million annually equivalent to 2 4 billion in 2021 Harrison engaged Whitelaw Reid minister to France and William Walter Phelps minister to Germany to restore these exports for the country without delay Harrison also successfully asked the congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act to eliminate the accusations of product compromise The president also partnered with Agriculture Secretary Rusk to threaten Germany with retaliation by initiating an embargo in the U S against Germany s highly demanded beet sugar By September 1891 Germany relented and was soon followed by Denmark France and Austria Hungary 159 Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast Canada claimed fishing and sealing rights around many of the Aleutian Islands in violation of U S law As a result the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships 160 In 1891 the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration with the British government paying compensation in 1898 161 162 In 1891 a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile otherwise known as the Baltimore Crisis The American minister to Chile Patrick Egan granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the 1891 Chilean Civil War Egan previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U S was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain s influence in Chile 163 his action increased tensions between Chile and the United States which began in the early 1880s when Secretary Blaine had alienated the Chileans in the War of the Pacific Attack on sailors from USS Baltimore spawned the 1891 Chilean crisis The crisis began in earnest when sailors from USS Baltimore took shore leave in Valparaiso and a fight ensued resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the arrest of three dozen others 164 Baltimore s captain Winfield Schley based on the nature of the sailors wounds insisted the sailors had been bayonet attacked by Chilean police without provocation With Blaine incapacitated Harrison drafted a demand for reparations The Chilean Minister of Foreign Affairs Manuel Matta replied that Harrison s message was erroneous or deliberately incorrect and said that the Chilean government was treating the affair the same as any other criminal matter 165 Tensions increased to the brink of war Harrison threatened to break off diplomatic relations unless the United States received a suitable apology and said the situation required grave and patriotic consideration The president also remarked If the dignity as well as the prestige and influence of the United States are not to be wholly sacrificed we must protect those who in foreign ports display the flag or wear the colors 166 The Navy was also placed on a high level of preparedness 165 A recuperated Blaine made brief conciliatory overtures to the Chilean government which had no support in the administration he then reversed course joined the chorus for unconditional concessions and apology by the Chileans who ultimately obliged and war was averted Theodore Roosevelt later applauded Harrison for his use of the big stick in the matter 167 168 Annexation of Hawaii In the last days of his administration Harrison dealt with the issue of Hawaiian annexation Following a coup d etat against Queen Liliuokalani the new government of Hawaii led by Sanford Dole petitioned for annexation by the United States 169 Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at Pearl Harbor but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands 170 The United States consul in Hawaii John L Stevens recognized the new government on February 1 1893 and forwarded their proposals to Washington With just one month left before leaving office the administration signed a treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day with Harrison s recommendation 169 The Senate failed to act and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office 171 172 Cabinet Harrison s cabinet in 1889Front row left to right Harrison William Windom John Wanamaker Redfield Proctor James G BlaineBack row left to right William H H Miller John Willock Noble Jeremiah M Rusk Benjamin F Tracy The Harrison cabinetOfficeNameTermPresidentBenjamin Harrison1889 1893Vice PresidentLevi P Morton1889 1893Secretary of StateJames G Blaine1889 1892John W Foster1892 1893Secretary of the TreasuryWilliam Windom1889 1891Charles Foster1891 1893Secretary of WarRedfield Proctor1889 1891Stephen Benton Elkins1891 1893Attorney GeneralWilliam H H Miller1889 1893Postmaster GeneralJohn Wanamaker1889 1893Secretary of the NavyBenjamin F Tracy1889 1893Secretary of the InteriorJohn Willock Noble1889 1893Secretary of AgricultureJeremiah McLain Rusk1889 1893Judicial appointments Main article Benjamin Harrison judicial appointments Harrison appointed four Supreme Court justices including David Josiah Brewer Harrison appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States The first was David Josiah Brewer a judge on the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit Brewer the nephew of Justice Field had previously been considered for a cabinet position Shortly after Brewer s nomination Justice Matthews died