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Catholic Church in the 20th century

The Roman Catholic Church in the 20th century responded to the challenge of increasing secularization of Western society and persecution resulting from great social unrest and revolutions in several countries. It instituted reforms, particularly in the 1970s after the Second Vatican Council, to modernize practices and positions. In this period, Catholic missionaries in the Far East worked to improve education and health care, while evangelizing peoples and attracting followers in China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.

Catholic social teaching, rooted in the 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum by Pope Leo XIII, addresses the dignity and rights of workers against the backdrop of the Industrial Revolution. It advocates for fair labor conditions, living wages, and the right to form trade unions, establishing a framework that balances the rejection of socialism with a critique of unchecked capitalism. Subsequent teachings, like Quadragesimo anno and the works of Pius XII, expand these principles, emphasizing solidarity, subsidiarity, and the moral dimensions of economic life. This body of teaching continues to evolve, addressing modern social, economic, and technological issues while advocating for justice and the dignity of all individuals.

Catholic social teaching edit

 
In 1891 Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum novarum in which the Church defined the dignity and rights of industrial workers.

Rerum novarum edit

The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler, in 1891 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum novarum, titled "On Capital and Labor". This encyclical set in context Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.[1]

In Rerum novarum, Leo set out the Catholic Church's response to the social instability and labor conflict that had arisen in the wake of industrialization and had led to the rise of socialism. The Pope taught that the role of the State is to promote social justice through the protection of rights, while the Church must speak out on social issues in order to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony. He restated the Church's long-standing teaching regarding the crucial importance of private property rights, but recognised, in one of the best-known passages of the encyclical, that the free operation of market forces must be tempered by moral considerations:

Let the working man and the employer make free agreements, and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well-behaved wage-earner. If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and injustice.[2]

Rerum novarum is remarkable for its vivid depiction of the plight of the late 19th-century urban poor and for its condemnation of unrestricted capitalism. Among the remedies it prescribed were the formation of trade unions and the introduction of collective bargaining, particularly as an alternative to state intervention. Rerum novarum also recognized that the poor have a special status in consideration of social issues: the modern Catholic principle of the "preferential option for the poor" and the notion that God is on the side of the poor found their first expression in this document.[3][4]

Quadragesimo anno edit

Forty years after Rerum novarum, and more than a year into the Great Depression, Pope Pius XI issued Quadragesimo anno, subtitled "On Reconstruction of the Social Order". Released on 15 May 1931, this encyclical expanded on Rerum novarum, noting the positive effect of the earlier document but pointing out that the world had changed significantly since Pope Leo's time.

Unlike Leo, who addressed mainly the condition of workers, Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order. He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity.[5] He also noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity, arising from both unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism.

Pius XI reiterated Leo's defence of private property rights and collective bargaining, and repeated his contention that blind economic forces cannot create a just society on their own:

Just as the unity of human society cannot be founded on an opposition of classes, so also the right ordering of economic life cannot be left to a free competition of forces. For from this source, as from a poisoned spring, have originated and spread all the errors of individualist economic teaching. Destroying through forgetfulness or ignorance the social and moral character of economic life, it held that economic life must be considered and treated as altogether free from and independent of public authority, because in the market, i.e., in the free struggle of competitors, it would have a principle of self direction which governs it much more perfectly than would the intervention of any created intellect. But free competition, while justified and certainly useful provided it is kept within certain limits, clearly cannot direct economic life ...[6]

Quadragesimo Anno also supported state intervention to mediate labor-management conflicts (a reference to the economic system which Mussolini was attempting to establish in Italy at the time), and introduced the concept of subsidiarity into Catholic thought.

Prior to Quadragesimo anno, some Catholics had wondered whether Leo XIII's condemnation of radical left-wing politics in Rerum novarum extended only to outright communism or whether it included milder forms of socialism as well. Pius made it clear that non-communistic Socialism was included in the condemnation. The Catholic Church defined a distinctive position for itself between free-market capitalism on the right and statist socialism on the left.[3]

Pius XII edit

The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeat these teachings, and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions, such as politicians, educators, housewives, farmers bookkeepers, international organizations, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, psychology, sport, TV, science, law and education. There is virtually no social issue, which Pius XII did not address and relate to the Christian faith.[7] He was called "the Pope of Technology", for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity, asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on subsidiarity.[8]

The Catholic Church exercised a prominent role in shaping America's labor movement. In 1933, two American Catholics, Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin, founded a new Catholic peace group, the Catholic Worker that would embody their ideals of pacifism, commitment to the poor, and to fundamental change in American society. They published a newspaper of the same name for years.

Anti-clericalism edit

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.[9] In the 1920s and 1930s, the Catholic Church was subjected to unprecedented persecution in Mexico, as well as in Europe in Spain and the Soviet Union. Pope Pius XI called this the "terrible triangle".[10]

The "harsh persecution short of total annihilation of the clergy, monks, and nuns and other people associated with the Church",[11] began in 1918 and continued well into the 1930s. The Civil War in Spain started in 1936, during which thousands of churches were destroyed, thirteen bishops and some 6,832 clergy and religious Spaniards were assassinated.[12][13]


After the widespread Church persecutions in Mexico, Spain and the Soviet Union, Pius XI defined communism as the main adversary of the Catholic Church in his encyclical Divini Redemptoris issued on 19 March 1937.[14] He blamed Western powers and media for a "conspiracy of silence" with respect to the persecutions carried out by Communist, Socialist and Fascist forces.

Mexico edit

In Mexico, the Calles Law eventually led to the "worst guerilla war in Latin American History", the Cristero War.[15] Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.[16][17] In an effort to prove that "God would not defend the Church", Calles ordered Church desecrations in which services were mocked, nuns were raped, and captured priests were shot.[15]

Calles was eventually deposed.[15] Despite the persecution, the Church in Mexico continued to grow. A 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.[18]

Spain edit

During the Spanish Civil War, Spanish republicans and anarchists targeted priests and nuns as symbols of conservatism, murdering large numbers of them.[19] Confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms have generally accompanied secularist and Marxist-leaning governmental reforms.[20]

Soviet Union edit

Worried by the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union, Pius XI mandated Berlin nuncio Eugenio Pacelli to work secretly on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union. Pacelli negotiated food shipments for Russia, and met with Soviet representatives including Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin, who rejected any kind of religious education, or the ordination of priests and bishops, but offered agreements without the points vital to the Vatican.[21] Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress, Pacelli continued the secret negotiations. Pius XI ordered them to be discontinued in 1927, because they generated no results and he believed they would be dangerous to the Church's standing, if made public.

The harsh persecution continued well into the 1930s. The Soviet government executed and exiled many clerics, monks and laymen, confiscating Church implements "for victims of famine", and closing many churches.[22] Yet according to an official report based on the census of 1936, some 55% of Soviet citizens identified themselves openly as religious, while others possibly concealed their belief.[22]

In other countries edit

Eastern Europe edit

Following the Soviet doctrine regarding the exercise of religion, postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms. Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes during their decades of power,[23] from the late 1980s the Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall in 1991 of communist governments across Europe.[24]

China edit

The rise to power of the Communists in China of 1949 led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries, "often after cruel and farcical 'public trials'."[25] In an effort to further isolate Chinese Catholics, the new government created the Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome but subsequently many were accepted.[25][26][27] The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s encouraged gangs of teenagers to eliminate all religious establishments and convert their occupants into labourers. When Chinese churches eventually reopened, they remained under the control of the Communist party's Patriotic Church, and many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.[26]

Latin America edit

General Juan Perón's Argentina and Fidel Castro's Cuba also engaged in extensive anti-clericalism, confiscating Catholic properties.[28][29]

In 1954, under the regime of General Juan Perón, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.[28] Cuba, under atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party.[29] The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.[29]

Response to authoritarianism edit

Authoritarianism or Fascism describes certain related political regimes in 20th-century Europe, especially the Nazi Germany of Hitler, the authoritarian Soviet Union, the Fascist Italy of Mussolini and the falangist Spain of Franco.

Pope Pius XI was moderately skeptical of Italian Fascism.

To Pope Pius XI, Dollfuss in Austria was the ideal politician realising Quadragesimo anno.

Nazi Germany edit

In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, drafted by the future Pope Pius XII,[30] Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.[31] Read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it described Hitler as an insane and arrogant prophet and was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization.[32] Nazi persecution of the Church in Germany then began by "outright repression" and "staged prosecutions of monks for homosexuality, with the maximum of publicity."[33] When Dutch bishops protested against deportation of Jews in the Netherlands, the Nazi's responded with even more severe measures.[32]

On 20 July 1933, the Vatican signed an agreement with Germany, the Reichskonkordat, partly in an effort to stop Nazi persecution of Catholic institutions.[34][35] When this escalated to include physical violence, Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge.[34][36][37][38] Drafted by the future Pope Pius XII[39] and read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it criticized Hitler,[40][32][38][41] and condemned Nazi persecution[31][32][38][41] and ideology[28][31][32][38][41][42] and has been characterized by scholars as the "first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism" and "one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican."[43][44][41][45] According to Eamon Duffy, "The impact of the encyclical was immense"[45] and the "infuriated" Nazis increased their persecution of Catholics and the Church[46] by initiating a "long series" of persecution of clergy and other measures.[32][42][45] Pius XI later warned that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.[47]

Despite a number of condemnations of atrocities committed during World War II, Pope Pius XII has been criticized for not having explicitly spoken out against the Holocaust. Although he never defended himself against such criticism, there is evidence that he chose to keep his public pronouncements circumspect while acting covertly to assist Jews seeking refuge from the Holocaust. Although Pius XII was exhorted by the British government and the Polish government-in-exile to condemn Nazi atrocities directly, he declined to do so out of concern that such pronouncements would only instigate further persecution by the Nazis. These sentiments were based on opinions expressed to him by bishops in Germany and Poland. When Dutch bishops protested against the wartime deportation of Jews, the Nazis responded by increasing deportations[32] rounding up 92 converts including Edith Stein who were then deported and murdered.[48] "The brutality of the retaliation made an enormous impression on Pius XII."[48][49] In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2,500 monks and priests and even more were imprisoned.[33] In the Soviet Union, an even more severe persecution occurred.[33]

After the war, Pius XII's efforts to protect their people were recognised by prominent Jews including Albert Einstein and Rabbi Isaac Herzog.[50] However, the Church has also been accused by some of encouraging centuries of antisemitism and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[51][52] Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted these criticisms.[53] The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII "was instrumental in saving at least 700,000, but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands". Some historians dispute this estimate[54] while others consider Pinchas Lapide's work to be "the definitive work by a Jewish scholar" on the holocaust.[55] Even so, in 2000 Pope John Paul II on behalf of all people, apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall that read "We're deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer, and asking your forgiveness, we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."[56] This papal apology, one of many issued by Pope John Paul II for past human and Church failings throughout history, was especially significant because John Paul II emphasized Church guilt for, and the Second Vatican Council's condemnation of, anti-Semitism.[57] The papal letter We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, urged Catholics to repent "of past errors and infidelities" and "renew the awareness of the Hebrew roots of their faith."[57][58]

 
While the church is heavily criticized for having done too little against the Holocaust, the war and the Nazis, individual Catholic resistance groups such as that led by priest Heinrich Maier helped the allies to fight the V-2, which was produced by concentration camp prisoners.

