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Andrew Carnegie

April 12, 2023

Andrew Carnegie (Scots: [kɑrˈnɛːɡi], English: /kɑːrˈnɛɡi/ kar-NEG-ee;[2][3][note 1] November 25, 1835 – August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist. Carnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and became one of the richest Americans in history.[5] He became a leading philanthropist in the United States, Great Britain, and the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away around $350 million (roughly $5.5 billion in 2021),[6] almost 90 percent of his fortune, to charities, foundations and universities.[7] His 1889 article proclaiming "The Gospel of Wealth" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, expressed support for progressive taxation and an estate tax, and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.

Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie in 1913
Born(1835-11-25)November 25, 1835
Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland
DiedAugust 11, 1919(1919-08-11) (aged 83)
Lenox, Massachusetts, U.S.
Resting placeSleepy Hollow Cemetery, Sleepy Hollow, New York, U.S.
Occupation(s)Industrialist, Philanthropist
Known forFounding and leading the Carnegie Steel Company
Founding the Carnegie Library, Carnegie Hall, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Mellon University, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, and the Carnegie Hero Fund
Political partyRepublican[1]
Spouse
​
(m. 1887)​
ChildrenMargaret Carnegie Miller
Parent(s)William Carnegie
Margaret Morrison Carnegie
RelativesThomas M. Carnegie (brother) George Lauder (first cousin) George Lauder Sr. (uncle)
Signature
Carnegie as he appears in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.

Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated to Pittsburgh, United States, with his parents in 1848 at age 12. Carnegie started work as a telegrapher, and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $303,450,000 (equal to $9,883,973,400 today);[8] it formed the basis of the U.S. Steel Corporation. After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next several years.

Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on building local libraries, world peace, education, and scientific research. He funded Carnegie Hall in New York City, the Peace Palace in the Netherlands, founded the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie Hero Fund, Carnegie Mellon University, and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, among others.

Biography

Early life

 
Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland

Andrew Carnegie was born to Margaret Morrison Carnegie and William Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room, consisting of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family.[9] The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom.[9] He was named after his paternal grandfather.[9] In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy damask, from which his father benefited.[9] He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask.[10]

Carnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader George Lauder, Sr., deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to Robert Burns' writings and historical Scottish heroes such as Robert the Bruce, William Wallace, and Rob Roy. Lauder's son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Carnegie and became his business partner. When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver. Making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her "sweetie shop", leaving her as the primary breadwinner.[11] Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr.[12] and move to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life.[13] Carnegie's migration to America would be his second journey outside Dunfermline – the first being an outing to Edinburgh to see Queen Victoria.[14]

In September 1848, Carnegie arrived with his family in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own.[15] Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at the same Scottish-owned cotton mill, Anchor Cotton Mills. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ($38 by 2022 inflation).[16]

His father quit his position at the cotton mill soon after, returning to his loom and removing him as breadwinner once again.[17] But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ($63 by 2022 inflation).[18] In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job.

Soon after this Mr. John Hay, a fellow Scotch manufacturer of bobbins in Allegheny City, needed a boy, and asked whether I would not go into his service. I went, and received two dollars per week; but at first the work was even more irksome than the factory. I had to run a small steam-engine and to fire the boiler in the cellar of the bobbin factory. It was too much for me. I found myself night after night, sitting up in bed trying the steam gauges, fearing at one time that the steam was too low and that the workers above would complain that they had not power enough, and at another time that the steam was too high and that the boiler might burst.[19]

Telegraph

 
Carnegie, age 16, with younger brother Thomas, c. 1851

In 1849,[20] Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week ($81 by 2022 inflation)[21] following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip,[22] and within a year was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by Colonel James Anderson, who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night.[23] Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a "self-made man" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he "resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [to see to it] that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman".[24] His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.

Railroads

Starting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad employed him as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week ($130 by 2022 inflation). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company.[11] At age 24, Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.[25] On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. Carnegie then hired his sixteen-year-old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Not only did Carnegie hire his brother, he also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country.[26] As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of $1500 a year ($45,000 by 2022 inflation).[25] His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.[11]

Scott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, John Edgar Thomson, which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with, or payoffs made by contracting parties "as part of a quid pro quo".[27] In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the Adams Express Company, which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott.[27][28] A few years later, he received a few shares in Theodore Tuttle Woodruff's sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries (iron, bridges, and rails), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men stakes in his enterprises.

1860–1865: The Civil War

 
Pullman sleeping car, where Carnegie made one of his most successful investments

Before the Civil War, Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of George Pullman, the inventor of the sleeping car for first-class travel, which facilitated business travel at distances over 500 miles (800 km). The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania's Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service.[29]

In the spring of 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was "the first casualty of the war" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.[30]

The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions and railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success.[31]

Keystone Bridge Company

 
Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River, opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel

In 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in Venango County, Pennsylvania.[32] In one year, the farm[clarification needed] yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill, and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.

After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his Keystone Bridge Company and the rails produced by his ironworks. He also gave the stock to Scott and Thomson in his businesses, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.[33]

Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.

 
Carnegie, c. 1878

Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote:

I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes! Let us cast aside business forever, except for others. Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men. I figure that this will take three years' active work. I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public. We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes. Man must have no idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry! No idol is more debasing than the worship of money! Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character. To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery. I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!

Industrialist

1875–1900: Steel empire

 
Bessemer converter
 
The Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Blast-Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania (1891)

Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the Bessemer process, which allowed the high carbon content of pig iron to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during steel production. Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.[34]

The second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile (684 km) long railway, and a line of lake steamships.[29] In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.

By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works in Braddock (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.[35]

Carnegie's success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free-market competition.[36]

Besides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year.[37] Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, Henry Clay Frick, revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.[38]

1901: U.S. Steel

In 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation for this. John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.

The buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business.[29] His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.[8]

Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in 2021, $7.35 billion), which was paid to him in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion – 4% of the U.S. gross domestic product at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey, in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.[39]

Scholar and activist

1880–1900

Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet Matthew Arnold, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, and the American humorist Mark Twain, as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents,[40] statesmen, and notable writers.[41]

Carnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now part of New York University Medical Center) to found a histological laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.

In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie Library which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with Samuel Storey, he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone.

In 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior.

Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled An American Four-in-hand in Britain. In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled Triumphant Democracy. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the US.

 
Carnegie, right, with James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce

Although actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably The Nineteenth Century, under the editorship of James Knowles, and the influential North American Review, led by the editor Lloyd Bryce. In 1889, Carnegie published "Wealth" in the June issue of the North American Review.[42] After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in Britain, where it appeared as "The Gospel of Wealth" in the Pall Mall Gazette. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.

Carnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.[43]

Anti-imperialism

In the aftermath of the Spanish–American War, the United States seemed poised to annex Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting William Jennings Bryan against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as American imperialism, Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could purchase their independence from the United States.[44] However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the American Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison and literary figures such as Mark Twain.[45][46]

1901–1919: Philanthropist

Main articles: Carnegie library, Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, Carnegie Hero Fund, Carnegie Mellon University, and Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh
See also: Carnegie Hall, Tuskegee Institute, and Hooker telescope
 
Andrew Carnegie's philanthropy. Puck magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903

Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in Triumphant Democracy (1886) and Gospel of Wealth (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled "Gratitude and Sweet Words."

He provided $25,000 a year to the movement for spelling reform.[47] His organization, the Simplified Spelling Board,[48] created the Handbook of Simplified Spelling, which was written wholly in reformed spelling.[49][50]

3,000 public libraries

 
Captioned "Free Libraries", Carnegie caricatured by "Spy" for the London magazine Vanity Fair, 1903

Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States, Britain, Canada and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist Enoch Pratt (1808–1896). The Enoch Pratt Free Library (1886) of Baltimore, Maryland, impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, "Pratt was my guide and inspiration."[51]

Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by James Bertram (1874–1934).[52] The first Carnegie Library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.[53]

To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for a public library; in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, for a music hall and library; and he gave $250,000 to Edinburgh for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 US states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the West Indies, and Fiji. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899.[54]

As Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.[55]

Investing in education, science, pensions, civil heroism, music, and world peace

 
Carnegie Institution administration building in Washington, D.C.

In 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C., for encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools.[53] CIT is now known as Carnegie Mellon University after it merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. Carnegie also served on the Boards of Cornell University and Stevens Institute of Technology.[56]

In 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale, who was trying to build the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: "I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens." The telescope saw first light on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.[57]

 
Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline, Scotland

In 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by the Royal Charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university.[58] He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St. Andrews in December 1901,[59] and formally installed as such in October 1902,[60] serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became Pittencrieff Park and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust[61] to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913-14 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.[62][63][64]

Carnegie was a major patron of music. He was a founding financial backer of Jeannette Thurber's National Conservatory of Music of America in 1885.[65] He built the music performing venue Carnegie Hall in New York City; it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925. His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 pipe organs in churches and temples, with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect.[66][67]

He gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, a grant-making foundation.[68][69] He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.[70]

 
Carnegie with African-American leader Booker T. Washington (front row, center) in 1906 while visiting Tuskegee Institute
 
The Peace Palace in the Hague, opened in 1913

In 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors.[29] The latter fund evolved into TIAA-CREF. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.

Carnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute for African-American education under Booker T. Washington. He helped Washington create the National Negro Business League.

 
Dutch medal of the Carnegie Hero Fund.

In 1904, he founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1,500,000 in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.[29]

When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding" and continue his program of giving.

Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.

By the standards of 19th-century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money.[71] "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer Joseph Wall, "he would justify what he had done to get that money."[72]

To some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works, not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.[73]

Death

 
Carnegie's grave at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York

Carnegie died on August 11, 1919, in Lenox, Massachusetts, at his Shadow Brook estate, of Bronchial Pneumonia.[74][75] He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately US$5.49 billion in 2021 dollars)[76] of his wealth. After his death, his last $30,000,000 was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners.[77] He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer Samuel Gompers, another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age.[78]

Controversies

1889: Johnstown Flood

Main article: Johnstown Flood
 
A contemporary rendition of the Johnstown Flood scene at the Stone Bridge by Kurz and Allison (1890)

Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which has been blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed 2,209 people in 1889.[79]

At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests, and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than 20 miles (32 km) downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.

