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Shaped charge

January 09, 2023

"Munroe Effect" redirects here. For the band, see Munroe Effect (band).

A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to form an explosively formed penetrator (EFP) to focus the effect of the explosive's energy. Different types of shaped charges are used for various purposes such as cutting and forming metal, initiating nuclear weapons, penetrating armor, or perforating wells in the oil and gas industry.

Sectioned high-explosive anti-tank round with the inner shaped charge visible
Sectioned RL-83 Blindicide rocket
1: Ballistic cap; 2: Air-filled cavity; 3: Conical liner; 4: Detonator; 5: Explosive; 6: Piezo-electric trigger

A typical modern shaped charge, with a metal liner on the charge cavity, can penetrate armor steel to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge (charge diameters, CD), though greater depths of 10 CD and above[1][2] have been achieved. Contrary to a misconception (possibly resulting from the acronym for high-explosive anti-tank, HEAT) the shaped charge EFP jet does not depend in any way on heating or melting for its effectiveness; that is, the EFP jet from a shaped charge does not melt its way through armor, as its effect is purely kinetic in nature[3] – however the process does create significant heat and often has a significant secondary incendiary effect after penetration.

Munroe effect

The Munroe or Neumann effect is the focusing of blast energy by a hollow or void cut on a surface of an explosive. The earliest mention of hollow charges were mentioned in 1792. Franz Xaver von Baader (1765–1841) was a German mining engineer at that time; in a mining journal, he advocated a conical space at the forward end of a blasting charge to increase the explosive's effect and thereby save powder.[4] The idea was adopted, for a time, in Norway and in the mines of the Harz mountains of Germany, although the only available explosive at the time was gunpowder, which is not a high explosive and hence incapable of producing the shock wave that the shaped-charge effect requires.[5]

The first true hollow charge effect was achieved in 1883, by Max von Foerster (1845–1905),[6] chief of the nitrocellulose factory of Wolff & Co. in Walsrode, Germany.[7][8]

By 1886, Gustav Bloem of Düsseldorf, Germany, had filed U.S. Patent 342,423 for hemispherical cavity metal detonators to concentrate the effect of the explosion in an axial direction.[9] The Munroe effect is named after Charles E. Munroe, who discovered it in 1888. As a civilian chemist working at the U.S. Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, Rhode Island, he noticed that when a block of explosive guncotton with the manufacturer's name stamped into it was detonated next to a metal plate, the lettering was cut into the plate. Conversely, if letters were raised in relief above the surface of the explosive, then the letters on the plate would also be raised above its surface.[10] In 1894, Munroe constructed his first crude shaped charge:[11][12]

Among the experiments made ... was one upon a safe twenty-nine inches cube, with walls four inches and three quarters thick, made up of plates of iron and steel ... [W]hen a hollow charge of dynamite nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated on it, a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the wall ... The hollow cartridge was made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can, the open mouth of the latter being placed downward.[13]

Although Munroe's experiment with the shaped charge was widely publicized in 1900 in Popular Science Monthly, the importance of the tin can "liner" of the hollow charge remained unrecognized for another 44 years.[14] Part of that 1900 article was reprinted in the February 1945 issue of Popular Science,[15] describing how shaped-charge warheads worked. It was this article that at last revealed to the general public how the United States Army Bazooka actually worked against armored vehicles during WWII.

In 1910, Egon Neumann of Germany discovered that a block of TNT, which would normally dent a steel plate, punched a hole through it if the explosive had a conical indentation.[16][17] The military usefulness of Munroe's and Neumann's work was unappreciated for a long time. Between the world wars, academics in several countries – Myron Yakovlevich Sukharevskii (Мирон Яковлевич Сухаревский) in the Soviet Union,[18] William H. Payment and Donald Whitley Woodhead in Britain,[19] and Robert Williams Wood in the U.S.[20] – recognized that projectiles could form during explosions. However, it was not until 1932 that Franz Rudolf Thomanek, a student of physics at Vienna's Technische Hochschule, conceived an anti-tank round that was based on the hollow charge effect. When the Austrian government showed no interest in pursuing the idea, Thomanek moved to Berlin's Technische Hochschule, where he continued his studies under the ballistics expert Carl Julius Cranz.[21] There in 1935, he and Hellmuth von Huttern developed a prototype anti-tank round. Although the weapon's performance proved disappointing, Thomanek continued his developmental work, collaborating with Hubert Schardin at the Waffeninstitut der Luftwaffe (Air Force Weapons Institute) in Braunschweig.[22]

By 1937, Schardin believed that hollow-charge effects were due to the interactions of shock waves. It was during the testing of this idea that, on February 4, 1938, Thomanek conceived the shaped-charge explosive (or Hohlladungs-Auskleidungseffekt (hollow-charge liner effect)).[23] (It was Gustav Adolf Thomer who in 1938 first visualized, by flash radiography, the metallic jet produced by a shaped-charge explosion.[24]) Meanwhile, Henry Hans Mohaupt, a chemical engineer in Switzerland, had independently developed a shaped-charge munition in 1935, which was demonstrated to the Swiss, French, British, and U.S. militaries.[25]

During World War II, shaped-charge munitions were developed by Germany (Panzerschreck, Panzerfaust, Panzerwurfmine, Mistel), Britain (PIAT, Beehive cratering charge), the Soviet Union (RPG-43, RPG-6), the U.S. (bazooka),[26][27] and Italy (Effetto Pronto Speciale shells for various artillery pieces).[28] The development of shaped charges revolutionized anti-tank warfare. Tanks faced a serious vulnerability from a weapon that could be carried by an infantryman or aircraft.

One of the earliest uses of shaped charges was by German glider-borne troops against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael in 1940.[29] These demolition charges – developed by Dr. Wuelfken of the German Ordnance Office – were unlined explosive charges[30] and did not produce a metal jet like the modern HEAT warheads. Due to the lack of metal liner they shook the turrets but they did not destroy them, and other airborne troops were forced to climb on the turrets and smash the gun barrels.[31]

Applications

Modern military

Further information: High-explosive anti-tank

The common term in military terminology for shaped-charge warheads is high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead. HEAT warheads are frequently used in anti-tank guided missiles, unguided rockets, gun-fired projectiles (both spun (spin stabilized) and unspun), rifle grenades, land mines, bomblets, torpedoes, and various other weapons.

Protection

During World War II, the precision of the charge's construction and its detonation mode were both inferior to modern warheads. This lower precision caused the jet to curve and to break up at an earlier time and hence at a shorter distance. The resulting dispersion decreased the penetration depth for a given cone diameter and also shortened the optimum standoff distance. Since the charges were less effective at larger standoffs, side and turret skirts (known as Schürzen) fitted to some German tanks to protect against ordinary anti-tank rifles[32] were fortuitously found to give the jet room to disperse and hence also reduce HEAT penetration.[citation needed]

The use of add-on spaced armor skirts on armored vehicles may have the opposite effect and actually increase the penetration of some shaped-charge warheads. Due to constraints in the length of the projectile/missile, the built-in stand-off on many warheads is less than the optimum distance. In such cases, the skirting effectively increases the distance between the armor and the target, and the warhead detonates closer to its optimum standoff.[33] Skirting should not be confused with cage armor which is primarily used to damage the fusing system of RPG-7 projectiles, but can also cause a HEAT projectile to pitch up or down on impact, lengthening the penetration path for the shaped charge's penetration stream. If the nose probe strikes one of the cage armor slats, the warhead will function as normal.

Non-military

In non-military applications shaped charges are used in explosive demolition of buildings and structures, in particular for cutting through metal piles, columns and beams[34][35][36] and for boring holes.[37] In steelmaking, small shaped charges are often used to pierce taps that have become plugged with slag.[37] They are also used in quarrying, breaking up ice, breaking log jams, felling trees, and drilling post holes.[37]

Shaped charges are used most extensively in the petroleum and natural gas industries, in particular in the completion of oil and gas wells, in which they are detonated to perforate the metal casing of the well at intervals to admit the influx of oil and gas.[38]

A 4.5 kg (9.9 lb) shaped charge was used on the Hayabusa2 mission on asteroid 162173 Ryugu. The spacecraft dropped the explosive device onto the asteroid and detonated it with the spacecraft behind cover. The detonation dug a crater about 10 meters wide, to provide access to a pristine sample of the asteroid.[39]

Function

 
A 40 lb (18 kg) Composition B 'formed projectile' used by combat engineers. The shaped charge is used to bore a hole for a cratering charge.