In Austria, since 1938 part of Nazi Germany, in particular, the Catholic resistance against National Socialism was active very early on. Many of the Catholic resistance groups were loyal to the House of Habsburg, which drew the particular anger of the Nazi regime on them. The groups wanted on the one hand, like those around the Augustinian friar Roman Karl Scholz or Jakob Gapp, Otto Neururer, Franz Reinisch, Carl Lampert, Maria Restituta Kafka and Johann Gruber to inform the population about the Nazi crimes and, on the other hand, to take active robust action against the Nazi system. The group around the priest Heinrich Maier (CASSIA – Maier-Messner group) successfully redirected the production sites of V-1, V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks, Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and other aircraft to the Allies so that they could bomb more accurately and the war was over faster. Maier and his people were in contact with Allen Dulles, the head of the OSS in Switzerland since 1942. The group reported to him also about the mass murder in Auschwitz. The Gestapo exposed the resistance group and most of the members, including Maier, were severely tortured and killed.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65]

In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2500 monks and priests while even more were sent to concentration camps.[66] The Priester-Block (priests barracks) in Dachau concentration camp lists 2600 Roman Catholic priests.[67] Stalin staged an even more severe persecution at almost the same time.[33] After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of anti-Semitism, and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[68]

Prominent members of the Jewish community, including Golda Meir, Albert Einstein, Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews, while others such as rabbi David G. Dalin noted that "hundreds of thousands" of Jews were saved by the Church.[69]

Regarding the matter, historian Derek Holmes wrote, "There is no doubt that the Catholic districts, resisted the lure of National Socialism Nazism far better than the Protestant ones."[70] Pope Pius XI declared – Mit brennender Sorge – that Fascist governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Totalitarian Fascist State Worship, which placed the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity. His declaration that "Spiritually, [Christians] are all Semites" prompted the Nazis to give him the title "Chief Rabbi of the Christian World".[71]

Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; for example, 2,600 Catholic Priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed. A further 2,700 Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either displaced, imprisoned, or executed.[72] Many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII (1876–1958). The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the Pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took the name Eugenio (the pope's first name).[73] A former Israeli consul in Italy claimed: "The Catholic Church saved more Jewish lives during the war than all the other churches, religious institutions, and rescue organisations put together."[74]

Independent State of Croatia edit

In dismembered Yugoslavia, the Church favored the Nazi-installed Croatian Roman Catholic fascist Ustaše regime due to its anti-communist ideology and for the potential to reinstate Catholic influence in the region following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary.[75] Pius XII was a long-standing supporter of Croat nationalism; he hosted a national pilgrimage to Rome in November 1939 for the cause of the canonization of Nikola Tavelić, and largely "confirmed the Ustashe perception of history" writes John Cornwell.[76] The Church however did not formally recognize the Independent State of Croatia (NDH).[75]

Despite being informed of the regime's genocide against Orthodox Serbs, Jews and other non-Croats, the Church did not publicly speak out against it, preferring to exert pressure through diplomacy.[77] In assessing the Vatican's position, historian Jozo Tomasevich writes that "it seems the Catholic Church fully supported the [Ustaše] regime and its policies."[78]

After the war, many Ustaše fled the country with the help of Father Krunoslav Draganović, secretary of the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome in Rome. Pius XII protected dictator Ante Pavelić after World War II, gave him "refuge in the Vatican properties in Rome", and assisted in his flight to South America; Pavelić and Pius XII shared the goal of a Catholic state in the Balkans and were unified in their opposition to the rising Communist state under Tito.[79]

Latin America edit

South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad. For example: Brazil, South America's largest country, is the largest Catholic country in the world, and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world[citation needed] (based on population). Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil.[citation needed]

China edit

In 1939, Pope Pius XII, within weeks of his coronation, reverted the 250-year-old Vatican policy and permitted Catholics to practice Confucianism.[80] The Church began to flourish again with twenty new arch-dioceses, seventy-nine dioceses and thirty-eight apostolic prefects, but only until 1949, when the Communist revolution took over the country.[81]

Second Vatican Council edit

A major event of the Second Vatican Council, known as Vatican II, was the issuance by Pope Paul VI and Orthodox Patriarch Athenagoras of a joint expression of regret for many of the past actions that had led up to the Great Schism between the Western and Eastern churches, expressed as the Catholic-Orthodox Joint declaration of 1965. At the same time, they lifted the mutual excommunications dating from the 11th century.[82]

The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).[83] Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation.[83] It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world, and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church, the mission of the laity and religious freedom.[83] The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments.[84] Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority.[85] In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.[86]

On 11 October 1962 Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. The council was "pastoral" in nature, emphasising and clarifying already defined dogma, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin.

At the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) the debate on papal primacy and authority re-emerged[citation needed], and in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the Pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. Vatican II sought to correct the unbalanced ecclesiology left behind by Vatican I. The result is the body of teaching about the papacy and episcopacy contained in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium.

Vatican II reaffirmed everything Vatican I taught about papal primacy and infallibility, but it added important points about bishops. Bishops, it says, are not "vicars of the Roman Pontiff". Rather, in governing their local churches they are "vicars and legates of Christ".[87] Together, they form a body, a "college", whose head is the pope. This episcopal college is responsible for the well-being of the Universal Church. Here in a nutshell are the basic elements of the council's much-discussed communio ecclesiology, which affirms the importance of local churches and the doctrine of collegiality.

In a key passage about collegiality, Vatican II teaches: "The order of bishops is the successor to the college of the apostles in their role as teachers and pastors, and in it the apostolic college is perpetuated. Together with their head, the Supreme Pontiff, and never apart from him, they have supreme and full authority over the Universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff".[88] Much of the present discussion of papal primacy is concerned with exploring the implications of this passage.

Chapter 3 of the dogmatic constitution on the Church of Vatican Council I (Pastor aeternus) is the principal document of the Magisterium about the content and nature of the primatial power of the Roman Pontiff. Chapter 4 is a development and defining of one particular characteristic of this primatial power, namely the Pope's supreme teaching authority, i.e. when the Pope speaks ex cathedra he teaches the doctrine of the faith infallibly.

Reforms edit

Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II produced a variety of responses. Some stopped going to church, while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.[89] These formed the basis of today's Traditionalist Catholic groups, which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far. Liberal Catholics form another dissenting group who feel that the Vatican II reforms did not go far enough. The liberal views of theologians such as Hans Küng and Charles Curran, led to Church withdrawal of their authorization to teach as Catholics.[90] According to Professor Thomas Bokenkotter, most Catholics "accepted the changes more or less gracefully".[89] In 2007, Benedict XVI reinstated the old mass as an option, to be celebrated upon request by the faithful.[91]

A new Codex Juris CanoniciCanon Law called for by John XXIII, was promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 25 January 1983. It includes numerous reforms and alterations in Church law and Church discipline for the Latin Church. It replaced the 1917 version issued by Benedict XV.

The Catholic Church initiated a comprehensive process of reform under Pope John XXIII.[92] Intended as a continuation of the First Vatican Council, the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), developed into an engine of modernisation, making pronouncements on religious freedom, the nature of the Church and the mission of the laity.[83] The role of the bishops of the Church was brought into renewed prominence, especially when seen collectively, as a college that has succeeded to that of the Apostles in teaching and governing the Church. This college does not exist without its head, the successor of St. Peter. It also permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during Mass and other sacraments.[84] Christian unity became a greater priority.[93] In addition to finding more common ground with Protestant Churches, the Catholic Church has reopened discussions regarding the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox churches.[94]

Modernism and Liberation theology edit

In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Church in Latin America gave birth to liberation theology. The Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, became a primary theorist and, in 1979, the bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".[95] Archbishop Óscar Romero, a supporter of the movement, became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered by forces allied with the government of El Salvador while saying Mass.[96] Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI (as Cardinal Ratzinger) denounced the movement.[97] The Brazilian theologian-priest Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.[95] Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, but he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by advocating violence or engaging in partisan politics.[98] The movement is still alive in Latin America today, although the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region.[97]

Sexuality and gender issues edit

The sexual revolution of the 1960s brought challenging issues for the Church. Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae reaffirmed the Catholic Church's traditional view of marriage and marital relations and asserted a continued proscription of artificial birth control. In addition, the encyclical reaffirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and asserted a continued condemnation of both abortion and euthanasia as grave sins which were equivalent to murder.[99][100]

Ordination of women edit

Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching. Mulieris dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women's equally important and complementary role in the work of the Church.[101][102] Then in 1994, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church extends ordination only to men in order to follow the example of Jesus, who chose only men for this specific duty.[103][104][105]

Humanae vitae edit

The sexual revolution of the 1960s precipitated Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae (On Human Life), which rejected the use of contraception, including sterilization, claiming these work against the intimate relationship and moral order of husband and wife by directly opposing God's will.[106] It approved Natural Family Planning as a legitimate means to limit family size.[106] Abortion was condemned by the Church as early as the 1st century, again in the 14th century and again in 1995 with Pope John Paul II's encyclical Evangelium vitae (Gospel of Life).[107] This encyclical condemned the "culture of death" which the pope often used to describe the societal embrace of contraception, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, capital punishment, and genocide.[107][108] The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that in countries like Kenya and Uganda, where behavioral changes are encouraged alongside condom use, greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in those countries solely promoting condoms.[109][110] Feminists disagreed with these and other Church teachings and worked together with a coalition of American nuns to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women.[111] They stated that many of the major Church documents were supposedly full of anti-female prejudice and a number of studies were conducted to discover how this supposed prejudice developed when it was deemed contrary to the openness of Jesus.[111] These events led Pope John Paul II to issue the 1988 encyclical Mulieris dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women), which declared that women had a different, yet equally important role in the Church.[112][113] In 1994 the encyclical Ordinatio sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood) further explained that the Church follows the example of Jesus, who chose only men for the specific priestly duty.[103][114][115]

Modern response to Protestantism edit

Well into the 20th century, Catholics—even if no longer resorting to persecution—still defined Protestants as heretics. Thus, Hilaire Belloc – in his time one of the most conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain – was outspoken about the "Protestant heresy". He also defined Islam as "A Christian heresy", on the grounds that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity but deny the godhood of Jesus (see Hilaire Belloc#On Islam).

In the second half of the century – and especially in the wake of Vatican II – the Catholic Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, no longer referred to Protestantism as a heresy, even if the teachings of Protestantism are heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as "separated brethren" rather than "heretics". The latter term is occasionally applied to Catholics who abandon their Church to join a Protestant denomination. Many Catholics consider most Protestants to be material rather than formal heretics, and thus non-culpable.

Among the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the beliefs that: the Bible is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola fide"), and no sacramental, ministerial priesthood is attained by ordination, but there is a universal priesthood of all believers.

Catholic-Orthodox dialogue edit

Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. Ecumenism is derived from Greek οἰκουμένη (oikoumene), which means "the inhabited world", but more figuratively something like "universal oneness". The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterised by a redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism" (which the Catholic Church, among others, rejects).

Over the last century, a number of moves have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches. Although progress has been made, concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism.

Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern some doctrine (i.e. Filioque, Scholasticism, functional purposes of asceticism, the essence of God, Hesychasm, Fourth Crusade, establishment of the Latin Empire, Uniatism to note but a few) as well as practical matters, such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not result in absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world). Both parties wanted to avoid the stifling or abandonment of the other churches' rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.

With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities, certain commissions were established to foster dialogue, and documents have been published that address points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999.

Joint Theological Commission edit

The Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church first met in Rhodes in 1980.

Other moves toward reconciliation edit

In June 1995, Patriarch Bartholomew I, who was elected as the 273rd Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in October 1991, visited the Vatican for the first time, when he joined in the historic inter-religious day of prayer for peace at Assisi. Pope John Paul II and the Patriarch explicitly stated their mutual "desire to relegate the excommunications of the past to oblivion and to set out on the way to re-establishing full communion."[116]

In May 1999, John Paul II traveled to Romania: the first pope since the Great Schism to visit an Eastern Orthodox country. Upon greeting John Paul II, the Romanian Patriarch Teoctist stated: "The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity." Pope John Paul II visited other strongly Orthodox areas such as Ukraine, despite lack of welcome at times. He said that healing the divisions between Western and Eastern Christianity was one of his fondest wishes.