The dam was 72 feet (22 m) high and 931 feet (284 m) long. Between 1881, when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood.[80] When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.

Although Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum.

1892: Homestead Strike

 
The Homestead Strike
Main article: Homestead Strike

The Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, and grew out of a labor dispute between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company.

Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked.[81] In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sentiment. With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with an average 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.[82]

 
Frick's letter to Carnegie describing the plans and munitions that will be on the barges when the Pinkertons arrive to confront the strikers in Homestead

The union and company failed to come to an agreement, and management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a "lockout" by management and not a "strike" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement, strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them.

On July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men — seven strikers and three Pinkertons — were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding him. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, "... with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie."[83] Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States.[81] However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.

Theodore Roosevelt

According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He strongly opposed the war and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State John Hay, and met in person. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907-1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king Edward VII suddenly died.[84][85] Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905:[86]

[I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune…. It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.

Personal life

Family

 
Andrew Carnegie with his wife Louise Whitfield Carnegie and their daughter Margaret Carnegie Miller in 1910

Carnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life.[87] After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married Louise Whitfield,[87] who was 21 years his junior.[88] In 1897,[89] the couple had their only child, a daughter, whom they named after Carnegie's mother, Margaret.[90]

Residence

 
The Andrew Carnegie Mansion, located on 5th Avenue in the Upper East Side, Manhattan, New York

Carnegie bought Skibo Castle in Scotland,[91] and made his home partly there and partly in his New York mansion located at 2 East 91st Street at Fifth Avenue.[29] The building was completed in late 1902, and he lived there until his death in 1919. His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946. The building is now used as the Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, part of the Smithsonian Institution. The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's Upper East Side has come to be called Carnegie Hill. The mansion was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966.[92][93][94][95]

Philosophy

Politics

Carnegie gave "formal allegiance" to the Republican Party, though he was said to be "a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines" of the party.[96]

Andrew Carnegie Dictum

In his final days, Carnegie had pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The "Andrew Carnegie Dictum" was:

  • To spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.
  • To spend the next third making all the money one can.
  • To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.

Carnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a "positivist". He was highly influenced in public life by John Bright.

On wealth

 
Carnegie at Skibo Castle, 1914
 
Andrew Carnegie by Charles McBride, Edinburgh Central Library

As early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: "... The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money."[97] In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving, for "... the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced." However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, at age 46, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.[98]

Carnegie wrote "The Gospel of Wealth",[99] an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of progressive taxation and an estate tax:

The growing disposition to tax more and more heavily large estates left at death is a cheering indication of the growth of a salutary change in public opinion. The State of Pennsylvania now takes—subject to some exceptions—one-tenth of the property left by its citizens. The budget presented in the British Parliament the other day proposes to increase the death duties; and, most significant of all, the new tax is to be a graduated one. Of all forms of taxation, this seems the wisest. Men who continue hoarding great sums all their lives, the proper use of which for public ends would work good to the community from which it chiefly came, should be made to feel that the community, in the form of the State, cannot thus be deprived of its proper share. By taxing estates heavily at death the State marks its condemnation of the selfish millionaire's unworthy life.[100][101]

The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself:

Man does not live by bread alone. I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man, and I know workmen, and many so-called poor men, who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach. It is the mind that makes the body rich. There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else. Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself. Exalted beyond this, as it sometimes is, it remains Caliban still and still plays the beast. My aspirations take a higher flight. Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind, to the things of the spirit, to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light. I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth.[102]

Intellectual influences

 
April 1905

Carnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought—particularly the work of Herbert Spencer, even declaring Spencer his teacher.[103] Although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer, many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused.

Spencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society "spontaneously fallen into division of labour".[104] Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be "those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest—are the select of their generation."[105] Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security.[106][107] Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution.[108] Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.[108]

Andrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez-faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged.[109] Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial "survival of the fittest" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure.[110] Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well.[111] In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress.[112] Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.[110]

On the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer, often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer.[113] Conversely, Carnegie, a titan of industry, seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903.[113] There are, however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.

Spencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of "sympathetic self-restraint" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors.[114] He did not think free-market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of "commercial murder".[114] Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry-related assets.[115]

Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to "the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans".[116]

Despite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, "Six months' residence here would justify suicide."[117]

The conditions of human society create for this an imperious demand; the concentration of capital is a necessity for meeting the demands of our day, and as such should not be looked at askance, but be encouraged. There is nothing detrimental to human society in it, but much that is, or is bound soon to become, beneficial. It is an evolution from the heterogeneous to the homogeneous, and is clearly another step in the upward path of development.

— Carnegie, Andrew 1901 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays[109]

On the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay "Manners and Fashion", Spencer referred to public education as "Old schemes". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, "political, religious, literary, philanthropic", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its "original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism".[118] Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent "the really salutary sufferings" of the less fortunate "bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse".[119] Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer, testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: "My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business."[120]

Carnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society.[121] Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals.[122] Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the "lasting good".[123] Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers.[122] By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor.[124] Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.[124]

Religion and worldview

Carnegie and his family belonged to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of Calvinism, and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate Presbyterian believers, writing that "there was not one orthodox Presbyterian" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards Swedenborgianism. While a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.

Witnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism.[125] Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, "Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution."[126]

Later in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, pastored from 1905 to 1926 by Social Gospel exponent Henry Sloane Coffin, while his wife and daughter belonged to the Brick Presbyterian Church.[127] He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in "an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed".[128] Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912–1913 between Carnegie and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith. In these letters, one of which was published in The New York Times in full text,[129] Carnegie is extolled as a "lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace".

World peace

 
Carnegie commemorated as an industrialist, philanthropist, and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1960[130]

Influenced by his "favorite living hero in public life" John Bright, Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age,[131] and supported causes that opposed military intervention.[132] His motto, "All is well since all grows better", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, but also his view of international relations.

Despite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American overseas expansion.[133]

Despite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly-established International Court of Arbitration's Peace Palace – brainchild of Russian Tsar Nicolas II.[134]

 
The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's headquarters in Washington, D.C.

His largest and in the long run most influential peace organization was the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.[135] In 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.[136]

In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.

Despite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.

The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of anti-imperialism and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death, which took world peace to another level.

United States colonial expansion

On the matter of American colonial expansion, Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands or Puerto Rico, but he opposed the annexation of the Philippines. Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence.[137] This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.

After he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peacekeeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When a friend, the British writer William T. Stead, asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:

I do not see that it is wise to devote our efforts to creating another organization. Of course I may be wrong in believing that, but I am certainly not wrong that if it were dependent on any millionaire's money it would begin as an object of pity and end as one of derision. I wonder that you do not see this. There is nothing that robs a righteous cause of its strength more than a millionaire's money. Its life is tainted thereby.[138]

Carnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.

Like Stead, he believed that the United States and the British Empire would merge into one nation, telling him "We are heading straight to the Re-United States". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament.[139] The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the "scientific" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.[140]

Legacy and honors

 
Carnegie statue, Dunfermline

Carnegie received the honorary Doctor of Laws (DLL) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901,[141] and received the Freedom of the City of Glasgow "in recognition of his munificence" later the same year.[142] In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of St Andrews, "in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic",[143] and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of Perth "in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence, and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands, and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland"[144] and the Freedom of the City of Dundee.[145] Also in 1902, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.[146] He received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) from the University of Aberdeen in 1906.[147] In 1910, he received the Freedom of the City of Belfast[148] and was made as well Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government.[149] Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on August 25, 1913.[150] Carnegie received July 1, 1914 an honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen the Netherlands.[151]

 
Mounted D. carnegii (or "Dippy") skeleton at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History; considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world

Benefactions

 
Andrew Carnegie's cartoon throwing money in air, Life, 1905

According to biographer Burton J. Hendrick:

His benefactions amounted to $350,000,000 – for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than $12,500,000, but most of the principal as well. Of this sum, $62,000,000 was allotted to the British Empire and $288,000,000 to the United States, for Carnegie, in the main, confined his benefactions to the English-speaking nations. His largest gifts were $125,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York (this same body also became his residuary legatee), $60,000,000 to public library buildings, $20,000,000 to colleges (usually the smaller ones), $6,000,000 to church organs, $29,000,000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, $10,000,000 to Hero Funds, $10,000,000 to the Endowment for International Peace, $10,000,000 to the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000 to the United Kingdom Trust, and $3,750,000 to the Dunfermline Trust.[155]

Hendrick argues that:

These gifts fairly picture Carnegie's conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man. They represent all his personal tastes – his love of books, art, music, and nature – and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress – scientific research, education both literary and technical, and, above all, the abolition of war. The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie's name is that for public libraries. Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund – among other reasons, because "it came up my ain back"; but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance. There was only one genuine remedy, he believed, for the ills that beset the human race, and that was enlightenment. "Let there be light" was the motto that, in the early days, he insisted on placing in all his library buildings. As to the greatest endowment of all, the Carnegie Corporation, that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form; it was established to carry on, after Carnegie's death, the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime.[156]

Research sources

Carnegie's personal papers are at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division. The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY); The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP); the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.

Works

Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues.

