fbpx
Wikipedia

Andrei Sakharov

May 04, 2023

For the historian, see Andrey Nikolayevich Sakharov.
In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming conventions, the patronymic is Dmitrievich and the family name is Sakharov.

Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андрей Дмитриевич Сахаров, IPA: [ɐnˈdrʲej ˈdmʲitrʲɪjevʲɪtɕ ˈsaxərəf]; 21 May 1921 – 14 December 1989), D.N., was a Soviet physicist and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, which he was awarded in 1975 for emphasizing the human rights around the world.

Andrei Sakharov
Андрей Сахаров
Sakharov at a conference of the USSR Academy of Sciences on 1 March 1989
Born(1921-05-21)21 May 1921
Moscow, Russian SFSR
Died14 December 1989(1989-12-14) (aged 68)
Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
Resting placeVostryakovskoye Cemetery
NationalityRussian
Citizenship Soviet Union
Alma mater
Known for
Spouses
  • Klavdia Vikhireva (1943–1969; her death)
  • Yelena Bonner (1972–1989; his death)
Awards
Scientific career
FieldsPhysics
ThesisТеория ядерных переходов типа 0→0 (1947)
Doctoral advisorIgor Tamm

Though, he spent his career in physics during the former Soviet program of nuclear weapons overseeing the thermonuclear discharges for Russian nuclear weapons, Sakharov did fundamental work in understanding the particle physics, magnetism, and physical cosmology. Sakaharov is mostly known for his political activism for individual freedom, human rights, civil liberties and reforms in Russia, for which, he was deemed as a dissident and faced persecution from the former Soviet establishment.[1]

In his memory, the Sakharov Prize is established by the European Parliament which is awarded annually for the people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms.[2]

Biography

Early life

Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a physics professor and an amateur pianist.[3] His father taught at the Second Moscow State University.[4] Andrei's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in the Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano, a daughter of the army general Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano.[5][6] Sakharov's parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality. His mother and grandmother were churchgoers; his father was a nonbeliever. When Andrei was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe. However, despite being an atheist,[7] he did believe in a "guiding principle" that transcends the physical laws.[8]

Education and career

Sakharov entered Physics Department of Moscow State University in 1938. Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War (World War II), he graduated in Aşgabat, in today's Turkmenistan.[9] He was then assigned to laboratory work in Ulyanovsk. In 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son. Klavdia would later die in 1969. He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of FIAN (the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences). He received his Ph.D. in 1947.[10]

Development of thermonuclear devices

Main articles: RDS-37 and Tsar Bomba

After World War II, he researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm. Sakharov's study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948.[11] Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika, or layered cake.[11] The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as Sakharov's Third Idea in Russia and the Teller–Ulam design in the United States. Before his Third Idea, Sakharov tried a "layer cake" of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel. The results were disappointing, yielding no more than a typical fission bomb. However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce, and he had no idea how powerful the US design was. Sakharov realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel, a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation. The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when Sakharov was writing his memoirs, but in the Teller–Ulam design, soft X-rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically. This is called radiation implosion. The Teller–Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium, producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium.[12][13] Sakharov's idea was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.

Sakharov saw "striking parallels" between his fate and those of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this "tragic confrontation of two outstanding people", both deserved respect, because "each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth." While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since "all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity."

Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had "known sin", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:

After more than forty years, we have had no third world war, and the balance of nuclear terror ... may have helped to prevent one. But I am not at all sure of this; back then, in those long-gone years, the question didn't even arise. What most troubles me now is the instability of the balance, the extreme peril of the current situation, the appalling waste of the arms race ... Each of us has a responsibility to think about this in global terms, with tolerance, trust, and candor, free from ideological dogmatism, parochial interests, or national egotism."

— Andrei Sakharov[14]

Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology

Main article: Tokamak

In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device.[15]

Magneto-implosive generators

Main article: Explosively pumped flux compression generator

In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators,[16] compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MK (for MagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953.

Sakharov then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s.[17] Sakharov later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 1023 protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface.

Particle physics and cosmology

After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]

 
2D didactic image of Sakharov's model of the universe with reversal of the arrow of time

He tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to give a theoretical motivation for proton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and 1952.[33]

Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already.[34] Sakharov was the first to consider CPT-symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang:

We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at ''t'' < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass "one through the other" at the instant ''t'' = 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when ''t'' > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.[20]

His legacy in this domain are the famous conditions named after him:[20] Baryon number violation, C-symmetry and CP-symmetry violation, and interactions out of thermal equilibrium.

Sakharov was also interested in explaining why the curvature of the universe is so small. This lead him to consider cyclic models, where the universe oscillates between contraction and expansion phases.[30][29] In those models, after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way: Sakharov considered three starting points, a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant, a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant, and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant. Those last two models feature what Sakharov calls a reversal of the time arrow, which can be summarized as follows: He considers times t > 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t = 0 (which he calls "Friedman singularity" and denotes Φ) as well as times t < 0 before that singularity. He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t > 0 as well as when time decreases for t < 0, which constitutes his reversal of time. Then he considers the case when the universe at t < 0 is the image of the universe at t > 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so: the universe has a non-zero CPT charge at t = 0 in this case. Sakharov considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity. In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t < 0 and t > 0.

In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity[citation needed], allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov.[35] Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model. Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity.[36]

Turn to activism

Since the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow.[37]

Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when the Soviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin, a follower of Trofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaign Lysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice, Sakharov, a member of the academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for "the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists."[38]: 109  In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Nikita Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov.[38]: 109 

The major turn in Sakharov's political evolution came in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explained the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal for a "bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense" because an arms race in the new technology would otherwise increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript, which accompanied the letter, in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by that kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in the Soviet press.[39][40]

Since 1967, after the Six Day War and the beginning of the Arab-Israeli conflict, he actively supported Israel, as he reported more than once in the press, and also maintained friendly relations with refuseniks who later made aliyah.

In May 1968, Sakharov completed an essay, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom". He described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After the essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union,[41] Sakharov was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics.

For 12 years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow.[42]: 21  He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.[42]: 21 

In 1970, Sakharov was among the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR, along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov.[42]: 21  The Committee wrote appeals, collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations. Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought Sakharov under increasing pressure from the government.[15]

Sakharov married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972.[43]

By 1973, Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment.[42]: 21  He appealed to the US Congress to approve the 1974 Jackson-Vanik Amendment to a trade bill, which coupled trade tariffs to the Kremlin's willingness to allow freer emigration.[42]: 24 

Attacked by Soviet establishment from 1972

In 1972, Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press. The writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence.[44]

In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn for their pro-Western, anti-socialist positions.

Sakharov later described that it took "years" for him to "understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was" in the Soviet ideals. "At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries". Then he came, in his words, to "the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers."[14]

"symmetry between a cancer cell and a normal one. Yet our state is similar to a cancer cell – with its messianism and expansionism, its totalitarian suppression of dissent, the authoritarian structure of power, with a total absence of public control in the most important decisions in domestic and foreign policy, a closed society that does not inform its citizens of anything substantial, closed to the outside world, without freedom of travel or the exchange of information."[14]

Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works, he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", and defied what he saw as unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist Party on the society in spite of a democratic Soviet Constitution (1936).

"I am no volunteer priest of the idea, but simply a man with an unusual fate. I am against all kinds of self-immolation (for myself and for others, including the people closest to me)."[14]

In a letter written from exile, he cheered up a fellow physicist and free market advocate with the words: "Fortunately, the future is unpredictable and also – because of quantum effects – uncertain." For Sakharov, the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could and should take personal responsibility for it.

Nobel Peace Prize (1975)

In 1973, Sakharov was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1974, he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.

Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him "a spokesman for the conscience of mankind".[2] In the words of the Nobel Committee's citation: "In a convincing manner Sakharov has emphasised that Man's inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation."[14]

Sakharov was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize. His wife, Yelena Bonner, read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo, Norway.[45][46] On the day the prize was awarded, Sakharov was in Vilnius, where the human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried.[47] In his Nobel lecture, "Peace, Progress, Human Rights", Sakharov called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them.[46]

By 1976, the head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, was prepared to call Sakharov "Domestic Enemy Number One" before a group of KGB officers.[42]: 24 

Internal exile (1980–1986)

 
The apartment building in Gagarina Avenue 214, Scherbinki district of Nizhny Novgorod where Sakharov lived in exile from 1980 to 1986. His apartment is now a museum.

Sakharov was arrested on 22 January 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, and was sent to the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a city that was off limits to foreigners.[48]

Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs, he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.[49]

In May 1984, Sakharov's wife, Yelena Bonner, was detained, and Sakharov began a hunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized and force-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984, Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky.

In April 1985, Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment. He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August, the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov.[50] He remained in the hospital until October 1985, when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986.

In December 1985, the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights.[51]

On 19 December 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost, called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow.[52]

Political leader

 
Sakharov with U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1988

In 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union.[53] He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on Sakharov's encouragement and support for the coal miners' strike in Vorkuta.[54]

In December 1988, Sakharov visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact-finding mission.[55] He concluded, "For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life and death".[56]

Death

 
Sakharov's grave, January 1990

Soon after 9 p.m. on 14 December 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11pm as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that Sakharov died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68.[57] He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.

Influence

Memorial prizes

The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to "those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov"; to "Laureates who, like Sakharov, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights."[58]

An Andrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights".

The Andrei Sakharov Prize for Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990.[59]

In 2004, with the approval of Yelena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia. Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins,[60] now a businessman in the US, the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize "for journalism as an act of conscience" has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko.[61]

Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center

The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University.[62] The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005.[63] These documents are available online.[64] Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.

Legacy and remembrance

Places

 
A statue of Andrei Sakharov in Yerevan, Armenia
 
"Thank you Andrei Sakharov" mural on the Berlin Wall
 
Andrei Sakharov on Soviet Nobel Peace Prize winners, the USSR stamp issued on 14 May 1991
  • In Moscow, there is Academician Sakharov Avenue and Sakharov Center.
  • During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C. (which later became the Russian ambassador's residence) was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Plaza" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention.[65]
  • In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him.
  • The Sakharov Gardens (est. 1990) are located at the entrance to Jerusalem, Israel, off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway.[66] There is also a street named after him in Haifa.
  • In Nizhny Novgorod, there is a in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years; in 2014 his monument was erected near the house.
  • In Saint Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park.
  • In 1979, an asteroid, 1979 Sakharov, was named after him.
  • A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov. The square was named on 16 March 1991, as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army.
  • Andreja Saharova iela in the district of Pļavnieki in Riga, Latvia, is named after Sakharov.
  • Andreij-Sacharow-Platz in downtown Nuremberg is named in honour of Sakharov.
  • In Belarus, International Sakharov Environmental University was named after him.
  • Intersection of Ventura Blvd and Laurel Canyon Blvd in Studio City, Los Angeles, is named Andrei Sakharov Square.[67]
  • In Arnhem, the bridge over the Nederrijn is called the Andrej Sacharovbrug.
  • The Andrej Sacharovweg is a street in Assen, Netherlands. There are also streets named in his honour in other places in the Netherlands such as Amsterdam, Amstelveen, The Hague, Hellevoetsluis, Leiden, Purmerend, Rotterdam, Utrecht
  • A street in Copenhagen, Denmark.
  • Quai Andreï Sakharov in Tournai, Belgium, is named in honour of Sakharov.
  • In Poland, streets named in his honour in Warsaw, Łódź and Kraków.
  • Andreï Sakharov Boulevard in the district of Mladost in Sofia, Bulgaria, is named after him.
  • In New York, a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street reads Sakharov-Bonner Corner, in honor of Sakharov and his wife, Yelena Bonner. The corner is just down the block from the Soviet Mission to the United Nations (which later became the Russian mission) and was the scene of repeated anti-Soviet demonstrations.[68]
  • In Chisinau, the capital of Moldova, there is Academician Andrei Sakharov street.

Media

  • In the 1984 made-for-TV film Sakharov starring Jason Robards.
  • In the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, one of the Enterprise-D's Shuttlecraft is named after Sakharov, and is featured prominently in several episodes. This follows the Star Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists, and particularly in The Next Generation, physicists.
  • The fictitious interplanetary spacecraft Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov from the novel 2010: Odyssey Two by Arthur C. Clarke is powered by a "Sakharov drive". The novel was published in 1982, when Sakharov was in exile in Nizhny Novgorod, and was dedicated both to Sakharov and to Alexei Leonov.
  • Russian singer Alexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song "Памяти А. Д. Сахарова" ("In memory of Andrei Sakharov"), which features on his Live In "Russia" 2 (Живем в "России" 2) CD.[69]
  • The faction leader of the Ecologists in the PC game S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl and its prequel is a scientist named Professor Sakharov.