20th-century timeline

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
  2. ^ Rerum novarum, § 45
  3. ^ a b The Busy Christian's Guide to Social Teaching.
  4. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (1911): Rerum Novarum.
  5. ^ Duffy 260
  6. ^ Quadragesimo anno § 88.
  7. ^ Franzen, 368
  8. ^ Felictity O'Brien, Pope Pius XII: Architect for Peace, London: 2000, p.13
  9. ^ Stacy, p. 139.
  10. ^ Fontenelle, 164
  11. ^ Riasanovsky 617
  12. ^ Franzen 397
  13. ^ de la Cueva, Julio (1998), "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War", Journal of Contemporary History, XXXIII (3): 355–369, JSTOR 261121
  14. ^ Franzen 365
  15. ^ a b c Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.
  16. ^ Scheina, p. 33.
  17. ^ Van Hove, Brian (1994). "Blood Drenched Altars". EWTN Global Catholic Network. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
  18. ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2001" (PDF). US Department of State. 2001. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
  19. ^ Chadwick, Owen p. 240.
  20. ^ Norman, pp. 167–172.
  21. ^ (Hansjakob Stehle, Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans, Piper, München, 1975, pp. 139–141
  22. ^ a b Riasanovsky 634
  23. ^ Smith, Craig (10 January 2007). "In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
  24. ^ White, Ed (3 April 2005). "NEWS ANALYSIS: Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland _ and Won". Religion News Service. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  25. ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358.
  26. ^ a b Chadwick, Owen pp. 259–260.
  27. ^ "China installs Pope-backed bishop", BBC News 21 September 2007. Retrieved 8 September 2009
  28. ^ a b c Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–8
  29. ^ a b c Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), p. 266
  30. ^ Pham, Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession (2005), p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.' "
  31. ^ a b c Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 327–333, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
  32. ^ a b c d e f g Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 389–92
  33. ^ a b c d Chadwick, Owen pp. 254–255.
  34. ^ a b Coppa, p. 132-7
  35. ^ Rhodes, pp. 182–183 quote "His contention seemed confirmed in a speech by Staatsminister Wagner in Munich on the 31st March 1934, only nine months after the signature of the Concordat. Wagner said if the Church had not signed a concordat with Germany, the National Socialist government would have abolished the Catholic Youth organisations altogether, and placed them in the same 'anti-state' category as the Marxist groups. ... If the maintenance of Catholic education and of the Catholic Youth associations was, as we have seen often enough before, the principal aim of Papal diplomacy, then his phrase, 'the Concordat prevented greater evils' seems justified. ... "The German episcopate considered that neither the Concordats up to then negotiated with individual German States (Lander), nor the Weimar Constitution gave adequate guarantees or assurance to the faithful of respect for their convictions, rights or liberty of action. In such conditions the guarantees could not be secured except through a settlement having the solemn form of a concordat with the central government of the Reich, I would add that since it was the German government which made the proposal, the responsibility for all the regrettable consequences would have fallen on the Holy See if it had refused the proposed Concordat. Although the Church had few illusions about National Socialism, it must be recognized that the Concordat in the years that followed brought some advantages, or at least prevented worse evils. In fact, in spite of all the violations to which it was subjected, it gave German Catholics a juridical basis for their defence, a stronghold behind which to shield themselves in their oppositions to the ever-growing campaign of religious persecution."
  36. ^ Rhodes, p. 197 quote "Violence had been used against a Catholic leader as early as June 1934, in the 'Night of the Long Knives' ... by the end of 1936 physical violence was being used openly and blatantly against the Catholic Church. The real issue was not, as the Nazis contended, a struggle with 'political Catholicism', but that the regime would tolerate the Church only if it adapted its religious and moral teaching to the materialist dogma of blood and race – that is, if it ceased to be Christian."
  37. ^ Shirer, p. 235 quote "On July 25, five days after the ratification of the concordat, the German government promulgated a sterilization law, which particularly offended the Catholic Church. Five days later the first steps were taken to dissolve the Catholic Youth League. During the next years, thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and lay leaders were arrested, many of them on trumped-up charges of 'immorality' or 'smuggling foreign currency'. Erich Klausener, leader of Catholic Action, was, as we have seen, murdered in the June 30, 1934, purge. Scores of Catholic publications were suppressed, and even the sanctity of the confessional was violated by Gestapo agents. By the spring of 1937, the Catholic hierarchy, in Germany, which, like most of the Protestant clergy, had tried to co-operate with the new regime, was thoroughly disillusioned.
  38. ^ a b c d McGonigle, p. 172 quote "Hitler, of course flagrantly violated the rights of Catholics and others whenever it pleased him. Catholic Action groups were attacked by Hitler's police and Catholic schools were closed. Priests were persecuted and sent to concentration camps. ... On Palm Sunday, 21 March 1937, the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was read in Catholic Churches in Germany. In effect it taught that the racial ideas of the leader (fuhrer) and totalitarianism stood in opposition to the Catholic faith. The letter let the world, and especially German Catholics, know clearly that the Church was harassed and persecuted, and that it clearly opposed the doctrines of Nazism."
  39. ^ Pham, p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.'"
  40. ^ Vidmar, p. 327 quote "Pius XI's greatest coup was in writing the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge ("With Burning Desire") in 1936, and having it distributed secretly and ingeniously by an army of motorcyclists, and read from the pulpit on Palm Sunday before the Nazis obtained a single copy. It stated (in German and not in the traditional Latin) that the Concordat with the Nazis was agreed to despite serious misgivings about Nazi integrity. It then went on to condemn the persecution of the church, the neopaganism of the Nazi ideology-especially its theory of racial superiority-and Hitler himself, calling him 'a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance.'"
  41. ^ a b c d Rhodes, p. 204-205 quote "Mit brennender Sorge did not prevaricate. Although it began mildly enough with an account of the broad aims of the Church, it went on to become one of the greatest condemnations of a national regime ever pronounced by the Vatican. Its vigorous language is in sharp contrast to the involved style in which encyclicals were normally written. The education question was fully and critically examined, and a long section devoted to disproving the Nazi theory of Blood and Soil (Blut und Boden) and the Nazi claim that faith in Germany was equivalent to faith in God. There were scathing references to Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century and its neo-paganism. The pressure exercised by the Nazi party on Catholic officials to betray their faith was lambasted as 'base, illegal and inhuman'. The document spoke of "a condition of spiritual oppression in Germany such as has never been seen before", of 'the open fight against the Confessional schools and the suppression of liberty of choice for those who desire a Catholic education'. 'With pressure veiled and open,' it went on, 'with intimidation, with promises of economic, professional, civil, and other advantages, the attachment of Catholics to the Faith, particularly those in government employment, is exposed to a violence as illegal as it is inhuman.' 'The calvary of the Church': 'The war of annihilation against the Catholic Faith'; 'The cult of idols'. The fulminations thundered down from the pulpits to the delighted congregations. Nor was the Fuhrer himself spared, for his 'aspirations to divinity', 'placing himself on the same level as Christ': 'a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance' (widerliche Hochmut)."
  42. ^ a b Courtois, p. 29 quote "Pope Pius XI condemned Nazism and Communism respectively in the encyclicals Mit Brennender Sorge ... and Divini redemptoris ... ."
  43. ^ Norman, p. 167 quote "But violations began almost at once by Nazi Party officials, and in 1937 the papacy issued a Letter to the German bishops to be read in the churches. Mit Brennender Sorge ... denounced the violations as contrary to Natural Law and to the term of the Concordat. The Letter, in fact, amounted to a condemnation of Nazi ideology: 'In political life within the state, since it confuses considerations of utility with those of right, it mistakes the basic fact that man as a person possesses God-given rights which must be preserved from all attacks aimed at denying, suppressing, or disregarding them.' The Letter also rejected absolutely the concept of a German National Church."
  44. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 389–392, quote "And when Hitler showed increasing belligerence toward the Church, Pius met the challenge with a decisiveness that astonished the world. His encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was the 'first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism' and 'one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican.' Smuggled into Germany, it was read from all the Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday in March 1937. It denounced the Nazi "myth of blood and soil" and decried its neopaganism, its war of annihilation against the Church, and even described the Fuhrer himself as a 'mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance'. The Nazis were infuriated, and in retaliation closed and sealed all the presses that had printed it and took numerous vindictive measures against the Church, including staging a long series of immorality trials of Catholic clergy."
  45. ^ a b c Duffy, (paperback edition) p. 343 quote "In a triumphant security operation, the encyclical was smuggled into Germany, locally printed, and read from Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday 1937. Mit Brennender Sorge ('With Burning Anxiety') denounced both specific government actions against the Church in breach of the concordat and Nazi racial theory more generally. There was a striking and deliberate emphasis on the permanent validity of the Jewish scriptures, and the Pope denounced the 'idolatrous cult' which replaced belief in the true God with a 'national religion' and the 'myth of race and blood'. He contrasted this perverted ideology with the teaching of the Church in which there was a home 'for all peoples and all nations'. The impact of the encyclical was immense, and it dispelled at once all suspicion of a Fascist Pope. While the world was still reacting, however, Pius issued five days later another encyclical, Divini Redemptoris denouncing Communism, declaring its principles 'intrinsically hostile to religion in any form whatever', detailing the attacks on the Church which had followed the establishment of Communist regimes in Russia, Mexico and Spain, and calling for the implementation of Catholic social teaching to offset both Communism and 'amoral liberalism'. The language of Divini Redemptoris was stronger than that of Mit Brennender Sorge, its condemnation of Communism even more absolute than the attack on Nazism. The difference in tone undoubtedly reflected the Pope's own loathing of Communism as the ultimate enemy. The last year of his life, however, left no one any doubt of his total repudiation of the right-wing tyrannies in Germany and, despite his instinctive sympathy with some aspects of Fascism, increasingly in Italy also. His speeches and conversations were blunt, filled with phrases like 'stupid racialism', 'barbaric Hitlerism'."
  46. ^ Chadwick, Owen p. 254 quote "The encyclical was smuggled into Germany and read from the pulpits on Palm Sunday. It made the repression far worse; but it too was necessary to Christian honour."
  47. ^ Vidmar, pp. 327–333, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
  48. ^ a b Vidmar, p. 331.
  49. ^ Duffy, (paperback edition) p. 348 quote "It is clear from Maglione's intervention that Papa Pacelli cared about and sought to avert the deportation of the Roman Jews. but he did not denounce: a denunciation, the Pope believed, would do nothing to help the Jews, and would only extend Nazi persecution to yet more Catholics. It was the Church as well as the Jews in Germany, Poland and the rest of occupied Europe who would pay the price for any papal gesture. There was some weight in this argument: when the Dutch Catholic hierarchy denounced measures against Jews there, the German authorities retaliated by extending the persecution to baptized Jews who had formerly been protected by their Catholicism."
  50. ^ Bokenkotter p. 192 quote "The end of the war saw the prestige of the papacy at an all-time high. Many nations had ambassadors accredited with the Vatican. The President of the United States sent his personal representative, while a constant stream of the world's celebrities moved through its portals. The Holy Year of 1950 brought millions of more humble pilgrims to the tomb of Peter. The pope gave daily addresses on every conceivable subject and was widely quoted around the world. The number of Catholic dioceses increased during his reign from 1,696 to 2,048. ... Einstein, for instance, in an article in Time, paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' ... 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history."' David Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
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Further reading edit

  • Farrell, Joseph P. God, History, & Dialectic: The Theological Foundations of the Two Europes and Their Cultural Consequences. Bound edition 1997. Electronic edition 2008.
  • González, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063316-6.
  • Hastings, Adrian (1999). A World History of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4875-3.
  • Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). A History of Christianity, Volume 2: 1500 to 1975. San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-064953-4.
  • Nichols, Aidan. Rome and the Eastern Churches: a Study in Schism. 1992
  • Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain Language (2nd ed.). Word Pub. ISBN 0-8499-3861-9.

