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Rapeseed

February 04, 2023

"Brassica napus" redirects here. For another cultivar of the same species grown for its root, see Rutabaga.
Similar Brassica plants used in cooking as leafy greens, and also called rape may include rapini and choy sum.

Rapeseed (Brassica napus subsp. napus), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. The term canola denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars which were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.[2][3]

Rapeseed
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
Species:
B. napus
Binomial name
Brassica napus

Description

 
 
 
 
Under a microscope
 
"The yellow cloud" by Hanno Karlhuber

Brassica napus grows to 100 cm (39 in) in height with hairless, fleshy, pinnatifid and glaucous lower leaves[4][5][6] which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no petioles.[7] B. napus can be distinguished from B. nigra by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from B. rapa by its smaller petals which are less than 13 mm (1⁄2 in) across.[5]

Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about 17 mm (2⁄3 in) across.[5] They are radial and consist of four petals in a typical cross-form, alternating with four sepals. They have indeterminate racemose flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral stamens with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.[8]

The rapeseed pods are green and elongated siliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on pedicels 1 to 3 cm (3⁄8 to 1+3⁄16 in) long, and can range from 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) in length.[7] Each pod has two compartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops.[9] The seeds are round and have a diameter of 1.5 to 3 mm (1⁄16 to 1⁄8 in). They have a reticulate surface texture,[7] and are black and hard at maturity.[9]

Etymology and taxonomy

The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for turnip, rāpa or rāpum, cognate with the Greek word ῥάφη, rhaphe.[10]

The species Brassica napus belongs to the flowering plant family Brassicaceae. Rapeseed is a subspecies with the autonym B. napus subsp. napus.[11] It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.[12] Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form variety (B. napus var. pabularia) which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.[13][12] The second subspecies of B. napus is B. napus subsp. rapifera (also subsp. napobrassica; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).[14][15]

B. napus is a digenomic amphidiploid that occurred due to the interspecific hybridization between B. oleracea and B. rapa.[16] It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid Brassica species.[17]

Ecology

In Northern Ireland, U K B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.[18]

Uses

 
Roasted canola

Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and biodiesel. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and palm oil.[2] It is the world's second-leading source of protein meal after soybean.[3]

Vegetable oil

Main article: Rapeseed oil

Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to cardiac muscle of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.[19] Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid.[20] Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has been generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.[21] Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US[21] and 2% in the EU,[22] with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human infants.[21][23]

Animal feed

Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent silage crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly for cattle feeding, but is also used for pigs and poultry.[3] However, the high levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates in natural rapeseed oil significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed.[24] Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China.[25]

Biodiesel

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,[citation needed] partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.

Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.[26]

Other

Rapeseed is also used as a cover crop in the US during the winter as it prevents soil erosion, produces large amounts of biomass, suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.[27]

Rapeseed has a high melliferous potential (produces substances that can be collected by insects) and is a main forage crop for honeybees.[28] Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly.[29] The low fructose-to-glucose ratio in monofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in the honeycomb, forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped.[28]

As a biolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.[30] Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive.[31]

Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster[32][33] as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.[32]

Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the soil as a biofumigant.[34] It suppresses such fungal crop pathogens as Rhizoctonia solani and Pratylenchus penetr.[34]: 39 

Cultivation

 

Crops from the genus Brassica, including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by mankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.[12]

Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.[8]

In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as wheat and barley, and break crops such as peas and beans. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another.[35] Winter rape is less susceptible to crop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests.[36]

Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination.[8]

Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a pH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity.[27] It is predominantly a wind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when bee-pollinated,[37] almost double the final yield[28] but the effect is cultivar dependent.[38] It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates N2O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O.[39]

Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients. Especially its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops. Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production.[40][41] Among the micronutrients rapeseed special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given to boron,[42] manganese[43] and molybdenum.[44]

Climate change

Further information: Effects of climate change on agriculture

The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change, and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially.[26] Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of Brassica for cultivation.[26]