Honours and awards

In 1980, Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for "anti-Soviet activities".[72] Later, during glasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently, Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree.[73]

Bibliography

Books

  • Sakharov, Andrei (1974). Sakharov speaks. Collins: Harvill Press. ISBN 978-0-00-262755-9.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1975). My country and the world. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-40226-0.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1978). Alarm and hope. The world-renowned Nobel laureate and political dissident speaks out on human rights, disarmament, and détente. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-50369-1.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1982). Collected scientific works. Marcel Dekker Inc. ISBN 978-0-8247-1714-8.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1990). Memoirs. Knopf. ISBN 978-0394537405.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1991). Moscow and beyond: 1986 to 1989. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-394-58797-4.
  • Сахаров, Андрей (1996). Воспоминания. В 2 томах [Memoirs. In 2 volumes] (in Russian). Vol. 1. Moscow: Права человека. ISBN 978-5-7712-0011-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
  • Сахаров, Андрей (1996). Воспоминания. В 2 томах [Memoirs. In 2 volumes] (in Russian). Vol. 2. Moscow: Права человека. ISBN 978-5-7712-0026-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)

Articles and interviews

  • Sakharov, Andrei (1968). Thoughts on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom. Foreign Affairs Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-900380-03-7.
  • Sakharov; Andrei (July 22, 1968). "Thoughts on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom" (PDF). The New York Times. (PDF) from the original on January 13, 2013.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Spring 1969). "Here and there: the threat of nuclear war". American Scientist. 57 (1): 167–171. JSTOR 27828445.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1974). О письме Александра Солженицына "Вождям Советского Союза" [On Alexander Solzhenitsyn's "A Letter to the Soviet Leaders"] (in Russian). New York: Khronika. OCLC 2326203.
  • Sakharov, Andrei; Tverdokhlebov, Andrei; Albrecht, Vladimir (May 28, 1974). "USSR. The chronicle of current events". Index on Censorship. 3 (3): 87. doi:10.1080/03064227408532355. S2CID 220923855.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (November 1975). "The need for an open world: Andrei Sakharov calls on scientists to intensify the campaign for a nuclear weapons ban and full disarmament". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: 8–9. doi:10.1080/00963402.1975.11458291.
  • Sakharov, Andrei; Turchin, Valentin; Medvedev, Roy (June 6, 1970). "The need for democratization". The Saturday Review: 26–27.
  • Sakharov, Andrei; Turchin, Valentin; Medvedev, Roy (Summer 1970). "An open letter". Survey: 160–170.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1972). "Memorandum". Survey: 223–233.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Spring 1973). "Statement by the Human Rights Committee". Survey: 271–273.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Interview with Swedish RTV". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 13–17. doi:10.1080/03064227308532263. S2CID 146534370.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "The Deputy Prosecutor‐General and I". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 19–23. doi:10.1080/03064227308532264. S2CID 145423521.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Press conference". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 25–29. doi:10.1080/03064227308532265. S2CID 220932382.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 1973). "Reply to critics". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 29–30. doi:10.1080/03064227308532266. S2CID 220929169.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (January–March 1974). "Reply to oppression". Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali. 41 (1): 47–54. JSTOR 42733796.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (March 21, 1974). "How I came to dissent". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (June 13, 1974). "In answer to Solzhenitsyn". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (March 1975). "Sakharov's statement on Jackson amendment". Index on Censorship. 4 (1): 73–74. doi:10.1080/03064227508532405. S2CID 145693276.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (June 1976). "Peace, progress and human rights". Index on Censorship. 5 (2): 3–9. doi:10.1080/03064227608532514. S2CID 144812636.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (February 9, 1978). "The death penalty". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (February 1978). "Letter from Sakharov and Meiman". Nature. 271 (5645): 499. Bibcode:1978Natur.271..499S. doi:10.1038/271499c0.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1978). "The human rights movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe: its goals, significance, and difficulties". Trialogue (19): 4–7, 26–27.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 1980). "USSR: Sakharov's plea for poets". Index on Censorship. 9 (6): 64. doi:10.1080/03064228008533146. S2CID 159662308.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (May 1981). "The responsibility of scientists". Nature. 291 (5812): 184–185. Bibcode:1981Natur.291..184S. doi:10.1038/291184a0. PMID 7231537.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (June 1981). "The social responsibility of scientists". Physics Today. 34 (6): 25–30. Bibcode:1981PhT....34f..25S. doi:10.1063/1.2914603. ISSN 0031-9228.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (October 1981). "The responsibility of scientists". Nature. 25 (10): 18–21. Bibcode:1981Natur.291..184S. doi:10.1038/291184a0. ISSN 0033-5002. PMID 7231537.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1981). "An autobiographical note". The Partisan Review: 511–513.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (January 21, 1982). "Letter to my foreign colleagues". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei; Meiman, Naum (March–April 1982). "The plight of Yuri Orlov". Harvard International Review. 4 (6): 50. JSTOR 42762207.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1982). "An appeal". The Partisan Review: 480–482.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (June 1983). "A message from Gorky". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 39 (6): 2–3. Bibcode:1983BuAtS..39f...2S. doi:10.1080/00963402.1983.11458999.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (Summer 1983). "The danger of thermonuclear war. An open letter to Dr. Sidney Drell" (PDF). Foreign Affairs. 61 (5): 1001–1016. doi:10.2307/20041632. JSTOR 20041632. (PDF) from the original on March 16, 2016.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (July 21, 1983). "A reply to slander". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (March 1, 1984). "A letter to my scientific colleagues". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (March 16, 1987). "Of arms and reforms". Time.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (August 13, 1987). "On accepting a prize". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (February 25, 1988). "A man of universal interests". Nature. 331 (6158): 671–672. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..671S. doi:10.1038/331671a0. S2CID 4319051.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (December 22, 1988). "On Gorbachev: a talk with Andrei Sakharov". The New York Review of Books.
  • Sajarov, Andrei; Bonner, Elena (1989). "Al simposio de Madrid sobre las relaciones comerciales y económicas Este-Oeste" [Madrid symposium on East-West trade relations and economics]. Política Exterior (in Spanish). 3 (12): 45–47. JSTOR 20642878.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (August 17, 1989). "A speech to the People's Congress". The New York Review of Books. 36 (13): 25–26.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (1990). "We cannot do without nuclear power plants, but ...". World Marxist Review. 33: 21–22. ISSN 0043-8642.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (May 21, 1990). "Sakharov: Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn: a difference in principle". Time.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (May 21, 1990). "Sakharov: years in exile". Time.
  • Sakharov, Andrei (July 1999). "Lecture in Lyons: science and freedom". Physics Today. 52 (7): 22–24. Bibcode:1999PhT....52g..22S. doi:10.1063/1.882746. ISSN 0031-9228.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Sakharov Human Rights Prize 25th anniversary marked in US". Voice of America. January 15, 2014.
  2. ^ a b . American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on December 31, 2015.
  3. ^ "Andrei Sakharov - Facts". Nobel Prize. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
  4. ^ Sidney David Drell, Sergeǐ Petrovich Kapitsa, Sakharov Remembered: a tribute by friends and colleagues (1991), p. 4
  5. ^ Bonner, Yelena. (in Russian). Archived from the original on November 14, 2010. Retrieved November 2, 2009.
  6. ^ Греки в Красноярском крае (Материалы из книги И. Джухи "Греческая операция НКВД") (in Russian). from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved November 2, 2009.
  7. ^ Gennady Gorelik; Antonina W. Bouis (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press. p. 356. ISBN 9780195156201. Apparently Sakharov did not need to delve any deeper into it for a long time, remaining a totally nonmilitant atheist with an open heart.
  8. ^ Sidney D. Drell, George P. Shultz (October 1, 2015). Andrei Sakharov: The Conscience of Humanity. Hoover Press. ISBN 9780817918965. I am unable to imagine the universe and human life without some guiding principle, without a source of spiritual 'warmth' that is nonmaterial and not bound by physical laws.
  9. ^ "Nobel Prize Laureates from MSU". Moscow State University. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
  10. ^ Mastin, Luke (2009). "Andrei Sakharov - Important Scientists". The Physics of the Universe. Retrieved October 8, 2017.
  11. ^ a b Zaloga, Steve (17 February 2002). The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces 1945–2000. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1588340074.
  12. ^ Sakharov, Andrei (1992). Memoirs. Vintage. ISBN 978-0679735953.
  13. ^ Gorelik, Gennady; Bouis, Antonina (2005). The world of Andrei Sakharov: a Russian physicist's path to freedom. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156201.
  14. ^ a b c d e Gorelik, Gennady (2008). "Andrei Sakharov". In Koertge, Noretta (ed.). New dictionary of scientific biography. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons/Thomson Gale.
  15. ^ a b "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights".
  16. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1966). "Magnetoimplosive Generators" Взрывомагнитные генераторы. Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (in Russian). 88 (4): 725–734. doi:10.3367/ufnr.0088.196604e.0725. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (1966). "Magnetoimplosive generators". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 9 (2): 294–299. Bibcode:1966SvPhU...9..294S. doi:10.1070/PU1966v009n02ABEH002876. Republished as: Sakharov, A. D.; et al. (1991). "Magnetoimplosive generators" Взрывомагнитные генераторы. Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (in Russian). 161 (5): 51–60. doi:10.3367/UFNr.0161.199105g.0051. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D.; et al. (1991). "Magnetoimplosive generators". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 387–391. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..385S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002495.
  17. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (December 7, 1982). Collected Scientific Works. Marcel Dekker. ISBN 978-0824717148.
  18. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (July 1965). Начальная стадия расширения Вселенной и возникновение неоднородности распределения вещества. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 49 (1): 345–358. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1966). "The Initial Stage of an Expanding Universe and the Appearance of a Nonuniform Distribution of Matter" (PDF). JETP. 22 (1): 241–249. Bibcode:1966JETP...22..241S. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  19. ^ Maximum temperature of thermal radiation November 30, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, ZhETF Pis'ma 3 : 439-441 (1966); Tr. JETP Lett. 3 : 288-289 (1966)
  20. ^ a b c Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). Нарушение СР–инвариантности, С–асимметрия и барионная асимметрия Вселенной. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 5 (1): 32–35. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry, and baryon asymmetry of the universe" (PDF). JETP Letters. 5 (1): 24–26. Bibcode:1967JETPL...5...24S. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Republished as Sakharov, A. D. (May 1991). "Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry, and baryon asymmetry of the universe" (PDF). Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 392–393. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..392S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002497. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  21. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). Кварк–мюонные токи и нарушение СР–инвариантности. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 5 (1): 36–39. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (January 1967). "Quark-Muonic Currents and Violation of CP Invariance" (PDF). JETP Letters. 5 (1): 27–30. Bibcode:1967JETPL...5...27S. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  22. ^ Preprint Collection of the Institute for Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences "Gravitation and field theory", art.3, (oct. 1967)
  23. ^ Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 177, 70 (1967) [trans. Sov. Phys.-Dokl. 12, 1040 (1968)]
  24. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1969). Антикварки во Вселенной [Antiquarks in the Universe]. Problems in Theoretical Physics (in Russian): 35–44. Dedicated to the 30th anniversary of N. N. Bogolyubov.
  25. ^ Paper at seminar, Phys. Inst. Acad. Sci., June 1970
  26. ^ A multisheet Cosmological Model of the Universe, Preprint collection of the Institute for Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, art.7, (1970)
  27. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1972). Топологическая структура элементарных зарядов и СРТ–симметрия [The topological structure of elementary charges and CPT symmetry]. Problems in Theoretical Physics (in Russian): 243–247. Dedicated to the memory of I. E. Tamm.
  28. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (April 1979). Барионная асимметрия Вселенной. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 76 (4): 1172–1181.Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (April 1979). "The baryonic asymmetry of the Universe" (PDF). JETP Letters. 49 (4): 594–599. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  29. ^ a b Sakharov, A. D. (September 1980). Космологические модели Вселенной с поворотом стрелы времени. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 79 (3): 689–693.Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (September 1980). "Cosmological models of the Universe with reversal of time's arrow" (PDF). JETP Letters. 52 (3): 349–351. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  30. ^ a b Sakharov, A. D. (October 1982). Многолистные модели Вселенной. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 82 (3): 1233–1240. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (October 1982). "Many-sheeted models of the universe (Multisheet models of the universe)" (PDF). JETP. 56 (4): 705–709. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  31. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (August 1984). "Космологические переходы с изменением сигнатуры метрики". Pi'sma ZhÉTF. 87 (2): 375–383. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (August 1984). "Cosmological transitions with changes in the signature of the metric" (PDF). JETP. 60 (2): 214–218. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  32. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (September 1986). Испарение черных мини–дыр и физика высоких энергий. Pi'sma ZhÉTF (in Russian). 44 (6): 295–298. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (September 1986). "Evaporation of black mini-holes and high-energy physics" (PDF). JETP Letters. 44 (6): 379–383. Bibcode:1986JETPL..44..379S. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  33. ^ E. P. Wigner, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 93, 521 (1949); Proc. Natl.Ac'ad. Sci. (U. S.) 38, 449 (1952)
  34. ^ F. Reines, C.L. Cowan, M. Goldhaber, Phys.Rev. 96 (1954) 1157.
  35. ^ Novikov, I. D. (March 1966). "The Disturbances of the Metric when a Collapsing Sphere Passes below the Schwarzschild Sphere" (PDF). JETP Letters. 3 (5): 142–144. Bibcode:1966JETPL...3..142N. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  36. ^ Sakharov, A. D. (1967). Вакуумные квантовые флуктуации в искривленном пространстве и теория гравитации. Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences (in Russian). 177 (1): 70–71. Translated as: Sakharov, A. D. (1991). "Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and the theory of gravitation" (PDF). Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 34 (5): 394. Bibcode:1991SvPhU..34..394S. doi:10.1070/PU1991v034n05ABEH002498. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  37. ^ Anderson, Raymond H. (December 15, 1989). "Andrei Sakharov, 68, Nuclear Inventor and Mainspring of the Soviet Conscience (Published 1989)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 14, 2021.
  38. ^ a b Crump, Thomas (2013). Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union. Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-66922-6.
  39. ^ Gennady Gorelik. The Metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov. Scientific American, 1999, March.
  40. ^ Web exhibit "Andrei SAKHAROV: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights" at American Institute of Physics [1] December 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  41. ^ Initially on July 6, 1968, in the Dutch newspaper Het Parool through the intermediary of the Dutch academic and writer Karel van het Reve, followed by The New York Times: "Outspoken Soviet Scientist; Andrei Dmitriyevich Sakharov". The New York Times. July 22, 1968.
  42. ^ a b c d e f Rubenstein, Joshua; Gribanov, Alexander (2005). The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. Joshua Rubenstein, Alexander Gribanov (eds.), Ella Shmulevich, Efrem Yankelevich, Alla Zeide (trans.). New Haven, CN. ISBN 978-0-300-12937-3.
  43. ^ irishtimes.com
  44. ^ "30.12 Materials about Sakharov". A Chronicle of Current Events. January 16, 2016.
  45. ^ Y.B. Sakharov: Acceptance Speech, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 10, 1975.
  46. ^ a b Y.B. Sakharov: Peace, Progress, Human Rights, Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1975.
  47. ^ Gorelik, Gennady (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534374-8.
  48. ^ "From Exile - Sakharov Web Exhibit". history.aip.org. Retrieved July 30, 2019.
  49. ^ . Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
  50. ^ . Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
  51. ^ "AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology".
  52. ^ Michael MccGwire (1991). Perestroïka and Soviet national security. Brookings Institution Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-8157-5553-1.
  53. ^ "IHEU Awards | IHEU". IHEU. Retrieved December 2, 2018.
  54. ^ . Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved July 6, 2016.
  55. ^ Whitney, Craig R.; Times, Special To the New York (January 10, 1989). "SAKHAROV TOOK UP ENCLAVE'S STATUS". The New York Times. Retrieved December 16, 2020.
  56. ^ "House of Commons - Foreign Affairs - Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence - Sixth Report". publications.parliament.uk.
  57. ^ Coleman, Fred (1997). The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years That Shook the World, from Stalin to Yeltsin. New York: St. Martin's. p. 116.
  58. ^ "Sakharov Prize Network". European Parliament. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
  59. ^ "For Writer's Civic Courage" May 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Literaturnaya Gazeta, October 31, 1990
  60. ^ "No 49 : 14 May 1978". A Chronicle of Current Events. October 7, 2013.
  61. ^ "Glasnost defence foundation digest No. 734".
  62. ^ Harvard University. KGB file of Sakharov May 16, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  63. ^ The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. (edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov), New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005; ISBN 978-0-300-10681-7
  64. ^ The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov May 21, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, online version with original texts and the English translations in English and in Russian (text version in Windows-1251 character encoding and the pictures of the original pages).
  65. ^ Washington's Sakharov Plaza: A Message to Russia, Toledo Blade, 27 August 1984. Retrieved May 2013
  66. ^ (in Russian). Photo exhibition "Sakharov Gardens" September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (sakharov-center.ru)
  67. ^ Aaron Curtiss (November 22, 1991). "Sakharov Junction". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles. from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  68. ^ Anderson, Susan; Bird, David (August 10, 1984). "New York day by day; human rights reminder posted near Soviet mission". The New York Times.
  69. ^ "Alexander Gradsky official website" (in Russian). Retrieved February 3, 2013.
  70. ^ "Andrei Dmitriyevich Sakharov". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
  71. ^ "Andrei Sakharov". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
  72. ^ "Andrei Sakharov, 68, Soviet 'Conscience,' Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
  73. ^ Gennady Gorelik, The World Of Andrei Sakharov, (Oxford: Oxford U. Press) 2005, pp. xv, 351-355
  74. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved July 15, 2022.