creating another vacancy Harrison had considered Henry Billings Brown a Michigan judge and admiralty law expert for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second For the third vacancy which arose in 1892 Harrison nominated George Shiras Shiras s appointment was somewhat controversial because his age sixty was older than usual for a newly appointed Justice Shiras also drew the opposition of Senator Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania because they were in different factions of the Pennsylvania Republican party but his nomination was nonetheless approved Finally at the end of his term Harrison nominated Howell Edmunds Jackson to replace Justice Lamar who died in January 1893 Harrison knew the incoming Senate would be controlled by Democrats so he selected Jackson a respected Tennessee Democrat with whom he was friendly to ensure his nominee would not be rejected Jackson s nomination was indeed successful but he died after only two years on the Court 173 In addition to his Supreme Court appointments Harrison appointed ten judges to the courts of appeals two judges to the circuit courts and 26 judges to the district courts States admitted to the Union Six new states were admitted to the Union while Harrison was in office 174 North Dakota November 2 1889 South Dakota November 2 1889 Montana November 8 1889 Washington November 11 1889 Idaho July 3 1890 Wyoming July 10 1890More states were admitted during Harrison s presidency than any other Vacations and travel Harrison attended a grand three day centennial celebration of George Washington s inauguration in New York City on April 30 1889 and made the following remarks We have come into the serious but always inspiring presence of Washington He was the incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this great lesson that those who would associate their names with events that shall outlive a century can only do so by high consecration to duty Self seeking has no public observance or anniversary 175 The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital which included speeches at most stops including Philadelphia New England Indianapolis and Chicago The President typically made his best impression speaking before large audiences as opposed to more intimate settings 176 The most notable of his presidential trips theretofore unequaled was a five week tour of the west in the spring of 1891 aboard a lavishly outfitted train 177 Harrison enjoyed a number of short trips out of the capital usually for hunting to nearby Virginia or Maryland 178 During the hot Washington summers the Harrisons took refuge in Deer Park Maryland and Cape May Point New Jersey In 1890 John Wanamaker joined with other Philadelphia devotees of the Harrisons and made a gift to them of a summer cottage at Cape May Harrison though appreciative was uncomfortable with the appearance of impropriety a month later he paid Wanamaker 10 000 equivalent to 301 593 in 2021 as reimbursement to the donors Nevertheless Harrison s opponents made the gift the subject of national ridicule and Mrs Harrison and the president were vigorously criticized 179 Reelection campaign in 1892 Main article 1892 United States presidential election Official White House portrait of Benjamin Harrison painted by Eastman Johnson The treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation s economic health was worsening precursors to the eventual Panic of 1893 180 Congressional elections in 1890 had gone against the Republicans and although Harrison had cooperated with congressional Republicans on legislation several party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his adamant refusal to give party members the nod in the course of his executive appointments Specifically Thomas C Platt Matthew S Quay Thomas B Reed and James Clarkson quietly organized the Grievance Committee the ambition of which was to initiate a dump Harrison offensive They solicited the support of Blaine without effect however and Harrison in reaction resolved to run for re election seemingly forced to choose one of two options become a candidate or forever wear the name of a political coward 181 It was clear that Harrison would not be re nominated unanimously 182 Many of Harrison s detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892 182 Some party leaders still hoped to draft Blaine into running and speculation increased when he resigned at the 11th hour as Secretary of State in June 183 At the convention in Minneapolis Harrison prevailed on the first ballot but encountered significant opposition 184 The Democrats renominated former President Cleveland making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier The tariff revisions of the past four years had made imported goods so expensive that now many voters shifted to the reform position 185 Many westerners traditionally Republican voters defected to the new Populist Party candidate James Weaver who promised free silver generous veterans pensions and an eight hour work day The effects of the suppression of the Homestead Strike rebounded against the Republicans as well although the federal government did not take action 186 