External links edit

  • History of Christianity Reading Room:[permanent dead link] Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).
  • Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History
  • Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Church History" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 330–345.
  • , A time line with references to the descendants of the early church.

catholic, church, 20th, century, roman, responded, challenge, increasing, secularization, western, society, persecution, resulting, from, great, social, unrest, revolutions, several, countries, instituted, reforms, particularly, 1970s, after, second, vatican, . The Roman Catholic Church in the 20th century responded to the challenge of increasing secularization of Western society and persecution resulting from great social unrest and revolutions in several countries It instituted reforms particularly in the 1970s after the Second Vatican Council to modernize practices and positions In this period Catholic missionaries in the Far East worked to improve education and health care while evangelizing peoples and attracting followers in China Taiwan Korea and Japan Catholic social teaching rooted in the 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum by Pope Leo XIII addresses the dignity and rights of workers against the backdrop of the Industrial Revolution It advocates for fair labor conditions living wages and the right to form trade unions establishing a framework that balances the rejection of socialism with a critique of unchecked capitalism Subsequent teachings like Quadragesimo anno and the works of Pius XII expand these principles emphasizing solidarity subsidiarity and the moral dimensions of economic life This body of teaching continues to evolve addressing modern social economic and technological issues while advocating for justice and the dignity of all individuals Contents 1 Catholic social teaching 1 1 Rerum novarum 1 2 Quadragesimo anno 1 3 Pius XII 2 Anti clericalism 2 1 Mexico 2 2 Spain 2 3 Soviet Union 2 4 In other countries 2 4 1 Eastern Europe 2 4 2 China 2 4 3 Latin America 3 Response to authoritarianism 3 1 Nazi Germany 3 2 Independent State of Croatia 4 Latin America 5 China 6 Second Vatican Council 6 1 Reforms 7 Modernism and Liberation theology 8 Sexuality and gender issues 8 1 Ordination of women 8 2 Humanae vitae 9 Modern response to Protestantism 10 Catholic Orthodox dialogue 10 1 Joint Theological Commission 10 2 Other moves toward reconciliation 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksCatholic social teaching editSee also Catholic social teaching nbsp In 1891 Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum novarum in which the Church defined the dignity and rights of industrial workers Rerum novarum edit The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers Influenced by the German Bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler in 1891 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum novarum titled On Capital and Labor This encyclical set in context Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions Rerum novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions 1 In Rerum novarum Leo set out the Catholic Church s response to the social instability and labor conflict that had arisen in the wake of industrialization and had led to the rise of socialism The Pope taught that the role of the State is to promote social justice through the protection of rights while the Church must speak out on social issues in order to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony He restated the Church s long standing teaching regarding the crucial importance of private property rights but recognised in one of the best known passages of the encyclical that the free operation of market forces must be tempered by moral considerations Let the working man and the employer make free agreements and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages nevertheless there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man namely that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well behaved wage earner If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better he is made the victim of force and injustice 2 Rerum novarum is remarkable for its vivid depiction of the plight of the late 19th century urban poor and for its condemnation of unrestricted capitalism Among the remedies it prescribed were the formation of trade unions and the introduction of collective bargaining particularly as an alternative to state intervention Rerum novarum also recognized that the poor have a special status in consideration of social issues the modern Catholic principle of the preferential option for the poor and the notion that God is on the side of the poor found their first expression in this document 3 4 Quadragesimo anno edit Forty years after Rerum novarum and more than a year into the Great Depression Pope Pius XI issued Quadragesimo anno subtitled On Reconstruction of the Social Order Released on 15 May 1931 this encyclical expanded on Rerum novarum noting the positive effect of the earlier document but pointing out that the world had changed significantly since Pope Leo s time Unlike Leo who addressed mainly the condition of workers Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity 5 He also noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity arising from both unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism Pius XI reiterated Leo s defence of private property rights and collective bargaining and repeated his contention that blind economic forces cannot create a just society on their own Just as the unity of human society cannot be founded on an opposition of classes so also the right ordering of economic life cannot be left to a free competition of forces For from this source as from a poisoned spring have originated and spread all the errors of individualist economic teaching Destroying through forgetfulness or ignorance the social and moral character of economic life it held that economic life must be considered and treated as altogether free from and independent of public authority because in the market i e in the free struggle of competitors it would have a principle of self direction which governs it much more perfectly than would the intervention of any created intellect But free competition while justified and certainly useful provided it is kept within certain limits clearly cannot direct economic life 6 Quadragesimo Anno also supported state intervention to mediate labor management conflicts a reference to the economic system which Mussolini was attempting to establish in Italy at the time and introduced the concept of subsidiarity into Catholic thought Prior to Quadragesimo anno some Catholics had wondered whether Leo XIII s condemnation of radical left wing politics in Rerum novarum extended only to outright communism or whether it included milder forms of socialism as well Pius made it clear that non communistic Socialism was included in the condemnation The Catholic Church defined a distinctive position for itself between free market capitalism on the right and statist socialism on the left 3 Pius XII edit The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeat these teachings and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital but also to other professions such as politicians educators housewives farmers bookkeepers international organizations and all aspects of life including the military Going beyond Pius XI he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine psychology sport TV science law and education There is virtually no social issue which Pius XII did not address and relate to the Christian faith 7 He was called the Pope of Technology for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on subsidiarity 8 The Catholic Church exercised a prominent role in shaping America s labor movement In 1933 two American Catholics Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin founded a new Catholic peace group the Catholic Worker that would embody their ideals of pacifism commitment to the poor and to fundamental change in American society They published a newspaper of the same name for years Anti clericalism editIn Latin America a succession of anti clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s 9 In the 1920s and 1930s the Catholic Church was subjected to unprecedented persecution in Mexico as well as in Europe in Spain and the Soviet Union Pope Pius XI called this the terrible triangle 10 The harsh persecution short of total annihilation of the clergy monks and nuns and other people associated with the Church 11 began in 1918 and continued well into the 1930s The Civil War in Spain started in 1936 during which thousands of churches were destroyed thirteen bishops and some 6 832 clergy and religious Spaniards were assassinated 12 13 After the widespread Church persecutions in Mexico Spain and the Soviet Union Pius XI defined communism as the main adversary of the Catholic Church in his encyclical Divini Redemptoris issued on 19 March 1937 14 He blamed Western powers and media for a conspiracy of silence with respect to the persecutions carried out by Communist Socialist and Fascist forces Mexico edit In Mexico the Calles Law eventually led to the worst guerilla war in Latin American History the Cristero War 15 Between 1926 and 1934 over 3 000 priests were exiled or assassinated 16 17 In an effort to prove that God would not defend the Church Calles ordered Church desecrations in which services were mocked nuns were raped and captured priests were shot 15 Calles was eventually deposed 15 Despite the persecution the Church in Mexico continued to grow A 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic 18 Spain edit During the Spanish Civil War Spanish republicans and anarchists targeted priests and nuns as symbols of conservatism murdering large numbers of them 19 Confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people s religious freedoms have generally accompanied secularist and Marxist leaning governmental reforms 20 Soviet Union edit Worried by the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Pius XI mandated Berlin nuncio Eugenio Pacelli to work secretly on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union Pacelli negotiated food shipments for Russia and met with Soviet representatives including Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin who rejected any kind of religious education or the ordination of priests and bishops but offered agreements without the points vital to the Vatican 21 Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress Pacelli continued the secret negotiations Pius XI ordered them to be discontinued in 1927 because they generated no results and he believed they would be dangerous to the Church s standing if made public The harsh persecution continued well into the 1930s The Soviet government executed and exiled many clerics monks and laymen confiscating Church implements for victims of famine and closing many churches 22 Yet according to an official report based on the census of 1936 some 55 of Soviet citizens identified themselves openly as religious while others possibly concealed their belief 22 In other countries edit Eastern Europe edit Following the Soviet doctrine regarding the exercise of religion postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes during their decades of power 23 from the late 1980s the Church s resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall in 1991 of communist governments across Europe 24 China edit The rise to power of the Communists in China of 1949 led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries often after cruel and farcical public trials 25 In an effort to further isolate Chinese Catholics the new government created the Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome but subsequently many were accepted 25 26 27 The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s encouraged gangs of teenagers to eliminate all religious establishments and convert their occupants into labourers When Chinese churches eventually reopened they remained under the control of the Communist party s Patriotic Church and many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome 26 Latin America edit General Juan Peron s Argentina and Fidel Castro s Cuba also engaged in extensive anti clericalism confiscating Catholic properties 28 29 In 1954 under the regime of General Juan Peron Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Peron attempted to extend state control over national institutions 28 Cuba under atheist Fidel Castro succeeded in reducing the Church s ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party 29 The subsequent flight of 300 000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there 29 Response to authoritarianism editAuthoritarianism or Fascism describes certain related political regimes in 20th century Europe especially the Nazi Germany of Hitler the authoritarian Soviet Union the Fascist Italy of Mussolini and the falangist Spain of Franco Pope Pius XI was moderately skeptical of Italian Fascism To Pope Pius XI Dollfuss in Austria was the ideal politician realising Quadragesimo anno Nazi Germany edit Main article Catholic Church and Nazi Germany In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge drafted by the future Pope Pius XII 30 Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity 31 Read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches it described Hitler as an insane and arrogant prophet and was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization 32 Nazi persecution of the Church in Germany then began by outright repression and staged prosecutions of monks for homosexuality with the maximum of publicity 33 When Dutch bishops protested against deportation of Jews in the Netherlands the Nazi s responded with even more severe measures 32 On 20 July 1933 the Vatican signed an agreement with Germany the Reichskonkordat partly in an effort to stop Nazi persecution of Catholic institutions 34 35 When this escalated to include physical violence Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge 34 36 37 38 Drafted by the future Pope Pius XII 39 and read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches it criticized Hitler 40 32 38 41 and condemned Nazi persecution 31 32 38 41 and ideology 28 31 32 38 41 42 and has been characterized by scholars as the first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism and one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican 43 44 41 45 According to Eamon Duffy The impact of the encyclical was immense 45 and the infuriated Nazis increased their persecution of Catholics and the Church 46 by initiating a long series of persecution of clergy and other measures 32 42 45 Pius XI later warned that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity 47 Despite a number of condemnations of atrocities committed during World War II Pope Pius XII has been criticized for not having explicitly spoken out against the Holocaust Although he never defended himself against such criticism there is evidence that he chose to keep his public pronouncements circumspect while acting covertly to assist Jews seeking refuge from the Holocaust Although Pius XII was exhorted by the British government and the Polish government in exile to condemn Nazi atrocities directly he declined to do so out of concern that such pronouncements would only instigate further persecution by the Nazis These sentiments were based on opinions expressed to him by bishops in Germany and Poland When Dutch bishops protested against the wartime deportation of Jews the Nazis responded by increasing deportations 32 rounding up 92 converts including Edith Stein who were then deported and murdered 48 The brutality of the retaliation made an enormous impression on Pius