Further reading

  • "100,000 honour Andrei Sakharov". The Glasgow Herald. December 18, 1989. p. 4.
  • Information, Reed Business (April 30, 1981). "An honourable dissident". New Scientist. 90 (1251): 266. {{cite journal}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  • "Andrei Sakharov addresses grads". The Lewiston Daily Sun. June 15, 1987. p. 14.
  • "Andrei Sakharov ends lone hunger strike". Eugene Register-Guard. August 7, 1984. p. 4A.
  • Developments concerning Dr. Andrei Sakharov: joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, second session, March 18, 1986. Vol. 4. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1986.
  • "Exile of Andrei Sakharov is deplored". The Telegraph. January 23, 1980. p. 2.
  • "How Sakharov won exit visa for his wife". Chicago Tribune. February 24, 1986.
  • "President honors Andrei Sakharov". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. May 19, 1983. p. 7A.
  • "Russia orders end of internal exile for Andrei Sakharov, noted dissident". The Tuscaloosa News. December 19, 1986.
  • Sakharov, Andrei. Facets of a Life. Frontieres. 1991. ISBN 978-2-86332-096-9.
  • "Sakharov case spotlights Soviet efforts against dissidents". The Hour. May 26, 1984.
  • "Sakharov in a plea on prisoners". The New York Times. September 4, 1986.
  • "Sakharov is "symbol" of fight for freedom: Russian dissident scientist awarded Nobel Peace Prize". Observer–Reporter. October 10, 1975.
  • "Sakharov letter describes torment". Chicago Tribune. February 16, 1986.
  • "Sakharov speaks out on repression, detente (Sakharov's letter to Anatoly P. Aleksandrov, president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences)". The Ukrainian Weekly. Vol. LXXXVII, no. 31. December 28, 1980.
  • Information, Reed Business (May 7, 1981). "Scientists meet in New York to honour Sakharov". New Scientist. 90 (1252): 332. {{cite journal}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  • Soviet detention of Andrei Sakharov: Markup before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, Second Session, 4 February 1980. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1980.
  • "Soviet opposition left leaderless by passing of Andrei Sakharov". Eugene Register-Guard. December 17, 1989. p. 18A.
  • "Soviet Union: Sakharov's defense". Time. September 24, 1973.
  • "Soviet Union: a warning for Sakharov". Time. November 5, 1973.
  • "Soviet Union: a travel permit for Sakharov". Time. October 31, 1988.
  • "The blessed curse of Andrei Sakharov". Chicago Tribune. November 17, 1988.
  • "The undefeated Sakharovs". Chicago Tribune. December 28, 1986.
  • "Trying to help Andrei Sakharov". The Hour. March 1, 1980. p. 23.
  • Altshuler, Boris (February 2012). "Andrei Sakharov today: lasting impact on science and society". Physics-Uspekhi. 55 (2): 176–182. Bibcode:2012PhyU...55..176A. doi:10.3367/UFNe.0182.201202h.0188. S2CID 123169637.
  • Applebaum, Anne (October 20, 2005). "Hero". The New York Review of Books.
  • Babyonyshev, Alexander (1982). On Sakharov. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-71004-4.
  • Bailey, George (1989). The making of Andrei Sakharov. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0713990331.
  • Belotserkovsky, Vadim (1975). "Soviet dissenters: Solzhenitsyn, Sakharov, Medvedev". Partisan Review. 42 (1): 35–68.
  • Bergman, Jay (2009). Meeting the Demands of Reason: The Life and Thought of Andrei Sakharov. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4731-0.
  • Bohlen, Celestine (January 11, 1987). "Sakharov describes loneliness of life in Gorki". The Washington Post.
  • Bonner, Yelena (May 16, 1986). "Yelena Bonner tells of medical abuse of her husband". Science. 232 (4752): 821. Bibcode:1986Sci...232..821H. doi:10.1126/science.3704629.
  • Bonner, Elena (1988) [1986]. Alone together (3 ed.). New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0394755380.
  • Bonner, Elena (December 2005). "Sakharov is Tokamak's originator". Physics Today. 58 (12): 15. Bibcode:2005PhT....58Q..15B. doi:10.1063/1.2169425.
  • Capuzza, Jamie; Golden, James (1988). The images and impact of Andrei Sakharov: a study of dissident rhetoric in the Soviet human rights movement. Ohio State University. OCLC 19583828.
  • Carroll, Nicholas (February 25, 1981). "The loneliness of Andrei Sakharov". The Montreal Gazette. p. 23.
  • Clemens, Walter Jr. (1971). "Sakharov: a man for our times". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 27 (10): 4–56. Bibcode:1971BuAtS..27j...4C. doi:10.1080/00963402.1971.11455417.
  • Clementi, Marco (2002). Il diritto al dissenso: il progetto costituzionale di Andrej Sacharov [The right to dissent: Andrei Sakharov's constitutional project] (in Italian). Rome: Odradek Edizioni. ISBN 978-8886973441.
  • Dornan, Peter (1975). "Andrei Sakharov: the conscience of a liberal scientist". In Tökés, Rudolf (ed.). Dissent in the USSR: politics, ideology, and people. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 354–417. ISBN 978-0-8018-1661-1.
  • Drell, Sidney (May 2000). "Andrei Sakharov and the nuclear danger". Physics Today. 53 (5): 37–41. Bibcode:2000PhT....53e..37D. doi:10.1063/1.883099.
  • Drell, Sidney; Hoagland, Jim; Shultz, George (June 25, 2015). "The man who spoke truth to power: Andrei Sakharov's enduring relevance". Foreign Affairs.
  • Drell, Sidney; Kapitsa, Sergei (eds.) (1991). Sahkarov Remembered. Springer. ISBN 978-0-88318-852-1. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Drell, Sidney; Okun, Lev (August 1990). "Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov". Physics Today. 43 (8): 26. Bibcode:1990PhT....43h..26D. doi:10.1063/1.881252.
  • Drell, Sidney; Shultz, George (2015). Andrei Sakharov: the conscience of humanity. Physics Today. Vol. 69. Hoover Press. p. 61. Bibcode:2016PhT....69g..61K. doi:10.1063/PT.3.3240. ISBN 978-0817918965.
  • Drummond, Roscoe (March 7, 1977). "What kind of man is Andrei Sakharov?". Observer–Reporter. p. A4.
  • Eaton, William (July 20, 1985). "Sakharov: Soviet aides defend internal exile: Soviets, challenged on rights, defend treatment of Sakharov". Los Angeles Times.
  • Eaton, William (December 8, 1985). "Tass says Sakharov is only afflicted by 'aging'". Los Angeles Times.
  • Ferullo, Joe; Moore, Suzanne (January 30, 1979). "Talking to Tanya: Sakharov's daughter speaks in Massachusetts". Columbia Daily Spectator. CIII (61): 3.
  • Feshbach, Herman (April 1987). "A meeting with Sakharov". Physics Today. 40 (4): 7–9. Bibcode:1987PhT....40d...7F. doi:10.1063/1.2819974.
  • Fireside, Harvey (Winter 1989). "Dissident visions of the USSR: Medvedev, Sakharov & Solzhenitsyn". Polity. 22 (2): 213–229. doi:10.2307/3234832. JSTOR 3234832. S2CID 156032782.
  • Fisher, Dan (May 24, 1984). "Andrei Sakharov. A prophet without honor among his own people". Los Angeles Times. p. 7A.
  • Furth, Harold (April 30, 1981). "Sakharov: science of a dissident". New Scientist. 90 (1251): 274–278.
  • Ginzburg, Vitaly (2001). "The Sakharov phenomenon". The physics of a lifetime: reflections on the problems and personalities of 20th century physics. Springer. pp. 471–506. Bibcode:2001plfp.book.....G. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-04455-1_30. ISBN 978-3540675341.
  • Glazov, Yuri (1985). "Pasternak, Solzhenitsyn, and Sakharov". The Russian mind since Stalin's death. D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 158–179. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-5341-3_9. ISBN 978-9027718280.
  • Gorelik, Gennady, Bouis, Antonina (2005). The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515620-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Gorelik, Gennady (July 2002). (PDF). Scientific American: 27–30. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2016. Retrieved April 5, 2016.
  • Gottfried, Kurt; Orlov, Yuri (December 19, 1989). "A man who would not be silenced: Sakharov: he saw scientific, political and moral realities as one equation, and he died still warning about 'tomorrow'". Los Angeles Times.
  • Harasowska, Marta; Olhovych, Orest (1977). The international Sakharov hearing. Smoloskyp Publishers. ISBN 978-0914834113.
  • Harris, Zelda; Richter, Elihu (July 7, 2010). "Andrei Sakharov, Elena Bonner and Gilad Schalit". The Jerusalem Post.
  • Hesse, Natalya; Tolz, Vladimir (April 12, 1984). "The Sakharovs in Gorky". The New York Review of Books.
  • Hermann, Anton (November 1987). "Elena Bonner and Andrei Sakharov". Quadrant. 33 (11): 78–79.
  • Holloway, David (March 1990). "Andrei Sakharov, 1921–1989". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 46 (2): 14. Bibcode:1990BuAtS..46b..14H. doi:10.1080/00963402.1990.11459791.
  • Holloway, David (June 30, 1991). "Moral leader of a nation". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 47 (6): 37–38. doi:10.1080/00963402.1991.11459998.
  • Jacobs, Michael (March 1980). "Sakharov exile triggers reaction in US physics community". Physics Today. 33 (3): 133–134. Bibcode:1980PhT....33c.133J. doi:10.1063/1.2913982.
  • Keller, Bill (April 3, 1987). "Sakharov disillusions dissidents". Chicago Tribune.
  • Kelley, Donald (February 1979). "Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov as futurologists". Futures. 11 (1): 63–68. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(79)90070-3.
  • Kelley, Donald (1982). The Solzhenitsyn-Sakharov dialogue: politics, society, and the future. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313229404.
  • Klehr, Harvey (September 5, 2005). "Sakharov Watch. Fearful police state meets brave dissident". The Weekly Standard. 10 (47).
  • Kline, Edward (December 22, 1986). "Sakharov stands for the individual". Los Angeles Times.
  • Korey, William (November 1986). "Andrey Sakharov–the Soviet Jewish perspective". Soviet Jewish Affairs. 16 (3): 17–28. doi:10.1080/13501678608577546.
  • Kovalev, Sergei (May 21, 1998). . Izvestiya. Archived from the original on February 23, 2016.
  • Kramer, Mark (December 17, 1989). "His spirit moved him and indeed, it moved us all: Sakharov: always the optimist, he gained an inner strength that carried him from exile to the leading voice of the Soviet opposition". Los Angeles Times.
  • Kuptz, Kirsten (2004). Dissent in the Soviet Union: the role of Andrei Sakharov in the human rights movement. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3638278348.
  • Lee, Gary (November 12, 1988). "Sakharov says Soviet Union continues to violate human rights". The Washington Post.
  • Lee, Gary (November 15, 1988). "President receives Sakharov". The Washington Post.
  • LeVert, Suzanne (1986). The Sakharov file: a study in courage. J. Messner. ISBN 978-0671600709.
  • Lewis, Anthony (July 14, 1984). "Torturing Andrei Sakharov". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. p. 21A.