A typical device consists of a solid cylinder of explosive with a metal-lined conical hollow in one end and a central detonator, array of detonators, or detonation wave guide at the other end. Explosive energy is released directly away from (normal to) the surface of an explosive, so shaping the explosive will concentrate the explosive energy in the void. If the hollow is properly shaped (usually conically), the enormous pressure generated by the detonation of the explosive drives the liner in the hollow cavity inward to collapse upon its central axis. The resulting collision forms and projects a high-velocity jet of metal particles forward along the axis. Most of the jet material originates from the innermost part of the liner, a layer of about 10% to 20% of the thickness. The rest of the liner forms a slower-moving slug of material, which, because of its appearance, is sometimes called a "carrot".

Because of the variation along the liner in its collapse velocity, the jet's velocity also varies along its length, decreasing from the front. This variation in jet velocity stretches it and eventually leads to its break-up into particles. Over time, the particles tend to fall out of alignment, which reduces the depth of penetration at long standoffs.

Also, at the apex of the cone, which forms the very front of the jet, the liner does not have time to be fully accelerated before it forms its part of the jet. This results in its small part of jet being projected at a lower velocity than jet formed later behind it. As a result, the initial parts of the jet coalesce to form a pronounced wider tip portion.

Most of the jet travels at hypersonic speed. The tip moves at 7 to 14 km/s, the jet tail at a lower velocity (1 to 3 km/s), and the slug at a still lower velocity (less than 1 km/s). The exact velocities depend on the charge's configuration and confinement, explosive type, materials used, and the explosive-initiation mode. At typical velocities, the penetration process generates such enormous pressures that it may be considered hydrodynamic; to a good approximation, the jet and armor may be treated as inviscid, compressible fluids (see, for example,[40]), with their material strengths ignored.

A recent technique using magnetic diffusion analysis showed that the temperature of the outer 50% by volume of a copper jet tip while in flight was between 1100K and 1200K,[41] much closer to the melting point of copper (1358 K) than previously assumed.[42] This temperature is consistent with a hydrodynamic calculation that simulated the entire experiment.[43] In comparison, two-color radiometry measurements from the late 1970s indicate lower temperatures for various shaped-charge liner material, cone construction and type of explosive filler.[44] A Comp-B loaded shaped charge with a copper liner and pointed cone apex had a jet tip temperature ranging from 668 K to 863 K over a five shot sampling. Octol-loaded charges with a rounded cone apex generally had higher surface temperatures with an average of 810 K, and the temperature of a tin-lead liner with Comp-B fill averaged 842 K. While the tin-lead jet was determined to be liquid, the copper jets are well below the melting point of copper. However, these temperatures are not completely consistent with evidence that soft recovered copper jet particles show signs of melting at the core while the outer portion remains solid and cannot be equated with bulk temperature.[45]

The location of the charge relative to its target is critical for optimum penetration for two reasons. If the charge is detonated too close there is not enough time for the jet to fully develop. But the jet disintegrates and disperses after a relatively short distance, usually well under two meters. At such standoffs, it breaks into particles which tend to tumble and drift off the axis of penetration, so that the successive particles tend to widen rather than deepen the hole. At very long standoffs, velocity is lost to air drag, further degrading penetration.

The key to the effectiveness of the hollow charge is its diameter. As the penetration continues through the target, the width of the hole decreases leading to a characteristic "fist to finger" action, where the size of the eventual "finger" is based on the size of the original "fist". In general, shaped charges can penetrate a steel plate as thick as 150% to 700%[46] of their diameter, depending on the charge quality. The figure is for basic steel plate, not for the composite armor, reactive armor, or other types of modern armor.

Liner

The most common shape of the liner is conical, with an internal apex angle of 40 to 90 degrees. Different apex angles yield different distributions of jet mass and velocity. Small apex angles can result in jet bifurcation, or even in the failure of the jet to form at all; this is attributed to the collapse velocity being above a certain threshold, normally slightly higher than the liner material's bulk sound speed. Other widely used shapes include hemispheres, tulips, trumpets, ellipses, and bi-conics; the various shapes yield jets with different velocity and mass distributions.

Liners have been made from many materials, including various metals[47] and glass. The deepest penetrations are achieved with a dense, ductile metal, and a very common choice has been copper. For some modern anti-armor weapons, molybdenum and pseudo-alloys of tungsten filler and copper binder (9:1, thus density is ≈18 Mg/m3) have been adopted. Nearly every common metallic element has been tried, including aluminum, tungsten, tantalum, depleted uranium, lead, tin, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, zinc, zirconium, molybdenum, beryllium, nickel, silver, and even gold and platinum.[citation needed] The selection of the material depends on the target to be penetrated; for example, aluminum has been found advantageous for concrete targets.

In early antitank weapons, copper was used as a liner material. Later, in the 1970s, it was found tantalum is superior to copper, due to its much higher density and very high ductility at high strain rates. Other high-density metals and alloys tend to have drawbacks in terms of price, toxicity, radioactivity, or lack of ductility.[48]

For the deepest penetrations, pure metals yield the best results, because they display the greatest ductility, which delays the breakup of the jet into particles as it stretches. In charges for oil well completion, however, it is essential that a solid slug or "carrot" not be formed, since it would plug the hole just penetrated and interfere with the influx of oil. In the petroleum industry, therefore, liners are generally fabricated by powder metallurgy, often of pseudo-alloys which, if unsintered, yield jets that are composed mainly of dispersed fine metal particles.

Unsintered cold pressed liners, however, are not waterproof and tend to be brittle, which makes them easy to damage during handling. Bimetallic liners, usually zinc-lined copper, can be used; during jet formation the zinc layer vaporizes and a slug is not formed; the disadvantage is an increased cost and dependency of jet formation on the quality of bonding the two layers. Low-melting-point (below 500 °C) solder- or braze-like alloys (e.g., Sn50Pb50, Zn97.6Pb1.6, or pure metals like lead, zinc, or cadmium) can be used; these melt before reaching the well casing, and the molten metal does not obstruct the hole. Other alloys, binary eutectics (e.g. Pb88.8Sb11.1, Sn61.9Pd38.1, or Ag71.9Cu28.1), form a metal-matrix composite material with ductile matrix with brittle dendrites; such materials reduce slug formation but are difficult to shape.

A metal-matrix composite with discrete inclusions of low-melting material is another option; the inclusions either melt before the jet reaches the well casing, weakening the material, or serve as crack nucleation sites, and the slug breaks up on impact. The dispersion of the second phase can be achieved also with castable alloys (e.g., copper) with a low-melting-point metal insoluble in copper, such as bismuth, 1–5% lithium, or up to 50% (usually 15–30%) lead; the size of inclusions can be adjusted by thermal treatment. Non-homogeneous distribution of the inclusions can also be achieved. Other additives can modify the alloy properties; tin (4–8%), nickel (up to 30% and often together with tin), up to 8% aluminium, phosphorus (forming brittle phosphides) or 1–5% silicon form brittle inclusions serving as crack initiation sites. Up to 30% zinc can be added to lower the material cost and to form additional brittle phases.[49]

Oxide glass liners produce jets of low density, therefore yielding less penetration depth. Double-layer liners, with one layer of a less dense but pyrophoric metal (e.g. aluminum or magnesium), can be used to enhance incendiary effects following the armor-piercing action; explosive welding can be used for making those, as then the metal-metal interface is homogeneous, does not contain significant amount of intermetallics, and does not have adverse effects to the formation of the jet.[50]

The penetration depth is proportional to the maximum length of the jet, which is a product of the jet tip velocity and time to particulation. The jet tip velocity depends on bulk sound velocity in the liner material, the time to particulation is dependent on the ductility of the material. The maximum achievable jet velocity is roughly 2.34 times the sound velocity in the material.[51] The speed can reach 10 km/s, peaking some 40 microseconds after detonation; the cone tip is subjected to acceleration of about 25 million g. The jet tail reaches about 2–5 km/s. The pressure between the jet tip and the target can reach one terapascal. The immense pressure makes the metal flow like a liquid, though x-ray diffraction has shown the metal stays solid; one of the theories explaining this behavior proposes molten core and solid sheath of the jet. The best materials are face-centered cubic metals, as they are the most ductile, but even graphite and zero-ductility ceramic cones show significant penetration.[52]

Explosive charge

For optimal penetration, a high explosive with a high detonation velocity and pressure is normally chosen. The most common explosive used in high performance anti-armor warheads is HMX (octogen), although never in its pure form, as it would be too sensitive. It is normally compounded with a few percent of some type of plastic binder, such as in the polymer-bonded explosive (PBX) LX-14, or with another less-sensitive explosive, such as TNT, with which it forms Octol. Other common high-performance explosives are RDX-based compositions, again either as PBXs or mixtures with TNT (to form Composition B and the Cyclotols) or wax (Cyclonites). Some explosives incorporate powdered aluminum to increase their blast and detonation temperature, but this addition generally results in decreased performance of the shaped charge. There has been research into using the very high-performance but sensitive explosive CL-20 in shaped-charge warheads, but, at present, due to its sensitivity, this has been in the form of the PBX composite LX-19 (CL-20 and Estane binder).