Diseases and pests

The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are canker, light leaf spot (Pyrenopeziza brassicae), alternaria- and sclerotinia- stem rots. Canker causes leaf spotting, and premature ripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. A conazole- or triazole- fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control.[45] Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, verticillium wilt and clubroot.[35]

Transgenic rapeseed shows great promise for disease resistance.[46] Transexpression of a class II chitinase from barley (Hordeum vulgare) and a type I ribosome inactivating protein into B. juncea produces a large fungal resistance effect.[46] Chhikara et al., 2012[47] finds that this combination of transgenes reduces hyphal growth by 44% and delays disease presentation in Alternaria brassicicola of juncea.[46]

Pests

Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, nematodes, slugs as well as wood pigeons.[48] The brassica pod midge (Dasineura brassicae), cabbage seed weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis), cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus), cabbage stem flea beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephala), rape stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus napi) and pollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe.[49] The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of prophylactic insecticides in many countries.[45] Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.[48]

Genetics and breeding

In 2014 an SNP array was released for B. napus by Dalton-Morgan et al.,[50] and another by Clarke et al., in 2016,[51] both of which have since become widely used in molecular breeding. In a demonstration of the importance of epigenetics, Hauben et al., 2009 found that isogenic lines did not have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences.[52] Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) was applied to B. napus by Geng et al., in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and being used to construct a high-density linkage map.[52]

History of the cultivars

In 1973, Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption.[53] Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the Canola Council of Canada, as "canola".[54][55] Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."[55][56] In the 1980ies decreasing atmospherical sulphur inputs to Norher European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the new bred low glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly spcifice symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops [57] which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").[58]

The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific feaatures of the genetically alterated 00-varieties.[59]

Following the European Parliament's Transport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.[28]

Bayer Cropscience, in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of B. napus and its constituent genomes present in B. rapa and B. oleracea in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B. napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project.[60][needs update]

A genetically modified variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998, engineered for glyphosate tolerance, and is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.[61]

GMO cultivars

Main article: Roundup Ready Canola

The Monsanto company genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide, Roundup. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the Roundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, Roundup Ready volunteers were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.[62]

In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of Roundup Ready in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops. In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.[62]

Production

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports global production of 36 million metric tons (40 million short tons; 35 million long tons) in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated 58.4 million metric tons (64.4 million short tons; 57.5 million long tons) in the 2010–2011 season.[63]

Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to 6 million metric tons (6.6 million short tons; 5.9 million long tons) in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.[64]