  • Lipkin, Harry (2013). Andrei Sakharov: Quarks and the Structure of Matter. Andrei Sakharov: Quarks and the Structure of Matter. Edited by Lipkin Harry J. Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. World Scientific Publishing. pp. 1–17. Bibcode:2013asqs.book.....L. doi:10.1142/9789814407427_0001. ISBN 978-981-4407-41-0.
  • Lizhi, Fang; Ratnesar, Romesh (June 14, 1999). "The dissident Andrei Sakharov". Time.
  • Lord, David (December 24, 1986). "Sakharov's release cause for optimism Cotler says". The Montreal Gazette. p. A-7.
  • Lourie, Richard (2002). Sakharov. A Biography. Brandeis University Press. ISBN 978-1-5846-5207-6.
  • Lozansky, Edward (1985). Andrei Sakharov and Peace. Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-89819-0.
  • Marshall, Eliot (February 8, 1980). "U.S. scientists protest punishment of Sakharov". Science. 207 (4431): 625. Bibcode:1980Sci...207Q.625M. doi:10.1126/science.207.4431.625. PMID 17749319.
  • Medvedev, Zhores (January 9, 1986). "Sakharov's scientific legacy". Nature. 319 (6049): 93. Bibcode:1986Natur.319Q..93M. doi:10.1038/319093a0. S2CID 4337731.
  • Medvedev, Zhores (January 26, 1987). "Andrei Sakharov's return ..." The Scientist.
  • Medvedev, Zhores (March 1990). "The legacy of Andrei Sakharov". Index on Censorship. 19 (3): 13–14. doi:10.1080/03064229008534808.
  • Mervis, Jeffrey (January 26, 1987). "Sakharov release may bolster ties with West, say activists". The Scientist.
  • Mitgang, Herbert (May 12, 2002). "A life of scientist and dissident Andrei Sakharov". Chicago Tribune.
  • Mollick, John (December 24, 1989). "The wisdom of Andrei Sakharov". The Washington Post.
  • Moscovici, Serge (1997). "Singer, Sakharov et avoir l'air. Où la transgression mène à l'identification" [Singer, Sakharov and looking like. Where infringement leads to identification]. L'Inactuel (in French) (7): 39–58.
  • Murray-Brown, Jeremy (1988). . In Bittman, Ladislav (ed.). The new image-makers: Soviet propaganda and disinformation today. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's. pp. 159–200. ISBN 978-0080349398. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016.
  • Mydans, Seth (February 18, 1977). "Sakharov gets personal letter from Carter". Schenectady Gazette. Vol. LXXXIV, no. 121.
  • Nathans, Benjamin (August 29, 2003). "The Sakharov Archives: a vital record of human rights history is in danger". The New York Times.
  • Porubcansky, Mark (June 4, 1988). "Sakharov: time, trust needed for reform". Lakeland Ledger. p. 11A.
  • Rabinowitch, Eugene (November 1968). "The Sakharov manifesto: Progress, peaceful coexistence, intellectual freedom". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 24 (9): 2–7. Bibcode:1968BuAtS..24i...2R. doi:10.1080/00963402.1968.11457727.
  • Reddaway, Peter (December 24, 1986). "What future for the Sakharovs?". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. p. 7A.
  • Rhéaume, Charles (February 2008). "Western scientists' reactions to Andrei Sakharov's human rights struggle in the Soviet Union, 1968–1989". Human Rights Quarterly. 30 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1353/hrq.2008.0004. JSTOR 20486694. S2CID 144447151.
  • Rich, Vera (May 16, 1985). "Sakharov: resignation from Soviet academy". Nature. 315 (6016): 169. Bibcode:1985Natur.315..169R. doi:10.1038/315169b0.
  • Rich, Vera (November 10, 1988). "Sakharov to stand for Supreme Soviet?". Nature. 336 (6195): 97. Bibcode:1988Natur.336...97R. doi:10.1038/336097b0.
  • Rich, Vera (February 11, 1988). "Sakharov work acknowledged". Nature. 331 (6156): 468. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..468R. doi:10.1038/331468c0.
  • Rich, Vera (May 12, 1983). "Soviet human rights: one-way trip for Sakharov?". Nature. 303 (5913): 106. Bibcode:1983Natur.303..106R. doi:10.1038/303106c0.
  • Rich, Vera (1993). "East-west links: Sakharov college struggles on". Physics World. 6 (8): 9–10. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/6/8/7.
  • Ritus, Vladimir (February 2012). "A D Sakharov: personality and fate". Physics-Uspekhi. 55 (2): 170–175. Bibcode:2012PhyU...55..170R. doi:10.3367/UFNe.0182.201202g.0182. S2CID 122401532.
  • Robert, Horvath (October 2015). ""Sakharov would be with us": Limonov, Strategy-31, and the dissident legacy". The Russian Review. 74 (4): 581–598. doi:10.1111/russ.12049.
  • Safire, William (February 2, 1977). "Russian scientist and the moral hotline". The Day. p. 8.
  • Sessler, Andrew; Howell, Yvonne (May 1984). "Andrei Sakharov: a man of our times". American Journal of Physics. 52 (397): 397–402. Bibcode:1984AmJPh..52..397S. doi:10.1119/1.13624.
  • Shanker, Thom (December 25, 1986). "Free political dissidents, Sakharov tells Gorbachev". Chicago Tribune.
  • Shcharansky, Anatoly (Spring 1990). "The legacy of Andrei Sakharov". Journal of Democracy. 1 (2): 35–40. doi:10.1353/jod.1990.0035. S2CID 154840266.
  • Simes, Dimitri (December 29, 1986). "Gorbachev and Sakharov: little has changed yet". Los Angeles Times.
  • Smith, Fred (Winter 1991). "Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn: dissidents with a different world view". The Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies. 16 (4): 469–476.
  • Solzhenitsyn, Alexander (December 1973). "Peace and violence – Sakharov for the Nobel Peace Prize". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 47–51. doi:10.1080/03064227308532268. S2CID 144007404.
  • Sternberg, Hilary (December 1973). "Sakharov & Solzhenitsyn: champions of freedom". Index on Censorship. 2 (4): 5–11. doi:10.1080/03064227308532261. S2CID 144209226.
  • Surovtseva, Ekaterina (2014). [A.I. Solzhenitsyn and A.D. Sakharov: the debate around "Letter to the Soviet leaders" and its perception in the emigre press (M. Agursky)] (PDF). Филологические науки. Вопросы теории и практики (in Russian). 9 (39, part 2): 159–161. Archived from the original (PDF, immediate download) on March 6, 2016.
  • Surovtseva, Ekaterina (2015). А.И. Солженицын, А.Д. Сахаров и Р. Медведев: дискуссия вокруг "Письма вождям Советского Союза" и её восприятие в эмигрантской печати (М. Агурский) [A.I. Solzhenitsyn, A.D. Sakharov and R. Medvedev: the debate around "Letter to the Soviet leaders" and its perception in the emigre press (M. Agursky)]. Молодой ученый (in Russian) (2): 608–613. from the original on April 19, 2015.
  • Teller, Edward (1991). "A life of fighting for freedom". Physics World. 4 (5): 44–45. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/4/5/28.
  • Vernacchia-Galli, Jole (1986). "Andrej Dmitrievich Sakharov". Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 [The register of honoris causa degrees from 1944 to 1985]. Studi e Fonti per la storia dell'Università di Roma (in Italian). Vol. 10. Roma: Edizioni Dell'Ateneo. pp. 687–779. The Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 is a detailed and carefully commented register of all the documents of the official archive of the Sapienza University of Rome pertaining to the honoris causa degrees awarded or not. It includes all the awarding proposals submitted during the considered period, detailed presentations of the work of the candidate, if available, and precise references to related articles published on Italian newspapers and magazines, if the laurea was awarded.
  • Wade, Nicholas (February 15, 1980). "A pledge to help Sakharov" (PDF). Science. 207 (4432): 745. Bibcode:1980Sci...207S.745W. doi:10.1126/science.11643589. S2CID 239491684. (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2015.
  • Wade, Nicholas (May 15, 1981). "Physicists meet to honor Sakharov: The Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov will be 60 on 21 May; a symposium in his honor was held on May Day, not in Moscow but in New York" (PDF). Science. 212 (4496): 756–757. Bibcode:1981Sci...212..756W. doi:10.1126/science.212.4496.756. PMID 17752230. (PDF) from the original on October 18, 2015.
  • Wade, Nicholas (March 28, 1980). "Sakharov expulsion averted" (PDF). Science. 207 (4438): 1451. Bibcode:1980Sci...207S1451W. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1451-b. (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2015.
  • Wade, Nicholas (March 14, 1980). "Sakharov protests mount" (PDF). Science. 207 (4436): 1186. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1186W. doi:10.1126/science.207.4436.1186. PMID 17776847. (PDF) from the original on October 20, 2015.
  • Weeks, Albert (1975). Andrei Sakharov and the Soviet dissidents: a critical commentary. Monarch Press. ISBN 978-0671009632.
  • White, Sarah (July 12, 1973). "Will Sakharov soon be silenced?". New Scientist. 59 (854): 92.
  • Weisskopf, Victor (August 1984). "Sakharov and East-West relations". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 40 (7): 2. Bibcode:1984BuAtS..40g...2W. doi:10.1080/00963402.1984.11459247.
  • Wren, Christopher (October 10, 1975). "Andrei Sakharov fights to attain human rights". The Daytona Beach News-Journal. p. 8A.
  • Wynn, Allan; Dewhirst, Martin; Stone, Harold (1986). Fifth International Sakharov Hearing: Proceedings, April, 1985. Andre Deutsch. ISBN 978-0233980508.
  • Young, Benjamin (2012). "Andrei Sakharov". In Williams, Robert; Viotti, Paul (eds.). Arms control: history, theory, and policy. ABC-CLIO. pp. 307–309. ISBN 978-0275998202.
  • Zdravomyslov, Andrei (1995). "Диссидентское движение в свете социологии конфликта. А.Д. Сахаров" [Dissident movement in the light of sociology of conflict. A.D. Sakharov]. Социология конфликта. Россия на путях преодоления кризиса. Учебное пособие для студентов высших учебных заведений [Sociology of conflict. Russia on ways to overcome crisis. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions] (in Russian). Moscow: Аспект-пресс. pp. 264–267. ISBN 978-5756700091.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andrei Sakharov.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Andrei Sakharov.
  • at the Houghton Library.
  • . Brandeis University. Archived from the original on January 20, 2003. Retrieved April 17, 2006.
  • Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights June 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics.
  • Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology March 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
  • Andrei Sakharov at Find a Grave
  • Andrei Sakharov on Nobelprize.org  

Videos

  • Václav Havel and Soviet Dissidents, 8 min, watch Andrei Sakharov's interview since 2:05 on YouTube
  • Спецвипуск. Пам'яті Андрія Сахарова [Special program issue. In commemoration of Andrei Sakharov, Mustafa Dzhemilev's interview to Semyon Gluzman, in Russian], 26 min, 15 December 2014 on YouTube