XII 48 49 In Poland the Nazis murdered over 2 500 monks and priests and even more were imprisoned 33 In the Soviet Union an even more severe persecution occurred 33 After the war Pius XII s efforts to protect their people were recognised by prominent Jews including Albert Einstein and Rabbi Isaac Herzog 50 However the Church has also been accused by some of encouraging centuries of antisemitism and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities 51 52 Prominent members of the Jewish community have contradicted these criticisms 53 The Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide interviewed war survivors and concluded that Pius XII was instrumental in saving at least 700 000 but probably as many as 860 000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands Some historians dispute this estimate 54 while others consider Pinchas Lapide s work to be the definitive work by a Jewish scholar on the holocaust 55 Even so in 2000 Pope John Paul II on behalf of all people apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall that read We re deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant 56 This papal apology one of many issued by Pope John Paul II for past human and Church failings throughout history was especially significant because John Paul II emphasized Church guilt for and the Second Vatican Council s condemnation of anti Semitism 57 The papal letter We Remember A Reflection on the Shoah urged Catholics to repent of past errors and infidelities and renew the awareness of the Hebrew roots of their faith 57 58 nbsp While the church is heavily criticized for having done too little against the Holocaust the war and the Nazis individual Catholic resistance groups such as that led by priest Heinrich Maier helped the allies to fight the V 2 which was produced by concentration camp prisoners In Austria since 1938 part of Nazi Germany in particular the Catholic resistance against National Socialism was active very early on Many of the Catholic resistance groups were loyal to the House of Habsburg which drew the particular anger of the Nazi regime on them The groups wanted on the one hand like those around the Augustinian friar Roman Karl Scholz or Jakob Gapp Otto Neururer Franz Reinisch Carl Lampert Maria Restituta Kafka and Johann Gruber to inform the population about the Nazi crimes and on the other hand to take active robust action against the Nazi system The group around the priest Heinrich Maier CASSIA Maier Messner group successfully redirected the production sites of V 1 V 2 rockets Tiger tanks Messerschmitt Bf 109 Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet and other aircraft to the Allies so that they could bomb more accurately and the war was over faster Maier and his people were in contact with Allen Dulles the head of the OSS in Switzerland since 1942 The group reported to him also about the mass murder in Auschwitz The Gestapo exposed the resistance group and most of the members including Maier were severely tortured and killed 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 In Poland the Nazis murdered over 2500 monks and priests while even more were sent to concentration camps 66 The Priester Block priests barracks in Dachau concentration camp lists 2600 Roman Catholic priests 67 Stalin staged an even more severe persecution at almost the same time 33 After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of anti Semitism and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities 68 Prominent members of the Jewish community including Golda Meir Albert Einstein Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius efforts to protect Jews while others such as rabbi David G Dalin noted that hundreds of thousands of Jews were saved by the Church 69 Regarding the matter historian Derek Holmes wrote There is no doubt that the Catholic districts resisted the lure of National Socialism Nazism far better than the Protestant ones 70 Pope Pius XI declared Mit brennender Sorge that Fascist governments had hidden pagan intentions and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position and Totalitarian Fascist State Worship which placed the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity His declaration that Spiritually Christians are all Semites prompted the Nazis to give him the title Chief Rabbi of the Christian World 71 Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews for example 2 600 Catholic Priests were imprisoned in Dachau and 2 000 of them were executed A further 2 700 Polish priests were executed a quarter of all Polish priests and 5 350 Polish nuns were either displaced imprisoned or executed 72 Many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering Jews during the Holocaust including Pope Pius XII 1876 1958 The head rabbi of Rome became a Catholic in 1945 and in honour of the actions the Pope undertook to save Jewish lives he took the name Eugenio the pope s first name 73 A former Israeli consul in Italy claimed The Catholic Church saved more Jewish lives during the war than all the other churches religious institutions and rescue organisations put together 74 Independent State of Croatia edit Main article Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustase In dismembered Yugoslavia the Church favored the Nazi installed Croatian Roman Catholic fascist Ustase regime due to its anti communist ideology and for the potential to reinstate Catholic influence in the region following the dissolution of Austria Hungary 75 Pius XII was a long standing supporter of Croat nationalism he hosted a national pilgrimage to Rome in November 1939 for the cause of the canonization of Nikola Tavelic and largely confirmed the Ustashe perception of history writes John Cornwell 76 The Church however did not formally recognize the Independent State of Croatia NDH 75 Despite being informed of the regime s genocide against Orthodox Serbs Jews and other non Croats the Church did not publicly speak out against it preferring to exert pressure through diplomacy 77 In assessing the Vatican s position historian Jozo Tomasevich writes that it seems the Catholic Church fully supported the Ustase regime and its policies 78 After the war many Ustase fled the country with the help of Father Krunoslav Draganovic secretary of the Pontifical Croatian College of St Jerome in Rome Pius XII protected dictator Ante Pavelic after World War II gave him refuge in the Vatican properties in Rome and assisted in his flight to South America Pavelic and Pius XII shared the goal of a Catholic state in the Balkans and were unified in their opposition to the rising Communist state under Tito 79 Latin America editSouth America historically Catholic has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad For example Brazil South America s largest country is the largest Catholic country in the world and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world citation needed based on population Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil citation needed China editIn 1939 Pope Pius XII within weeks of his coronation reverted the 250 year old Vatican policy and permitted Catholics to practice Confucianism 80 The Church began to flourish again with twenty new arch dioceses seventy nine dioceses and thirty eight apostolic prefects but only until 1949 when the Communist revolution took over the country 81 Second Vatican Council editMain article Second Vatican Council A major event of the Second Vatican Council known as Vatican II was the issuance by Pope Paul VI and Orthodox Patriarch Athenagoras of a joint expression of regret for many of the past actions that had led up to the Great Schism between the Western and Eastern churches expressed as the Catholic Orthodox Joint declaration of 1965 At the same time they lifted the mutual excommunications dating from the 11th century 82 The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council 1962 65 83 Intended as a continuation of Vatican I under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation 83 It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church the mission of the laity and religious freedom 83 The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments 84 Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority 85 In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church 86 On 11 October 1962 Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church The council was pastoral in nature emphasising and clarifying already defined dogma revising liturgical practices and providing guidance for articulating traditional Church teachings in contemporary times The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin At the Second Vatican Council 1962 1965 the debate on papal primacy and authority re emerged citation needed and in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium the Roman Catholic Church s teaching on the authority of the Pope bishops and councils was further elaborated Vatican II sought to correct the unbalanced ecclesiology left behind by Vatican I The result is the body of teaching about the papacy and episcopacy contained in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium Vatican II reaffirmed everything Vatican I taught about papal primacy and infallibility but it added important points about bishops Bishops it says are not vicars of the Roman Pontiff Rather in governing their local churches they are vicars and legates of Christ 87 Together they form a body a college whose head is the pope This episcopal college is responsible for the well being of the Universal Church Here in a nutshell are the basic elements of the council s much discussed communio ecclesiology which affirms the importance of local churches and the doctrine of collegiality In a key passage about collegiality Vatican II teaches The order of bishops is the successor to the college of the apostles in their role as teachers and pastors and in it the apostolic college is perpetuated Together with their head the Supreme Pontiff and never apart from him they have supreme and full authority over the Universal Church but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff 88 Much of the present discussion of papal primacy is concerned with exploring the implications of this passage Chapter 3 of the dogmatic constitution on the Church of Vatican Council I Pastor aeternus is the principal document of the Magisterium about the content and nature of the primatial power of the Roman Pontiff Chapter 4 is a development and defining of one particular characteristic of this primatial power namely the Pope s supreme teaching authority i e when the Pope speaks ex cathedra he teaches the doctrine of the faith infallibly Reforms edit Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II produced a variety of responses Some stopped going to church while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests 89 These formed the basis of today s Traditionalist Catholic groups which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far Liberal Catholics form another dissenting group who feel that the Vatican II reforms did not go far enough The liberal views of theologians such as Hans Kung and Charles Curran led to Church withdrawal of their authorization to teach as Catholics 90 According to Professor Thomas Bokenkotter most Catholics accepted the changes more or less gracefully 89 In 2007 Benedict XVI reinstated the old mass as an option to be celebrated upon request by the faithful 91 A new Codex Juris Canonici Canon Law called for by John XXIII was promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 25 January 1983 It includes numerous reforms and alterations in Church law and Church discipline for the Latin Church It replaced the 1917 version issued by Benedict XV The Catholic Church initiated a comprehensive process of reform under Pope John XXIII 92 Intended as a continuation of the First Vatican Council the Second Vatican Council 1962 1965 developed into an engine of modernisation making pronouncements on religious freedom the nature of the Church and the mission of the laity 83 The role of the bishops of the Church was brought into renewed prominence especially when seen collectively as a college that has succeeded to that of the Apostles in teaching and governing the Church This college does not exist without its head the successor of St Peter It also permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during Mass and other sacraments 84 Christian unity became a greater priority 93 In addition to finding more common ground with Protestant Churches the Catholic Church has reopened discussions regarding the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox churches 94 Modernism and Liberation theology editMain article Liberation theology In the 1960s growing social awareness and politicization in the Church in Latin America gave birth to liberation theology The Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutierrez became a primary theorist and in 1979 the bishops conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church s preferential option for the poor 95 Archbishop oscar Romero a supporter of the movement became the region s most famous contemporary martyr in 1980 when he was murdered by forces allied with the government of El Salvador while saying Mass 96 Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI as Cardinal Ratzinger denounced the movement 97 The Brazilian theologian priest Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching 95 Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement but he maintained that the Church in its efforts to champion the poor should not do so by advocating violence or engaging in partisan politics 98 The movement is still alive in Latin America today although the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region 97 Sexuality and gender issues editSee also Pro life The sexual revolution of the 1960s brought challenging issues for the Church Pope Paul VI s 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae reaffirmed the Catholic Church s traditional view of marriage and marital relations and asserted a continued proscription of artificial birth control In addition the encyclical reaffirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death and asserted a continued condemnation of both abortion and euthanasia as grave sins which were equivalent to murder 99 100 Ordination of women edit Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue two documents to explain Church teaching Mulieris dignitatem was issued in 1988 to clarify women s equally important and complementary role in the work of the Church 101 102 Then in 1994 Ordinatio Sacerdotalis explained that the Church extends ordination only to men in order to follow the example of Jesus who chose only men for this specific duty 103 104 105 Humanae vitae edit The sexual revolution of the 1960s precipitated Pope Paul VI s 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae On Human Life which rejected the use of contraception including sterilization claiming these work against the intimate relationship and moral order of husband and wife by directly opposing God s will 106 It approved Natural Family Planning as a legitimate means to limit family size 106 Abortion was condemned by the Church as early as the 1st century again in the 14th century and again in 1995 with Pope John Paul II s encyclical Evangelium vitae Gospel of Life 107 This encyclical condemned the culture of death which the pope often used to describe the societal embrace of contraception abortion euthanasia suicide capital punishment and genocide 107 108 The Church s rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism especially with respect to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions The Church maintains that in countries like Kenya and Uganda where behavioral changes are encouraged alongside condom use greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in