Harrison s wife Caroline began a critical struggle with tuberculosis earlier in 1892 and two weeks before the election on October 25 she died from the disease 187 Their daughter Mary Harrison McKee assumed the role of First Lady after her mother s death Mrs Harrison s terminal illness and the fact that both candidates had served in the White House called for a low key campaign and resulted in neither of the candidates actively campaigning personally 188 Cleveland ultimately won the election by 277 electoral votes to Harrison s 145 and also won the popular vote by 5 556 918 to 5 176 108 this was the most decisive presidential election in 20 years 189 190 It gave Harrison the distinction of being the only president whose predecessor and successor were the same man Post presidency 1893 1901 Grave of President Harrison and his two wives in Indianapolis Indiana After he left office Harrison visited the World s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in June 1893 191 After the Expo Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis Harrison had been elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1882 and was elected as commander president of the Ohio Commandery on May 3 1893 For a few months in 1894 Harrison lived in San Francisco California where he gave law lectures at Stanford University 192 In 1896 some of Harrison s friends in the Republican party tried to convince him to seek the presidency again but he declined He traveled around the nation making appearances and speeches in support of William McKinley s candidacy for president 193 From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University where Harrison Hall a dormitory was named in his honor 191 He wrote a series of articles about the federal government and the presidency which were republished in 1897 as a book titled This Country of Ours 194 In 1896 Harrison at age 62 remarried to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick the widowed 37 year old niece and former secretary of his deceased wife Harrison s two adult children Russell 41 years old at the time and Mary Mamie McKee 38 disapproved of the marriage and did not attend the wedding Benjamin and Mary had one child together Elizabeth February 21 1897 December 26 1955 195 In 1898 Harrison served as an attorney for the Republic of Venezuela in their British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom 196 An international trial was agreed upon he filed an 800 page brief and traveled to Paris where he spent more than 25 hours in court on Venezuela s behalf Although he lost the case his legal arguments won him international renown 197 In 1899 Harrison attended the First Peace Conference at The Hague Presbyterian General Assembly special committee on creed revision including Benjamin Harrison and Judge Edward William Cornelius Humphrey Harrison was an active Presbyterian and served as an Elder in the First Presbyterian Church of Indianapolis and on a special committee on creed revision in the national Presbyterian General Assembly However he died before he could cast his vote at the meeting 198 199 200 201 Death Harrison developed what was thought to be influenza then referred to as grippe which later proved to be pneumonia in February 1901 He was treated with steam vapor inhalation and oxygen but his condition worsened Harrison died from pneumonia at his home in Indianapolis on March 13 1901 at the age of 67 His last words were reported to be Are the doctors here Doctor my lungs Harrison s remains are interred in Indianapolis s Crown Hill Cemetery next to the remains of his first wife Caroline After her death in 1948 Mary Dimmick Harrison his second wife was buried beside him 202 Historical reputation and memorials Benjamin Harrison Statue Indianapolis Indiana Victory Portraits of Benjamin Harrison and Levi P Morton for the 1888 election from Judge Historian Charles Calhoun gives Harrison major credit for innovative legislation in antitrust monetary policy and tariffs Historians have often given Secretary of State Blaine credit for foreign policy initiatives However Calhoun argues that Harrison was even more responsible for the success of trade negotiations the buildup of the steel Navy overseas expansion and emphasis on the American role in dominating the Western Hemisphere through the Monroe Doctrine The major weakness which Calhoun sees was that the public and indeed the grassroots Republican Party was not fully prepared for this onslaught of major activity The Democrats scored a sweeping landslide in 1890 by attacking the flagship legislation especially the McKinley tariff because it would raise the cost of living of the average American family McKinley himself was defeated for reelection 203 204 According to historian R Hal Williams Harrison had a widespread reputation for personal and official integrity Closely scrutinized by Democrats Harrison s reputation was largely intact when he left the White House Having an advantage few 19th century presidents had Harrison s own party the Republicans controlled Congress while his administration actively advanced a Republican program of a higher tariff moderate control of corporations