May 04, 2023
andrei, sakharov, historian, andrey, nikolayevich, sakharov, this, name, that, follows, eastern, slavic, naming, conventions, patronymic, dmitrievich, family, name, sakharov, this, article, expanded, with, text, translated, from, corresponding, article, russia. For the historian see Andrey Nikolayevich Sakharov In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming conventions the patronymic is Dmitrievich and the family name is Sakharov This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Russian December 2021 Click show for important translation instructions View a machine translated version of the Russian article Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate rather than simply copy pasting machine translated text into the English Wikipedia Consider adding a topic to this template there are already 2 809 articles in the main category and specifying topic will aid in categorization Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low quality If possible verify the text with references provided in the foreign language article You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing Russian Wikipedia article at ru Saharov Andrej Dmitrievich see its history for attribution You should also add the template Translated ru Saharov Andrej Dmitrievich to the talk page For more guidance see Wikipedia Translation Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Russian Andrej Dmitrievich Saharov IPA ɐnˈdrʲej ˈdmʲitrʲɪjevʲɪtɕ ˈsaxeref 21 May 1921 14 December 1989 D N was a Soviet physicist and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate which he was awarded in 1975 for emphasizing the human rights around the world Andrei SakharovAndrej SaharovSakharov at a conference of the USSR Academy of Sciences on 1 March 1989Born 1921 05 21 21 May 1921Moscow Russian SFSRDied14 December 1989 1989 12 14 aged 68 Moscow Russian SFSR Soviet UnionResting placeVostryakovskoye CemeteryNationalityRussianCitizenship Soviet UnionAlma materMoscow State UniversityFIANKnown forRDS 37Soviet nuclear programTsar BombaExplosively pumped flux compression generatorElectromagnetic pulseTokamakMuon catalyzed fusionSakharov conditionsInduced gravityProton decayDissidenceHuman rights activismSpousesKlavdia Vikhireva 1943 1969 her death Yelena Bonner 1972 1989 his death AwardsHero of Socialist Labor 1953 1955 1962 Stalin Prize 1953 Lenin Prize 1956 Prix mondial Cino Del Duca 1974 Nobel Peace Prize 1975 Elliott Cresson Medal 1985 Scientific careerFieldsPhysicsThesisTeoriya yadernyh perehodov tipa 0 0 1947 Doctoral advisorIgor TammThough he spent his career in physics during the former Soviet program of nuclear weapons overseeing the thermonuclear discharges for Russian nuclear weapons Sakharov did fundamental work in understanding the particle physics magnetism and physical cosmology Sakaharov is mostly known for his political activism for individual freedom human rights civil liberties and reforms in Russia for which he was deemed as a dissident and faced persecution from the former Soviet establishment 1 In his memory the Sakharov Prize is established by the European Parliament which is awarded annually for the people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms 2 Contents 1 Biography 1 1 Early life 1 2 Education and career 1 3 Development of thermonuclear devices 1 4 Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology 1 5 Magneto implosive generators 1 6 Particle physics and cosmology 1 7 Turn to activism 1 8 Attacked by Soviet establishment from 1972 1 9 Nobel Peace Prize 1975 1 10 Internal exile 1980 1986 1 11 Political leader 1 12 Death 2 Influence 2 1 Memorial prizes 2 2 Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center 3 Legacy and remembrance 3 1 Places 3 2 Media 4 Honours and awards 5 Bibliography 5 1 Books 5 2 Articles and interviews 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links 9 1 VideosBiography EditEarly life Edit Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21 1921 His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov a physics professor and an amateur pianist 3 His father taught at the Second Moscow State University 4 Andrei s grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in the Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles including advocating the abolition of capital punishment that would later influence his grandson Sakharov s mother was Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano a daughter of the army general Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano 5 6 Sakharov s parents and paternal grandmother Maria Petrovna largely shaped his personality His mother and grandmother were churchgoers his father was a nonbeliever When Andrei was about thirteen he realized that he did not believe However despite being an atheist 7 he did believe in a guiding principle that transcends the physical laws 8 Education and career Edit Sakharov entered Physics Department of Moscow State University in 1938 Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War World War II he graduated in Asgabat in today s Turkmenistan 9 He was then assigned to laboratory work in Ulyanovsk In 1943 he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva with whom he raised two daughters and a son Klavdia would later die in 1969 He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of FIAN the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences He received his Ph D in 1947 10 Development of thermonuclear devices Edit Main articles RDS 37 and Tsar Bomba After World War II he researched cosmic rays In mid 1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm Sakharov s study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August September 1948 11 Adding a shell of natural unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction This idea of a layered fission fusion fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika or layered cake 11 The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29 1949 After moving to Sarov in 1950 Sakharov played a key role in the development of the first megaton range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as Sakharov s Third Idea in Russia and the Teller Ulam design in the United States Before his Third Idea Sakharov tried a layer cake of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel The results were disappointing yielding no more than a typical fission bomb However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce and he had no idea how powerful the US design was Sakharov realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when Sakharov was writing his memoirs but in the Teller Ulam design soft X rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically This is called radiation implosion The Teller Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium 12 13 Sakharov s idea was first tested as RDS 37 in 1955 A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961 which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated Sakharov saw striking parallels between his fate and those of J Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US Sakharov believed that in this tragic confrontation of two outstanding people both deserved respect because each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller s resolve to get the H bomb for the United States since all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint or as the manifestation of stupidity In both cases the reaction would have been the same avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy s stupidity Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had known sin in Oppenheimer s expression He later wrote After more than forty years we have had no third world war and the balance of nuclear terror may have helped to prevent one But I am not at all sure of this back then in those long gone years the question didn t even arise What most troubles me now is the instability of the balance the extreme peril of the current situation the appalling waste of the arms race Each of us has a responsibility to think about this in global terms with tolerance trust and candor free from ideological dogmatism parochial interests or national egotism Andrei Sakharov 14 Support for peaceful use of nuclear technology Edit Main article Tokamak In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor the tokamak which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area Sakharov in association with Tamm proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device 15 Magneto implosive generators Edit Main article Explosively pumped flux compression generator In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators 16 compressing magnetic fields by explosives He called these devices MK for MagnetoKumulative generators The radial MK 1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss 2500 teslas The resulting helical MK 2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953 Sakharov then tested a MK driven plasma cannon where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable self confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km s 17 Sakharov later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect He theorized this could focus 1023 protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface Particle physics and cosmology Edit After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 2D didactic image of Sakharov s model of the universe with reversal of the arrow of time He tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe in that regard he was the first to give a theoretical motivation for proton decay Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and 1952 33 Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already 34 Sakharov was the first to consider CPT symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons or photons are produced at t lt 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks that they pass one through the other at the instant t 0 when the density is infinite and decay with an excess of quarks when t gt 0 realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe All the phenomena at t lt 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t gt 0 20 His legacy in this domain are the famous conditions named after him 20 Baryon number violation C symmetry and CP symmetry violation and interactions out of thermal equilibrium Sakharov was also interested in explaining why the curvature of the universe is so small This lead him to consider cyclic models where the universe oscillates between contraction and expansion phases 30 29 In those models after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way Sakharov considered three starting points a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant Those last two models feature what Sakharov calls a reversal of the time arrow which can be summarized as follows He considers times t gt 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t 0 which he calls Friedman singularity and denotes F as well as times t lt 0 before that singularity He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t gt 0 as well as when time decreases for t lt 0 which constitutes his reversal of time Then he considers the case when the universe at t lt 0 is the image of the universe at t gt 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so the universe has a non zero CPT charge at t 0 in this case Sakharov considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t lt 0 and t gt 0 In his first model the two universes did not interact except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity citation needed allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov 35 Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity 36 Turn to activism Edit Since the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work Politically active during the 1960s Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty signed in Moscow 37 Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964 when the Soviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin a follower of Trofim Lysenko initiator of the Stalin supported anti genetics campaign Lysenkoism Contrary to normal practice Sakharov a member of the academy publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for the defamation firing arrest even death of many genuine scientists 38 109 In the end Nuzhdin was not elected but the episode prompted Nikita Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov 38 109 The major turn in Sakharov s political evolution came in 1967 when anti ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US Soviet relations In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21 1967 Sakharov explained the need to take the Americans at their word and accept their proposal for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense because an arms race in the new technology would otherwise increase the likelihood of nuclear war He also asked permission to publish his manuscript which accompanied the letter in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by that kind of defense The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in the Soviet press 39 40 Since 1967 after the Six Day War and the beginning of the Arab Israeli conflict he actively supported Israel as he reported more than once in the press and also maintained friendly relations with refuseniks who later made aliyah In May 1968 Sakharov completed an essay Reflections on Progress Peaceful Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom He described the anti ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war After the essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union 41 Sakharov was banned from conducting any military related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics For 12 years until his exile to Gorky Nizhny Novgorod in January 1980 Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow 42 21 He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners and continued to write essays about the need for democratization 42 21 In 1970 Sakharov was among the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov 42 21 The Committee wrote appeals collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought Sakharov under increasing pressure from the government 15 Sakharov married a fellow human rights activist Yelena Bonner in 1972 43 By 1973 Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment 42 21 He appealed to the US Congress to approve the 1974 Jackson Vanik Amendment to a trade bill which coupled trade tariffs to the Kremlin s willingness to allow freer emigration 42 24 Attacked by Soviet establishment from 1972 Edit In 1972 Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press The writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence 44 In 1973 and 1974 the Soviet media campaign continued targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn for their pro Western anti socialist positions Sakharov later described that it took years for him to understand how much substitution deceit and lack of correspondence with reality there was in the Soviet ideals At first I thought despite everything that I saw with my own eyes that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future a kind of prototype for all countries Then he came in his words to the theory of symmetry all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad all peoples are oppressed and all are threatened by common dangers 14 symmetry between a cancer cell and a normal one Yet our state is similar to a cancer cell with its messianism and expansionism its totalitarian suppression of dissent the authoritarian structure of power with a total absence of public control in the most important decisions in domestic and foreign policy a closed society that does not inform its citizens of anything substantial closed to the outside world without freedom of travel or the exchange of information 14 Sakharov s ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics In his works he declared that the principle what is not prohibited is allowed should be understood literally and defied what he saw as unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist Party on the society in spite of a democratic Soviet Constitution 1936 I am no volunteer priest of the idea