Books

Articles

Pamphlets

Public speaking

Collected works

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Andrew Carnegie used the Scots pronunciation [kɑrˈnɛːɡi] with the stress on the second syllable, but his name is now commonly pronounced /ˈkɑːrnəɡi/ KAR-nə-ghee with the stress on the first syllable. American English speakers that stress the second syllable are not normally able to produce the long [ɛː] in the Scots pronunciation and approximate it by producing its short equivalent as in the word "dress": /kɑːrˈnɛɡi/ kar-NEG-ee. If they try to lengthen this sound, they automatically produce the diphthong /eɪ/ as in the word "face",[4] which they normally don't notice: /kɑːrˈneɪɡi/ kar-NAY-ghee. This approximation with the diphthong is further from the Scots pronunciation and so rare that it is not even mentioned as a variant in the Columbia Encyclopedia or the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

References

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  3. ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary".
  4. ^ Pollak, Michael (June 20, 2004). No. National Edition. New York City: The New York Times Company. New York Times. p. 2; Section 14. Archived from the original on April 6, 2020. Retrieved October 22, 2020.
  5. ^ listed at 372 billion 2014 USD by Jacob Davidson, "Rockefeller gets all the press, but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time. The Scottish immigrant sold his company, U.S. Steel, to J. P. Morgan for $480 million in 1901. That sum equates to slightly over 2.1 percent of U.S. GDP at the time, giving Carnegie an economic power equivalent to $372 billion in 2014."
  6. ^ "CPI Inflation Calculator". www.bls.gov. Retrieved October 15, 2020.
  7. ^ . Archived from the original on October 16, 2012.
  8. ^ a b Hawke, David Freeman (1980). John D. The Founding Father of the Rockefellers. Harper & Row. p. 210. ISBN 978-0060118136.
  9. ^ a b c d MacKay, pp. 23–24.
  10. ^ The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Review, Sept 1819
  11. ^ a b c Nasaw, pp. 54–59, 64–65.
  12. ^ "Andrew Carnegie: The railroad and steel magnate who played his more imperative role as a Philanthropist". Vintage News. February 22, 2017.
  13. ^ MacKay, pp. 37–38.
  14. ^ Nasaw, David (2006). Andrew Carnegie. New York: Penguin Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-59420-104-2.
  15. ^ Nasaw, David (2006). Andrew Carnegie. New York: Penguin Group. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-59420-104-2.
  16. ^ Autobiography, p. 34
  17. ^ Nasaw, David (2006). Andrew Carnegie. New York: Penguin Group. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-59420-104-2.
  18. ^ Carnegie, Andrew (1919). Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie. p. 42.
  19. ^ Lankester, E. Ray (1921). "Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie". Nature. 107 (2679): 2. Bibcode:1921Natur.107....2L. doi:10.1038/107002a0. S2CID 4114721.
  20. ^ Edge (2004) pp. 21–22
  21. ^ Autobiography, p. 37
  22. ^ Autobiography, pp. 56, 59
  23. ^ Autobiography, p. 45
  24. ^ Murray, Stuart A.P. (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History p.197. New York: Skyhorse Pub. ISBN 9781602397064.
  25. ^ a b Edge (2004) p. 35.
  26. ^ Edge (2004) p. 37
  27. ^ a b Nasaw, pp. 59–60.
  28. ^ Autobiography, p. 79
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  30. ^ Gillam, Scott (January 1, 2009). Andrew Carnegie: Industrial Giant and Philanthropist. ABDO. ISBN 978-1-60453-521-1.
  31. ^ Wall, Joseph Frazier; Frazier, Wall Joseph (1970). Andrew Carnegie. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501282-8.
  32. ^ Story Farm, Columbia Farm, Columbia Oil Company
    • Randolph, Amy (2001). "Columbia Oil Farm of the Oil Creek Valley, Venago County, PA : 150 Years of Petroleum Legacy". Petroleum History Institute.
    • "Andrew Carnegie and the Columbia Oil Farm". Oil History. petroleumhistory.org.
    • "William Story Farm". Petroleum History Institute. 2001.
  33. ^ Nasaw, pp. 105–107.
  34. ^ Rosenberg, Nathan (1982). Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-521-27367-1. Bessemer steel suffered from nitrogen embrittlement with age
  35. ^ "Andrew Carnegie | Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
  36. ^ Nasaw, pp. 3264–78.
  37. ^ Nasaw, pp. 7114–19.
  38. ^ Nasaw, pp. 10653–57
  39. ^ Krass, Peter (2002). Carnegie. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. Chapter 29. ISBN 0471386308. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
  40. ^ Winkler (2006), p. 172.
  41. ^ Winkler (2006), p. 13.
  42. ^ Carnegie, Andrew (June 1889). "Wealth". North American Review.
  43. ^ Swetnam, George (1980) Andrew Carnegie. Twayne Publishers.
  44. ^ Andrew Carnegie timeline of events PBS.
  45. ^ Hirschfeld, Katherine Health, Politics and Revolution in Cuba, p. 117, Transaction Publishers, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4128-0863-7
  46. ^ Porter, Robert Percival (1899). Industrial Cuba: Being a Study of Present Commercial and Industrial Conditions, with Suggestions as to the Opportunities Presented in the Island for American Capital, Enterprise, and Labour. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 43.
  47. ^ Joseph Frazer Wall, Andrew Carnegie (1970) pp 891-893.
  48. ^ "Carnegie Assaults the Spelling Book; To Pay the Cost of Reforming English Orthography. Campaign About to Begin Board Named, with Headquarters Here – Local Societies Throughout the Country.", The New York Times, March 12, 1906. Retrieved August 28, 2008.
  49. ^ Handbook of Simplified Spelling. Simplified Spelling Board, 1920.
  50. ^ Scott, Tom (June 28, 2013). Ghoti and the Ministry of Helth: Spelling Reform. Archived from the original on November 22, 2021.
  51. ^ Pensinger, Dr. Kim. The Big Cookie Proposition: Insights and Inspiration for a Generous New You. p. 31.
  52. ^ Ellen Condliffe Lagemann (1992). The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy. U of Chicago Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780226467801.
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Bibliography

Collections

Further reading

  • Ernsberger Jr., Richard. "Robber Baron turned Robin Hood" American History (Feb 2015) 49#6 pp. 32-41, cover story.
  • Farrah, Margaret Ann. "Andrew Carnegie: A Psychohistorical Sketch" (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1982. 8209384).
  • Goldin, Milton (1997). "Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth." In: Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) St. James, NY: Brandywine Press ISBN 1881089975.
  • Harvey, Charles, et al. Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy. Business History (2011) 53#3 pp. 425-450.
  • Hendrick, Burton Jesse (1933). The life of Andrew Carnegie (2 vol.) vol 2 online
  • Josephson, Matthew (1938). The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901. ISBN 9991847995.
  • Krass, Peter (2002). Carnegie. Wiley. ISBN 0471386308. scholarly biography.
  • Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe (1992). The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226467801.
  • Lester, Robert M. (1941). Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
  • Livesay, Harold C. (1999). Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd ed. ISBN 0321432878. short biography by a scholar.
  • Lorenzen, Michael. (1999). "Deconstructing the Carnegie Libraries: The Sociological Reasons Behind Carnegie's Millions to Public Libraries". Illinois Libraries. 81 (2): 75–78.
  • McGormick, Blaine, and Burton W. Folsom Jr. "Survey of Business Historians on America's Greatest Entrepreneurs." Business History Review (2003), 77#4, pp. 703-716. Carnegie ranks #3 behind Ford and Rockefeller.
  • Patterson, David S. (1970). "Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114#5 (1970): 371-383. JSTOR 985802.
  • Rees, Jonathan. (1997). "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." Pennsylvania History 64(4): 509–533. ISSN 0031-4528.
  • Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. Henry Clay Frick: The life of the perfect capitalist (McFarland, 2010). online
  • Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America (McFarland, 2012) online.
  • VanSlyck, Abigail A. (1991). "'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 50(4): 359–383. ISSN 0037-9808.
  • Zimmerman, Jonathan. "Simplified Spelling and the Cult of Efficiency in the 'Progressiv' Era." Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era (2010) 9#3 pp. 365-394