Other features

A 'waveshaper' is a body (typically a disc or cylindrical block) of an inert material (typically solid or foamed plastic, but sometimes metal, perhaps hollow) inserted within the explosive for the purpose of changing the path of the detonation wave. The effect is to modify the collapse of the cone and resulting jet formation, with the intent of increasing penetration performance. Waveshapers are often used to save space; a shorter charge with a waveshaper can achieve the same performance as a longer charge without a waveshaper.

Another useful design feature is sub-calibration, the use of a liner having a smaller diameter (caliber) than the explosive charge. In an ordinary charge, the explosive near the base of the cone is so thin that it is unable to accelerate the adjacent liner to sufficient velocity to form an effective jet. In a sub-calibrated charge, this part of the device is effectively cut off, resulting in a shorter charge with the same performance.

Variants

There are several forms of shaped charge.

Linear shaped charges

 
Linear shaped charge

A linear shaped charge (LSC) has a lining with V-shaped profile and varying length. The lining is surrounded with explosive, the explosive then encased within a suitable material that serves to protect the explosive and to confine (tamp) it on detonation. "At detonation, the focusing of the explosive high pressure wave as it becomes incident to the side wall causes the metal liner of the LSC to collapse–creating the cutting force."[53] The detonation projects into the lining, to form a continuous, knife-like (planar) jet. The jet cuts any material in its path, to a depth depending on the size and materials used in the charge. Generally, the jet penetrates around 1 to 1.2 times[54] the charge width. For the cutting of complex geometries, there are also flexible versions of the linear shaped charge, these with a lead or high-density foam sheathing and a ductile/flexible lining material, which also is often lead. LSCs are commonly used in the cutting of rolled steel joists (RSJ) and other structural targets, such as in the controlled demolition of buildings. LSCs are also used to separate the stages of multistage rockets.

Explosively formed penetrator

Main article: Explosively formed penetrator
 
Formation of an EFP warhead. USAF Research Laboratory

The explosively formed penetrator (EFP) also known as the self-forging fragment (SFF), explosively formed projectile (EFP), self-forging projectile (SEFOP), are the products of a shaped charge. An EFP uses the action of the explosive's detonation wave (and to a lesser extent the propulsive effect of its detonation products) to project and deform a plate, dish or cone of ductile metal (such as copper, iron, or tantalum) into a compact high-velocity projectile, slug, rod or jet. This EFP is projected toward the target at about two kilometers per second.

The EFP is relatively unaffected by first-generation reactive armor and can travel up to perhaps 1000 charge diameters (CD)s before its velocity becomes ineffective at penetrating armor due to aerodynamic drag, or successfully hitting the target becomes a problem. The impact of the EFP normally causes a large-diameter but relatively shallow hole, of, at most, a couple of CDs. If the EFP perforates the armor, spalling and extensive behind armor effects (BAE, also called behind armor damage, BAD) will occur. The BAE is mainly caused by the high-temperature and high-velocity armor and fragments being injected into the interior space and the blast overpressure caused by this debris. More modern EFP warhead versions, through the use of advanced initiation modes, can also produce long-rods (stretched slugs), multi-slugs and finned rod/slug projectiles. The long-rods are able to penetrate a much greater depth of armor, at some loss to BAE, multi-slugs are better at defeating light or area targets and the finned projectiles are much more accurate.

The use of this warhead type is mainly restricted to lightly armored areas of main battle tanks (MBT) such as the top, belly and rear armored areas. It is well suited for the attack of other less heavily protected armored fighting vehicles (AFV) and in the breaching of material targets (buildings, bunkers, bridge supports, etc.). The newer rod projectiles may be effective against the more heavily armored areas of MBTs. Weapons using the EFP principle have already been used in combat; the "smart" submunitions in the CBU-97 cluster bomb used by the US Air Force and Navy in the 2003 Iraq war employed this principle, and the US Army is reportedly experimenting with precision-guided artillery shells under Project SADARM (Seek And Destroy ARMor). There are also various other projectile (BONUS, DM 642) and rocket submunitions (Motiv-3M, DM 642) and mines (MIFF, TMRP-6) that use EFP principle. Examples of EFP warheads are US patents 5038683[55] and US6606951.[56]

Tandem warhead

Some modern anti-tank rockets (RPG-27, RPG-29) and missiles (TOW 2B, Eryx, HOT, MILAN) use a tandem warhead shaped charge, consisting of two separate shaped charges, one in front of the other, typically with some distance between them. TOW-2A was the first to use tandem warheads in the mid-1980s, an aspect of the weapon which the US Army had to reveal under news media and Congressional pressure resulting from the concern that NATO antitank missiles were ineffective against Soviet tanks that were fitted with the new ERA boxes. The Army revealed that a 40 mm precursor shaped-charge warhead was fitted on the tip of the TOW-2B collapsible probe.[57] Usually, the front charge is somewhat smaller than the rear one, as it is intended primarily to disrupt ERA boxes or tiles. Examples of tandem warheads are US patents 7363862[58] and US 5561261.[59] The US Hellfire antiarmor missile is one of the few that have accomplished the complex engineering feat of having two shaped charges of the same diameter stacked in one warhead. Recently, a Russian arms firm revealed a 125mm tank cannon round with two same diameter shaped charges one behind the other, but with the back one offset so its penetration stream will not interfere with the front shaped charge's penetration stream. The reasoning behind both the Hellfire and the Russian 125 mm munitions having tandem same diameter warheads is not to increase penetration, but to increase the beyond-armour effect.

Voitenko compressor

Main article: Voitenko compressor

In 1964 a Soviet scientist proposed that a shaped charge originally developed for piercing thick steel armor be adapted to the task of accelerating shock waves.[60] The resulting device, looking a little like a wind tunnel, is called a Voitenko compressor.[61] The Voitenko compressor initially separates a test gas from a shaped charge with a malleable steel plate. When the shaped charge detonates, most of its energy is focused on the steel plate, driving it forward and pushing the test gas ahead of it. Ames translated this idea into a self-destroying shock tube. A 66-pound shaped charge accelerated the gas in a 3-cm glass-walled tube 2 meters in length. The velocity of the resulting shock wave was 220,000 feet per second (67 km/s). The apparatus exposed to the detonation was completely destroyed, but not before useful data was extracted.[62] In a typical Voitenko compressor, a shaped charge accelerates hydrogen gas which in turn accelerates a thin disk up to about 40 km/s.[63][64] A slight modification to the Voitenko compressor concept is a super-compressed detonation,[65][66] a device that uses a compressible liquid or solid fuel in the steel compression chamber instead of a traditional gas mixture.[67][68] A further extension of this technology is the explosive diamond anvil cell,[69][70][71][72] utilizing multiple opposed shaped-charge jets projected at a single steel encapsulated fuel,[73] such as hydrogen. The fuels used in these devices, along with the secondary combustion reactions and long blast impulse, produce similar conditions to those encountered in fuel-air and thermobaric explosives.[74][75][76][77]

Nuclear shaped charges

The proposed Project Orion nuclear propulsion system would have required the development of nuclear shaped charges for reaction acceleration of spacecraft. Shaped-charge effects driven by nuclear explosions have been discussed speculatively, but are not known to have been produced in fact.[78][79][80] For example, the early nuclear weapons designer Ted Taylor was quoted as saying, in the context of shaped charges, "A one-kiloton fission device, shaped properly, could make a hole ten feet (3 m) in diameter a thousand feet (305 m) into solid rock."[81] Also, a nuclear driven explosively formed penetrator was apparently proposed for terminal ballistic missile defense in the 1960s.[82][83]

Examples in the media

 
The Krakatoa Shaped Charge System by Alford Technologies Ltd.
  • The Future Weapons program of the Discovery channel featured the Krakatoa,[84] a simple shaped-charge weapon system designed by Alford Technologies for special operations deployment.[85] The weapon consisted of a simple plastic outer shell, a copper cone and a volume of plastic explosive. This device was effective at penetrating 1-inch-thick (25 mm) steel plate at a range of several meters.