protecting African American voting rights a generous Civil War pension and compromising over the controversial silver issue Historians have not raised serious questions about Harrison s own integrity or the integrity of his administration 205 Following the Panic of 1893 Harrison became more popular in retirement 206 Scholars have argued that Harrison s economic policies contributed to the Panic of 1893 207 His legacy among historians is scant and general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher 208 More recently historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration and Harrison himself in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century The administration faced challenges throughout the hemisphere in the Pacific and in relations with the European powers involvements that would be taken for granted in the twenty first century 208 Harrison s presidency belongs properly to the 19th century but he clearly pointed the way to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley 209 The bi partisan Sherman Anti Trust Act signed into law by Harrison remains in effect over 120 years later and was the most important legislation passed by the Fifty first Congress Harrison s support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect civil rights until the 1930s Harrison s tenacity at foreign policy was emulated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt 210 The 1st Harrison stampIssue of 1902 Harrison was memorialized on several postage stamps The first was a 13 cent stamp issued on November 18 1902 with the engraved likeness of Harrison modeled after a photo provided by his widow 211 In all Harrison has been honored on six U S Postage stamps more than most other U S Presidents Harrison also was featured on the five dollar National Bank Notes from the third charter period beginning in 1902 212 In 2012 a dollar coin with his image part of the Presidential 1 Coin Program was issued 213 In 1908 the people of Indianapolis erected the Benjamin Harrison memorial statue created by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon in honor of Harrison s lifetime achievements as military leader U S Senator and President of the United States 214 The statue occupies a site on the south edge of University Park facing the Birch Bayh Federal Building and United States Courthouse across New York Avenue 215 In 1951 Harrison s home was opened to the public as a library and museum It had been used as a dormitory for a music school from 1937 to 1950 216 The house was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964 217 Theodore Roosevelt dedicated Fort Benjamin Harrison in the former president s honor in 1906 It is located in Lawrence Indiana a northeastern suburb of Indianapolis The federal government decommissioned Fort Harrison in 1991 and transferred 1 700 of its 2 500 acres to Indiana s state government in 1995 to establish Fort Harrison State Park 218 The site has been redeveloped to include residential neighborhoods and a golf course In 1931 Franklin Hall at Miami University Harrison s alma mater was renamed Harrison Hall It was replaced by a new building of the same name in 1960 and houses the college s political science department In 1966 Purdue University opened Harrison Hall an 8 floor 400 room residence hall Harrison served as a Purdue University Trustee for the last six years of his life 219 See alsoList of presidents of the United States List of presidents of the United States by previous experienceNotes Although he was the eighth Benjamin Harrison in his family Harrison is known simply as Benjamin Harrison rather than Benjamin Harrison VIII The school was later known as Belmont College After Belmont closed the campus was transferred to the Ohio Military Institute which closed in 1958 Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Senators were elected by state legislatures The case was United States v Jellico Mountain Coal 46 Fed 432 June 4 1891References Philip Alexander Bruce William Glover Stanard 1894 The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography Virginia Historical Society pp 229 Calhoun 2005 pp 7 8 Barnhart amp Riker 1971 p 315 Owens 2007 p 6 Calhoun 2005 p 8 Calhoun 2005 p 9 Sievers 1968 v 1 pp 21 23 Boomhower p 49 Sievers 1968 pp 22 23 v 1 Calhoun 2005 p 10 Sievers 1968 pp 24 29 v 1 Sievers 1968 pp 29 30 v 1 Wallace 1888 p 53 Calhoun 2005 pp 11 15 Moore amp Hale 2006 pp 21 23 Sievers 1968 v 1 p 58 Delta Chi Fraternity The Delta Chi Fraternity at Coastal Carolina University Archived September 12 2011 at the Wayback Machine a b Calhoun 2005 p 23 Calhoun 2005 pp 10 11 Sievers 1968 v 1 pp 31 34 Wallace 1888 p 58 Calhoun 2005 pp 11 12 15 15 23 a b Calhoun 2005 pp 27 29 Benjamin Harrison Life Before the Presidency Miller Center October 4 2016 Calhoun 2005 p 26 a b c d Gugin and St Clair p 159 Cowen et al pp 92 Calhoun 2005 p 22 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 7 Calhoun 2005 p 18 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 29 a b Boomhower p 50 Calhoun 2005 p 28 Sievers 1968 v 1 p 105 Sievers 1968 p 171 v 1 Calhoun 2005 p 20 Wallace 1888 p 180 Calhoun 2005 p 34 Wallace 1888 pp 180 