External links

 
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Wikiquote has quotations related to Andrew Carnegie.
  • Documentary: "Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace"
  • Carnegie Birthplace Museum website
  • "Archival material relating to Andrew Carnegie". UK National Archives.  
  • Works by or about Andrew Carnegie at Internet Archive
  • Works by Andrew Carnegie at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)  
  • Booknotes interview with Peter Krass on Carnegie, November 24, 2002.
  • Newspaper clippings about Andrew Carnegie in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
  • Marguerite Martyn, "Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity, Income Tax, and the Blessings of Poverty," May 1, 1914, City Desk Publishing
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April 12, 2023
andrew, carnegie, scots, kɑrˈnɛːɡi, english, ɑːr, note, november, 1835, august, 1919, scottish, american, industrialist, philanthropist, carnegie, expansion, american, steel, industry, late, 19th, century, became, richest, americans, history, became, leading, . Andrew Carnegie Scots kɑrˈnɛːɡi English k ɑːr ˈ n ɛ ɡ i kar NEG ee 2 3 note 1 November 25 1835 August 11 1919 was a Scottish American industrialist and philanthropist Carnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and became one of the richest Americans in history 5 He became a leading philanthropist in the United States Great Britain and the British Empire During the last 18 years of his life he gave away around 350 million roughly 5 5 billion in 2021 6 almost 90 percent of his fortune to charities foundations and universities 7 His 1889 article proclaiming The Gospel of Wealth called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society expressed support for progressive taxation and an estate tax and stimulated a wave of philanthropy Andrew CarnegieCarnegie in 1913Born 1835 11 25 November 25 1835Dunfermline Fife ScotlandDiedAugust 11 1919 1919 08 11 aged 83 Lenox Massachusetts U S Resting placeSleepy Hollow Cemetery Sleepy Hollow New York U S Occupation s Industrialist PhilanthropistKnown forFounding and leading the Carnegie Steel Company Founding the Carnegie Library Carnegie Hall Carnegie Institution for Science Carnegie Corporation of New York Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland Carnegie United Kingdom Trust Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh and the Carnegie Hero FundPolitical partyRepublican 1 SpouseLouise Whitfield m 1887 wbr ChildrenMargaret Carnegie MillerParent s William CarnegieMargaret Morrison CarnegieRelativesThomas M Carnegie brother George Lauder first cousin George Lauder Sr uncle SignatureCarnegie as he appears in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington D C Carnegie was born in Dunfermline Scotland and emigrated to Pittsburgh United States with his parents in 1848 at age 12 Carnegie started work as a telegrapher and by the 1860s had investments in railroads railroad sleeping cars bridges and oil derricks He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman raising money for American enterprise in Europe He built Pittsburgh s Carnegie Steel Company which he sold to J P Morgan in 1901 for 303 450 000 equal to 9 883 973 400 today 8 it formed the basis of the U S Steel Corporation After selling Carnegie Steel he surpassed John D Rockefeller as the richest American for the next several years Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large scale philanthropy with special emphasis on building local libraries world peace education and scientific research He funded Carnegie Hall in New York City the Peace Palace in the Netherlands founded the Carnegie Corporation of New York Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Carnegie Institution for Science Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland Carnegie Hero Fund Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh among others Contents 1 Biography 1 1 Early life 1 2 Telegraph 1 3 Railroads 1 4 1860 1865 The Civil War 1 5 Keystone Bridge Company 1 6 Industrialist 1 6 1 1875 1900 Steel empire 1 6 2 1901 U S Steel 1 7 Scholar and activist 1 7 1 1880 1900 1 8 Anti imperialism 1 9 1901 1919 Philanthropist 1 9 1 3 000 public libraries 1 9 2 Investing in education science pensions civil heroism music and world peace 1 10 Death 2 Controversies 2 1 1889 Johnstown Flood 2 2 1892 Homestead Strike 2 3 Theodore Roosevelt 3 Personal life 3 1 Family 3 2 Residence 4 Philosophy 4 1 Politics 4 2 Andrew Carnegie Dictum 4 3 On wealth 4 4 Intellectual influences 4 5 Religion and worldview 4 6 World peace 4 7 United States colonial expansion 5 Legacy and honors 5 1 Benefactions 5 2 Research sources 6 Works 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External linksBiographyEarly life Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in Dunfermline Scotland Andrew Carnegie was born to Margaret Morrison Carnegie and William Carnegie in Dunfermline Scotland in a typical weaver s cottage with only one main room consisting of half the ground floor which was shared with the neighboring weaver s family 9 The main room served as a living room dining room and bedroom 9 He was named after his paternal grandfather 9 In 1836 the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street opposite Reid s Park following the demand for more heavy damask from which his father benefited 9 He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline a gift to the town from the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask 10 Carnegie s maternal uncle Scottish political leader George Lauder Sr deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to Robert Burns writings and historical Scottish heroes such as Robert the Bruce William Wallace and Rob Roy Lauder s son also named George Lauder grew up with Carnegie and became his business partner When Carnegie was 12 his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver Making matters worse the country was in starvation His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her sweetie shop leaving her as the primary breadwinner 11 Struggling to make ends meet the Carnegies then decided to borrow money from George Lauder Sr 12 and move to Allegheny Pennsylvania in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life 13 Carnegie s migration to America would be his second journey outside Dunfermline the first being an outing to Edinburgh to see Queen Victoria 14 In September 1848 Carnegie arrived with his family in Allegheny Carnegie s father struggled to sell his product on his own 15 Eventually the father and son both received job offers at the same Scottish owned cotton mill Anchor Cotton Mills Carnegie s first job in 1848 was as a bobbin boy changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory His starting wage was 1 20 per week 38 by 2022 inflation 16 His father quit his position at the cotton mill soon after returning to his loom and removing him as breadwinner once again 17 But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins who offered him a job for 2 00 per week 63 by 2022 inflation 18 In his autobiography Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job Soon after this Mr John Hay a fellow Scotch manufacturer of bobbins in Allegheny City needed a boy and asked whether I would not go into his service I went and received two dollars per week but at first the work was even more irksome than the factory I had to run a small steam engine and to fire the boiler in the cellar of the bobbin factory It was too much for me I found myself night after night sitting up in bed trying the steam gauges fearing at one time that the steam was too low and that the workers above would complain that they had not power enough and at another time that the steam was too high and that the boiler might burst 19 Telegraph Carnegie age 16 with younger brother Thomas c 1851 In 1849 20 Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company at 2 50 per week 81 by 2022 inflation 21 following the recommendation of his uncle He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh s businesses and the faces of important men He made many connections this way He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced He developed the ability to translate signals by ear without using the paper slip 22 and within a year was promoted to an operator Carnegie s education and passion for reading were given a boost by Colonel James Anderson who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night 23 Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a self made man in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he resolved if ever wealth came to me to see to it that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman 24 His capacity his willingness for hard work his perseverance and his alertness soon brought him opportunities Railroads Starting in 1853 when Carnegie was around 18 years old Thomas A Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad employed him as a secretary telegraph operator at a salary of 4 00 per week 130 by 2022 inflation Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company 11 At age 24 Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad 25 On December 1 1859 Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division Carnegie then hired his sixteen year old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator Not only did Carnegie hire his brother he also hired his cousin Maria Hogan who became the first female telegraph operator in the country 26 As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of 1500 a year 45 000 by 2022 inflation 25 His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success The railroads were the first big businesses in America and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years and from Scott in particular 11 Scott also helped him with his first investments Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad John Edgar Thomson which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with or payoffs made by contracting parties as part of a quid pro quo 27 In 1855 Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest 500 in the Adams Express Company which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers The money was secured by his mother s placing of a 600 mortgage on the family s 700 home but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie s close relationship with Scott 27 28 A few years later he received a few shares in Theodore Tuttle Woodruff s sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson as a payoff Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad related industries iron bridges and rails Carnegie slowly accumulated capital the basis for his later success Throughout his later career he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad offering the two men stakes in his enterprises 1860 1865 The Civil War Pullman sleeping car where Carnegie made one of his most successful investments Before the Civil War Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff s company and that of George Pullman the inventor of the sleeping car for first class travel which facilitated business travel at distances over 500 miles 800 km The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania s Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service 29 In the spring of 1861 Carnegie was appointed by Scott who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government s telegraph lines in the East Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D C that the rebels had cut he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D C Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces Under his organization the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory Carnegie later joked that he was the first casualty of the war when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire 30 The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions and railroads and telegraph lines to deliver the goods The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success 31 Keystone Bridge Company Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel In 1864 Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in Venango County Pennsylvania 32 In one year the farm clarification needed yielded over 1 000 000 in cash dividends and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably The demand for iron products such as armor for gunboats cannons and shells as well as a hundred other industrial products made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war After the war Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks in Pittsburgh Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company he remained connected to its management namely Thomas A Scott and J Edgar Thomson He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his Keystone Bridge Company and the rails produced by his ironworks He also gave the stock to Scott and Thomson in his businesses and the Pennsylvania was his best customer When he built his first steel plant he made a point of naming it after Thomson As well as having good business sense Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge He was invited to many important social functions which Carnegie exploited to his advantage 33 Carnegie through Keystone supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St Louis Missouri completed 1874 This project was an important proof of concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market Carnegie c 1878 Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money He wrote I propose to take an income no greater than 50 000 per annum Beyond this I need ever earn make no effort to increase my fortune but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes Let us cast aside business forever except for others Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education making the acquaintance of literary men I figure that this will take three years active work I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention taking part in public matters especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes Man must have no idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry No idol is more debasing than the worship of money Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery I will resign business at thirty five but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically Industrialist 1875 1900 Steel empire Bessemer converter The Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Blast Furnaces in Braddock Pennsylvania 1891 Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the Bessemer process which allowed the high carbon content of pig iron to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during steel production Steel prices dropped as a result and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails however it was not suitable for buildings and bridges 34 The second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials In 1883 Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields a 425 mile 684 km long railway and a line of lake steamships 29 In the late 1880s Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron steel rails and coke in the world with a capacity to produce approximately 2 000 tons of pig iron per day By 1889 the U S output of steel exceeded that of the UK and Carnegie owned a large part of it Carnegie s empire grew to include the J Edgar Thomson Steel Works in Braddock named for John Edgar Thomson Carnegie s former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works the Lucy Furnaces the Union Iron Mills the Union Mill Wilson Walker amp County the Keystone Bridge Works the Hartman Steel Works the Frick Coke Company