See also

References

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  2. ^ Post, Richard (June 1, 1998). (PDF). Science & Technology Review. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 17, 2016.
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  5. ^ Donald R. Kennedy, History of the Shaped Charge Effect: The First 100 Years 2019-01-27 at the Wayback Machine (Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1990), pp. 3–5.
  6. ^ For a brief biography of Max von Foerster, see the German Wikipedia article on him.
  7. ^ Kennedy (1990), pp. 5, 66.
  8. ^ See:
    • Max von Foerster (1883) Versuche mit Komprimierter Schiessbaumwolle [Experiments with compressed gun cotton], (Berlin, Germany: Mittler und Sohn, 1883).
    • Max von Foerster (1884) "Experiments with compressed gun cotton," Nostrand's Engineering Magazine, vol. 31, pp. 113–119.
  9. ^ US patent 342423, Gustav Bloem, "Shell for detonating caps", issued 1886-05-25 
  10. ^ See:
    • Charles E. Munroe (1888) "On certain phenomena produced by the detonation of gun cotton," Proceedings of the Newport [Rhode Island] Natural Historical Society 1883–1886, Report no. 6.
    • Charles E. Munroe (1888) "Wave-like effects produced by the detonation of guncotton," American Journal of Science, vol. 36, pp. 48–50.
    • Charles E. Munroe (1888) "Modern explosives," Scribner's Magazine, vol. 3, pp. 563–576.
    • Kennedy (1990), pp. 5–6.
  11. ^ C.E. Munroe (1894) Executive Document No. 20, 53rd [U.S.] Congress, 1st Session, Washington, D.C.
  12. ^ Charles E. Munroe (1900) "The applications of explosives," Appleton's Popular Science Monthly, vol. 56, pp. 300–312, 444–455. A description of Munroe's first shaped-charge experiment appears on p. 453.
  13. ^ Munroe (1900), p. 453.
  14. ^ Kennedy (1990), p. 6.
  15. ^ "It makes steel flow like mud", Popular Science, February 1945, pp. 65–69
  16. ^ G. I. Brown (1998). The Big Bang: A history of explosives. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Limited. p. 166. ISBN 0-7509-1878-0.
  17. ^ W. P. Walters; J. A. Zukas (1989). Fundamentals of Shaped Charges. New York: John Wiley & Sons inc. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-471-62172-2.
  18. ^ М. Сухаревский [M. Sukharevskii] (1925) Техника и Снабжение Красной Армии (Technology and Equipment of the Red Army), no. 170, pp. 13–18; (1926) Война и Техника (War and Technology), no. 253, pp. 18–24.
  19. ^ William Payman; Donald Whitley Woodhead & Harold Titman (February 15, 1935). "Explosion waves and shock waves, Part II — The shock waves and explosion products sent out by blasting detonators". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 148 (865): 604–622. Bibcode:1935RSPSA.148..604P. doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0036. See also: W. Payman & D. W. Woodhead (December 22, 1937). "Explosion waves and shock waves, V — The shock wave and explosion products from detonating high explosives". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A. 163 (915): 575–592. doi:10.1098/rspa.1937.0246.
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  21. ^ For a biography of Carl Julius Cranz (1858–1945), see:
    • Peter O. K. Krehl (2009). History of Shock Waves, Explosions and Impact: A Chronological and Biographical Reference. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1062–1063. ISBN 9783540304210.
    • German Wikipedia: Carl Cranz
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    • Kennedy (1990), pp. 10–11.
    • William P. Walters (September 1990) "The Shaped Charge Concept. Part 2. The History of Shaped Charges", Technical Report BRL-TR-3158, U.S. Army Laboratory Command, Ballistic Research Laboratory (Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland), p. 7. Available on-line at: Defense Technical Information Center
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Further reading

  • Fundamentals of Shaped Charges, W.P. Walters, J.A. Zukas, John Wiley & Sons Inc., June 1989, ISBN 0-471-62172-2.
  • Tactical Missile Warheads, Joseph Carleone (ed.), Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Series (V-155), Published by AIAA, 1993, ISBN 1-56347-067-5.

External links

  • Shaped charges-Munroe effect explained (Explosions & Shockwaves) on YouTube
  • Elements of Fission Weapon Design
  • Shaped bombs magnify Iraq attacks
  • The development of the first Hollow charges by the Germans in WWII