those countries solely promoting condoms 109 110 Feminists disagreed with these and other Church teachings and worked together with a coalition of American nuns to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women 111 They stated that many of the major Church documents were supposedly full of anti female prejudice and a number of studies were conducted to discover how this supposed prejudice developed when it was deemed contrary to the openness of Jesus 111 These events led Pope John Paul II to issue the 1988 encyclical Mulieris dignitatem On the Dignity of Women which declared that women had a different yet equally important role in the Church 112 113 In 1994 the encyclical Ordinatio sacerdotalis On Ordination to the Priesthood further explained that the Church follows the example of Jesus who chose only men for the specific priestly duty 103 114 115 Modern response to Protestantism editWell into the 20th century Catholics even if no longer resorting to persecution still defined Protestants as heretics Thus Hilaire Belloc in his time one of the most conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain was outspoken about the Protestant heresy He also defined Islam as A Christian heresy on the grounds that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity but deny the godhood of Jesus see Hilaire Belloc On Islam In the second half of the century and especially in the wake of Vatican II the Catholic Church in the spirit of ecumenism no longer referred to Protestantism as a heresy even if the teachings of Protestantism are heretical from a Catholic perspective Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as separated brethren rather than heretics The latter term is occasionally applied to Catholics who abandon their Church to join a Protestant denomination Many Catholics consider most Protestants to be material rather than formal heretics and thus non culpable Among the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the beliefs that the Bible is the only source and rule of faith sola scriptura faith alone can lead to salvation sola fide and no sacramental ministerial priesthood is attained by ordination but there is a universal priesthood of all believers Catholic Orthodox dialogue editMain article Catholic Church and ecumenism Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue Ecumenism is derived from Greek oἰkoymenh oikoumene which means the inhabited world but more figuratively something like universal oneness The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements with the latter characterised by a redefined ecclesiology of denominationalism which the Catholic Church among others rejects Over the last century a number of moves have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches Although progress has been made concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism Some of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern some doctrine i e Filioque Scholasticism functional purposes of asceticism the essence of God Hesychasm Fourth Crusade establishment of the Latin Empire Uniatism to note but a few as well as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesiastical union would not result in absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Catholic Church the most numerous single religious denomination in the world Both parties wanted to avoid the stifling or abandonment of the other churches rich theological liturgical and cultural heritage With respect to Catholic relations with Protestant communities certain commissions were established to foster dialogue and documents have been published that address points of doctrinal unity such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced with the Lutheran World Federation in 1999 Joint Theological Commission edit The Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church first met in Rhodes in 1980 Other moves toward reconciliation edit In June 1995 Patriarch Bartholomew I who was elected as the 273rd Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in October 1991 visited the Vatican for the first time when he joined in the historic inter religious day of prayer for peace at Assisi Pope John Paul II and the Patriarch explicitly stated their mutual desire to relegate the excommunications of the past to oblivion and to set out on the way to re establishing full communion 116 In May 1999 John Paul II traveled to Romania the first pope since the Great Schism to visit an Eastern Orthodox country Upon greeting John Paul II the Romanian Patriarch Teoctist stated The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity Pope John Paul II visited other strongly Orthodox areas such as Ukraine despite lack of welcome at times He said that healing the divisions between Western and Eastern Christianity was one of his fondest wishes 20th century timeline1901 Nazarene John Diaz goes to Cape Verde Islands 117 Maude Cary sails for Morocco Oriental Missionary Society founded by Charles Cowman his wife is the compiler of popular devotional book Streams in the Desert Missionary James Chalmers killed and eaten by cannibals in Papua New Guinea 118 1902 Swiss members of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Missions in Many Lands CMML enter Laos 119 California Yearly Meeting of Friends opens work in Guatemala 1903 Church of the Nazarene enters Mexico 120 1904 Premillennialist theologian William Eugene Blackstone begins teaching that the world has already been evangelized citing Acts 2 5 8 4 Mark 16 20 and Colossians 1 23 1904 Welsh revival 1905 Gunnerius Tollefsen is converted at a Salvation Army meeting under the preaching of Samuel Logan Brengle Later he would become a missionary to the Belgian Congo and then first mission secretary of the Norwegian Pentecostal movement 121 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State 1906 The Evangelical Alliance Mission TEAM opens work in Venezuela with T J Bach and John Christiansen 1906 Albert Schweitzer publishes The Quest of the Historical Jesus English translation 1910 1906 Biblia Hebraica 1906 1909 Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles CA begins modern Pentecostal movement 1907 Massive revival meetings in Korea 122 Harmon Schmelzenbach sails for Africa 123 Presbyterians and Methodists open Union Theological Seminary in Manila Philippines Bolivian Indian Mission founded by George Allen 124 1907 1912 Nicholas of Japan Archbishop of Japanese Orthodox Church 1908 Missionaries of St Charles Borromeo Scalabrinian was approved in principle by Pope Leo XIII in a papal brief dated 25 November 1887 and its Constitution definitively approved by a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda 125 1908 Gospel Missionary Union opens work in Colombia with Charles Chapman and John Funk Assemblies of God enter Rome and southern Italy as well as Egypt 126 1909 Pentecostal movement reaches Chile through ministry of American Methodist Willis Hoover 127 1909 Scofield Reference Bible 1909 1911 The Rosicrucian Fellowship an international association of Esoteric Christian mystics founded at Mount Ecclesia 1910 C T Studd establishes Heart of Africa Mission now called WEC International 128 Edinburgh Missionary Conference held in Scotland presided over by John Mott beginning modern Protestant ecumenical cooperation in missions 129 1910 Edinburgh Missionary Conference launches modern missions movement and modern ecumenical movement 5 point statement of the Presbyterian General Assembly also used by Fundamentalists 1910 1915 The Fundamentals a 12 volume collection of essays by 64 British and American scholars and preachers a foundation of Fundamentalism 1911 Christian amp Missionary Alliance enters Cambodia and Vietnam 130 1912 Conference of British Missionary Societies formed 131 International Review of Missions begins publication 122 1913 African American Eliza George sails from New York for Liberia 132 William Whiting Borden dies in Egypt while preparing to take the gospel to the Muslims in China 133 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia 1914 Large scale revival movement in Uganda C T Studd reports a revival movement in the Congo 134 1914 Iglesia ni Cristo incorporated in the Philippines 1914 Welsh Church Act 1914 1914 1918 World War I numerous missionaries in Africa and Asia in British French German and Belgian colonies are expelled or detained for the duration of the war if their nation was at war with the colonial authority 1915 Founded in 1913 in Nanjing China as a women s Christian college Ginling College officially opens with eight students and six teachers It was supported by four missions the Northern Baptists the Christian Church Disciples of Christ the Methodists and the Presbyterians 135 1915 1917 Armenian genocide 1916 Rhenish missionaries are forced to leave Ondjiva in southern Angola under pressure from the Portuguese authorities and Chief Mandume of the Kwanyama By then four congregations existed with a confessing membership of 800 1916 And did those feet in ancient time 1916 Father Divine founded International Peace Mission movement 1917 Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association IFMA founded 136 1917 Heinrich Hansen publishes Lutheran Evangelical Catholic theses Stimuli et Clavi 1917 Miracle of the Sun an event that was witnessed by as many as 100 000 people on 13 October 1917 in the Cova da Iria fields near Fatima Portugal How the Sun Danced at Midday at Fatima 137 4 1917 Our Lady appears to 3 young people in Fatima Portugal They were Jacinta Marto Tiago Veloso and Lucia Sister Lucia 1917 True Jesus Church founded in Beijing 1917 Restitution of the Moscow Patriarchy with Tikhon as patriarch 1918 James L Barton head of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions asked missionaries who had served in the Ottoman Empire for detailed reports of the horrors they had witnessed of the Armenian genocide 1918 Execution of Holy Martyrs of Russia including the last tsar Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra Feodorovna 1919 The Union Version of Bible in Chinese is published 138 Gospel Missionary Union enters Sudan 139 1919 Karl Barth s Commentary on Romans is published critiquing Liberal Christianity and beginning the neo orthodox movement 1920 Baptist Mid Missions formed by William Haas 140 Church of the Nazarene enters Syria Columbans enter Australia and New Zealand 141 1920 The Ecclesia an Esoteric Christian Temple was erected and dedicated on Christmas day 25 December 1921 Founding of International Missionary Council IMC Norwegian Mission Council formed Columbans enter China 1921 Oxford Group founded at Oxford 1922 Nazarenes enter Mozambique 1923 Scottish missionaries begin work in British Togoland 1923 Aimee Semple McPherson built Angelus Temple 1924 Bible Churchman s Missionary Society opens work in Upper Burma 142 Baptist Mid Missions begins work in Venezuela 1925 E Stanley Jones Methodist missionary to India writes The Christ of the Indian Road 143 1925 Scopes Trial caused division among Fundamentalists 1925 United Church of Canada formed 1926 Dawson Trotman founder of the Navigators is converted through Bible verses he had memorized 1926 Father Charles Coughlin s first radio broadcast 1926 1929 Cristero War in Mexico the Constitution of 1917 brought persecution of Christian practices and anti clerical laws approximately 4 000 Catholic Priests were expelled assassinated or executed 1927 East African revival movement Balokole emerges in Rwanda and moves across several other countries 122 1927 Pope Pius XI decrees Comma Johanneum open to dispute 1928 Cuba Bible Institute West Indies Mission opens Jerusalem Conference of International Missionary Council 122 foundation of Borneo Evangelical Mission by Hudson Southwell Frank Davidson and Carey Tolley 1929 Christian amp Missionary Alliance enters East Borneo Indonesia and Thailand 144 1929 Lateran Treaty signed containing three agreements between kingdom of Italy and the papacy 1930 Christian amp Missionary Alliance starts work among Baouli tribe in the Cote d Ivoire 1930 Rastafari movement founded 1931 HCJB radio station started in Quito Ecuador by Clarence Jones 145 Baptist Mid Missions enters Liberia 146 1931 Franciscan missionary the Venerable Gabriele Allegra arrives in Hunan China from Italy to start translating the Bible 5 1931 Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1931 Jehovah s Witnesses founded see 1884 for more information 1932 Assemblies of God open mission work in Colombia Laymen s Missionary Inquiry report published 1932 Our Lady appears to five school children in Beauraing Belgium as Lady Virgin of the Poor 147 6 1933 Gladys Aylward subject of movie The Inn of the Sixth Happiness arrives in China Columbans enter Korea 148 1933 Catholic Worker Movement founded 1934 William Cameron Townsend begins the Summer Institute of Linguistics Columbans enter Japan 149 1934 Herbert W Armstrong founded Radio Church of God 1935 Frank C Laubach American missionary to the Philippines perfects the Each one teach one literacy program which has been used worldwide to teach 60 million people to read 150 1935 Billy Sunday early U S radio evangelist 1935 Gunnar Rosendal publishes Lutheran High Church manifesto Kyrklig fornyelse 1935 Dr Frank C Laubach known as The Apostle to the Illiterates working in the Philippines developed a literacy program that continues to teach millions of people to read 1935 Rahlf s critical edition of the Koine Greek Septuagint 1936 With the outbreak of civil war in Spain missionaries are forced to leave that country 1937 After expulsion of missionaries from Ethiopia by Italian invaders widespread revival erupts among Protestant SIM churches in south 151 Child Evangelism Fellowship CEF 7 founded by Jesse Irvin Overholzer 1938 West Indies Mission enters Dominican Republic Church Missionary Society forced out of Egypt Madras World Missionary Conference held 152 Dr Orpha Speicher completes construction of Reynolds Memorial Hospital in central India 153 1938 Tripura Baptist Christian Union was established at Laxmilunga Tripura 1942 William Cameron Townsend founds Wycliffe Bible Translators New Tribes mission founded with a vision to reach the tribal peoples of Bolivia 1942 National Association of Evangelicals founded 1943 Five missionaries with New Tribes Mission martyred 154 11 American Baptist missionaries beheaded in the Philippines by Japanese soldiers 1944 Missionaries return to Suki Papua New Guinea after withdrawal of the Japanese military 1945 Mission Aviation Fellowship formed 155 Far East Broadcasting Company FEBC founded 156 Evangelical Foreign Missions Association formed by denominational mission boards 157 1945 The Venerable Gabriele Allegra establishes the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Beijing 8 1945 Dietrich Bonhoeffer is executed by the Nazis 1945 Ludwig Muller 1945 On the Feast of the Annunciation Our Lady appears to a simple woman Ida Peerdeman in Amsterdam This was the first of 56 appearances as Our Lady of All Nations 9 which took place between 1945 and 1959 1948 Alfredo del Rosso merges his Italian Holiness Mission with the Church of the Nazarene thus opening Nazarene work on the European continent Southern Baptist Convention adopts program calling for the tripling of the number of missionaries 1948 Israeli Declaration of Independence see also Christian Zionism 1948 World Council of Churches is founded 1949 Southern Baptist Mission board opens work in Venezuela Mary Tripp sent out by CEF Child Evangelism Fellowship to the Netherlands 1949 evangelist Billy Graham preaches his first Los Angeles crusade 1950 Paul Orjala arrives in Haiti radio station 4VEH owned by East and West Indies Bible Mission starts broadcasting from near Cap Haitien Haiti 158 1950 Assumption of Mary decreed by Pope Pius XII 1950 Missionaries of Charity founded by Mother Teresa 1951 World Evangelical Alliance organized Bill and Vonette