and the Scotia ore mines Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company 35 Carnegie s success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries which not only relied on steel for track but were also making money from steel transport The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free market competition 36 Besides Carnegie s market manipulation United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year 37 Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed but legal documents released in 1900 during proceedings with the ex chairman of Carnegie Steel Henry Clay Frick revealed how favorable the tariffs had been 38 1901 U S Steel In 1901 Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation for this John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and America s most important financial deal maker He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs lower prices to consumers produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers To this end he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company thereby eliminating duplication and waste He concluded negotiations on March 2 1901 and formed the United States Steel Corporation It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over 1 billion The buyout secretly negotiated by Charles M Schwab no relation to Charles R Schwab was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation a trust organized by Morgan and Carnegie retired from business 29 His steel enterprises were bought out for 303 450 000 8 Carnegie s share of this amounted to 225 64 million in 2021 7 35 billion which was paid to him in the form of 5 50 year gold bonds The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26 1901 On March 2 the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization at 1 4 billion 4 of the U S gross domestic product at the time of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken New Jersey in trust to Robert A Franks Carnegie s business secretary There a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly 230 million worth of bonds 39 Scholar and activist 1880 1900 Carnegie continued his business career some of his literary intentions were fulfilled He befriended the English poet Matthew Arnold the English philosopher Herbert Spencer and the American humorist Mark Twain as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U S Presidents 40 statesmen and notable writers 41 Carnegie constructed commodious swimming baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879 In the following year Carnegie gave 8 000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland In 1884 he gave 50 000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College now part of New York University Medical Center to found a histological laboratory now called the Carnegie Laboratory In 1881 Carnegie took his family including his 70 year old mother on a trip to the United Kingdom They toured Scotland by coach and enjoyed several receptions en route The highlight was a return to Dunfermline where Carnegie s mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie Library which he funded Carnegie s criticism of British society did not mean dislike on the contrary one of Carnegie s ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between English speaking peoples To this end in the early 1880s in partnership with Samuel Storey he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the British Republic Carnegie s charm aided by his wealth afforded him many British friends including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone In 1886 Carnegie s younger brother Thomas died at age 43 While owning steel works Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior Following his tour of the UK he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled An American Four in hand in Britain In 1886 Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date entitled Triumphant Democracy Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter The book created considerable controversy in the UK The book made many Americans appreciate their country s economic progress and sold over 40 000 copies mostly in the US Carnegie right with James Bryce 1st Viscount Bryce Although actively involved in running his many businesses Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines most notably The Nineteenth Century under the editorship of James Knowles and the influential North American Review led by the editor Lloyd Bryce In 1889 Carnegie published Wealth in the June issue of the North American Review 42 After reading it Gladstone requested its publication in Britain where it appeared as The Gospel of Wealth in the Pall Mall Gazette Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile Carnegie was a well regarded writer He published three books on travel 43 Anti imperialism In the aftermath of the Spanish American War the United States seemed poised to annex Cuba Guam Puerto Rico and the Philippines Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting William Jennings Bryan against McKinley in 1900 In 1898 Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines As the conclusion of the Spanish American War neared the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for 20 million To counter what he perceived as American imperialism Carnegie personally offered 20 million to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could purchase their independence from the United States 44 However nothing came of the offer In 1898 Carnegie joined the American Anti Imperialist League in opposition to the U S annexation of the Philippines Its membership included former presidents of the United States Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison and literary figures such as Mark Twain 45 46 1901 1919 Philanthropist Main articles Carnegie library Carnegie Corporation of New York Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Carnegie Institution for Science Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland Carnegie United Kingdom Trust Carnegie Hero Fund Carnegie Mellon University and Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh See also Carnegie Hall Tuskegee Institute and Hooker telescope Andrew Carnegie s philanthropy Puck magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple 1903 Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist From 1901 forward public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune to the public spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in Triumphant Democracy 1886 and Gospel of Wealth 1889 Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled Gratitude and Sweet Words He provided 25 000 a year to the movement for spelling reform 47 His organization the Simplified Spelling Board 48 created the Handbook of Simplified Spelling which was written wholly in reformed spelling 49 50 3 000 public libraries Captioned Free Libraries Carnegie caricatured by Spy for the London magazine Vanity Fair 1903 Among his many philanthropic efforts the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States Britain Canada and other English speaking countries was especially prominent In this special driving interest of his Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist Enoch Pratt 1808 1896 The Enoch Pratt Free Library 1886 of Baltimore Maryland impressed Carnegie deeply he said Pratt was my guide and inspiration 51 Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff led by James Bertram 1874 1934 52 The first Carnegie Library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance 53 To secure local interest in 1885 he gave 500 000 to Pittsburgh Pennsylvania for a public library in 1886 he gave 250 000 to Allegheny City Pennsylvania for a music hall and library and he gave 250 000 to Edinburgh for a free library In total Carnegie funded some 3 000 libraries located in 47 US states and also in Canada Britain Ireland Australia New Zealand South Africa the West Indies and Fiji He also donated 50 000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899 54 As Van Slyck 1991 showed during the last years of the 19th century there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate On one hand the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation on the other wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride Between 1886 and 1917 Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design encouraging a closer correspondence between the two 55 Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pennsylvania Carnegie library Macomb Illinois Edinburgh Central Library Yorkville Library Ontario Carnegie Library at Syracuse University New York Carnegie Library Moorreesburg South AfricaInvesting in education science pensions civil heroism music and world peace Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Institution administration building in Washington D C In 1900 Carnegie gave 2 million to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology CIT at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington D C for encourage research and discovery He later contributed more to these and other schools 53 CIT is now known as Carnegie Mellon University after it merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research Carnegie also served on the Boards of Cornell University and Stevens Institute of Technology 56 In 1911 Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale who was trying to build the 100 inch 2 5 m Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it I should like to be satisfied before I depart that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens The telescope saw first light on November 2 1917 with Carnegie still alive 57 Pittencrieff Park Dunfermline Scotland In 1901 in Scotland he gave 10 million to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7 1901 and it was incorporated by the Royal Charter on August 21 1902 The establishing gift of 10 million was then an unprecedented sum at the time total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about 50 000 a year The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university 58 He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St Andrews in December 1901 59 and formally installed as such in October 1902 60 serving until 1907 He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline the place of his birth In addition to a library Carnegie also bought the private estate which became Pittencrieff Park and opened it to all members of the public establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust 61 to benefit the people of Dunfermline A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913 14 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park 62 63 64 Carnegie was a major patron of music He was a founding financial backer of Jeannette Thurber s National Conservatory of Music of America in 1885 65 He built the music performing venue Carnegie Hall in New York City it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925 His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7 000 pipe organs in churches and temples with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect 66 67 He gave a further 10 million in 1913 to endow the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust a grant making foundation 68 69 He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom He gave the trustees a wide discretion and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches 70 Carnegie with African American leader Booker T Washington front row center in 1906 while visiting Tuskegee Institute The Peace Palace in the Hague opened in 1913 In 1901 Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and in 1905 for American college professors 29 The latter fund evolved into TIAA CREF One critical requirement was that church related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money Carnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute for African American education under Booker T Washington He helped Washington create the National Negro Business League Dutch medal of the Carnegie Hero Fund In 1904 he founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada a few years later also established in the United Kingdom Switzerland Norway Sweden France Italy the Netherlands Belgium Denmark and Germany for the recognition of deeds of heroism Carnegie contributed 1 500 000 in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague and he donated 150 000 for a Pan American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics 29 When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime he established the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1911 to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding and continue his program of giving Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity on October 14 1917 at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston Massachusetts The fraternity s mission reflects Carnegie s values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world By the standards of 19th century tycoons Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money 71 Maybe with the giving away of his money commented biographer Joseph Wall he would justify what he had done to get that money 72 To some Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries 73 Death Carnegie s grave at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow New York Carnegie died on August 11 1919 in Lenox Massachusetts at his Shadow Brook estate of Bronchial Pneumonia 74 75 He had already given away 350 695 653 approximately US 5 49 billion in 2021 dollars 76 of his wealth After his death his last 30 000 000 was given to foundations charities and to pensioners 77 He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow New York The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer Samuel Gompers another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age 78 Controversies1889 Johnstown Flood Main article Johnstown Flood A contemporary rendition of the Johnstown Flood scene at the Stone Bridge by Kurz and Allison 1890 Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club which has been blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed 2 209 people in 1889 79 At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff Carnegie s partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown Pennsylvania The sixty odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick s best friend Andrew Mellon his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed as well as Frick s business partner Carnegie High above the city near the small town of South Fork the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown With the coming of age of railroads superseding canal barge transport the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad and sold again to private interests and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881 Prior to the flood speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir made less than well engineered repairs to the old dam raised the lake level built cottages and a clubhouse and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club Less than 20 miles 32 km downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown The dam was 72 feet 22 m high and 931 feet 284 m long Between 1881 when the club was opened and 1889 the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched mostly with mud and straw Additionally a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water There had been some speculation as to the dam s integrity and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown Such repair work a reduction in height and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31 1889 resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood 80 When word of the dam s failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood This strategy was a success and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club s members Although Cambria Iron and Steel s facilities were heavily damaged by the flood they returned to full production within a year After the flood Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria s chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder which was destroyed in the flood The Carnegie donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association and houses the Flood Museum 1892 Homestead Strike The Homestead Strike Main article Homestead Strike The Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892 one of the most serious in U S history The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel s main plant in Homestead Pennsylvania and grew out of a labor dispute between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers AA and the Carnegie Steel Company Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked 81 In doing so Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti union sentiment With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February With the steel industry doing well and prices higher the AA asked for a wage increase the AA represented about 800 of the 3 800 workers at the plant Frick immediately countered with an average 22 wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union s membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit 82 Frick s letter to Carnegie describing the plans and munitions that will be on the barges when the Pinkertons arrive to confront the strikers in Homestead The union and company failed to come to an agreement and management locked the union out Workers considered the stoppage a lockout by management and not a strike by workers As such the workers would have been well within their rights to protest and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement strongly opposed by management Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them On July 6 the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men seven strikers and three Pinkertons were killed and hundreds were injured Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination wounding him While not directly connected to the strike Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt According to Berkman with the elimination of Frick responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie 83 Afterwards the company successfully resumed operations with non union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers and Carnegie returned to the United States 81 However Carnegie s reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events Theodore RooseveltAccording to David Nasaw after 1898 when the United States entered a war with Spain Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism He strongly opposed the war and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines When Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901 Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact They exchanged letters communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State John Hay and met in person Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free not realizing he was more of an imperialist and believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903 and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907 1908 Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909 In return he asked the ex president to mediate the growing conflict between the cousins who ruled Britain and Germany Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king Edward VII suddenly died 84 85 Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie and held the elderly man in contempt Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905 86 I have tried hard to like Carnegie but it is pretty difficult There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort and of hopelessly twisted ideals All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering preventable and non preventable among the operators of the Carnegie steel works and among the small investors during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se Unrighteous war is a hideous evil but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness Personal lifeFamily Andrew Carnegie with his wife Louise Whitfield Carnegie and their daughter Margaret Carnegie Miller in 1910 Carnegie did not want to marry during his mother s lifetime instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life 87 After she died in 1886 the 51 year old Carnegie married Louise Whitfield 87 who was 21 years his junior 88 In 1897 89 the couple had their only child a daughter whom they named after Carnegie s mother Margaret 90 Residence The Andrew Carnegie Mansion located on 5th Avenue in the Upper East Side Manhattan New York Carnegie bought Skibo Castle in Scotland 91 and made his home partly there and partly in his New York mansion located at 2 East 91st Street at Fifth Avenue 29 The building was completed in late 1902 and he lived there until his death in 1919 His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946 The building is now used as the Cooper Hewitt Smithsonian Design Museum part of the Smithsonian Institution The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan s Upper East Side has come to be called Carnegie Hill The mansion was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966 92 93 94 95 PhilosophyPolitics Carnegie gave formal allegiance to the Republican Party though he was said to be a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines of the party 96 Andrew Carnegie Dictum In his final days Carnegie had pneumonia Before his death on August 11 1919 Carnegie had donated 350 695 654 for various causes The Andrew Carnegie Dictum was To spend the first third of one s life getting all the education one can To spend the next third making all the money one can To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes Carnegie was involved in philanthropic causes but he kept himself away from religious circles He wanted to be identified by the world as a positivist He was highly influenced in public life by John Bright On wealth Carnegie at Skibo Castle 1914 Andrew Carnegie by Charles McBride Edinburgh Central Library As early as 1868 at age 33 he drafted a memo to himself He wrote The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry No idol more debasing than the worship of money 97 In order to avoid degrading himself he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving for the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced However he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881 at age 46 with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline Scotland 98 Carnegie wrote The Gospel of Wealth 99 an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society In that article Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of progressive taxation and an estate tax The growing disposition to tax more and more heavily large estates left at death is a cheering indication of the growth of a salutary change in public opinion The State of Pennsylvania now takes subject to some exceptions one tenth of the property left by its citizens The budget presented in the British Parliament the other day proposes to increase the death duties and most significant of all the new tax is to be a graduated one Of all forms of taxation this seems the wisest Men who continue hoarding great sums all their lives the proper use of which for public ends would work good to the community from which it chiefly came should be made to feel that the community in the form of the State cannot thus be deprived of its proper share By taxing estates heavily at death the State marks its condemnation of the selfish millionaire s unworthy life 100 101 The following is taken from one of Carnegie s memos to himself Man does not live by bread alone I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man and I know workmen and many so called poor men who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach It is the mind that makes the body rich There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself Exalted beyond this as it sometimes is it remains Caliban still and still plays the beast My aspirations take a higher flight Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind to the things of the spirit to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth 102 Intellectual influences April 1905 Carnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought particularly the work of Herbert Spencer even declaring Spencer his teacher 103 Although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused Spencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference Furthermore Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature so too had human society spontaneously fallen into division of labour 104 Individuals who survived to this the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be those in whom the power of self preservation is the greatest are the select of their generation 105 Moreover Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion insurance of rights and security 106 107 Spencerian survival of the fittest firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak unskilled poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution 108 Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity as severe fate singles out the weak debauched and disabled 108 Andrew Carnegie s political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez faire economics Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce as well as government sponsored charities Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged 109 Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial survival of the fittest and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure 110 Carnegie s determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well 111 In a notably Spencerian manner Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs which blocked evolutionary progress 112 Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community 110 On the surface Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer 113 Conversely Carnegie a titan of industry seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer s death in 1903 113 There are however some major discrepancies between Spencer s capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie s capitalist practices Spencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor and thus acceptable yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition Spencer feared that an absence of sympathetic self restraint of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors 114 He did not think free market competition necessitated competitive warfare Furthermore Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of commercial murder 114 Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors and merged with others usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies Over the course of twenty years Carnegie s steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works the Lucy Furnace Works the Union Iron Mills the Homestead Works the Keystone Bridge Works the Hartman Steel Works the Frick Coke Company and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry related assets 115 Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations taxes and tariffs as well Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans 116 Despite Carnegie s personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend his adherence to Spencer s political and economic ideas is more contentious In particular it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer s principal arguments Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie s steel mills in Pittsburgh which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer s philosophy Six months residence here would justify suicide 117 The conditions of human society create for this an imperious demand the concentration of capital is a necessity for meeting the demands of our day and as such should not be looked at askance but be encouraged There is nothing detrimental to human society in it but much that is or is bound soon to become beneficial It is an evolution from the heterogeneous to the homogeneous and is clearly another step in the upward path of development Carnegie Andrew 1901 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays 109 On the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie s actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer s philosophies In his 1854 essay Manners and Fashion Spencer referred to public education as Old schemes He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind political religious literary philanthropic and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand In addition Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money The institution eventually loses its original spirit and sinks into a lifeless mechanism 118 Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent Spencer thought any attempt to prevent the really salutary sufferings of the less fortunate bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse 119 Carnegie a self proclaimed devotee of Spencer testified to Congress on February 5 1915 My business is to do as much good in the world as I can I have retired from all other business 120 Carnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society 121 Furthermore he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals 122 Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks works of art libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the lasting good 123 Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers 122 By leaving large sums of money to their children wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society Most notably Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor 124 Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics 124 Religion and worldview Carnegie and his family belonged to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of Calvinism and religion as a whole but reconciled with it later in his life In his autobiography Carnegie describes his family as moderate Presbyterian believers writing that there was not one orthodox Presbyterian in his family various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism some of them leaning more towards Swedenborgianism While a child his family led vigorous theological and political disputes His mother avoided the topic of religion His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation while according to Carnegie still remaining very religious on his own Witnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism 125 Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural but I had found the truth of evolution 126 Later in life Carnegie s firm opposition to religion softened For many years he was a member of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church pastored from 1905 to 1926 by Social Gospel exponent Henry Sloane Coffin while his wife and daughter belonged to the Brick Presbyterian Church 127 He also prepared but did not deliver an address in which he professed a belief in an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed 128 Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912 1913 between Carnegie and Abdu l Baha the eldest son of Baha u llah founder of the Bahaʼi Faith In these letters one of which was published in The New York Times in full text 129 Carnegie is extolled as a lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace World peace Carnegie commemorated as an industrialist philanthropist and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 1960 130 Influenced by his favorite living hero in public life John Bright Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age 131 and supported causes that opposed military intervention 132 His motto All is well since all grows better served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career but also his view of international relations Despite his efforts towards international peace Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties Throughout the 1880s and 1890s for example Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy but he opposed American overseas expansion 133 Despite that Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly established International Court of Arbitration s Peace Palace brainchild of Russian Tsar Nicolas II 134 The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace s headquarters in Washington D C His largest and in the long run most influential peace organization was the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace formed in 1910 with a 10 million endowment 135 In 1913 at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was as certain to come and come soon as day follows night 136 In 1914 on the eve of the First World War Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union CPU a group of leaders in religion academia and politics Through the CPU Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world s churches religious organizations and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever For its inaugural international event the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1 1914 on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany As the delegates made their way to the conference by train Germany was invading Belgium Despite its inauspicious beginning the CPU thrived Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs an independent nonpartisan nonprofit organization whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace Although his promotion of anti imperialism and world peace had all failed and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death which took world peace to another level United States colonial expansion On the matter of American colonial expansion Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands or Puerto Rico but he opposed the annexation of the Philippines Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence 137 This act strongly impressed the other American anti imperialists who soon elected him vice president of the Anti Imperialist League After he sold his steel company in 1901 Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause both financially and personally He gave away much of his fortunes to various peacekeeping agencies in order to keep them growing When a friend the British writer William T Stead asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society his reply was I do not see that it is wise to devote our efforts to creating another organization Of course I may be wrong in believing that but I am certainly not wrong that if it were dependent on any millionaire s money it would begin as an object of pity and end as one of derision I wonder that you do not see this There is nothing that robs a righteous cause of its strength more than a millionaire s money Its life is tainted thereby 138 Carnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people that maintains the peace in international relations Money is just a push for the act If world peace depended solely on financial support it would not seem a goal but more like an act of pity Like Stead he believed that the United States and the British Empire would merge into one nation telling him We are heading straight to the Re United States Carnegie believed that the combined country s power would maintain world peace and disarmament 139 The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war Beyond a gift of 10 million for peace promotion Carnegie also encouraged the scientific investigation of the various causes of war and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law 140 Legacy and honors Carnegie statue Dunfermline Carnegie received the honorary Doctor of Laws DLL from the University of Glasgow in June 1901 141 and received the Freedom of the City of Glasgow in recognition of his munificence later the same year 142 In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of St Andrews in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow men on both sides of the Atlantic 143 and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of Perth in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland 144 and the Freedom of the City of Dundee 145 Also in 1902 he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society 146 He received an honorary Doctor of Laws LLD from the University of Aberdeen in 1906 147 In 1910 he received the Freedom of the City of Belfast 148 and was made as well Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government 149 Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on August 25 1913 150 Carnegie received July 1 1914 an honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen the Netherlands 151 Mounted D carnegii or Dippy skeleton at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world The dinosaur Diplodocus carnegiei Hatcher was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the Morrison Formation Jurassic of Utah Carnegie was so proud of Dippi that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania After the Spanish American War Carnegie offered to donate 20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence Carnegie Pennsylvania 152 and Carnegie Oklahoma were named in his honor The Saguaro cactus s scientific name Carnegiea gigantea is named after him The Carnegie Medal for the best children s literature published in the UK was established in his name The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education at Leeds Beckett University UK is named after him The concert halls in Dunfermline and New York are named after him At the height of his career Carnegie was the second richest person in the world behind only John D Rockefeller of Standard Oil Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools Carnegie Vanguard High School Lauder College named after his uncle George Lauder Sr in the Halbeath area of Dunfermline was renamed Carnegie College in 2007 A street in Belgrade Serbia next to the Belgrade University Library which is one of the Carnegie libraries is named in his honor An American high school Carnegie Vanguard High School in Houston Texas is named after him 153 Carnegie was awarded the Freedom of the Burgh of Kilmarnock in Scotland in 1903 prior to laying the foundation stone of Loanhead Public School 154 Benefactions Andrew Carnegie s cartoon throwing money in air Life 1905 According to biographer Burton J Hendrick His benefactions amounted to 350 000 000 for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than 12 500 000 but most of the principal as well Of this sum 62 000 000 was allotted to the British Empire and 288 000 000 to the United States for Carnegie in the main confined his benefactions to the English speaking nations His largest gifts were 125 000 000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York this same body also became his residuary legatee 60 000 000 to public library buildings 20 000 000 to colleges usually the smaller ones 6 000 000 to church organs 29 000 000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 22 000 000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh 22 000 000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington 10 000 000 to Hero Funds 10 000 000 to the Endowment for International Peace 10 000 000 to the Scottish Universities Trust 10 000 000 to the United Kingdom Trust and 3 750 000 to the Dunfermline Trust 155 Hendrick argues that These gifts fairly picture Carnegie s conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man They represent all his personal tastes his love of books art music and nature and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress scientific research education both literary and technical and above all the abolition of war The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie s name is that for public libraries Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund among other reasons because it came up my ain back but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance There was only one genuine remedy he believed for the ills that beset the human race and that was enlightenment Let there be light was the motto that in the early days he insisted on placing in all his library buildings As to the greatest endowment of all the Carnegie Corporation that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form it was established to carry on after Carnegie s death the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime 156 Research sources Carnegie s personal papers are at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie The Carnegie Corporation of New York CCNY The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace CEIP the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching CFAT The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs CCEIA These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie s life WorksCarnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues Books Our Coaching Trip Brighton to Inverness 1882 An American Four in hand in Britain 1883 Round the World New York Charles Scribner s Sons 1884 An American Four in Hand in Britain New York Charles Scribner s Sons 1886 Triumphant Democracy or Fifty Years March of the Republic New York Charles Scribner s Sons 1886 The Gospel of Wealth 1889 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays New York The Century Co 1901 The Empire of Business 1902 Audiobook via LibriVox The Secret of Business is the Management of Men 1903 157 James Watt Famous Scots Series New York Doubleday Page and Co 1905 Problems of Today Wealth Labor Socialism New York Doubleday Page and Co 1907 Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie posthumous Boston Houghton Mifflin 1920 Audiobook via Librivox Articles Wealth North American Review vol 148 no 381 Jun 1889 pp 653 64 Original version of The Gospel of Wealth The Bugaboo of Trusts North American Review vol 148 no 377 Feb 1889 Pamphlets The Bugaboo of Trusts Reprinted from North American Review vol 148 no 377 Feb 1889 Public speaking Industrial Peace Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation New York City December 15 1904 n c National Civic Federation 1904 Edwin M Stanton An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College New York Doubleday Page and Co 1906 The Negro in America An Address Delivered Before the Philosophical Institution of Edinburg 16th October 1907 Inverness R Carruthers amp Sons Courier Office 1907 Speech at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society at the Guildhall London EC May 24th 1910 London The Peace Society 1910 A League of Peace A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St Andrews 17th October 1905 New York New York Peace Society 1911 Collected works Wall Joseph Frazier ed The Andrew Carnegie Reader 1992 See also Biography portal Business and economics portal Pennsylvania portal Scotland portal Trains portalCarnegie disambiguation Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps History of public library advocacy List of Carnegie libraries in the United States List of peace activists List of richest Americans in history List of wealthiest historical figures List of universities named after peopleNotes Andrew Carnegie used the Scots pronunciation kɑrˈnɛːɡi with the stress on the second syllable but his name is now commonly pronounced ˈ k ɑːr n e ɡ i KAR ne ghee with the stress on the first syllable American English speakers that stress the second syllable are not normally able to produce the long ɛː in the Scots pronunciation and approximate it by producing its short equivalent as in the word dress k ɑːr ˈ n ɛ ɡ i kar NEG ee If they try to lengthen this sound they automatically produce the diphthong eɪ as in the word face 4 which they normally don t notice k ɑːr ˈ n eɪ ɡ i kar NAY ghee This approximation with the diphthong is further from the Scots pronunciation and so rare that it is not even mentioned as a variant in the Columbia Encyclopedia or the Merriam Webster Dictionary References Andrew Carnegie Encyclopedia com Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Merriam Webster Dictionary Pollak Michael June 20 2004 F Y I No National Edition New York City The New York Times Company New York Times p 2 Section 14 Archived from the original on April 6 2020 Retrieved October 22 2020 listed at 372 billion 2014 USD by Jacob Davidson time com The 10 Richest People of All Time Rockefeller gets all the press but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time The Scottish immigrant sold his company U S Steel to J P Morgan for 480 million in 1901 That sum equates to slightly over 2 1 percent of U S GDP at the time giving Carnegie an economic power equivalent to 372 billion in 2014 CPI Inflation Calculator www bls gov Retrieved October 15 2020 Andrew Carnegie s Legacy Archived from the original on October 16 2012 a b Hawke David Freeman 1980 John D The Founding Father of the Rockefellers Harper amp Row p 210 ISBN 978 0060118136 a b c d MacKay pp 23 24 The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Review Sept 1819 a b c Nasaw pp 54 59 64 65 Andrew Carnegie The railroad and steel magnate who played his more imperative role as a Philanthropist Vintage News February 22 2017 MacKay pp 37 38 Nasaw David 2006 Andrew Carnegie New York Penguin Group p 24 ISBN 978 1 59420 104 2 Nasaw David 2006 Andrew Carnegie New York Penguin Group p 33 ISBN 978 1 59420 104 2 Autobiography p 34 Nasaw David 2006 Andrew Carnegie New York Penguin Group p 34 ISBN 978 1 59420 104 2 Carnegie Andrew 1919 Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie p 42 Lankester E Ray 1921 Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie Nature 107 2679 2 Bibcode 1921Natur 107 2L doi 10 1038 107002a0 S2CID 4114721 Edge 2004 pp 21 22 Autobiography p 37 Autobiography pp 56 59 Autobiography p 45 Murray Stuart A P 2009 The Library An Illustrated History p 197 New York Skyhorse Pub ISBN 9781602397064 a b Edge 2004 p 35 Edge 2004 p 37 a b Nasaw pp 59 60 Autobiography p 79 a b c d e f Chisholm 1911 pp 364 65 Gillam Scott January 1 2009 Andrew Carnegie Industrial Giant and Philanthropist ABDO ISBN 978 1 60453 521 1 Wall Joseph Frazier Frazier Wall Joseph 1970 Andrew Carnegie Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 501282 8 Story Farm Columbia Farm Columbia Oil Company Randolph Amy 2001 Columbia Oil Farm of the Oil Creek Valley Venago County PA 150 Years of Petroleum Legacy Petroleum History Institute Andrew Carnegie and the Columbia Oil Farm Oil History petroleumhistory org William Story Farm Petroleum History Institute 2001 Nasaw pp 105 107 Rosenberg Nathan 1982 Inside the Black Box Technology and Economics Cambridge NY Cambridge University Press p 90 ISBN 978 0 521 27367 1 Bessemer steel suffered from nitrogen embrittlement with age Andrew Carnegie Biography amp Facts Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved August 23 2017 Nasaw pp 3264 78 Nasaw pp 7114 19 Nasaw pp 10653 57 Krass Peter 2002 Carnegie New York John Wiley amp Sons p Chapter 29 ISBN 0471386308 Retrieved December 3 2019 Winkler 2006 p 172 Winkler 2006 p 13 Carnegie Andrew June 1889 Wealth North American Review Swetnam George 1980 Andrew Carnegie