January 09, 2023
shaped, charge, munroe, effect, redirects, here, band, munroe, effect, band, shaped, charge, explosive, charge, shaped, form, explosively, formed, penetrator, focus, effect, explosive, energy, different, types, shaped, charges, used, various, purposes, such, c. Munroe Effect redirects here For the band see Munroe Effect band A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to form an explosively formed penetrator EFP to focus the effect of the explosive s energy Different types of shaped charges are used for various purposes such as cutting and forming metal initiating nuclear weapons penetrating armor or perforating wells in the oil and gas industry Sectioned high explosive anti tank round with the inner shaped charge visible Sectioned RL 83 Blindicide rocket 1 Ballistic cap 2 Air filled cavity 3 Conical liner 4 Detonator 5 Explosive 6 Piezo electric trigger A typical modern shaped charge with a metal liner on the charge cavity can penetrate armor steel to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge charge diameters CD though greater depths of 10 CD and above 1 2 have been achieved Contrary to a misconception possibly resulting from the acronym for high explosive anti tank HEAT the shaped charge EFP jet does not depend in any way on heating or melting for its effectiveness that is the EFP jet from a shaped charge does not melt its way through armor as its effect is purely kinetic in nature 3 however the process does create significant heat and often has a significant secondary incendiary effect after penetration Contents 1 Munroe effect 2 Applications 2 1 Modern military 2 1 1 Protection 2 2 Non military 3 Function 3 1 Liner 3 2 Explosive charge 3 3 Other features 4 Variants 4 1 Linear shaped charges 4 2 Explosively formed penetrator 4 3 Tandem warhead 4 4 Voitenko compressor 4 5 Nuclear shaped charges 5 Examples in the media 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksMunroe effect EditThe Munroe or Neumann effect is the focusing of blast energy by a hollow or void cut on a surface of an explosive The earliest mention of hollow charges were mentioned in 1792 Franz Xaver von Baader 1765 1841 was a German mining engineer at that time in a mining journal he advocated a conical space at the forward end of a blasting charge to increase the explosive s effect and thereby save powder 4 The idea was adopted for a time in Norway and in the mines of the Harz mountains of Germany although the only available explosive at the time was gunpowder which is not a high explosive and hence incapable of producing the shock wave that the shaped charge effect requires 5 The first true hollow charge effect was achieved in 1883 by Max von Foerster 1845 1905 6 chief of the nitrocellulose factory of Wolff amp Co in Walsrode Germany 7 8 By 1886 Gustav Bloem of Dusseldorf Germany had filed U S Patent 342 423 for hemispherical cavity metal detonators to concentrate the effect of the explosion in an axial direction 9 The Munroe effect is named after Charles E Munroe who discovered it in 1888 As a civilian chemist working at the U S Naval Torpedo Station at Newport Rhode Island he noticed that when a block of explosive guncotton with the manufacturer s name stamped into it was detonated next to a metal plate the lettering was cut into the plate Conversely if letters were raised in relief above the surface of the explosive then the letters on the plate would also be raised above its surface 10 In 1894 Munroe constructed his first crude shaped charge 11 12 Among the experiments made was one upon a safe twenty nine inches cube with walls four inches and three quarters thick made up of plates of iron and steel W hen a hollow charge of dynamite nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated on it a hole three inches in diameter was blown clear through the wall The hollow cartridge was made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can the open mouth of the latter being placed downward 13 Although Munroe s experiment with the shaped charge was widely publicized in 1900 in Popular Science Monthly the importance of the tin can liner of the hollow charge remained unrecognized for another 44 years 14 Part of that 1900 article was reprinted in the February 1945 issue of Popular Science 15 describing how shaped charge warheads worked It was this article that at last revealed to the general public how the United States Army Bazooka actually worked against armored vehicles during WWII In 1910 Egon Neumann of Germany discovered that a block of TNT which would normally dent a steel plate punched a hole through it if the explosive had a conical indentation 16 17 The military usefulness of Munroe s and Neumann s work was unappreciated for a long time Between the world wars academics in several countries Myron Yakovlevich Sukharevskii Miron Yakovlevich Suharevskij in the Soviet Union 18 William H Payment and Donald Whitley Woodhead in Britain 19 and Robert Williams Wood in the U S 20 recognized that projectiles could form during explosions However it was not until 1932 that Franz Rudolf Thomanek a student of physics at Vienna s Technische Hochschule conceived an anti tank round that was based on the hollow charge effect When the Austrian government showed no interest in pursuing the idea Thomanek moved to Berlin s Technische Hochschule where he continued his studies under the ballistics expert Carl Julius Cranz 21 There in 1935 he and Hellmuth von Huttern developed a prototype anti tank round Although the weapon s performance proved disappointing Thomanek continued his developmental work collaborating with Hubert Schardin at the Waffeninstitut der Luftwaffe Air Force Weapons Institute in Braunschweig 22 By 1937 Schardin believed that hollow charge effects were due to the interactions of shock waves It was during the testing of this idea that on February 4 1938 Thomanek conceived the shaped charge explosive or Hohlladungs Auskleidungseffekt hollow charge liner effect 23 It was Gustav Adolf Thomer who in 1938 first visualized by flash radiography the metallic jet produced by a shaped charge explosion 24 Meanwhile Henry Hans Mohaupt a chemical engineer in Switzerland had independently developed a shaped charge munition in 1935 which was demonstrated to the Swiss French British and U S militaries 25 During World War II shaped charge munitions were developed by Germany Panzerschreck Panzerfaust Panzerwurfmine Mistel Britain PIAT Beehive cratering charge the Soviet Union RPG 43 RPG 6 the U S bazooka 26 27 and Italy Effetto Pronto Speciale shells for various artillery pieces 28 The development of shaped charges revolutionized anti tank warfare Tanks faced a serious vulnerability from a weapon that could be carried by an infantryman or aircraft One of the earliest uses of shaped charges was by German glider borne troops against the Belgian Fort Eben Emael in 1940 29 These demolition charges developed by Dr Wuelfken of the German Ordnance Office were unlined explosive charges 30 and did not produce a metal jet like the modern HEAT warheads Due to the lack of metal liner they shook the turrets but they did not destroy them and other airborne troops were forced to climb on the turrets and smash the gun barrels 31 Applications EditModern military Edit Further information High explosive anti tank The common term in military terminology for shaped charge warheads is high explosive anti tank HEAT warhead HEAT warheads are frequently used in anti tank guided missiles unguided rockets gun fired projectiles both spun spin stabilized and unspun rifle grenades land mines bomblets torpedoes and various other weapons Protection Edit During World War II the precision of the charge s construction and its detonation mode were both inferior to modern warheads This lower precision caused the jet to curve and to break up at an earlier time and hence at a shorter distance The resulting dispersion decreased the penetration depth for a given cone diameter and also shortened the optimum standoff distance Since the charges were less effective at larger standoffs side and turret skirts known as Schurzen fitted to some German tanks to protect against ordinary anti tank rifles 32 were fortuitously found to give the jet room to disperse and hence also reduce HEAT penetration citation needed The use of add on spaced armor skirts on armored vehicles may have the opposite effect and actually increase the penetration of some shaped charge warheads Due to constraints in the length of the projectile missile the built in stand off on many warheads is less than the optimum distance In such cases the skirting effectively increases the distance between the armor and the target and the warhead detonates closer to its optimum standoff 33 Skirting should not be confused with cage armor which is primarily used to damage the fusing system of RPG 7 projectiles but can also cause a HEAT projectile to pitch up or down on impact lengthening the penetration path for the shaped charge s penetration stream If the nose probe strikes one of the cage armor slats the warhead will function as normal Non military Edit In non military applications shaped charges are used in explosive demolition of buildings and structures in particular for cutting through metal piles columns and beams 34 35 36 and for boring holes 37 In steelmaking small shaped charges are often used to pierce taps that have become plugged with slag 37 They are also used in quarrying breaking up ice breaking log jams felling trees and drilling post holes 37 Shaped charges are used most extensively in the petroleum and natural gas industries in particular in the completion of oil and gas wells in which they are detonated to perforate the metal casing of the well at intervals to admit the influx of oil and gas 38 A 4 5 kg 9 9 lb shaped charge was used on the Hayabusa2 mission on asteroid 162173 Ryugu The spacecraft dropped the explosive device onto the asteroid and detonated it with the spacecraft behind cover The detonation dug a crater about 10 meters wide to provide access to a pristine sample of the asteroid 39 Function Edit A 40 lb 18 kg Composition B formed projectile used by combat engineers The shaped charge is used to bore a hole for a cratering charge A typical device consists of a solid cylinder of explosive with a metal lined conical hollow in one end and a central detonator array of detonators or detonation wave guide at the other end Explosive energy is released directly away from normal to the surface of an explosive so shaping the explosive will concentrate