Bright create Campus Crusade for Christ at UCLA 159 Alaska Missions is founded later to be renamed InterAct Ministries 1951 Campus Crusade for Christ founded at UCLA 1951 Bishop Fulton Sheen 1919 1979 debuts his television program Life is Worth Living on the DuMont Network His half hour lecture program on Roman Catholic theology remained the number one show on U S television for its time slot winning several Emmys until Sheen ended the program in 1957 1951 The Last Temptation a fictional account of the life of Jesus written by Nikos Kazantzakis wherein Christ s divinity is juxtaposed with his humanity is published and promptly banned in many countries 1952 Trans World Radio founded 160 1952 C S Lewis Mere Christianity 1952 Novum Testamentum Graece critical edition of Greek NT basis of modern translations 1953 Walter Trobisch who would publish I Loved a Girl in 1962 begins pioneer missionary work in northern Cameroon 161 1954 Mennonite Board of Missions and Charities opens work in Cuba Argentina Revival breaks out during Tommy Hicks crusade Augustinians re established in Japan Columbans enter Chile 162 1954 Unification Church founded under the name Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity acronymed HSA UWC 1954 U S Pledge of Allegiance modified by act of Congress from one nation indivisible to one nation under God indivisible 1955 Donald McGavran publishes Bridges of God 155 Dutch missionary Brother Andrew makes first of many Bible smuggling trips into Communist Eastern Europe 1956 U S missionaries Jim Elliot Pete Fleming Edward McCully Nate Saint and Roger Youderian are killed by Huaorani Indians in eastern Ecuador See Operation Auca 163 1956 Anchor Bible Series 1956 In God We Trust designated U S national motto 1956 The Ten Commandments 1957 East Asia Christian Conference EACC founded at Prapat Sumatra Indonesia 164 1957 United Church of Christ founded by ecumenical union of Congregationalists and Evangelical amp Reformed representing Calvinists and Lutherans 1957 English translation of Walter Bauer s Worterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments A Greek English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature University of Chicago Press 1958 Rochunga Pudaite completes translation of Bible into Hmar language India and was appointed the leader of the Indo Burma Pioneer Mission Missionaries Elisabeth Elliot and Rachel Saint make first peaceful contact with the Huaorani tribe in Ecuador 1958 Sedevacantism 1959 Radio Lumiere founded in Haiti by West Indies Mission now World Team 165 Josephine Makil becomes the first African American to join Wycliffe Bible Translators Feba Radio founded in UK 1959 Family Radio founded 1960 Kenneth Strachan starts Evangelism in Depth in Central America 166 18 000 people in Morocco reply to newspaper ad by Gospel Missionary Union offering free correspondence course on Christianity 167 Loren Cunningham founds Youth with a Mission 168 The Asia Evangelistic Fellowship AEF one of the largest Asian indigenous missionary organisations is launched in Singapore by G D James 10 1961 International Christian radio stations now number 30 164 1961 Christian Broadcasting Network founded 1962 Don Richardson goes to Sawi tribe in Papua New Guinea 169 Operation Mobilisation founded in Mexico by George Verwer 1962 Engel v Vitale first U S Supreme Court decision against school prayer 1962 1965 Catholic Second Vatican Council announced by Pope John XXIII in 1959 produced 16 documents which became official Roman Catholic teaching after approval by the Pope purpose to renew ourselves and the flocks committed to us 1963 Theological Education by Extension movement launched in Guatemala by Ralph Winter and James Emery 170 1963 Martin Luther King Jr leads a civil rights march in Washington D C 1963 Oral Roberts University founded 1963 campaign by Madalyn Murray O Hair results in U S Supreme Court ruling prohibiting reading of Bible in public schools 1964 In separate incidents rebels in the Congo kill missionaries Paul Carlson and Irene Ferrel as well as brutalizing missionary doctor Helen Roseveare 171 Carlson is featured on 4 December Time magazine cover 172 Hans von Staden of the Dorothea Mission proposes to Patrick Johnstone that he write the book now titled Operation World 173 1965 Rousas John Rushdoony founds Chalcedon Foundation 1965 Reginald H Fuller s The Foundations of New Testament Christology 1966 Red Guards destroy churches in China Berlin Congress on Evangelism 174 Missionaries expelled from Burma God s Smuggler published 1966 Raymond E Brown s Commentary on the Gospel of John 1967 All foreign missionaries expelled from Guinea 175 1968 The Studium Biblicum Translation of the Bible is published in Chinese 11 by the Venerable Gabriele Allegra 1968 Wu Yung and others form the Chinese Missions Overseas in order to send out missionaries from Taiwan to do cross cultural ministry Augustinian order re established in India 1968 United Methodist Church formed with union of Methodist Church amp Evangelical United Brethren Church becoming the largest Methodist Wesleyan church in the world 1968 Zeitoun Egypt a bright image of the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Zeitoun was seen over the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint Demiana for over a 3 year period Over six million Egyptians and foreigners saw the image including Copts Eastern Orthodox Roman Catholic Protestants Muslims Jews and people of no particular faith 1969 OMF International begins industrial evangelism to Taiwan s factory workers 176 1970 Frankfurt Declaration on Mission 177 Operation Mobilisation launches MV Logos ship 178 Abp Makarios III Mouskos of Cyprus baptizes 10 000 into the Orthodox Church in Kenya 1970 Mass of Paul VI replaces Tridentine Mass 1970 The Late Great Planet Earth futurist book by Hal Lindsey 1970s The Jesus movement takes hold in the U S One way org 1971 Gustavo Gutierrez publishes A Theology of Liberation 179 1971 Liberty University founded by Jerry Falwell 1971 New American Standard Bible 1971 The Exorcist a novel of demonic possession and the mysteries of the Catholic faith is published 1972 American Society of Missiology founded with journal Missiology 180 1973 Services by Billy Graham attract four and a half million people in six cities of Korea 181 first All Asa Mission Consultation convenes in Seoul Korea with 25 delegates from 14 countries 182 1973 New International Version of the Bible is first published revised in 1978 1984 using a variety of Greek texts Masoretic Hebrew texts and current English style 1973 Trinity Broadcasting Network founded 1973 12 June Near the city of Akita Our Lady appears to Sister Agnes Katsuko Sasagawa Three messages were given to Sr Agnes over a period 5 months Our Lady of Akita Marian apparitions 183 1974 Missiologist Ralph Winter talks about hidden or unreached peoples at Lausanne Congress of World Evangelism 184 Lausanne Covenant is written and ratified 1974 Jim Bakker founds PTL television ministry 1975 Missionaries Armand Doll and Hugh Friberg imprisoned in Mozambique after communist takeover of government 185 1975 Bruce Metzger s Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament 1976 U S Center for World Mission founded in Pasadena California 1600 Chinese assemble in Hong Kong for the Chinese Congress on World Evangelization Islamic World Congress calls for withdrawal of Christian missionaries Peace Child by Don Richardson appears in Reader s Digest 1976 Anneliese Michel Bavarian woman underwent exorcism against demon possession 1977 Evangelical Fellowship of India sponsors the All India Congress on Mission and Evangelization 182 1977 Focus on the Family founded by James Dobson 1977 New Perspective on Paul 1978 LCWE Consultation on Gospel and Culture in Willowbank Bermuda 186 Columbans enter Taiwan 187 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy 1978 2005 Pope John Paul II reaffirmed moral traditions The Splendor of Truth 1979 Production of JESUS film commissioned by Bill Bright of Campus Crusade for Christ 188 Ted Fletcher founds Pioneers a missionary agency with a focus on unreached people groups 189 Columban missionaries enter Pakistan at the request of the Bishop of Lahore 190 1979 Jesus most watched movie of all time according to The New York Times 1979 Moral Majority founded by Jerry Falwell 1979 1982 New King James Version complete revision of 1611 AV updates archaisms while retaining style 1980 Philippine Congress on Discipling a Whole Nation 191 Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism Conference in Pattaya 192 1981 Colombian terrorists kidnap and kill Wycliffe Bible Translator Chet Bitterman 193 Project Pearl one million Bibles are delivered in a single night to thousands of waiting believers in China 194 1981 Kibeho Rwanda reported that Our Lady appeared to several teenagers telling them to pray to avoid rivers of blood 195 This was an ominious foreshadowing of the Rwanda Genocide of 1994 196 1981 Mother Angelica launches EWTN It grows to become one of the largest television networks in the world The operation expands to radio in 1992 1982 Story on The New Missionary makes 27 December cover of Time magazine 197 198 Andes Evangelical Mission formerly Bolivian Indian Mission merges into SIM formerly Sudan Interior Mission 199 1982 Chicago Statement on Biblical Hermeneutics 1983 Missionary Athletes International a global soccer ministry founded by Tim Conrad 200 1984 Founding of The Mission Society for United Methodists a voluntary missionary sending agency within the United Methodist Church rebranded in 2006 to The Mission Society Founding of STEM Short Term Evangelical Mission teams ministry by Roger Petersen signals the rising importance of Short term missions groups 1985 Howard Foltz founds Accelerating International Mission Strategies AIMS 1985 E P Sanders Jesus and Judaism 1985 Jesus Seminar founded 1986 Chicago Statement on Biblical Application 1987 Second International Conference on Missionary Kids MKs held in Quito Ecuador 1987 Danvers Statement Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood 1988 Christian Coalition 1988 The Last Temptation of Christ directed by Martin Scorsese is released by Universal Pictures and promptly attacked as heretical by organized Christian and Catholic groups 1988 The celebration of 1000 years since the baptism of Kievan Rus throughout the R O C 1989 Adventures In Missions Georgia AIM Short term missions agency founded by Seth Barnes Lausanne II a world missions conference concept of 10 40 Window emerges 201 Ee Taow video released by New Tribes Mission 1989 New Revised Standard Version 1990 American Center for Law and Justice founded 1991 The Marxist government of Ethiopia is overthrown and missionaries are able to return to that country 1991 John P Meier s series A Marginal Jew Rethinking the Historical Jesus v 1 1992 World Gospel Mission National Holiness Missionary Society starts work in Uganda 202 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church 1993 Trans World Radio starts broadcasting from a 250 000 watt shortwave transmitter in Russia 203 1994 Liibaan Ibraahim Hassan a convert to Christianity in Somalia is martyred by Islamic militants in the capital city of Mogadishu 1994 Evangelicals amp Catholics Together 204 1994 Answers In Genesis founded by Ken Ham 1994 Porvoo Communion 1994 3 July Glorification of St John of Shanghai and San Francisco 1995 Missionary Don Cox abducted in Quito Ecuador 205 1996 Nazarenes enter Hungary Kazakhstan Pakistan 1996 Cambridge Declaration Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals 12 1997 Foreign Mission Board and Home Mission Board of Southern Baptist Convention become the International Mission Board and North American Mission Board with ten thousand missionaries 1997 5 10 March World Council of Churches Towards a Common Date for Easter see also Reform of the date of Easter 1998 6 April PBS Frontline From Jesus to Christ 1999 Trans World Radio goes on the air from Grigoriopol Moldova using a 1 million watt AM transmitter 203 Veteran Australian missionary Graham Stuart Staines and his two sons are burned alive by Hindu extremists as they are sleeping in a car in eastern India 1999 International House of Prayer in Kansas City begins non stop 24 7 continual prayer 1999 Gospel of Jesus Christ An Evangelical Celebration a consensus Gospel endorsed by various evangelical leaders including J I Packer John Ankerberg Jerry Falwell Thomas C Oden R C Sproul Wayne Grudem Charles Swindoll et al 1999 31 October signing of the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification between the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church 2000 Asia College of Ministry ACOM a ministry of Asia Evangelistic Fellowship AEF was launched by Jonathan James to train national missionaries in Asia 2000 Our Lady appears in Assiut Upper Egypt 206 phenomena associated to Our Lady reported again in 2006 in a Church at the same location during the Mass 207 Local Coptic priests and then the Coptic Orthodox Church of Assiut issue statements in 2000 and 2006 respectivelySee also edit nbsp Christianity portal nbsp History portal Christianity in the 20th century History of the Roman Catholic Church World War II History of Christian theology Modern Christian theology Role of the Roman Catholic Church in civilization Timeline of Christianity 19th century Timeline of Christian missions 1900 to 1949 Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church 20th century Chronological list of saints and blesseds in the 20th centuryReferences edit Duffy Saints and Sinners 1997 p 240 Rerum novarum 45 a b The Busy Christian s Guide to Social Teaching Catholic Encyclopedia 1911 Rerum Novarum Duffy 260 Quadragesimo anno 88 Franzen 368 Felictity O Brien Pope Pius XII Architect for Peace London 2000 p 13 Stacy p 139 Fontenelle 164 Riasanovsky 617 Franzen 397 de la Cueva Julio 1998 Religious Persecution Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War Journal of Contemporary History XXXIII 3 355 369 JSTOR 261121 Franzen 365 a b c Chadwick Owen pp 264 265 Scheina p 33 Van Hove Brian 1994 Blood Drenched Altars EWTN Global Catholic Network Retrieved 9 March 2008 International Religious Freedom Report 2001 PDF US Department of State 2001 Retrieved 13 March 2008 Chadwick Owen p 240 Norman pp 167 172 Hansjakob Stehle Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans Piper Munchen 1975 pp 139 141 a b Riasanovsky 634 Smith Craig 10 January 2007 In Poland New Wave of Charges Against Clerics The New York Times Retrieved 23 May 2008 White Ed 3 April 2005 NEWS ANALYSIS Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland and Won Religion News Service Retrieved 28 November 2022 a b Bokenkotter pp 356 358 a b Chadwick Owen pp 259 260 China installs Pope backed bishop BBC News 21 September 2007 Retrieved 8 September 2009 a b c Norman The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History 2007 pp 167 8 a b c Chadwick A History of Christianity 1995 p 266 Pham Heirs of the Fisherman Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession 2005 p 45 quote When Pius XI was complimented on the publication in 1937 of his encyclical denouncing Nazism Mit Brennender Sorge his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly The credit is his a b c Vidmar The Catholic Church Through the Ages 2005 pp 327 333 quote Mark well that in the Catholic Mass Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather Anti Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do No no I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti Semitism It is inadmissible Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham Spiritually we are all Semites a b c d e f g Bokenkotter A Concise History of the Catholic Church 2004 p 389 92 a b c d Chadwick Owen pp 254 255 a b Coppa p 132 7 Rhodes pp 182 183 quote His contention seemed confirmed in a speech by Staatsminister Wagner in Munich