but simply a man with an unusual fate I am against all kinds of self immolation for myself and for others including the people closest to me 14 In a letter written from exile he cheered up a fellow physicist and free market advocate with the words Fortunately the future is unpredictable and also because of quantum effects uncertain For Sakharov the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could and should take personal responsibility for it Nobel Peace Prize 1975 Edit In 1973 Sakharov was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and in 1974 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975 The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him a spokesman for the conscience of mankind 2 In the words of the Nobel Committee s citation In a convincing manner Sakharov has emphasised that Man s inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation 14 Sakharov was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize His wife Yelena Bonner read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo Norway 45 46 On the day the prize was awarded Sakharov was in Vilnius where the human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried 47 In his Nobel lecture Peace Progress Human Rights Sakharov called for an end to the arms race greater respect for the environment international cooperation and universal respect for human rights He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them 46 By 1976 the head of the KGB Yuri Andropov was prepared to call Sakharov Domestic Enemy Number One before a group of KGB officers 42 24 Internal exile 1980 1986 Edit The apartment building in Gagarina Avenue 214 Scherbinki district of Nizhny Novgorod where Sakharov lived in exile from 1980 to 1986 His apartment is now a museum Sakharov was arrested on 22 January 1980 following his public protests against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 and was sent to the city of Gorky now Nizhny Novgorod a city that was off limits to foreigners 48 Between 1980 and 1986 Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance In his memoirs he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association 49 In May 1984 Sakharov s wife Yelena Bonner was detained and Sakharov began a hunger strike demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery He was forcibly hospitalized and force fed He was held in isolation for four months In August 1984 Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky In April 1985 Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment He again was taken to a hospital and force fed In August the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov 50 He remained in the hospital until October 1985 when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986 In December 1985 the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights 51 On 19 December 1986 Mikhail Gorbachev who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow 52 Political leader Edit Sakharov with U S President Ronald Reagan in 1988 In 1988 Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union 53 He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union s growing political opposition In March 1989 Sakharov was elected to the new parliament the All Union Congress of People s Deputies and co led the democratic opposition the Inter Regional Deputies Group In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on Sakharov s encouragement and support for the coal miners strike in Vorkuta 54 In December 1988 Sakharov visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact finding mission 55 He concluded For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition for the Armenians of Karabakh it is a matter of life and death 56 Death Edit Sakharov s grave January 1990 Soon after 9 p m on 14 December 1989 Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress His wife went to wake him at 11pm as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport a senior pathologist present at the autopsy it is most likely that Sakharov died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68 57 He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow Influence EditMemorial prizes Edit The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union It is awarded annually by the parliament to those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov to Laureates who like Sakharov dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights 58 An Andrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 to recognize outstanding leadership and or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights The Andrei Sakharov Prize for Writer s Civic Courage was established in October 1990 59 In 2004 with the approval of Yelena Bonner an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins 60 now a businessman in the US the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow The prize for journalism as an act of conscience has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia s media capital Moscow The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko 61 Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center Edit The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center established at Brandeis University in 1993 are now housed at Harvard University 62 The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005 63 These documents are available online 64 Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 Brezhnev stagnation The documents characterize not only Sakharov s activity but that of other dissidents as well as that of highest position apparatchiks and the KGB No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available Legacy and remembrance EditThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Places Edit A statue of Andrei Sakharov in Yerevan Armenia Thank you Andrei Sakharov mural on the Berlin Wall Andrei Sakharov on Soviet Nobel Peace Prize winners the USSR stamp issued on 14 May 1991 In Moscow there is Academician Sakharov Avenue and Sakharov Center During the 1980s the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets in front of the Soviet embassy in Washington D C which later became the Russian ambassador s residence was renamed Andrei Sakharov Plaza as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention 65 In Yerevan the capital of Armenia Sakharov Square located in the heart of the city is named after him The Sakharov Gardens est 1990 are located at the entrance to Jerusalem Israel off the Jerusalem Tel Aviv Highway 66 There is also a street named after him in Haifa In Nizhny Novgorod there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12 storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years in 2014 his monument was erected near the house In Saint Petersburg his monument stands in Sakharov Square and there is a Sakharov Park In 1979 an asteroid 1979 Sakharov was named after him A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov The square was named on 16 March 1991 as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army Andreja Saharova iela in the district of Plavnieki in Riga Latvia is named after Sakharov Andreij Sacharow Platz in downtown Nuremberg is named in honour of Sakharov In Belarus International Sakharov Environmental University was named after him Intersection of Ventura Blvd and Laurel Canyon Blvd in Studio City Los Angeles is named Andrei Sakharov Square 67 In Arnhem the bridge over the Nederrijn is called the Andrej Sacharovbrug The Andrej Sacharovweg is a street in Assen Netherlands There are also streets named in his honour in other places in the Netherlands such as Amsterdam Amstelveen The Hague Hellevoetsluis Leiden Purmerend Rotterdam Utrecht A street in Copenhagen Denmark Quai Andrei Sakharov in Tournai Belgium is named in honour of Sakharov In Poland streets named in his honour in Warsaw Lodz and Krakow Andrei Sakharov Boulevard in the district of Mladost in Sofia Bulgaria is named after him In New York a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street reads Sakharov Bonner Corner in honor of Sakharov and his wife Yelena Bonner The corner is just down the block from the Soviet Mission to the United Nations which later became the Russian mission and was the scene of repeated anti Soviet demonstrations 68 In Chisinau the capital of Moldova there is Academician Andrei Sakharov street Media Edit In the 1984 made for TV film Sakharov starring Jason Robards In the television series Star Trek The Next Generation one of the Enterprise D s Shuttlecraft is named after Sakharov and is featured prominently in several episodes This follows the Star Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists and particularly in The Next Generation physicists The fictitious interplanetary spacecraft Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov from the novel 2010 Odyssey Two by Arthur C Clarke is powered by a Sakharov drive The novel was published in 1982 when Sakharov was in exile in Nizhny Novgorod and was dedicated both to Sakharov and to Alexei Leonov Russian singer Alexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song Pamyati A D Saharova In memory of Andrei Sakharov which features on his Live In Russia 2 Zhivem v Rossii 2 CD 69 The faction leader of the Ecologists in the PC game S T A L K E R Shadow of Chernobyl and its prequel is a scientist named Professor Sakharov Honours and awards EditHero of Socialist Labour three times 12 August 1953 20 June 1956 7 March 1962 Four Orders of Lenin Lenin Prize 1956 Stalin Prize 1953 Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1969 70 Elected member of the National Academy of Sciences 1973 71 In 1980 Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for anti Soviet activities 72 Later during glasnost he declined the return of his awards and consequently Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree 73 Prix mondial Cino Del Duca 1974 Nobel Peace Prize 1975 Elected member of the American Philosophical Society 1978 74 Laurea Honoris Causa of the Sapienza University of Rome 1980 Grand Cross of Order of the Cross of Vytis posthumously on January 8 2003 Bibliography EditBooks Edit Sakharov Andrei 1974 Sakharov speaks Collins Harvill Press ISBN 978 0 00 262755 9 Sakharov Andrei 1975 My country and the world Knopf ISBN 978 0 394 40226 0 Sakharov Andrei 1978 Alarm and hope The world renowned Nobel laureate and political dissident speaks out on human rights disarmament and detente Knopf ISBN 978 0 394 50369 1 Sakharov Andrei 1982 Collected scientific works Marcel Dekker Inc ISBN 978 0 8247 1714 8 Sakharov Andrei 1990 Memoirs Knopf ISBN 978 0394537405 Sakharov Andrei 1991 Moscow and beyond 1986 to 1989 Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 394 58797 4 Saharov Andrej 1996 Vospominaniya V 2 tomah Memoirs In 2 volumes in Russian Vol 1 Moscow Prava cheloveka ISBN 978 5 7712 0011 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint ignored ISBN errors link Saharov Andrej 1996 Vospominaniya V 2 tomah Memoirs In 2 volumes in Russian Vol 2 Moscow Prava cheloveka ISBN 978 5 7712 0026 2 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint ignored ISBN errors link Articles and interviews Edit Sakharov Andrei 1968 Thoughts on progress peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom Foreign Affairs Publishing Company ISBN 978 0 900380 03 7 Sakharov Andrei July 22 1968 Thoughts on progress peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom PDF The New York Times Archived PDF from the original on January 13 2013 Sakharov Andrei Spring 1969 Here and there the threat of nuclear war American Scientist 57 1 167 171 JSTOR 27828445 Sakharov Andrei 1974 O pisme Aleksandra Solzhenicyna Vozhdyam Sovetskogo Soyuza On Alexander Solzhenitsyn s A Letter to the Soviet Leaders in Russian New York Khronika OCLC 2326203 Sakharov Andrei Tverdokhlebov Andrei Albrecht Vladimir May 28 1974 USSR The chronicle of current events Index on Censorship 3 3 87 doi 10 1080 03064227408532355 S2CID 220923855 Sakharov Andrei November 1975 The need for an open world Andrei Sakharov calls on scientists to intensify the campaign for a nuclear weapons ban and full disarmament Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 8 9 doi 10 1080 00963402 1975 11458291 Sakharov Andrei Turchin Valentin Medvedev Roy June 6 1970 The need for democratization The Saturday Review 26 27 Sakharov Andrei Turchin Valentin Medvedev Roy Summer 1970 An open letter Survey 160 170 Sakharov Andrei Summer 1972 Memorandum Survey 223 233 Sakharov Andrei Spring 1973 Statement by the Human Rights Committee Survey 271 273 Sakharov Andrei December 1973 Interview with Swedish RTV Index on Censorship 2 4 13 17 doi 10 1080 03064227308532263 S2CID 146534370 Sakharov Andrei December 1973 The Deputy Prosecutor General and I Index on Censorship 2 4 19 23 doi 10 1080 03064227308532264 S2CID 145423521 Sakharov Andrei December 1973 Press conference Index on Censorship 2 4 25 29 doi 10 1080 03064227308532265 S2CID 220932382 Sakharov Andrei December 1973 Reply to critics Index on Censorship 2 4 29 30 doi 10 1080 03064227308532266 S2CID 220929169 Sakharov Andrei January March 1974 Reply to oppression Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali 41 1 47 54 JSTOR 42733796 Sakharov Andrei March 21 1974 How I came to dissent The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei June 13 1974 In answer to Solzhenitsyn The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei March 1975 Sakharov s statement on Jackson amendment Index on Censorship 4 1 73 74 doi 10 1080 03064227508532405 S2CID 145693276 Sakharov Andrei June 1976 Peace progress and human rights Index on Censorship 5 2 3 9 doi 10 1080 03064227608532514 S2CID 144812636 Sakharov Andrei February 9 1978 The death penalty The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei February 1978 Letter from Sakharov and Meiman Nature 271 5645 499 Bibcode 1978Natur 271 499S doi 10 1038 271499c0 Sakharov Andrei Fall 1978 The human rights movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe its goals significance and difficulties Trialogue 19 4 7 26 27 Sakharov Andrei December 1980 USSR Sakharov s plea for poets Index on Censorship 9 6 64 doi 10 1080 03064228008533146 S2CID 159662308 Sakharov Andrei May 1981 The responsibility of scientists Nature 291 5812 184 185 Bibcode 1981Natur 291 184S doi 10 1038 291184a0 PMID 7231537 Sakharov Andrei June 1981 The social responsibility of scientists Physics Today 34 6 25 30 Bibcode 1981PhT 34f 25S doi 10 1063 1 2914603 ISSN 0031 9228 Sakharov Andrei October 1981 The responsibility of scientists Nature 25 10 18 21 Bibcode 1981Natur 291 184S doi 10 1038 291184a0 ISSN 0033 5002 PMID 7231537 Sakharov Andrei Fall 1981 An autobiographical note The Partisan Review 511 513 Sakharov Andrei January 21 1982 Letter to my foreign colleagues The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei Meiman Naum March April 1982 The plight of Yuri Orlov Harvard International Review 4 6 50 JSTOR 42762207 Sakharov Andrei Summer 1982 An appeal The Partisan Review 480 482 Sakharov Andrei June 1983 A message from Gorky Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 39 6 2 3 Bibcode 1983BuAtS 39f 2S doi 10 1080 00963402 1983 11458999 Sakharov Andrei Summer 1983 The danger of thermonuclear war An open letter to Dr Sidney Drell PDF Foreign Affairs 61 5 1001 1016 doi 10 2307 20041632 JSTOR 20041632 Archived PDF from the original on March 16 2016 Sakharov Andrei July 21 1983 A reply to slander The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei March 1 1984 A letter to my scientific colleagues The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei March 16 1987 Of arms and reforms Time Sakharov Andrei August 13 1987 On accepting a prize The New York Review of Books Sakharov Andrei February 25 1988 A man of universal interests Nature 331 6158 671 672 Bibcode 1988Natur 331 671S doi 10 1038 331671a0 S2CID 4319051 Sakharov Andrei December 22 1988 On Gorbachev a talk with Andrei Sakharov The New York Review of Books Sajarov Andrei Bonner Elena 1989 Al simposio de Madrid sobre las relaciones comerciales y economicas Este Oeste Madrid symposium on East West trade relations and economics Politica Exterior in Spanish 3 12 45 47 JSTOR 20642878 Sakharov Andrei August 17 1989 A speech to the People s Congress The New York