the explosive energy in the void If the hollow is properly shaped usually conically the enormous pressure generated by the detonation of the explosive drives the liner in the hollow cavity inward to collapse upon its central axis The resulting collision forms and projects a high velocity jet of metal particles forward along the axis Most of the jet material originates from the innermost part of the liner a layer of about 10 to 20 of the thickness The rest of the liner forms a slower moving slug of material which because of its appearance is sometimes called a carrot Because of the variation along the liner in its collapse velocity the jet s velocity also varies along its length decreasing from the front This variation in jet velocity stretches it and eventually leads to its break up into particles Over time the particles tend to fall out of alignment which reduces the depth of penetration at long standoffs Also at the apex of the cone which forms the very front of the jet the liner does not have time to be fully accelerated before it forms its part of the jet This results in its small part of jet being projected at a lower velocity than jet formed later behind it As a result the initial parts of the jet coalesce to form a pronounced wider tip portion Most of the jet travels at hypersonic speed The tip moves at 7 to 14 km s the jet tail at a lower velocity 1 to 3 km s and the slug at a still lower velocity less than 1 km s The exact velocities depend on the charge s configuration and confinement explosive type materials used and the explosive initiation mode At typical velocities the penetration process generates such enormous pressures that it may be considered hydrodynamic to a good approximation the jet and armor may be treated as inviscid compressible fluids see for example 40 with their material strengths ignored A recent technique using magnetic diffusion analysis showed that the temperature of the outer 50 by volume of a copper jet tip while in flight was between 1100K and 1200K 41 much closer to the melting point of copper 1358 K than previously assumed 42 This temperature is consistent with a hydrodynamic calculation that simulated the entire experiment 43 In comparison two color radiometry measurements from the late 1970s indicate lower temperatures for various shaped charge liner material cone construction and type of explosive filler 44 A Comp B loaded shaped charge with a copper liner and pointed cone apex had a jet tip temperature ranging from 668 K to 863 K over a five shot sampling Octol loaded charges with a rounded cone apex generally had higher surface temperatures with an average of 810 K and the temperature of a tin lead liner with Comp B fill averaged 842 K While the tin lead jet was determined to be liquid the copper jets are well below the melting point of copper However these temperatures are not completely consistent with evidence that soft recovered copper jet particles show signs of melting at the core while the outer portion remains solid and cannot be equated with bulk temperature 45 The location of the charge relative to its target is critical for optimum penetration for two reasons If the charge is detonated too close there is not enough time for the jet to fully develop But the jet disintegrates and disperses after a relatively short distance usually well under two meters At such standoffs it breaks into particles which tend to tumble and drift off the axis of penetration so that the successive particles tend to widen rather than deepen the hole At very long standoffs velocity is lost to air drag further degrading penetration The key to the effectiveness of the hollow charge is its diameter As the penetration continues through the target the width of the hole decreases leading to a characteristic fist to finger action where the size of the eventual finger is based on the size of the original fist In general shaped charges can penetrate a steel plate as thick as 150 to 700 46 of their diameter depending on the charge quality The figure is for basic steel plate not for the composite armor reactive armor or other types of modern armor Liner Edit The most common shape of the liner is conical with an internal apex angle of 40 to 90 degrees Different apex angles yield different distributions of jet mass and velocity Small apex angles can result in jet bifurcation or even in the failure of the jet to form at all this is attributed to the collapse velocity being above a certain threshold normally slightly higher than the liner material s bulk sound speed Other widely used shapes include hemispheres tulips trumpets ellipses and bi conics the various shapes yield jets with different velocity and mass distributions Liners have been made from many materials including various metals 47 and glass The deepest penetrations are achieved with a dense ductile metal and a very common choice has been copper For some modern anti armor weapons molybdenum and pseudo alloys of tungsten filler and copper binder 9 1 thus density is 18 Mg m3 have been adopted Nearly every common metallic element has been tried including aluminum tungsten tantalum depleted uranium lead tin cadmium cobalt magnesium titanium zinc zirconium molybdenum beryllium nickel silver and even gold and platinum citation needed The selection of the material depends on the target to be penetrated for example aluminum has been found advantageous for concrete targets In early antitank weapons copper was used as a liner material Later in the 1970s it was found tantalum is superior to copper due to its much higher density and very high ductility at high strain rates Other high density metals and alloys tend to have drawbacks in terms of price toxicity radioactivity or lack of ductility 48 For the deepest penetrations pure metals yield the best results because they display the greatest ductility which delays the breakup of the jet into particles as it stretches In charges for oil well completion however it is essential that a solid slug or carrot not be formed since it would plug the hole just penetrated and interfere with the influx of oil In the petroleum industry therefore liners are generally fabricated by powder metallurgy often of pseudo alloys which if unsintered yield jets that are composed mainly of dispersed fine metal particles Unsintered cold pressed liners however are not waterproof and tend to be brittle which makes them easy to damage during handling Bimetallic liners usually zinc lined copper can be used during jet formation the zinc layer vaporizes and a slug is not formed the disadvantage is an increased cost and dependency of jet formation on the quality of bonding the two layers Low melting point below 500 C solder or braze like alloys e g Sn50Pb50 Zn97 6Pb1 6 or pure metals like lead zinc or cadmium can be used these melt before reaching the well casing and the molten metal does not obstruct the hole Other alloys binary eutectics e g Pb88 8Sb11 1 Sn61 9Pd38 1 or Ag71 9Cu28 1 form a metal matrix composite material with ductile matrix with brittle dendrites such materials reduce slug formation but are difficult to shape A metal matrix composite with discrete inclusions of low melting material is another option the inclusions either melt before the jet reaches the well casing weakening the material or serve as crack nucleation sites and the slug breaks up on impact The dispersion of the second phase can be achieved also with castable alloys e g copper with a low melting point metal insoluble in copper such as bismuth 1 5 lithium or up to 50 usually 15 30 lead the size of inclusions can be adjusted by thermal treatment Non homogeneous distribution of the inclusions can also be achieved Other additives can modify the alloy properties tin 4 8 nickel up to 30 and often together with tin up to 8 aluminium phosphorus forming brittle phosphides or 1 5 silicon form brittle inclusions serving as crack initiation sites Up to 30 zinc can be added to lower the material cost and to form additional brittle phases 49 Oxide glass liners produce jets of low density therefore yielding less penetration depth Double layer liners with one layer of a less dense but pyrophoric metal e g aluminum or magnesium can be used to enhance incendiary effects following the armor piercing action explosive welding can be used for making those as then the metal metal interface is homogeneous does not contain significant amount of intermetallics and does not have adverse effects to the formation of the jet 50 The penetration depth is proportional to the maximum length of the jet which is a product of the jet tip velocity and time to particulation The jet tip velocity depends on bulk sound velocity in the liner material the time to particulation is dependent on the ductility of the material The maximum achievable jet velocity is roughly 2 34 times the sound velocity in the material 51 The speed can reach 10 km s peaking some 40 microseconds after detonation the cone tip is subjected to acceleration of about 25 million g The jet tail reaches about 2 5 km s The pressure between the jet tip and the target can reach one terapascal The immense pressure makes the metal flow like a liquid though x ray diffraction has shown the metal stays solid one of the theories explaining this behavior proposes molten core and solid sheath of the jet The best materials are face centered cubic metals as they are the most ductile but even graphite and zero ductility ceramic cones show significant penetration 52 Explosive charge Edit For optimal penetration a high explosive with a high detonation velocity and pressure is normally chosen The most common explosive used in high performance anti armor warheads is HMX octogen although never in its pure form as it would be too sensitive It is normally compounded with a few percent of some type of plastic binder such as in the polymer bonded explosive PBX LX 14 or with another less sensitive explosive such as TNT with which it forms Octol Other common high performance explosives are RDX based compositions again either as PBXs or mixtures with TNT to form Composition B and the Cyclotols or wax Cyclonites Some explosives incorporate powdered aluminum to increase their blast and detonation temperature but this addition generally results in decreased performance of the shaped charge There has been research into using the very high performance but sensitive explosive CL 20 in shaped charge warheads but at present due to its sensitivity this has been in the form of the PBX composite LX 19 CL 20 and Estane binder Other features