181 Calhoun 2005 pp 21 23 41 44 Terrell W H H 1865 Report of the Adjutant General of the State of Indiana Volume II ed Indianapolis W R Holloway pp 639 640 The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 12 2022 In May 1864 Colonel Harrison and the regiment joined General Sherman s Atlanta campaign in the Army of the Cumberland a b Calhoun 2005 pp 36 44 Wallace 1888 pp 209 225 The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 11 2022 Harrison s reputation became that of a strong leader He earned the respect of his men and did not leave them in battle Mr Richard Smock remembered an incident while they were camped near Nashville during a very cold winter Men on the picket line were nearly frozen to death and Colonel Harrison fixed coffee and took it to them in the middle of the night Harrison always led the men saying Come on boys as he took the lead a b c d Battle of Resaca New Georgia Encyclopedia Retrieved March 11 2022 a b c d The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 11 2022 Brigadier General Ward s brigade of which Harrison was a part was ordered to assault and capture this redoubt The brigade attacked in a column formation the 70th having the honor of leading the charge The redoubt was heavily fortified with three infantry regiments in the rifle pits and four more regiments in the main trenches Harrison captured the battery in hand to hand fighting with the gunners Fierce fighting continued all afternoon At nightfall the 70th carried the four captured 121 pound Napoleon Cannons to the rear A Missed Opportunity American Battlefield Trust September 30 2014 Retrieved March 12 2022 Thirty three years old in 1864 Harrison led his brigade forward and helped stop the fierce assault made by Featherston s Mississippi brigade Featherston s Mississippi brigade charged up and over Collier Road and engaged future United States President Benjamin Harrison s Union brigade Future President Benjamin Harrison s Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek July 16 2017 Retrieved March 17 2022 Harrison now found himself in command of a brigade consisting of the 102nd 105th and 129th Illinois Infantry regiments plus the 79th Ohio Infantry and his own 70th Indiana The brigade was deployed roughly in the center of the Union line and was heavily engaged with Major General William W Loring s division of Mississippi and Alabama troops of Stewart s Corps Future President Benjamin Harrison s Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek July 16 2017 Retrieved March 17 2022 HDQRS FIRST BRIG THIRD DIV TWENTIETH CORPS Before Atlanta Ga August 12 1864 At one time during the fight our ammunition began to get low and considerable uneasiness was felt lest it might be exhausted I at once dispatched Lieutenant Mitchell aide de camp to have a supply brought up while Captain Scott acting assistant inspector general and others busied themselves in cutting the cartridge boxes from the rebel dead within our lines and distributing them to the men Future President Benjamin Harrison s Report on His Brigade at the Battle of Peachtree Creek July 16 2017 Retrieved March 17 2022 A Missed Opportunity American Battlefield Trust September 30 2014 Retrieved March 12 2022 a b Spetter Allan B October 4 2016 Benjamin Harrison Life Before the Presidency Miller Center millercenter org Retrieved March 12 2022 a b c d The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 19 2022 The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 19 2022 After the November election he left for Georgia to rejoin his old regiment for Sherman s March to the Sea Instead he was given command of the 1st Brigade at Nashville and led them in a decisive battle against Confederate General Hood Benjamin Harrision Eulogy Signed The Raab Collection Retrieved March 19 2022 Harrison s brigade participated in the Battle of Nashville in December 1864 Benjamin Harrison Wikiquote en wikiquote org Retrieved March 13 2022 Statement of 1888 as quoted in Treasury of Presidential Quotations 1964 by Caroline T Hamsberger Eicher John H Eicher David J 2001 Civil War High Commands Stanford CA Stanford University Press p 747 ISBN 978 0 8047 3641 1 The Civil War Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Retrieved March 12 2022 For Harrison s achievements at the battles of Resaca and Peachtree Creek he was promoted to Brigadier General Calhoun 2005 p 19 Kinzer pp 146 47 Bodenhamer amp Barrows 1994 pp 444 445 Text of Ex parte Milligan 71 U S 2 1866 is available from Findlaw a b Sharp Allen Summer 2003 An Echo of the War The Aftermath of the Ex Parte Milligan Case Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society 15 3 46 47 See also Nolan Alan T Ex Parte Milligan A Curb of Executive and Military Power in We The People Indiana and the United States Constitution Lectures in Observance of the Bicentennial of the Constitution Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society 1987 pp 45 46 ISBN 0871950073 See also Klement Frank L 1984 Dark Lanterns Secret Political Societies Conspiracies and Treason Trials in the Civil War Baton Rouge Louisiana State University Press p 237 ISBN 0 8071 1174 0 Calhoun 2005 p 28 