Review of Books 36 13 25 26 Sakharov Andrei 1990 We cannot do without nuclear power plants but World Marxist Review 33 21 22 ISSN 0043 8642 Sakharov Andrei May 21 1990 Sakharov Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn a difference in principle Time Sakharov Andrei May 21 1990 Sakharov years in exile Time Sakharov Andrei July 1999 Lecture in Lyons science and freedom Physics Today 52 7 22 24 Bibcode 1999PhT 52g 22S doi 10 1063 1 882746 ISSN 0031 9228 See also Edit physics portal biography portalSakharov conditions Sakharov Prize List of peace activists Natan Sharansky Stanislaw Ulam Omid Kokabee Mordechai VanunuReferences Edit Sakharov Human Rights Prize 25th anniversary marked in US Voice of America January 15 2014 a b Andrei Sakharov Soviet Physics Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights American Institute of Physics Archived from the original on December 31 2015 Andrei Sakharov Facts Nobel Prize Retrieved November 24 2020 Sidney David Drell Sergeǐ Petrovich Kapitsa Sakharov Remembered a tribute by friends and colleagues 1991 p 4 Bonner Yelena Ob A D Saharove in Russian Archived from the original on November 14 2010 Retrieved November 2 2009 Greki v Krasnoyarskom krae Materialy iz knigi I Dzhuhi Grecheskaya operaciya NKVD in Russian Archived from the original on April 8 2010 Retrieved November 2 2009 Gennady Gorelik Antonina W Bouis 2005 The World of Andrei Sakharov A Russian Physicist s Path to Freedom Oxford University Press p 356 ISBN 9780195156201 Apparently Sakharov did not need to delve any deeper into it for a long time remaining a totally nonmilitant atheist with an open heart Sidney D Drell George P Shultz October 1 2015 Andrei Sakharov The Conscience of Humanity Hoover Press ISBN 9780817918965 I am unable to imagine the universe and human life without some guiding principle without a source of spiritual warmth that is nonmaterial and not bound by physical laws Nobel Prize Laureates from MSU Moscow State University Retrieved October 8 2017 Mastin Luke 2009 Andrei Sakharov Important Scientists The Physics of the Universe Retrieved October 8 2017 a b Zaloga Steve 17 February 2002 The Kremlin s Nuclear Sword The Rise and Fall of Russia s Strategic Nuclear Forces 1945 2000 Smithsonian Books ISBN 1588340074 Sakharov Andrei 1992 Memoirs Vintage ISBN 978 0679735953 Gorelik Gennady Bouis Antonina 2005 The world of Andrei Sakharov a Russian physicist s path to freedom Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0195156201 a b c d e Gorelik Gennady 2008 Andrei Sakharov In Koertge Noretta ed New dictionary of scientific biography Detroit Charles Scribner s Sons Thomson Gale a b Andrei Sakharov Soviet Physics Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights Sakharov A D January 1966 Magnetoimplosive Generators Vzryvomagnitnye generatory Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk in Russian 88 4 725 734 doi 10 3367 ufnr 0088 196604e 0725 Translated as Sakharov A D 1966 Magnetoimplosive generators Soviet Physics Uspekhi 9 2 294 299 Bibcode 1966SvPhU 9 294S doi 10 1070 PU1966v009n02ABEH002876 Republished as Sakharov A D et al 1991 Magnetoimplosive generators Vzryvomagnitnye generatory Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk in Russian 161 5 51 60 doi 10 3367 UFNr 0161 199105g 0051 Translated as Sakharov A D et al 1991 Magnetoimplosive generators Soviet Physics Uspekhi 34 5 387 391 Bibcode 1991SvPhU 34 385S doi 10 1070 PU1991v034n05ABEH002495 Sakharov A D December 7 1982 Collected Scientific Works Marcel Dekker ISBN 978 0824717148 Sakharov A D July 1965 Nachalnaya stadiya rasshireniya Vselennoj i vozniknovenie neodnorodnosti raspredeleniya veshestva Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 49 1 345 358 Translated as Sakharov A D January 1966 The Initial Stage of an Expanding Universe and the Appearance of a Nonuniform Distribution of Matter PDF JETP 22 1 241 249 Bibcode 1966JETP 22 241S Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Maximum temperature of thermal radiation Archived November 30 2018 at the Wayback Machine ZhETF Pis ma 3 439 441 1966 Tr JETP Lett 3 288 289 1966 a b c Sakharov A D January 1967 Narushenie SR invariantnosti S asimmetriya i barionnaya asimmetriya Vselennoj Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 5 1 32 35 Translated as Sakharov A D January 1967 Violation of CP invariance C asymmetry and baryon asymmetry of the universe PDF JETP Letters 5 1 24 26 Bibcode 1967JETPL 5 24S Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Republished as Sakharov A D May 1991 Violation of CP invariance C asymmetry and baryon asymmetry of the universe PDF Soviet Physics Uspekhi 34 5 392 393 Bibcode 1991SvPhU 34 392S doi 10 1070 PU1991v034n05ABEH002497 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Sakharov A D January 1967 Kvark myuonnye toki i narushenie SR invariantnosti Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 5 1 36 39 Translated as Sakharov A D January 1967 Quark Muonic Currents and Violation of CP Invariance PDF JETP Letters 5 1 27 30 Bibcode 1967JETPL 5 27S Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Preprint Collection of the Institute for Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences Gravitation and field theory art 3 oct 1967 Dokl Akad Nauk SSSR 177 70 1967 trans Sov Phys Dokl 12 1040 1968 Sakharov A D 1969 Antikvarki vo Vselennoj Antiquarks in the Universe Problems in Theoretical Physics in Russian 35 44 Dedicated to the 30th anniversary of N N Bogolyubov Paper at seminar Phys Inst Acad Sci June 1970 A multisheet Cosmological Model of the Universe Preprint collection of the Institute for Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences art 7 1970 Sakharov A D 1972 Topologicheskaya struktura elementarnyh zaryadov i SRT simmetriya The topological structure of elementary charges and CPT symmetry Problems in Theoretical Physics in Russian 243 247 Dedicated to the memory of I E Tamm Sakharov A D April 1979 Barionnaya asimmetriya Vselennoj Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 76 4 1172 1181 Translated as Sakharov A D April 1979 The baryonic asymmetry of the Universe PDF JETP Letters 49 4 594 599 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 a b Sakharov A D September 1980 Kosmologicheskie modeli Vselennoj s povorotom strely vremeni Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 79 3 689 693 Translated as Sakharov A D September 1980 Cosmological models of the Universe with reversal of time s arrow PDF JETP Letters 52 3 349 351 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 a b Sakharov A D October 1982 Mnogolistnye modeli Vselennoj Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 82 3 1233 1240 Translated as Sakharov A D October 1982 Many sheeted models of the universe Multisheet models of the universe PDF JETP 56 4 705 709 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Sakharov A D August 1984 Kosmologicheskie perehody s izmeneniem signatury metriki Pi sma ZhETF 87 2 375 383 Translated as Sakharov A D August 1984 Cosmological transitions with changes in the signature of the metric PDF JETP 60 2 214 218 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Sakharov A D September 1986 Isparenie chernyh mini dyr i fizika vysokih energij Pi sma ZhETF in Russian 44 6 295 298 Translated as Sakharov A D September 1986 Evaporation of black mini holes and high energy physics PDF JETP Letters 44 6 379 383 Bibcode 1986JETPL 44 379S Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 E P Wigner Proc Am Philos Soc 93 521 1949 Proc Natl Ac ad Sci U S 38 449 1952 F Reines C L Cowan M Goldhaber Phys Rev 96 1954 1157 Novikov I D March 1966 The Disturbances of the Metric when a Collapsing Sphere Passes below the Schwarzschild Sphere PDF JETP Letters 3 5 142 144 Bibcode 1966JETPL 3 142N Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Sakharov A D 1967 Vakuumnye kvantovye fluktuacii v iskrivlennom prostranstve i teoriya gravitacii Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Russian 177 1 70 71 Translated as Sakharov A D 1991 Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and the theory of gravitation PDF Soviet Physics Uspekhi 34 5 394 Bibcode 1991SvPhU 34 394S doi 10 1070 PU1991v034n05ABEH002498 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Anderson Raymond H December 15 1989 Andrei Sakharov 68 Nuclear Inventor and Mainspring of the Soviet Conscience Published 1989 The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved March 14 2021 a b Crump Thomas 2013 Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 66922 6 Gennady Gorelik The Metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov Scientific American 1999 March Web exhibit Andrei SAKHAROV Soviet Physics Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights at American Institute of Physics 1 Archived December 29 2015 at the Wayback Machine Initially on July 6 1968 in the Dutch newspaper Het Parool through the intermediary of the Dutch academic and writer Karel van het Reve followed by The New York Times Outspoken Soviet Scientist Andrei Dmitriyevich Sakharov The New York Times July 22 1968 a b c d e f Rubenstein Joshua Gribanov Alexander 2005 The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov Joshua Rubenstein Alexander Gribanov eds Ella Shmulevich Efrem Yankelevich Alla Zeide trans New Haven CN ISBN 978 0 300 12937 3 irishtimes com 30 12 Materials about Sakharov A Chronicle of Current Events January 16 2016 Y B Sakharov Acceptance Speech Nobel Peace Prize Oslo Norway December 10 1975 a b Y B Sakharov Peace Progress Human Rights Sakharov s Nobel Lecture Nobel Peace Prize Oslo Norway December 11 1975 Gorelik Gennady 2005 The World of Andrei Sakharov A Russian Physicist s Path to Freedom Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 534374 8 From Exile Sakharov Web Exhibit history aip org Retrieved July 30 2019 Humanist of the Year Archived from the original on January 14 2013 Retrieved November 21 2012 The Bukovsky Archives 29 August 1985 Archived from the original on October 13 2016 Retrieved July 6 2016 AIP Sakharov Photo Chronology Michael MccGwire 1991 Perestroika and Soviet national security Brookings Institution Press p 275 ISBN 978 0 8157 5553 1 IHEU Awards IHEU IHEU Retrieved December 2 2018 The Bukovsky Archives 14 November 1989 Archived from the original on October 13 2016 Retrieved July 6 2016 Whitney Craig R Times Special To the New York January 10 1989 SAKHAROV TOOK UP ENCLAVE S STATUS The New York Times Retrieved December 16 2020 House of Commons Foreign Affairs Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence Sixth Report publications parliament uk Coleman Fred 1997 The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire Forty Years That Shook the World from Stalin to Yeltsin New York St Martin s p 116 Sakharov Prize Network European Parliament Retrieved December 10 2013 For Writer s Civic Courage Archived May 26 2008 at the Wayback Machine Literaturnaya Gazeta October 31 1990 No 49 14 May 1978 A Chronicle of Current Events October 7 2013 Glasnost defence foundation digest No 734 Harvard University KGB file of Sakharov Archived May 16 2006 at the Wayback Machine The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov New Haven Yale University Press 2005 ISBN 978 0 300 10681 7 The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov Archived May 21 2007 at the Wayback Machine online version with original texts and the English translations in English and in Russian text version in Windows 1251 character encoding and the pictures of the original pages Washington s Sakharov Plaza A Message to Russia Toledo Blade 27 August 1984 Retrieved May 2013 in Russian Photo exhibition Sakharov Gardens Archived September 27 2007 at the Wayback Machine sakharov center ru Aaron Curtiss November 22 1991 Sakharov Junction Los Angeles Times Los Angeles Archived from the original on November 2 2012 Retrieved September 14 2010 Anderson Susan Bird David August 10 1984 New York day by day human rights reminder posted near Soviet mission The New York Times Alexander Gradsky official website in Russian Retrieved February 3 2013 Andrei Dmitriyevich Sakharov American Academy of Arts amp Sciences Retrieved July 15 2022 Andrei Sakharov www nasonline org Retrieved July 15 2022 Andrei Sakharov 68 Soviet Conscience Dies The New York Times Retrieved March 24 2018 Gennady Gorelik The World Of Andrei Sakharov Oxford Oxford U Press 2005 pp xv 351 355 APS Member History search amphilsoc org Retrieved July 15 2022 Further reading EditThis further reading section may contain inappropriate or excessive suggestions that may not follow Wikipedia s guidelines Please ensure that only a reasonable number of balanced topical reliable and notable further reading suggestions are given removing less relevant or redundant publications with the same point of view where appropriate Consider utilising appropriate texts as inline sources or creating a separate bibliography article July 2018 Learn how and when to remove this template message 100 000 honour Andrei Sakharov The Glasgow Herald December 18 1989 p 4 Information Reed Business April 30 1981 An honourable dissident New Scientist 90 1251 266 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a first1 has generic name help Andrei Sakharov addresses grads The Lewiston Daily Sun June 15 1987 p 14 Andrei Sakharov ends lone hunger strike Eugene Register Guard August 7 1984 p 4A Developments concerning Dr Andrei Sakharov joint hearing before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service House of Representatives Ninety ninth Congress second session March 18 1986 Vol 4 U S Government Printing Office 1986 Exile of Andrei Sakharov is deplored The Telegraph January 23 1980 p 2 How Sakharov won exit visa for his wife Chicago Tribune February 24 1986 President honors Andrei Sakharov Sarasota Herald Tribune May 19 1983 p 7A Russia orders end of internal exile for Andrei Sakharov noted dissident The Tuscaloosa News December 19 1986 Sakharov Andrei Facets of a Life Frontieres 1991 ISBN 978 2 86332 096 9 Sakharov case spotlights Soviet efforts against dissidents The Hour May 26 1984 Sakharov in a plea on prisoners The New York Times September 4 1986 Sakharov is symbol of fight for freedom Russian dissident scientist awarded Nobel Peace Prize Observer Reporter October 10 1975 Sakharov letter describes torment Chicago Tribune February 16 1986 Sakharov speaks out on repression detente Sakharov s letter to Anatoly P Aleksandrov president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences The Ukrainian Weekly Vol LXXXVII no 31 December 28 1980 Information Reed Business May 7 1981 Scientists meet in New York to honour Sakharov New Scientist 90 1252 332 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a first1 has generic name help Soviet detention of Andrei Sakharov Markup before the Committee on Foreign Affairs House of Representatives Ninety sixth Congress Second Session 4 February 1980 Washington D C U S Government Printing Office 1980 Soviet opposition left leaderless by passing of Andrei Sakharov Eugene Register Guard December 17 1989 p 18A Soviet Union Sakharov s defense Time September 24 1973 Soviet Union a warning for Sakharov Time November 5 1973 Soviet Union a travel permit for Sakharov Time October 31 1988 The blessed curse of Andrei Sakharov Chicago Tribune November 17 1988 The undefeated Sakharovs Chicago Tribune December 28 1986 Trying to help Andrei Sakharov The Hour March 1 1980 p 23 Altshuler Boris February 2012 Andrei Sakharov today lasting impact on science and society Physics Uspekhi 55 2 176 182 Bibcode 2012PhyU 55 176A doi 10 3367 UFNe 0182 201202h 0188 S2CID 123169637 Applebaum Anne October 20 2005 Hero The New York Review of Books Babyonyshev Alexander 1982 On Sakharov New York Alfred A Knopf ISBN 978 0 394 71004 4 Bailey George 1989 The making of Andrei Sakharov Allen Lane ISBN 978 0713990331 Belotserkovsky Vadim 1975 Soviet dissenters Solzhenitsyn Sakharov Medvedev Partisan Review 42 1 35 68 Bergman Jay 2009 Meeting the Demands of Reason The Life and Thought of Andrei Sakharov Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 4731 0 Bohlen Celestine January 11 1987 Sakharov describes loneliness of life in Gorki The Washington Post Bonner Yelena May 16 1986 Yelena Bonner tells of medical abuse of her husband Science 232 4752 821 