Edit A waveshaper is a body typically a disc or cylindrical block of an inert material typically solid or foamed plastic but sometimes metal perhaps hollow inserted within the explosive for the purpose of changing the path of the detonation wave The effect is to modify the collapse of the cone and resulting jet formation with the intent of increasing penetration performance Waveshapers are often used to save space a shorter charge with a waveshaper can achieve the same performance as a longer charge without a waveshaper Another useful design feature is sub calibration the use of a liner having a smaller diameter caliber than the explosive charge In an ordinary charge the explosive near the base of the cone is so thin that it is unable to accelerate the adjacent liner to sufficient velocity to form an effective jet In a sub calibrated charge this part of the device is effectively cut off resulting in a shorter charge with the same performance Variants EditThere are several forms of shaped charge Linear shaped charges Edit Linear shaped charge A linear shaped charge LSC has a lining with V shaped profile and varying length The lining is surrounded with explosive the explosive then encased within a suitable material that serves to protect the explosive and to confine tamp it on detonation At detonation the focusing of the explosive high pressure wave as it becomes incident to the side wall causes the metal liner of the LSC to collapse creating the cutting force 53 The detonation projects into the lining to form a continuous knife like planar jet The jet cuts any material in its path to a depth depending on the size and materials used in the charge Generally the jet penetrates around 1 to 1 2 times 54 the charge width For the cutting of complex geometries there are also flexible versions of the linear shaped charge these with a lead or high density foam sheathing and a ductile flexible lining material which also is often lead LSCs are commonly used in the cutting of rolled steel joists RSJ and other structural targets such as in the controlled demolition of buildings LSCs are also used to separate the stages of multistage rockets Explosively formed penetrator Edit Main article Explosively formed penetrator Formation of an EFP warhead USAF Research Laboratory The explosively formed penetrator EFP also known as the self forging fragment SFF explosively formed projectile EFP self forging projectile SEFOP are the products of a shaped charge An EFP uses the action of the explosive s detonation wave and to a lesser extent the propulsive effect of its detonation products to project and deform a plate dish or cone of ductile metal such as copper iron or tantalum into a compact high velocity projectile slug rod or jet This EFP is projected toward the target at about two kilometers per second The EFP is relatively unaffected by first generation reactive armor and can travel up to perhaps 1000 charge diameters CD s before its velocity becomes ineffective at penetrating armor due to aerodynamic drag or successfully hitting the target becomes a problem The impact of the EFP normally causes a large diameter but relatively shallow hole of at most a couple of CDs If the EFP perforates the armor spalling and extensive behind armor effects BAE also called behind armor damage BAD will occur The BAE is mainly caused by the high temperature and high velocity armor and fragments being injected into the interior space and the blast overpressure caused by this debris More modern EFP warhead versions through the use of advanced initiation modes can also produce long rods stretched slugs multi slugs and finned rod slug projectiles The long rods are able to penetrate a much greater depth of armor at some loss to BAE multi slugs are better at defeating light or area targets and the finned projectiles are much more accurate The use of this warhead type is mainly restricted to lightly armored areas of main battle tanks MBT such as the top belly and rear armored areas It is well suited for the attack of other less heavily protected armored fighting vehicles AFV and in the breaching of material targets buildings bunkers bridge supports etc The newer rod projectiles may be effective against the more heavily armored areas of MBTs Weapons using the EFP principle have already been used in combat the smart submunitions in the CBU 97 cluster bomb used by the US Air Force and Navy in the 2003 Iraq war employed this principle and the US Army is reportedly experimenting with precision guided artillery shells under Project SADARM Seek And Destroy ARMor There are also various other projectile BONUS DM 642 and rocket submunitions Motiv 3M DM 642 and mines MIFF TMRP 6 that use EFP principle Examples of EFP warheads are US patents 5038683 55 and US6606951 56 Tandem warhead Edit Some modern anti tank rockets RPG 27 RPG 29 and missiles TOW 2B Eryx HOT MILAN use a tandem warhead shaped charge consisting of two separate shaped charges one in front of the other typically with some distance between them TOW 2A was the first to use tandem warheads in the mid 1980s an aspect of the weapon which the US Army had to reveal under news media and Congressional pressure resulting from the concern that NATO antitank missiles were ineffective against Soviet tanks that were fitted with the new ERA boxes The Army revealed that a 40 mm precursor shaped charge warhead was fitted on the tip of the TOW 2B collapsible probe 57 Usually the front charge is somewhat smaller than the rear one as it is intended primarily to disrupt ERA boxes or tiles Examples of tandem warheads are US patents 7363862 58 and US 5561261 59 The US Hellfire antiarmor missile is one of the few that have accomplished the complex engineering feat of having two shaped charges of the same diameter stacked in one warhead Recently a Russian arms firm revealed a 125mm tank cannon round with two same diameter shaped charges one behind the other but with the back one offset so its penetration stream will not interfere with the front shaped charge s penetration stream The reasoning behind both the Hellfire and the Russian 125 mm munitions having tandem same diameter warheads is not to increase penetration but to increase the beyond armour effect Voitenko compressor Edit Main article Voitenko compressor In 1964 a Soviet scientist proposed that a shaped charge originally developed for piercing thick steel armor be adapted to the task of accelerating shock waves 60 The resulting device looking a little like a wind tunnel is called a Voitenko compressor 61 The Voitenko compressor initially separates a test gas from a shaped charge with a malleable steel plate When the shaped charge detonates most of its energy is focused on the steel plate driving it forward and pushing the test gas ahead of it Ames translated this idea into a self destroying shock tube A 66 pound shaped charge accelerated the gas in a 3 cm glass walled tube 2 meters in length The velocity of the resulting shock wave was 220 000 feet per second 67 km s The apparatus exposed to the detonation was completely destroyed but not before useful data was extracted 62 In a typical Voitenko compressor a shaped charge accelerates hydrogen gas which in turn accelerates a thin disk up to about 40 km s 63 64 A slight modification to the Voitenko compressor concept is a super compressed detonation 65 66 a device that uses a compressible liquid or solid fuel in the steel compression chamber instead of a traditional gas mixture 67 68 A further extension of this technology is the explosive diamond anvil cell 69 70 71 72 utilizing multiple opposed shaped charge jets projected at a single steel encapsulated fuel 73 such as hydrogen The fuels used in these devices along with the secondary combustion reactions and long blast impulse produce similar conditions to those encountered in fuel air and thermobaric explosives 74 75 76 77 Nuclear shaped charges Edit The proposed Project Orion nuclear propulsion system would have required the development of nuclear shaped charges for reaction acceleration of spacecraft Shaped charge effects driven by nuclear explosions have been discussed speculatively but are not known to have been produced in fact 78 79 80 For example the early nuclear weapons designer Ted Taylor was quoted as saying in the context of shaped charges A one kiloton fission device shaped properly could make a hole ten feet 3 m in diameter a thousand feet 305 m into solid rock 81 Also a nuclear driven explosively formed penetrator was apparently proposed for terminal ballistic missile defense in the 1960s 82 83 Examples in the media Edit The Krakatoa Shaped Charge System by Alford Technologies Ltd The Future Weapons program of the Discovery channel featured the Krakatoa 84 a simple shaped charge weapon system designed by Alford Technologies for special operations deployment 85 The weapon consisted of a simple plastic outer shell a copper cone and a volume of plastic explosive This device was effective at penetrating 1 inch thick 25 mm steel plate at a range of several meters See also EditExplosive lens High explosive squash head M150 Penetration Augmented MunitionReferences Edit Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2012 10 10 Retrieved 2013 12 21 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Post Richard June 1 1998 Shaped Charges Pierce the Toughest Targets PDF Science amp Technology Review Archived from the original PDF on September 17 2016 Introduction to Shaped Charges Walters Army Research Laboratory 2007 PDF p 17 Archived from the original PDF on 2016 12 23 Retrieved 2017 03 23 Franz Baader March 1792 Versuch einer Theorie der Sprengarbeit Investigation of a theory of blasting Bergmannisches Journal Miners Journal vol 1 no 3 pp 193 212 Reprinted in Franz Hoffmann et al ed s Franz von Baader s samtliche Werke Franz von Baader s complete works Leipzig Germany Herrmann Bethmann 1854 Part I vol 7 pp 153 166 Donald R Kennedy History of the Shaped Charge Effect The First 100 Years Archived 2019 01 27 at the Wayback Machine Los Alamos New Mexico Los Alamos National Laboratory 1990 pp 3 5 For a brief biography of Max von Foerster see the German Wikipedia article on him Kennedy 1990 pp 5 66 See Max von Foerster 1883 Versuche mit Komprimierter Schiessbaumwolle Experiments with compressed gun cotton Berlin Germany Mittler und Sohn 1883 Max von Foerster 1884 Experiments with compressed gun cotton Nostrand s Engineering Magazine vol 31 pp 113 119 US patent 342423 Gustav Bloem Shell for detonating caps issued 1886 05 25 See Charles E Munroe 