Wallace 1888 pp 93 94 119 Calhoun 2005 pp 27 28 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 8 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 28 Calhoun 2005 p 29 Calhoun 2005 p 30 Calhoun 2005 p 32 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 8 Gugin and St Clair p 159 Kinzer p 148 Wallace 1888 p 266 Calhoun 2005 pp 32 amp 58 Foner p 584 Calhoun 2005 pp 33 34 Calhoun 2005 pp 35 36 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p 8 Calhoun 2005 p 36 Calhoun 2005 p 37 Calhoun 2005 p 60 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 8 Wallace 1888 pp 265 267 Calhoun 2005 p 59 Calhoun 2005 p 39 Calhoun 2005 pp 39 40 Calhoun 2005 p 40 Calhoun 2005 pp 41 42 a b c d e f g h Spetter Allan B October 4 2016 Benjamin Harrison Campaigns and Elections Miller Center millercenter org Retrieved March 18 2022 Calhoun 2005 p 42 Calhoun 2005 pp 43 44 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 66 Calhoun 2005 pp 45 46 a b c d HarpWeek Elections 1888 Biographies elections harpweek com Retrieved March 18 2022 a b Calhoun 2005 p 47 a b Guide to the Republican National Convention Collection 1884 1888 www lib uchicago edu Retrieved March 18 2022 a b c d Republican Party Platform of 1888 The American Presidency Project www presidency ucsb edu Retrieved March 18 2022 Republican Party Platform of 1888 The American Presidency Project www presidency ucsb edu Retrieved March 18 2022 We are uncompromisingly in favor of the American system of protection we protest against its destruction as proposed by the President and his party They serve the interests of Europe we will support the interests of America We accept the issue and confidently appeal to the people for their judgment The protective system must be maintained Its abandonment has always been followed by general disaster to all interests except those of the usurer and the sheriff We denounce the Mills bill as destructive to the general business the labor and the farming interests of the country and we heartily indorse the consistent and patriotic action of the Republican Representatives in Congress in opposing its passage Calhoun 2005 p 50 Calhoun 2005 pp 51 52 a b Muzzey David Saville 1934 James G Blaine A Political Idol of Other Days New York Dodd Mead and Company pp 372 374 383 Wallace 1888 p 271 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 9 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 11 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 10 Calhoun 2005 p 43 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 13 Calhoun 2005 p 57 Electoral College Box Scores 1789 1996 National Archives and Records Administration Retrieved November 5 2008 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 13 Williams pp 191 192 Williams pp 191 192 Calhoun 2005 pp 55 60 Calhoun 2005 pp 47 54 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 14 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 1 2 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 3 Benjamin Harrison Inauguration Advameg Inc Profiles of U S Presidents Retrieved February 25 2011 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 5 6 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 83 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 20 22 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 33 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 20 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 22 30 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 85 Williams p 194 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 32 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 32 36 Moore amp Hale 2006 pp 83 86 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 39 41 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 36 37 Calhoun 2005 pp 72 73 Williams p 193 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 34 36 Williams pp 193 194 a b c Socolofsky amp Spetter p 51 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 49 a b Calhoun 2005 pp 100 104 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 51 52 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p 53 Calhoun 2005 pp 92 93 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p 54 Calhoun 2005 p 94 Calhoun 2005 pp 94 95 Calhoun 2005 pp 94 95 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 55 59 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 56 57 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p 58 Calhoun 2005 p 96 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 59 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 60 Calhoun 2005 pp 89 90 a b Wilson pp 32 33 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 62 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 65 67 Calhoun 2005 pp 89 90 Smith p 170 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 71 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 72 Administrator Joomla President www presidentbenjaminharrison org Archived from the original on September 18 2016 Retrieved September 18 2016 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p 106 a b Moore amp Hale 2006 pp 121 122 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 