Bibcode 1986Sci 232 821H doi 10 1126 science 3704629 Bonner Elena 1988 1986 Alone together 3 ed New York Vintage Books ISBN 978 0394755380 Bonner Elena December 2005 Sakharov is Tokamak s originator Physics Today 58 12 15 Bibcode 2005PhT 58Q 15B doi 10 1063 1 2169425 Capuzza Jamie Golden James 1988 The images and impact of Andrei Sakharov a study of dissident rhetoric in the Soviet human rights movement Ohio State University OCLC 19583828 Carroll Nicholas February 25 1981 The loneliness of Andrei Sakharov The Montreal Gazette p 23 Clemens Walter Jr 1971 Sakharov a man for our times Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 27 10 4 56 Bibcode 1971BuAtS 27j 4C doi 10 1080 00963402 1971 11455417 Clementi Marco 2002 Il diritto al dissenso il progetto costituzionale di Andrej Sacharov The right to dissent Andrei Sakharov s constitutional project in Italian Rome Odradek Edizioni ISBN 978 8886973441 Dornan Peter 1975 Andrei Sakharov the conscience of a liberal scientist In Tokes Rudolf ed Dissent in the USSR politics ideology and people Johns Hopkins University Press pp 354 417 ISBN 978 0 8018 1661 1 Drell Sidney May 2000 Andrei Sakharov and the nuclear danger Physics Today 53 5 37 41 Bibcode 2000PhT 53e 37D doi 10 1063 1 883099 Drell Sidney Hoagland Jim Shultz George June 25 2015 The man who spoke truth to power Andrei Sakharov s enduring relevance Foreign Affairs Drell Sidney Kapitsa Sergei eds 1991 Sahkarov Remembered Springer ISBN 978 0 88318 852 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a author has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Drell Sidney Okun Lev August 1990 Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Physics Today 43 8 26 Bibcode 1990PhT 43h 26D doi 10 1063 1 881252 Drell Sidney Shultz George 2015 Andrei Sakharov the conscience of humanity Physics Today Vol 69 Hoover Press p 61 Bibcode 2016PhT 69g 61K doi 10 1063 PT 3 3240 ISBN 978 0817918965 Drummond Roscoe March 7 1977 What kind of man is Andrei Sakharov Observer Reporter p A4 Eaton William July 20 1985 Sakharov Soviet aides defend internal exile Soviets challenged on rights defend treatment of Sakharov Los Angeles Times Eaton William December 8 1985 Tass says Sakharov is only afflicted by aging Los Angeles Times Ferullo Joe Moore Suzanne January 30 1979 Talking to Tanya Sakharov s daughter speaks in Massachusetts Columbia Daily Spectator CIII 61 3 Feshbach Herman April 1987 A meeting with Sakharov Physics Today 40 4 7 9 Bibcode 1987PhT 40d 7F doi 10 1063 1 2819974 Fireside Harvey Winter 1989 Dissident visions of the USSR Medvedev Sakharov amp Solzhenitsyn Polity 22 2 213 229 doi 10 2307 3234832 JSTOR 3234832 S2CID 156032782 Fisher Dan May 24 1984 Andrei Sakharov A prophet without honor among his own people Los Angeles Times p 7A Furth Harold April 30 1981 Sakharov science of a dissident New Scientist 90 1251 274 278 Ginzburg Vitaly 2001 The Sakharov phenomenon The physics of a lifetime reflections on the problems and personalities of 20th century physics Springer pp 471 506 Bibcode 2001plfp book G doi 10 1007 978 3 662 04455 1 30 ISBN 978 3540675341 Glazov Yuri 1985 Pasternak Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov The Russian mind since Stalin s death D Reidel Publishing Company pp 158 179 doi 10 1007 978 94 009 5341 3 9 ISBN 978 9027718280 Gorelik Gennady Bouis Antonina 2005 The World of Andrei Sakharov A Russian Physicist s Path to Freedom Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 515620 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Gorelik Gennady July 2002 The metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov the inventor of the Soviet hydrogen bomb became an advocate of peace and human rights What led him to his fateful decision PDF Scientific American 27 30 Archived from the original PDF on April 5 2016 Retrieved April 5 2016 Gottfried Kurt Orlov Yuri December 19 1989 A man who would not be silenced Sakharov he saw scientific political and moral realities as one equation and he died still warning about tomorrow Los Angeles Times Harasowska Marta Olhovych Orest 1977 The international Sakharov hearing Smoloskyp Publishers ISBN 978 0914834113 Harris Zelda Richter Elihu July 7 2010 Andrei Sakharov Elena Bonner and Gilad Schalit The Jerusalem Post Hesse Natalya Tolz Vladimir April 12 1984 The Sakharovs in Gorky The New York Review of Books Hermann Anton November 1987 Elena Bonner and Andrei Sakharov Quadrant 33 11 78 79 Holloway David March 1990 Andrei Sakharov 1921 1989 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 46 2 14 Bibcode 1990BuAtS 46b 14H doi 10 1080 00963402 1990 11459791 Holloway David June 30 1991 Moral leader of a nation Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 47 6 37 38 doi 10 1080 00963402 1991 11459998 Jacobs Michael March 1980 Sakharov exile triggers reaction in US physics community Physics Today 33 3 133 134 Bibcode 1980PhT 33c 133J doi 10 1063 1 2913982 Keller Bill April 3 1987 Sakharov disillusions dissidents Chicago Tribune Kelley Donald February 1979 Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov as futurologists Futures 11 1 63 68 doi 10 1016 0016 3287 79 90070 3 Kelley Donald 1982 The Solzhenitsyn Sakharov dialogue politics society and the future Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0313229404 Klehr Harvey September 5 2005 Sakharov Watch Fearful police state meets brave dissident The Weekly Standard 10 47 Kline Edward December 22 1986 Sakharov stands for the individual Los Angeles Times Korey William November 1986 Andrey Sakharov the Soviet Jewish perspective Soviet Jewish Affairs 16 3 17 28 doi 10 1080 13501678608577546 Kovalev Sergei May 21 1998 Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov meeting the demands of reason Izvestiya Archived from the original on February 23 2016 Kramer Mark December 17 1989 His spirit moved him and indeed it moved us all Sakharov always the optimist he gained an inner strength that carried him from exile to the leading voice of the Soviet opposition Los Angeles Times Kuptz Kirsten 2004 Dissent in the Soviet Union the role of Andrei Sakharov in the human rights movement GRIN Verlag ISBN 978 3638278348 Lee Gary November 12 1988 Sakharov says Soviet Union continues to violate human rights The Washington Post Lee Gary November 15 1988 President receives Sakharov The Washington Post LeVert Suzanne 1986 The Sakharov file a study in courage J Messner ISBN 978 0671600709 Lewis Anthony July 14 1984 Torturing Andrei Sakharov Sarasota Herald Tribune p 21A Lipkin Harry 2013 Andrei Sakharov Quarks and the Structure of Matter Andrei Sakharov Quarks and the Structure of Matter Edited by Lipkin Harry J Published by World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd World Scientific Publishing pp 1 17 Bibcode 2013asqs book L doi 10 1142 9789814407427 0001 ISBN 978 981 4407 41 0 Lizhi Fang Ratnesar Romesh June 14 1999 The dissident Andrei Sakharov Time Lord David December 24 1986 Sakharov s release cause for optimism Cotler says The Montreal Gazette p A 7 Lourie Richard 2002 Sakharov A Biography Brandeis University Press ISBN 978 1 5846 5207 6 Lozansky Edward 1985 Andrei Sakharov and Peace Avon ISBN 978 0 380 89819 0 Marshall Eliot February 8 1980 U S scientists protest punishment of Sakharov Science 207 4431 625 Bibcode 1980Sci 207Q 625M doi 10 1126 science 207 4431 625 PMID 17749319 Medvedev Zhores January 9 1986 Sakharov s scientific legacy Nature 319 6049 93 Bibcode 1986Natur 319Q 93M doi 10 1038 319093a0 S2CID 4337731 Medvedev Zhores January 26 1987 Andrei Sakharov s return The Scientist Medvedev Zhores March 1990 The legacy of Andrei Sakharov Index on Censorship 19 3 13 14 doi 10 1080 03064229008534808 Mervis Jeffrey January 26 1987 Sakharov release may bolster ties with West say activists The Scientist Mitgang Herbert May 12 2002 A life of scientist and dissident Andrei Sakharov Chicago Tribune Mollick John December 24 1989 The wisdom of Andrei Sakharov The Washington Post Moscovici Serge 1997 Singer Sakharov et avoir l air Ou la transgression mene a l identification Singer Sakharov and looking like Where infringement leads to identification L Inactuel in French 7 39 58 Murray Brown Jeremy 1988 Sakharov the KGB and the mass media In Bittman Ladislav ed The new image makers Soviet propaganda and disinformation today Washington Pergamon Brassey s pp 159 200 ISBN 978 0080349398 Archived from the original on December 20 2016 Mydans Seth February 18 1977 Sakharov gets personal letter from Carter Schenectady Gazette Vol LXXXIV no 121 Nathans Benjamin August 29 2003 The Sakharov Archives a vital record of human rights history is in danger The New York Times Porubcansky Mark June 4 1988 Sakharov time trust needed for reform Lakeland Ledger p 11A Rabinowitch Eugene November 1968 The Sakharov manifesto Progress peaceful coexistence intellectual freedom Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 24 9 2 7 Bibcode 1968BuAtS 24i 2R doi 10 1080 00963402 1968 11457727 Reddaway Peter December 24 1986 What future for the Sakharovs Sarasota Herald Tribune p 7A Rheaume Charles February 2008 Western scientists reactions to Andrei Sakharov s human rights struggle in the Soviet Union 1968 1989 Human Rights Quarterly 30 1 1 20 doi 10 1353 hrq 2008 0004 JSTOR 20486694 S2CID 144447151 Rich Vera May 16 1985 Sakharov resignation from Soviet academy Nature 315 6016 169 Bibcode 1985Natur 315 169R doi 10 1038 315169b0 Rich Vera November 10 1988 Sakharov to stand for Supreme Soviet Nature 336 6195 97 Bibcode 1988Natur 336 97R doi 10 1038 336097b0 Rich Vera February 11 1988 Sakharov work acknowledged Nature 331 6156 468 Bibcode 1988Natur 331 468R doi 10 1038 331468c0 Rich Vera May 12 1983 Soviet human rights one way trip for Sakharov Nature 303 5913 106 Bibcode 1983Natur 303 106R doi 10 1038 303106c0 Rich Vera 1993 East west links Sakharov college struggles on Physics World 6 8 9 10 doi 10 1088 2058 7058 6 8 7 Ritus Vladimir February 2012 A D Sakharov personality and fate Physics Uspekhi 55 2 170 175 Bibcode 2012PhyU 55 170R doi 10 3367 UFNe 0182 201202g 0182 S2CID 122401532 Robert Horvath October 2015 Sakharov would be with us Limonov Strategy 31 and the dissident legacy The Russian Review 74 4 581 598 doi 10 1111 russ 12049 Safire William February 2 1977 Russian scientist and the moral hotline The Day p 8 Sessler Andrew Howell Yvonne May 1984 Andrei Sakharov a man of our times American Journal of Physics 52 397 397 402 Bibcode 1984AmJPh 52 397S doi 10 1119 1 13624 Shanker Thom December 25 1986 Free political dissidents Sakharov tells Gorbachev Chicago Tribune Shcharansky Anatoly Spring 1990 The legacy of Andrei Sakharov Journal of Democracy 1 2 35 40 doi 10 1353 jod 1990 0035 S2CID 154840266 Simes Dimitri December 29 1986 Gorbachev and Sakharov little has changed yet Los Angeles Times Smith Fred Winter 1991 Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn dissidents with a different world view The Journal of Social Political and Economic Studies 16 4 469 476 Solzhenitsyn Alexander December 1973 Peace and violence Sakharov for the Nobel Peace Prize Index on Censorship 2 4 47 51 doi 10 1080 03064227308532268 S2CID 144007404 Sternberg Hilary December 1973 Sakharov amp Solzhenitsyn champions of freedom Index on Censorship 2 4 5 11 doi 10 1080 03064227308532261 S2CID 144209226 Surovtseva Ekaterina 2014 A I Solzhenicyn i A D Saharov diskussiya vokrug Pisma vozhdyam Sovetskogo Soyuza i eyo vospriyatie v emigrantskoj pechati M Agurskij A I Solzhenitsyn and A D Sakharov the debate around Letter to the Soviet leaders and its perception in the emigre press M Agursky PDF Filologicheskie nauki Voprosy teorii i praktiki in Russian 9 39 part 2 159 161 Archived from the original PDF immediate download on March 6 2016 Surovtseva Ekaterina 2015 A I Solzhenicyn A D Saharov i R Medvedev diskussiya vokrug Pisma vozhdyam Sovetskogo Soyuza i eyo vospriyatie v emigrantskoj pechati M Agurskij A I Solzhenitsyn A D Sakharov and R Medvedev the debate around Letter to the Soviet leaders and its perception in the emigre press M Agursky Molodoj uchenyj in Russian 2 608 613 Archived from the original on April 19 2015 Teller Edward 1991 A life of fighting for freedom Physics World 4 5 44 45 doi 10 1088 2058 7058 4 5 28 Vernacchia Galli Jole 1986 Andrej Dmitrievich Sakharov Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 The register of honoris causa degrees from 1944 to 1985 Studi e Fonti per la storia dell Universita di Roma in Italian Vol 10 Roma Edizioni Dell Ateneo pp 687 779 The Regesto delle lauree honoris causa dal 1944 al 1985 is a detailed and carefully commented register of all the documents of the official archive of the Sapienza University of Rome pertaining to the honoris causa degrees awarded or not It includes all the awarding proposals submitted during the considered period detailed presentations of the work of the candidate if available and precise references to related articles published on Italian newspapers and magazines if the laurea was awarded Wade Nicholas February 15 1980 A pledge to help Sakharov PDF Science 207 4432 745 Bibcode 1980Sci 207S 745W doi 10 1126 science 11643589 S2CID 239491684 Archived PDF from the original on October 20 2015 Wade Nicholas May 15 1981 Physicists meet to honor Sakharov The Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov will be 60 on 21 May a symposium in his honor was held on May Day not in Moscow but in New York PDF Science 212 4496 756 757 Bibcode 1981Sci 212 756W doi 10 1126 science 212 4496 756 PMID 17752230 Archived PDF from the original on October 18 2015 Wade Nicholas March 28 1980 Sakharov expulsion averted PDF Science 207 4438 1451 Bibcode 1980Sci 207S1451W doi 10 1126 science 207 4438 1451 b Archived PDF from the original on October 20 2015 Wade Nicholas March 14 1980 Sakharov protests mount PDF Science 207 4436 1186 Bibcode 1980Sci 207 1186W doi 10 1126 science 207 4436 1186 PMID 17776847 Archived PDF from the original on October 20 2015 Weeks Albert 1975 Andrei Sakharov and the Soviet dissidents a critical commentary Monarch Press ISBN 978 0671009632 White Sarah July 12 1973 Will Sakharov soon be silenced New Scientist 59 854 92 Weisskopf Victor August 1984 Sakharov and East West relations Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 40 7 2 Bibcode 1984BuAtS 40g 2W doi 10 1080 00963402 1984 11459247 Wren Christopher October 10 1975 Andrei Sakharov fights to attain human rights The Daytona Beach News Journal p 8A Wynn Allan Dewhirst Martin Stone Harold 1986 Fifth International Sakharov Hearing Proceedings April 1985 Andre Deutsch ISBN 978 0233980508 Young Benjamin 2012 Andrei Sakharov In Williams Robert Viotti Paul eds Arms control history theory and policy ABC CLIO pp 307 309 ISBN 978 0275998202 Zdravomyslov Andrei 1995 Dissidentskoe dvizhenie v svete sociologii konflikta A D Saharov Dissident movement in the light of sociology of conflict A D Sakharov Sociologiya konflikta Rossiya na putyah preodoleniya krizisa Uchebnoe posobie dlya studentov vysshih uchebnyh zavedenij Sociology of conflict Russia on ways to overcome crisis Textbook for students of higher educational institutions in Russian Moscow Aspekt press pp 264 267 ISBN 978 5756700091 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Andrei Sakharov Wikiquote has quotations related to Andrei Sakharov The Andrei Sakharov Archives at the Houghton Library Faces of Resistance in the USSR The Andrei Sakharov Archives Homepage archived webpage Brandeis University Archived from the original on January 20 2003 Retrieved April 17 2006 Andrei Sakharov Soviet Physics Nuclear Weapons and Human Rights Archived June 26 2015 at the Wayback Machine Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics Andrei Sakharov Photo chronology Archived March 3 2021 at the Wayback Machine Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library Andrei Sakharov at Find a Grave Andrei Sakharov on Nobelprize org Videos Edit Vaclav Havel and Soviet Dissidents 8 min watch Andrei Sakharov s interview since 2 05 on YouTube Specvipusk Pam yati Andriya Saharova Special program issue In commemoration of Andrei Sakharov Mustafa Dzhemilev s interview to Semyon Gluzman in Russian 26 min 15 December 2014 on YouTube Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Andrei Sakharov amp oldid 1152557002, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.