1888 On certain phenomena produced by the detonation of gun cotton Proceedings of the Newport Rhode Island Natural Historical Society 1883 1886 Report no 6 Charles E Munroe 1888 Wave like effects produced by the detonation of guncotton American Journal of Science vol 36 pp 48 50 Charles E Munroe 1888 Modern explosives Scribner s Magazine vol 3 pp 563 576 Kennedy 1990 pp 5 6 C E Munroe 1894 Executive Document No 20 53rd U S Congress 1st Session Washington D C Charles E Munroe 1900 The applications of explosives Appleton s Popular Science Monthly vol 56 pp 300 312 444 455 A description of Munroe s first shaped charge experiment appears on p 453 Munroe 1900 p 453 Kennedy 1990 p 6 It makes steel flow like mud Popular Science February 1945 pp 65 69 G I Brown 1998 The Big Bang A history of explosives Stroud Gloucestershire Sutton Publishing Limited p 166 ISBN 0 7509 1878 0 W P Walters J A Zukas 1989 Fundamentals of Shaped Charges New York John Wiley amp Sons inc pp 12 13 ISBN 0 471 62172 2 M Suharevskij M Sukharevskii 1925 Tehnika i Snabzhenie Krasnoj Armii Technology and Equipment of the Red Army no 170 pp 13 18 1926 Vojna i Tehnika War and Technology no 253 pp 18 24 William Payman Donald Whitley Woodhead amp Harold Titman February 15 1935 Explosion waves and shock waves Part II The shock waves and explosion products sent out by blasting detonators Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 148 865 604 622 Bibcode 1935RSPSA 148 604P doi 10 1098 rspa 1935 0036 See also W Payman amp D W Woodhead December 22 1937 Explosion waves and shock waves V The shock wave and explosion products from detonating high explosives Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 163 915 575 592 doi 10 1098 rspa 1937 0246 R W Wood November 2 1936 Optical and physical effects of high explosives Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 157A 891 249 261 Bibcode 1936RSPSA 157 249W doi 10 1098 rspa 1936 0191 For a biography of Carl Julius Cranz 1858 1945 see Peter O K Krehl 2009 History of Shock Waves Explosions and Impact A Chronological and Biographical Reference Berlin Germany Springer Verlag pp 1062 1063 ISBN 9783540304210 German Wikipedia Carl Cranz Helmut W Malnig 2006 Professor Thomanek und die Entwicklung der Prazisions Hohlladung Professor Thomanek and the development of the precision hollow charge Truppendienst no 289 Available on line at Bundesheer Federal Army of Austria Kennedy 1990 p 9 See Kennedy 1990 p 63 Krehl 2009 p 513 See H Mohaupt Chapter 11 Shaped charges and warheads in F B Pollad and J A Arnold ed s Aerospace Ordnance Handbook Englewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall 1966 Kennedy 1990 pp 10 11 William P Walters September 1990 The Shaped Charge Concept Part 2 The History of Shaped Charges Technical Report BRL TR 3158 U S Army Laboratory Command Ballistic Research Laboratory Aberdeen Proving Ground Maryland p 7 Available on line at Defense Technical Information Center Donald R Kennedy History of the Shaped Charge Effect The First 100 Years Archived 2019 01 27 at the Wayback Machine D R Kennedy and Associates Inc Mountain View California 1983 John Pike Shaped Charge globalsecurity org https comandosupremo com forums index php attachments ep eps jpg 59 bare URL image file Col James E Mrazek Ret 1970 The Fall of Eben Emael Luce ASIN B000IFGOVG Thomanek Rudolf 1960 The Development of Lined Hollow Charge PDF Explosivstoffe 8 8 Archived from the original PDF on January 27 2019 Retrieved 28 April 2015 Lucas James 1988 Storming eagles German airborne forces in World War Two London Arms and Armour p 23 ISBN 9780853688792 Hilary L Doyle Thomas L Jentz amp Tony Bryan 2001 11 25 Panzerkampfwagen IV Ausf G H and J 1942 45 ISBN 9781841761831 WILEY VCH Verlag GmbH D 69451 Weinheim 1999 Propellants Explosives Pyrotechnics 24 Effectiveness Factors for Explosive Reactive Armour Systems page 71 Parkersburg Belpre Bridge Controlled Demolition Inc Archived from the original on 2011 07 08 Retrieved 2011 04 24 500 Wood Street Building Controlled Demolition Inc Archived from the original on 2011 07 08 Retrieved 2011 04 24 Semtex RAZOR Mondial Defence Systems Archived from the original on 2011 10 06 Retrieved 2011 04 24 a b c Walters William An Overview of the Shaped Charge Concept PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2011 08 19 Retrieved 2011 08 27 Shaped Charge globalsecurity org Video on YouTube G Birkhoff D P MacDougall E M Pugh and G I Taylor 1 J Appl Phys vol 19 pp 563 582 1948 Uhlig W Casey Hummer Charles 2013 In flight conductivity and temperature measurements of hypervelocity projectiles Procedia Engineering 58 48 57 doi 10 1016 j proeng 2013 05 008 Walters William 1998 Fundamentals of Shaped Charges softcover edition with corrections ed Baltimore Maryland CMCPress p 192 ISBN 0 471 62172 2 Sable P 2017 Characterization In Flight Temperature of Shaped Charge Penetrators in CTH Procedia Engineering 204 375 382 doi 10 1016 j proeng 2017 09 782 Von Holle W G Trimble J J 1977 Temperature Measurement of Copper and Eutectic Metal Shaped Charge Jets U S Army Ballistic Research Laboratory BRL R 2004 Lassila D H Nikkel D J Jr Kershaw R P Walters W P 1996 Analysis of Soft Recovered Shaped Charge Jet Particles Report University of North Texas Libraries Digital Library Government Documents Department doi 10 2172 251380 UCRL JC 123850 Jane s Ammunition Handbook 1994 pp 140 141 addresses the reported 700 mm penetration of the Swedish 106 3A HEAT T and Austrian RAT 700 HEAT projectiles for the 106 mm M40A1 recoilless rifle Shaped Charge Liner Materials Resources Processes Properties Costs and Applications 1991 PDF dtic mil Archived PDF from the original on April 1 2019 Retrieved 31 March 2018 Alan M Russell and Kok Loong Lee Structure Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals Hoboken New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons 2005 p 218 Copper alloys for shaped charge liners Olin Corporation freepatentsonline com Method of making a bimetallic shaped charge liner U S Patent 4 807 795 Manfred Held Liners for shaped charges Archived 2011 07 07 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Battlefield Technology vol 4 no 3 November 2001 Doig Alistair March 1998 Some metallurgical aspects of shaped charge liners PDF Journal of Battlefield Technology 1 1 Archived from the original PDF on 2011 07 24 Accurate Energetic Systems LLC 2 Archived 2017 01 22 at the Wayback Machine Linear Shape Charge Linear Shaped Charge PDF aesys biz Accurate Energetic Systems LLC Archived from the original PDF on 2017 01 22 Retrieved 2016 02 10 Ernest L Baker Pai Lien Lu Brian Fuchs and Barry Fishburn 1991 High explosive assembly for projecting high velocity long rods Arnold S Klein 2003 Bounding Anti tank Anti vehicle weapon Goodman A ARMY ANTITANK CANDIDATES PROLIFERATE Armed Forces Journal International December 1987 p 23 Jason C Gilliam and Darin L Kielsmeier 2008 Multi purpose single initiated tandem warhead Klaus Lindstadt and Manfred Klare 1996 Tandem warhead with a secondary projectile Vojtenko Voitenko A E 1964 Poluchenie gazovyh struj bolshoj skorosti Obtaining high speed gas jets Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR 158 1278 1280 NASA The Suicidal Wind Tunnel GlobalSecurity Shaped Charge History Explosive Accelerators Voitenko Implosion Gun Archived 2011 08 06 at the Wayback Machine I I Glass and J C Poinssot IMPLOSION DRIVEN SHOCK TUBE Shuzo Fujiwara 1992 Explosive Technique for Generation of High Dynamic Pressure Archived 2011 07 16 at the Wayback Machine Z Y Liu Overdriven Detonation of Explosives due to High Speed Plate Impact Archived 2009 03 27 at the Wayback Machine Zhang Fan Medicine Hat Alberta Murray Stephen Burke Medicine Hat Alberta Higgins Andrew Montreal Quebec 2005 Super compressed detonation method and device to effect such detonation permanent dead link Jerry Pentel and Gary G Fairbanks 1992 Multiple Stage Munition John M Heberlin 2006 Enhancement of Solid Explosive Munitions Using Reflective Casings Frederick J Mayer 1988 Materials Processing Using Chemically Driven Spherically Symmetric Implosions Donald R Garrett 1972 Diamond Implosion Apparatus L V Al tshuler K K Krupnikov V N Panov and R F Trunin 1996 Explosive laboratory devices for shock wave compression studies A A Giardini and J E Tydings 1962 Diamond Synthesis Observations On The Mechanism of Formation Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2004 Going To Extremes Archived 2008 12 07 at the Wayback Machine Raymond Jeanloz Peter M Celliers Gilbert W Collins Jon H Eggert Kanani K M Lee R Stewart McWilliams Stephanie Brygoo and Paul Loubeyre 2007 Achieving high density states through shock wave loading of precompressed samples F Winterberg Conjectured Metastable Super Explosives formed under High Pressure for Thermonuclear Ignition Young K Bae 2008 Metastable Innershell Molecular State MIMS Andre Gsponer 2008 Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons Military Effectiveness and Collateral Effects Dyson George Project Orion The Atomic Spaceship 1957 1965 p 113 ISBN 0 14 027732 3 Dyson Project Orion p 220 McPhee John The Curve of Binding Energy p 159 ISBN 0 374 51598 0 Explosively Produced Flechettes JASON report 66 121 Institute for Defense Analysis 1966 Interview with Dr Richard Blankenbecler http www aip org history ohilist 5196 html Archived 2011 09 12 at the Wayback Machine YouTube Future Weapons Krakatoa DiscoveryNetworks Archived from the original on 2021 12 11 Explosives net Products Alford Technologies Archived from the original on 2011 10 01 Retrieved 2009 10 17 Further reading EditFundamentals of Shaped Charges W P Walters J A Zukas John Wiley amp Sons Inc June 1989 ISBN 0 471 62172 2 Tactical Missile Warheads Joseph Carleone ed Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Series V 155 Published by AIAA 1993 ISBN 1 56347 067 5 External links EditShaped charges Munroe effect explained Explosions amp Shockwaves on YouTube 1945 Popular Science article that at last revealed secrets of shaped charge weapons article also includes reprints of 1900 Popular Science drawings of Professor Munroe s experiments with crude shaped charges Elements of Fission Weapon Design Shaped bombs magnify Iraq attacks Shaped Charges Pierce the Toughest Targets The development of the first Hollow charges by the Germans in WWII Use of shaped charges and protection against them in WWII Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shaped charge amp oldid 1129512852, wikipedia, wiki, 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