106 107 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 92 Calhoun 2005 pp 112 114 Stuart pp 452 454 President Benjamin Harrison Vincent Voice Library Archived from the original on October 15 2007 Retrieved July 24 2008 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 96 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 97 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 102 Calhoun 2005 pp 74 76 Calhoun 2005 pp 119 121 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 108 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 117 120 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 126 128 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 115 116 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 131 136 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 137 138 Moore amp Hale 2006 pp 135 136 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 139 143 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 146 Calhoun 2005 p 127 a b Calhoun 2005 pp 128 129 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 147 149 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 151 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 134 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 150 151 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 204 205 Calhoun 2005 pp 125 126 Calhoun 2005 p 132 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 147 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 188 190 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 44 45 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 160 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 157 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 171 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 166 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 168 Calhoun 2005 pp 107 126 127 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 81 a b Calhoun 2005 pp 134 137 Calhoun 2005 pp 138 139 Calhoun 2005 pp 140 141 Calhoun 2005 pp 147 150 Calhoun 2005 pp 145 147 Calhoun 2005 p 149 Socolofsky amp Spetter pp 198 199 Electoral College Box Scores 1789 1996 National Archives and Records Administration Retrieved February 22 2008 Socolofsky amp Spetter p 199 a b Moore amp Hale 2006 p 150 Calhoun 2005 p 158 Calhoun 2005 pp 160 161 Harrison Benjamin 1897 This Country of Ours Charles Scribner s Sons Moore amp Hale 2006 p 153 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 155 Calhoun 2005 pp 160 163 Administrator Joomla Benjamin Harrison www presidentbenjaminharrison org Archived from the original on February 13 2018 Retrieved February 12 2018 Ringenberg William C 1986 Benjamin Harrison The Religious Thought and Practice of a Presbyterian President American Presbyterians 64 3 175 189 JSTOR 23330850 Benjamin Harrison s Obituary From page 1 of The New York Times March 14 1901 BENJAMIN HARRISON DEAD starship python net Archived from the original on February 3 2017 Retrieved February 12 2018 Benjamin Harrison www god and country info Retrieved February 13 2018 Moore amp Hale 2006 p 156 Charles Calhoun Benjamin Harrison 2005 Charles Calhoun Reimagining the Lost Men of the Gilded Age Perspectives on the Late Nineteenth Century Presidents Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2002 1 3 225 257 Williams p 191 Calhoun 2005 p 6 Taylor Mark Zachary March 23 2021 Ideas and Their Consequences Benjamin Harrison and the Seeds of Economic Crisis 1889 1893 Critical Review 33 102 127 doi 10 1080 08913811 2020 1881354 ISSN 0891 3811 S2CID 233706114 a b Socolofsky amp Spetter p x Calhoun 2005 p 166 Batten p 209 Brody Roger S May 16 2006 13 cent Harrison National Postal Museum Retrieved January 7 2011 Hudgeons Marc Hudgeons Tom 2000 2000 Blackbook Price Guide to United States Paper Money 32nd ed New York Ballantine Publishing Group pp 116 117 ISBN 978 0 676 60072 8 Presidential Dollar Coin Release Schedule United States Mint Retrieved January 7 2011 INgov Accessdate September 18 2012 Greiff p 173 Benjamin Harrison Home National Park Service Retrieved January 7 2011 Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site President Benjamin Harrison Foundation Archived from the original on June 28 2011 Retrieved January 7 2011 Conn p 94 Harrison Hall History Purdue University Retrieved April 27 2020 SourcesExternal video Q amp A interview with Charles W Calhoun on Benjamin Harrison September 2 2018 C SPANFurther information Presidency of Benjamin Harrison Works cited Barnhart John D Riker Dorothy L 1971 Indiana to 1816 The Colonial Period The History of Indiana Vol I Indianapolis Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society Batten Donna ed 2010 Gale Encyclopedia of American Law Vol 5 3rd ed Detroit pp 208 209 Bodenhamer David J Barrows Robert G 1994 The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis Indianapolis Indiana University Press pp 444 45 ISBN 0 253 31222 1 Boomhower Ray E 2000 Destination Indiana Travels Through Hoosier History Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society pp 48 57 ISBN 0871951479 Calhoun Charles William 2005 Benjamin Harrison Macmillan ISBN 978 0 8050 6952 5 Conn Earl L 2007 My Indiana 101 Places to See Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society pp 94 95 ISBN 9780871951953 Cowen Wilson Nichols Philip Jr Bennett Marion T 1978 The United States Court of Claims A History Part II Origin Development Jurisdiction 1855 1978 Washington D C Committee on the Bicentennial of Independence and the Constitution of the Judicial Conference of the United States p 92 Eicher John H Eicher David J 2001 Civil War High Commands Stanford CA Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 3641 1 Foner Eric 2002 Reconstruction America s Unfinished Revolution 1863 1877 p 584 ISBN 9780060937164 Greiff Glory June 2005 Remembrance Faith and Fancy Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society Press p 173 ISBN 0 87195 180 0 Gugin Linda C St Clair James E eds 2015 Indiana s 200 The People Who Shaped the Hoosier State Indianapolis Indiana Historical Society Press pp 158 60 ISBN 978 0 87195 387 2 Harrison Benjamin 1897 This Country of Ours Charles Scribner s Sons Kinzer Donald L 1977 Benjamin Harrison and the Politics of Availability In Gray Ralph D ed Gentlemen from Indiana National Party Candidates 1836 1940 Indiana Historical Collections Vol 50 Indianapolis Indiana Historical Bureau pp 141 69 Moore Chieko Hale Hester Anne 2006 Benjamin Harrison Centennial President Nova Publishers ISBN 978 1 60021 066 2 Owens Robert M 2007 Mr Jefferson s Hammer William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy Norman University of Oklahoma Press p 6 ISBN 978 0 8061 3842 8 Sievers Harry J 1968 Benjamin Harrison v1 Hoosier Warrior 1833 1865 v2 Hoosier Statesman From The Civil War To The White House 1865 1888 v3 Benjamin Harrison Hoosier President The White House and After University Publishers Inc Smith Robert C ed 2003 Encyclopedia of African American Politics Infobase Publishing ISBN 978 0 8160 4475 7 Socolofsky Homer E Spetter Allan B 1987 The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison University Press of Kansas ISBN 978 0 7006 0320 6 Stuart Paul September 1977 United States Indian Policy From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission Social Service Review 51 3 451 463 doi 10 1086 643524 JSTOR 30015511 S2CID 143506388 Wallace Lew 1888 Life and Public Services of Benjamin Harrison Edgewood Publishing Company Williams R Hal 1974 Benjamin Harrison 1889 1893 In Woodward C Vann ed Responses of the Presidents to the Charges of Misconduct Dell Publishing Co Inc pp 191 195 ISBN 0 440 05923 2 Wilson Kirt H 2005 The Politics of Place and Presidential Rhetoric in the United States 1875 1901 In Rigsby Enrique D Aune James Arnt eds Civil Rights Rhetoric and the American Presidency TAMU Press pp 16 40 ISBN 978 1 58544 440 3 Further readingAdleson Bruce 2006 Benjamin Harrison Twenty First Century Books ISBN 978 0 8225 1497 8 Bourdon Jeffrey Normand Trains Canes and Replica Log Cabins Benjamin Harrison s 1888 Front Porch Campaign for the Presidency Indiana Magazine of History 110 3 2014 246 269 online Calhoun Charles W Benjamin Harrison Centennial President A Review Essay Indiana Magazine of History 1988 online Dewey Davis R National Problems 1880 1897 1907 Gallagher Douglas Steven The smallest mistake explaining the failures of the Hayes and Harrison presidencies White House Studies 2 4 2002 395 414 Morgan H Wayne From Hayes to McKinley National Party Politics 1877 1896 1969 Primary sources Debs Eugene V General Benjamin Harrison Relentless Foe of Labor A Democratic Campaign Speech in Terre Haute IN Oct 27 1888 Terre Haute Weekly Gazette November 1 1888 section 2 pp 1 4 Harrison Benjamin Speeches of Benjamin Harrison Twenty third President of the United States 1892 compiled by Charles Hedges Harrison Benjamin 1901 Harrison Mary Lord ed Views of an ex president Indianapolis Indiana Bowen Merrill Co External linksBenjamin Harrison at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Official Benjamin Harrison Presidential SiteMedia coverage Benjamin Harrison collected news and commentary at The New York TimesOther United States Congress Benjamin Harrison id H000263 Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Benjamin Harrison Resource Guide Library of Congress Benjamin amp Caroline Scott Harrison Collection Miami University Libraries Benjamin Harrison Collection 1853 1943 Archived July 29 2016 at the Wayback Machine at the Indiana Historical Society Essay on Harrison and each member of his cabinet and First Lady Miller Center of Public Affairs Life Portrait of Benjamin Harrison from C SPAN s American Presidents Life Portraits August 20 1999 Recording of an 1889 Harrison speech Vincent Voice Library Michigan State University Collection of Benjamin Harrison s Personal Letters amp Manuscripts Works by Benjamin Harrison at Project Gutenberg Works by Benjamin Harrison at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Benjamin Harrison Collection Rare Books and Manuscripts Indiana State Library Portals Biography American Civil War Indiana Ohio United States Politics Law Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Benjamin Harrison amp oldid 1144524629, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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