Twayne Publishers Andrew Carnegie timeline of events PBS Hirschfeld Katherine Health Politics and Revolution in Cuba p 117 Transaction Publishers 2008 ISBN 978 1 4128 0863 7 Porter Robert Percival 1899 Industrial Cuba Being a Study of Present Commercial and Industrial Conditions with Suggestions as to the Opportunities Presented in the Island for American Capital Enterprise and Labour G P Putnam s Sons p 43 Joseph Frazer Wall Andrew Carnegie 1970 pp 891 893 Carnegie Assaults the Spelling Book To Pay the Cost of Reforming English Orthography Campaign About to Begin Board Named with Headquarters Here Local Societies Throughout the Country The New York Times March 12 1906 Retrieved August 28 2008 Handbook of Simplified Spelling Simplified Spelling Board 1920 Scott Tom June 28 2013 Ghoti and the Ministry of Helth Spelling Reform Archived from the original on November 22 2021 Pensinger Dr Kim The Big Cookie Proposition Insights and Inspiration for a Generous New You p 31 Ellen Condliffe Lagemann 1992 The Politics of Knowledge The Carnegie Corporation Philanthropy and Public Policy U of Chicago Press p 17 ISBN 9780226467801 a b Chisholm 1911 Mickelson Peter 1975 American Society and the Public Library in the Thought of Andrew Carnegie Journal of Library History 10 2 117 38 JSTOR 25540622 VanSlyck Abigail A 1991 The Utmost Amount of Effectiv sic Accommodation Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 50 4 359 83 doi 10 2307 990662 JSTOR 990662 Stevens Institute of Technology Campus and Directions web stevens edu Simmons Mike 1984 History of Mount Wilson Observatory Building the 100 Inch Telescope Archived February 8 2009 at the Wayback Machine Mount Wilson Observatory Association MWOA Our History Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland University intelligence The Times No 36632 London December 7 1901 p 11 University intelligence The Times No 36906 London October 23 1902 p 9 Carnegie Dunfermline Trust Registered Charity no SC015710 Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator Historic Environment Scotland View of Andrew Carnegie Statue Pittencrieff Park Dunfermline From South East 383697 Canmore Historic Environment Scotland PITTENCRIEFF PARK STATUE OF ANDREW CARNEGIE LB25970 LB25970 Retrieved August 10 2021 Andrew Carnegie statue vandalised Dunfermline Press Retrieved April 3 2018 Rubin Emanuel 1990 Jeannette Meyers Thurber and the National Conservatory of Music American Music 8 3 294 325 doi 10 2307 3052098 ISSN 0734 4392 JSTOR 3052098 Looking Back Into the Past PDF The Diapason 47 2 22 January 1 1956 Mr Carnegie Gives To All PDF The Diapason 2 3 3 February 1 1911 Carnegie United Kingdom Trust Registered Charity no SC012799 Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator Home Carnegie UK Trust Chisholm 1911 p 579 Krause Paul 1992 The Battle for Homestead 1880 1892 University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 978 0 8229 5466 8 p 233 Andrew Carnegie The American Experience PBS Swetnam George 1980 Andrew Carnegie Twayne Publishers ISBN 0805772391 Andrew Carnegie Dies Of Pneumonia In His 84th Year PDF The New York Times August 12 1919 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved August 1 2008 Andrew Carnegie died at Shadow Brook of bronchial pneumonia at 7 10 o clock this morning Krass 2002 Ch The Carnegie Legacy CPI Inflation Calculator Bureau of Labor Statistics Carnegie s Estate At Time Of Death About 30 000 000 PDF The New York Times August 29 1919 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Retrieved August 1 2008 The will of Andrew Carnegie filed here yesterday and admitted to probate immediately by Surrogate Fowler disposes of an estate estimated at between 25 000 000 and 30 000 000 The residuary estate of about 20 000 000 goes to the Carnegie Corporation Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Map PDF Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Historic Fund 2009 Archived from the original PDF on February 9 2011 Retrieved April 19 2010 Frank Walter Smoter May 1988 The Cause of the Johnstown Flood Civil Engineering 63 66 Archived from the original on April 6 2019 Retrieved February 27 2015 McCullough David 1987 The Johnstown Flood Simon amp Schuster New York ISBN 0671207148 a b Autobiography Ch 17 Foner Philip Sheldon 1975 History of the Labor Movement in the United States Volume Two From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism International Pub ISBN 9780717803880 Berkman Alexander 1912 Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist Mother Earth Publishing Association p 67 Nasaw Carnegie pp 650 652 729 738 Richard Ernsberger Jr A Fool for Peace American History Oct 2018 Vol 53 Issue 4 Nasaw Carnegie p 675 a b Edge 2004 p 78 Meachen Rau Dana 2005 Andrew Carnegie Captain of Industry Capstone pp 72 ISBN 978 0 7565 1853 0 Edge 2004 p 93 Parker Lewis K 2003 Andrew Carnegie and the Steel Industry The Rosen Publishing Group pp 40 ISBN 978 0 8239 6896 1 Wall Joseph Frazier 1984 Skibo The Story of the Scottish Estate of Andrew Carnegie from Its Celtic Origins to the Present Day Oxford NY Oxford University Press p 70 ISBN 978 0 1950 3450 9 Carnegie Hall National Historic Landmark summary listing National Park Service September 9 2007 Archived from the original on November 6 2007 Retrieved December 23 2015 National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination pdf National Park Service May 30 1975 National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination pdf National Park Service May 30 1975 Dolkart Andrew S Postal Matthew A 2004 Guide to New York City Landmarks New York City Landmarks Preservation Committee Mayor Michael R Bloomberg Author of Foreword Third ed Hoboken NJ John Wiley amp Sons pp 51 175 ISBN 9780471369004 Veteran Ironmaster Wrought Marvels in Public Benefactions The Sun August 12 1919 page 10 column 5 Klein Maury 2004 The Change Makers p 57 Macmillan ISBN 978 0 8050 7518 2 Burlingame Dwight 2004 Philanthropy in America ABC CLIO ISBN 978 1 57607 860 0 p 60 Autobiography pp 255 67 Carnegie Andrew 1900 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays New York The Century Company p 11 Carnegie Andrew 1962 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays Cambridge Massachusetts Belknap Press of Harvard University Press pp 21 22 Carnegie Libraries Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Culture Retrieved September 4 2011 Wealth p 165 Spencer Herbert 1855 The Principles of Psychology Chapter 1 Method Kindle Locations 7196 7197 Kindle Edition Spencer Herbert 1904 An Autobiography Chapter 23 A More Active Year Kindle Location 5572 Peerless Press Kindle Edition Spencer Herbert 1851 Social Statics Chapter 19 The Right to Ignore the State Kindle Locations 43303 43309 Kindle Edition Spencer Herbert 1851 Social Statics Chapter 21 The Duty of the State Kindle Locations 44159 44168 Kindle Edition a b Spencer Herbert 1851 Social Statics chapter 25 poor laws Kindle Locations 45395 45420 Kindle Edition a b Wealth pp 947 954 a b Nasaw pp 4762 67 Wealth pp 118 21 Wealth pp 1188 95 a b Wealth pp 163 71 a b Spencer Herbert 1887 The Ethics of Social Life Negative Beneficence The Collected Works of 6 Books With Active Table of Contents Kindle Locations 26500 26524 Kindle Edition Morris Charles R 2005 The Tycoons How Andrew Carnegie John D Rockefeller Jay Gould and J P Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy Times Books ISBN 0 8050 7599 2 p 132 Spencer Herbert Principles of Ethics 1897 Chapter 22 Political Rights So called With Active Table of Contents Kindle Locations 24948 24956 Kindle Edition Joseph Frazer Wall Andrew Carnegie 1989 p 386 Spencer Herbert 1854 Manners and Fashion The Collected Works of 6 Books With Active Table of Contents Kindle Locations 74639 74656 Kindle Edition Spencer Herbert Eliot Charles William September 15 2011 The Collected Works of 6 Books With Active Table of Contents Kindle Locations 45395 45420 Kindle Edition Nasaw p 787 Nasaw pp 11529 36 a b Wealth pp 747 48 Wealth a b Wealth pp 682 689 Nasaw Autobiography p 339 Bagpipe Tunes at Carnegie Wedding The New York Times April 23 1919 Nasaw p 625 Carnegie exalted by Bahaist leader The New York Times September 5 1917 Andrew Carnegie Issue Arago people postage amp the post Smithsonian National Postal Museum viewed September 27 2014 Autobiography Ch 21 pp 282 83 Examining the American peace movement prior to World War I April 6 2017 Carnegie An American Four in Hand in Britain New York 1883 pp 14 15 Gay Mark H November 10 2013 The Hague Peace Palace Keeps Tsar s Vision Alive The Moscow Times Archived from the original on August 8 2016 Retrieved August 8 2016 David S Patterson Andrew Carnegie s quest for world peace Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114 5 1970 371 383 online Cited in Bruno Tertrais The Demise of Ares The End of War as We Know It The Washington Quarterly 35 3 2012 p 17 Carnegie Americanism Versus Imperialism esp pp 12 13 Quoted in Hendrick B J 1932 The Life of Andrew Carnegie Vol 2 p 337 Garden City NY 1 Stead W T 1901 The Americanization of the World Horace Markley pp 406 12 Patterson David S 1970 Andrew Carnegie s Quest for World Peace Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114 5 371 83 JSTOR 985802 Glasgow University jubilee The Times No 36481 London June 14 1901 p 10 Court circular The Times No 36532 London August 13 1901 p 7 The Freedom of St Andrews The Times No 36824 London July 19 1902 p 14 Mr Carnegie at Perth The Times No 36894 London October 9 1902 p 4 Mr Carnegie at Dundee The Times No 36909 London October 27 1902 p 2 APS Member History search amphilsoc org Retrieved May 19 2021 Quatercentenary Celebrations Mr Carnegie Will Receive Freedom of Belfast Evening Telegraph Dundee British Newspaper Archive September 26 1910 Retrieved August 4 2014 Certificate of membership Commander of the Order of Legion of Honor 19th March 1910 online portal Power Library Diploma conferring on Mr Carnegie the rank of Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Orange Nassau The Hague 25th August 1913 online portal Power Library Jaarboek der Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen 1913 1914 Promotien Faculteit der Rechtgeleerdheid Honoris Causa Staatswetenschappen 1914 1 Juli p 91 Ackerman Jan May 10 1984 Town names carry bit of history Pittsburgh Post Gazette p 1 Retrieved October 31 2015 School Histories the Stories Behind the Names Houston Independent School District Retrieved September 24 2008 It is named for Andrew Carnegie the famous Scottish immigrant who rose to become a steel tycoon and philanthropist White Colin June 14 2007 His dirge our groans his monument our praise Official and Popular Commemoration of Nelson in 1805 6 History Commemoration and National Preoccupation British Academy doi 10 5871 bacad 9780197264065 003 0003 ISBN 978 0 19 726406 5 retrieved August 10 2021 Burton J Hendrick Carnegie Andrew 1835 1919 Dictionary of American Biography 1929 v 3 p 505 Hendrick Carnegie Andrew 1835 1919 Hellenic American Center of the Arts Feb 23 2015 Andrew Carnegie Bibliography Chisholm Hugh ed 1911 Carnegie Andrew Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 5 11th ed Cambridge University Press Edge Laura Bufano 2004 Andrew Carnegie Industrial Philanthropist Lerner Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 8225 4965 9 OCLC 760059951 MacKay J A 1997 Little Boss A life of Andrew Carnegie ISBN 978 1851588329 Nasaw David 2006 Andrew Carnegie New York The Penguin Press ISBN 978 1 59420 104 2 Ernsberger Jr Richard A Fool for Peace American History Oct 2018 Vol 53 Issue 4 interview with Nasaw Wall Joseph Frazier 1989 Andrew Carnegie ISBN 0822959046 Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography Winkler John K 2006 Incredible Carnegie Read Books ISBN 978 1 4067 2946 7 Collections Works by or about Andrew Carnegie at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Carnegie at Project Gutenberg Works by Andrew Carnegie at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Further readingBostaph Samuel 2015 Andrew Carnegie An Economic Biography Lanham MD Lexington Books ISBN 978 0739189832 125pp online reviewErnsberger Jr Richard Robber Baron turned Robin Hood American History Feb 2015 49 6 pp 32 41 cover story Farrah Margaret Ann Andrew Carnegie A Psychohistorical Sketch PhD dissertation Carnegie Mellon University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing 1982 8209384 Goldin Milton 1997 Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth In Myth America A Historical Anthology Volume II Gerster Patrick and Cords Nicholas editors St James NY Brandywine Press ISBN 1881089975 Harvey Charles et al Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy Business History 2011 53 3 pp 425 450 Hendrick Burton Jesse 1933 The life of Andrew Carnegie 2 vol vol 2 online Josephson Matthew 1938 The Robber Barons The Great American Capitalists 1861 1901 ISBN 9991847995 Krass Peter 2002 Carnegie Wiley ISBN 0471386308 scholarly biography Lagemann Ellen Condliffe 1992 The Politics of Knowledge The Carnegie Corporation Philanthropy and Public Policy University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0226467801 Lester Robert M 1941 Forty Years of Carnegie Giving A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created New York Charles Scribner s Sons Livesay Harold C 1999 Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business 2nd ed ISBN 0321432878 short biography by a scholar Lorenzen Michael 1999 Deconstructing the Carnegie Libraries The Sociological Reasons Behind Carnegie s Millions to Public Libraries Illinois Libraries 81 2 75 78 McGormick Blaine and Burton W Folsom Jr Survey of Business Historians on America s Greatest Entrepreneurs Business History Review 2003 77 4 pp 703 716 Carnegie ranks 3 behind Ford and Rockefeller Patterson David S 1970 Andrew Carnegie s Quest for World Peace Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114 5 1970 371 383 JSTOR 985802 Rees Jonathan 1997 Homestead in Context Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers Pennsylvania History 64 4 509 533 ISSN 0031 4528 Skrabec Jr Quentin R Henry Clay Frick The life of the perfect capitalist McFarland 2010 online Skrabec Jr Quentin R The Carnegie Boys The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America McFarland 2012 online VanSlyck Abigail A 1991 The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 50 4 359 383 ISSN 0037 9808 Zimmerman Jonathan Simplified Spelling and the Cult of Efficiency in the Progressiv Era Journal of the Gilded Age amp Progressive Era 2010 9 3 pp 365 394External links Wikisource has original works by or about Andrew Carnegie Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andrew Carnegie Wikiquote has quotations related to Andrew Carnegie Documentary Andrew Carnegie Rags to Riches Power to Peace Carnegie Birthplace Museum website Archival material relating to Andrew Carnegie UK National Archives Works by or about Andrew Carnegie at Internet Archive Works by Andrew Carnegie at LibriVox public domain audiobooks Booknotes interview with Peter Krass on Carnegie November 24 2002 Newspaper clippings about Andrew Carnegie in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Marguerite Martyn Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity Income Tax and the Blessings of Poverty May 1 1914 City Desk PublishingAcademic officesPreceded byJames Stuart Rector of the University of St Andrews1901 1907 Succeeded byThe Lord AveburyPreceded byHerbert Henry Asquith Rector of the University of Aberdeen1911 1914 Succeeded byWinston Churchill Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Andrew Carnegie amp oldid 1147240599, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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