on the 31st March 1934 only nine months after the signature of the Concordat Wagner said if the Church had not signed a concordat with Germany the National Socialist government would have abolished the Catholic Youth organisations altogether and placed them in the same anti state category as the Marxist groups If the maintenance of Catholic education and of the Catholic Youth associations was as we have seen often enough before the principal aim of Papal diplomacy then his phrase the Concordat prevented greater evils seems justified The German episcopate considered that neither the Concordats up to then negotiated with individual German States Lander nor the Weimar Constitution gave adequate guarantees or assurance to the faithful of respect for their convictions rights or liberty of action In such conditions the guarantees could not be secured except through a settlement having the solemn form of a concordat with the central government of the Reich I would add that since it was the German government which made the proposal the responsibility for all the regrettable consequences would have fallen on the Holy See if it had refused the proposed Concordat Although the Church had few illusions about National Socialism it must be recognized that the Concordat in the years that followed brought some advantages or at least prevented worse evils In fact in spite of all the violations to which it was subjected it gave German Catholics a juridical basis for their defence a stronghold behind which to shield themselves in their oppositions to the ever growing campaign of religious persecution Rhodes p 197 quote Violence had been used against a Catholic leader as early as June 1934 in the Night of the Long Knives by the end of 1936 physical violence was being used openly and blatantly against the Catholic Church The real issue was not as the Nazis contended a struggle with political Catholicism but that the regime would tolerate the Church only if it adapted its religious and moral teaching to the materialist dogma of blood and race that is if it ceased to be Christian Shirer p 235 quote On July 25 five days after the ratification of the concordat the German government promulgated a sterilization law which particularly offended the Catholic Church Five days later the first steps were taken to dissolve the Catholic Youth League During the next years thousands of Catholic priests nuns and lay leaders were arrested many of them on trumped up charges of immorality or smuggling foreign currency Erich Klausener leader of Catholic Action was as we have seen murdered in the June 30 1934 purge Scores of Catholic publications were suppressed and even the sanctity of the confessional was violated by Gestapo agents By the spring of 1937 the Catholic hierarchy in Germany which like most of the Protestant clergy had tried to co operate with the new regime was thoroughly disillusioned a b c d McGonigle p 172 quote Hitler of course flagrantly violated the rights of Catholics and others whenever it pleased him Catholic Action groups were attacked by Hitler s police and Catholic schools were closed Priests were persecuted and sent to concentration camps On Palm Sunday 21 March 1937 the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was read in Catholic Churches in Germany In effect it taught that the racial ideas of the leader fuhrer and totalitarianism stood in opposition to the Catholic faith The letter let the world and especially German Catholics know clearly that the Church was harassed and persecuted and that it clearly opposed the doctrines of Nazism Pham p 45 quote When Pius XI was complimented on the publication in 1937 of his encyclical denouncing Nazism Mit Brennender Sorge his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly The credit is his Vidmar p 327 quote Pius XI s greatest coup was in writing the encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge With Burning Desire in 1936 and having it distributed secretly and ingeniously by an army of motorcyclists and read from the pulpit on Palm Sunday before the Nazis obtained a single copy It stated in German and not in the traditional Latin that the Concordat with the Nazis was agreed to despite serious misgivings about Nazi integrity It then went on to condemn the persecution of the church the neopaganism of the Nazi ideology especially its theory of racial superiority and Hitler himself calling him a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance a b c d Rhodes p 204 205 quote Mit brennender Sorge did not prevaricate Although it began mildly enough with an account of the broad aims of the Church it went on to become one of the greatest condemnations of a national regime ever pronounced by the Vatican Its vigorous language is in sharp contrast to the involved style in which encyclicals were normally written The education question was fully and critically examined and a long section devoted to disproving the Nazi theory of Blood and Soil Blut und Boden and the Nazi claim that faith in Germany was equivalent to faith in God There were scathing references to Rosenberg s Myth of the Twentieth Century and its neo paganism The pressure exercised by the Nazi party on Catholic officials to betray their faith was lambasted as base illegal and inhuman The document spoke of a condition of spiritual oppression in Germany such as has never been seen before of the open fight against the Confessional schools and the suppression of liberty of choice for those who desire a Catholic education With pressure veiled and open it went on with intimidation with promises of economic professional civil and other advantages the attachment of Catholics to the Faith particularly those in government employment is exposed to a violence as illegal as it is inhuman The calvary of the Church The war of annihilation against the Catholic Faith The cult of idols The fulminations thundered down from the pulpits to the delighted congregations Nor was the Fuhrer himself spared for his aspirations to divinity placing himself on the same level as Christ a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance widerliche Hochmut a b Courtois p 29 quote Pope Pius XI condemned Nazism and Communism respectively in the encyclicals Mit Brennender Sorge and Divini redemptoris Norman p 167 quote But violations began almost at once by Nazi Party officials and in 1937 the papacy issued a Letter to the German bishops to be read in the churches Mit Brennender Sorge denounced the violations as contrary to Natural Law and to the term of the Concordat The Letter in fact amounted to a condemnation of Nazi ideology In political life within the state since it confuses considerations of utility with those of right it mistakes the basic fact that man as a person possesses God given rights which must be preserved from all attacks aimed at denying suppressing or disregarding them The Letter also rejected absolutely the concept of a German National Church Bokenkotter pp 389 392 quote And when Hitler showed increasing belligerence toward the Church Pius met the challenge with a decisiveness that astonished the world His encyclical Mit Brennender Sorge was the first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism and one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican Smuggled into Germany it was read from all the Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday in March 1937 It denounced the Nazi myth of blood and soil and decried its neopaganism its war of annihilation against the Church and even described the Fuhrer himself as a mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance The Nazis were infuriated and in retaliation closed and sealed all the presses that had printed it and took numerous vindictive measures against the Church including staging a long series of immorality trials of Catholic clergy a b c Duffy paperback edition p 343 quote In a triumphant security operation the encyclical was smuggled into Germany locally printed and read from Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday 1937 Mit Brennender Sorge With Burning Anxiety denounced both specific government actions against the Church in breach of the concordat and Nazi racial theory more generally There was a striking and deliberate emphasis on the permanent validity of the Jewish scriptures and the Pope denounced the idolatrous cult which replaced belief in the true God with a national religion and the myth of race and blood He contrasted this perverted ideology with the teaching of the Church in which there was a home for all peoples and all nations The impact of the encyclical was immense and it dispelled at once all suspicion of a Fascist Pope While the world was still reacting however Pius issued five days later another encyclical Divini Redemptoris denouncing Communism declaring its principles intrinsically hostile to religion in any form whatever detailing the attacks on the Church which had followed the establishment of Communist regimes in Russia Mexico and Spain and calling for the implementation of Catholic social teaching to offset both Communism and amoral liberalism The language of Divini Redemptoris was stronger than that of Mit Brennender Sorge its condemnation of Communism even more absolute than the attack on Nazism The difference in tone undoubtedly reflected the Pope s own loathing of Communism as the ultimate enemy The last year of his life however left no one any doubt of his total repudiation of the right wing tyrannies in Germany and despite his instinctive sympathy with some aspects of Fascism increasingly in Italy also His speeches and conversations were blunt filled with phrases like stupid racialism barbaric Hitlerism Chadwick Owen p 254 quote The encyclical was smuggled into Germany and read from the pulpits on Palm Sunday It made the repression far worse but it too was necessary to Christian honour Vidmar pp 327 333 quote Mark well that in the Catholic Mass Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather Anti Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do No no I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti Semitism It is inadmissible Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham Spiritually we are all Semites a b Vidmar p 331 Duffy paperback edition p 348 quote It is clear from Maglione s intervention that Papa Pacelli cared about and sought to avert the deportation of the Roman Jews but he did not denounce a denunciation the Pope believed would do nothing to help the Jews and would only extend Nazi persecution to yet more Catholics It was the Church as well as the Jews in Germany Poland and the rest of occupied Europe who would pay the price for any papal gesture There was some weight in this argument when the Dutch Catholic hierarchy denounced measures against Jews there the German authorities retaliated by extending the persecution to baptized Jews who had formerly been protected by their Catholicism Bokenkotter p 192 quote The end of the war saw the prestige of the papacy at an all time high Many nations had ambassadors accredited with the Vatican The President of the United States sent his personal representative while a constant stream of the world s celebrities moved through its portals The Holy Year of 1950 brought millions of more humble pilgrims to the tomb of Peter The pope gave daily addresses on every conceivable subject and was widely quoted around the world The number of Catholic dioceses increased during his reign from 1 696 to 2 048 Einstein for instance in an article in Time paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone stood squarely across the path of Hitler s campaign Rabbi Herzog the chief rabbi of Israel sent a message in February 1944 declaring the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness is doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history David Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews Eakin Emily 1 September 2001 New Accusations of a Vatican Role in Anti Semitism Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX The New York Times Retrieved 9 March 2008 Phayer pp 50 57 Bokenkotter pp 480 481 quote A recent article by American rabbi David G Dalin challenges this judgement He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding and he thinks Jews should reject any attempt to usurp the Holocaust for the partisan purposes at work in this debate Dalin surmises that well known Jews such as Albert Einstein Golda Meir Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius Dalin points out that Rabbi Herzog the chief rabbi of Israel sent a message in February 1944 declaring the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness is doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews Deak p 182 Dalin p 10 Randall Gene 26 March 2000 Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land CNN Archived from the original on 17 March 2006 Retrieved 9 June 2008 a b Bokenkotter p 484 Vatican 12 March 1998 We Remember A Reflection on the Shoah Jewish Virtual Library Retrieved 7 November 2008 Elisabeth Boeckl Klamper Thomas Mang Wolfgang Neugebauer Gestapo Leitstelle Wien 1938 1945 Vienna 2018 ISBN 978 3902494832 pp 299 305 Hans Schafranek Widerstand und Verrat Gestapospitzel im antifaschistischen Untergrund Vienna 2017 ISBN 978 3707606225 pp 161 248 Peter Broucek Die osterreichische Identitat im Widerstand 1938 1945 2008 p 163 Hansjakob Stehle Die Spione aus dem Pfarrhaus German The spy from the rectory In Die Zeit 5 January 1996 Wolfgang Neugebauer Der osterreichische Widerstand 1938 1945 PDF Broucek Peter 5 June 2008 Militarischer Widerstand Studien zur osterreichischen Staatsgesinnung und NS Abwehr Bohlau Verlag Wien ISBN 9783205777281 via Google Books Christoph Thurner The CASSIA Spy Ring in World War II Austria A History of the OSS s Maier Messner Group 2017 pp 187 Chadwick A History of Christianity 1995 pp 254 5 Vidmar The Catholic Church Through the Ages 2005 p 329 Eakin Emily 1 September 2001 New Accusations of a Vatican Role in Anti Semitism Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX The New York Times Retrieved 9 March 2008 Bokenkotter A Concise History of the Catholic Church 2004 pp 480 1 quote A recent article by American rabbi David G Dalin challenges this judgement He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding and he thinks Jews should reject any attempt to usurp the Holocaust for the partisan purposes at work in this debate Dalin surmises that well known Jews such as Albert Einstein Golda Meir Moshe Sharett and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius Einstein for instance in an article in Time paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone stood squarely across the path of Hitler s campaign Dalin points out that Rabbi Herzog the chief rabbi of Israel sent a message in February 1944 declaring the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness is doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history Dalin 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8028 4875 3 Latourette Kenneth Scott 1975 A History of Christianity Volume 2 1500 to 1975 San Francisco Harper ISBN 0 06 064953 4 Nichols Aidan Rome and the Eastern Churches a Study in Schism 1992 Shelley Bruce L 1996 Church History in Plain Language 2nd ed Word Pub ISBN 0 8499 3861 9 External links editHistory of Christianity Reading Room permanent dead link Extensive online resources for the study of global church history Tyndale Seminary Dictionary of the History of Ideas Christianity in History Phillips Walter Alison 1911 Church History Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 6 11th ed pp 330 345 Historical Christianity A time line with references to the descendants of the early church Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Catholic Church in the 20th century amp oldid 1214551733, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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