Top rapeseed producers in millions of tonnes (STs LTs)[65][66]
Country 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000 2005 2007 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 MT|ST LT}}
  Canada 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons) 3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons) 6.4 metric tons (7.1 short tons; 6.3 long tons) 7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons; 7.1 long tons) 9.4 metric tons (10.4 short tons; 9.3 long tons) 9.6 metric tons (10.6 short tons; 9.4 long tons) 11.8 metric tons (13.0 short tons; 11.6 long tons) 14.2 metric tons (15.7 short tons; 14.0 long tons) 15.4 metric tons (17.0 short tons; 15.2 long tons) 17.9 metric tons (19.7 short tons; 17.6 long tons) 15.5 metric tons (17.1 short tons; 15.3 long tons) 18.4 metric tons (20.3 short tons; 18.1 long tons) 18.4 metric tons (20.3 short tons; 18.1 long tons) 21.3 metric tons (23.5 short tons; 21.0 long tons) 20.3 metric tons (22.4 short tons; 20.0 long tons) 18.6 metric tons (20.5 short tons; 18.3 long tons) 19.5 metric tons (21.5 short tons; 19.2 long tons)
  China 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) 5.6 metric tons (6.2 short tons; 5.5 long tons) 9.8 metric tons (10.8 short tons; 9.6 long tons) 11.3 metric tons (12.5 short tons; 11.1 long tons) 13.0 metric tons (14.3 short tons; 12.8 long tons) 10.5 metric tons (11.6 short tons; 10.3 long tons) 13.5 metric tons (14.9 short tons; 13.3 long tons) 13.4 metric tons (14.8 short tons; 13.2 long tons) 14.0 metric tons (15.4 short tons; 13.8 long tons) 14.4 metric tons (15.9 short tons; 14.2 long tons) 14.8 metric tons (16.3 short tons; 14.6 long tons) 14.9 metric tons (16.4 short tons; 14.7 long tons) 15.3 metric tons (16.9 short tons; 15.1 long tons) 13.3 metric tons (14.7 short tons; 13.1 long tons) 13.3 metric tons (14.7 short tons; 13.1 long tons) 13.5 metric tons (14.9 short tons; 13.3 long tons) 14.0 metric tons (15.4 short tons; 13.8 long tons)
  India 1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) 2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons) 3.1 metric tons (3.4 short tons; 3.1 long tons) 5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons) 5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons) 7.6 metric tons (8.4 short tons; 7.5 long tons) 7.4 metric tons (8.2 short tons; 7.3 long tons) 7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons; 7.1 long tons) 8.2 metric tons (9.0 short tons; 8.1 long tons) 6.8 metric tons (7.5 short tons; 6.7 long tons) 7.8 metric tons (8.6 short tons; 7.7 long tons) 7.9 metric tons (8.7 short tons; 7.8 long tons) 6.3 metric tons (6.9 short tons; 6.2 long tons) 6.8 metric tons (7.5 short tons; 6.7 long tons) 7.9 metric tons (8.7 short tons; 7.8 long tons) 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons; 8.3 long tons) 9.3 metric tons (10.3 short tons; 9.2 long tons) 9.1 metric tons (10.0 short tons; 9.0 long tons)
  France 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons) 3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons) 4.5 metric tons (5.0 short tons; 4.4 long tons) 4.7 metric tons (5.2 short tons; 4.6 long tons) 5.6 metric tons (6.2 short tons; 5.5 long tons) 5.4 metric tons (6.0 short tons; 5.3 long tons) 5.5 metric tons (6.1 short tons; 5.4 long tons) 4.4 metric tons (4.9 short tons; 4.3 long tons) 5.5 metric tons (6.1 short tons; 5.4 long tons) 5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons) 4.7 metric tons (5.2 short tons; 4.6 long tons) 5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons) 5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons) 3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons) 3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons)
  Pakistan <0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons) <0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons) <0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons) <0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons) 2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons) 1.7 metric tons (1.9 short tons; 1.7 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons) 2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons) 3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)
  Germany 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 3.1 metric tons (3.4 short tons; 3.1 long tons) 3.6 metric tons (4.0 short tons; 3.5 long tons) 5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons) 5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons) 6.3 metric tons (6.9 short tons; 6.2 long tons) 3.9 metric tons (4.3 short tons; 3.8 long tons) 4.8 metric tons (5.3 short tons; 4.7 long tons) 5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons) 6.2 metric tons (6.8 short tons; 6.1 long tons) 5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons) 4.6 metric tons (5.1 short tons; 4.5 long tons) 4.3 metric tons (4.7 short tons; 4.2 long tons) 3.7 metric tons (4.1 short tons; 3.6 long tons) 2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons) 3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)
  Australia <0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons) <0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons) 2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons) 3.4 metric tons (3.7 short tons; 3.3 long tons) 4.1 metric tons (4.5 short tons; 4.0 long tons) 3.8 metric tons (4.2 short tons; 3.7 long tons) 3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons) 2.9 metric tons (3.2 short tons; 2.9 long tons) 4.3 metric tons (4.7 short tons; 4.2 long tons) 3.9 metric tons (4.3 short tons; 3.8 long tons) 2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons) 2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons)
  Poland 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons) 2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons) 1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons) 1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons) 2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons) 3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons) 2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons) 2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons) 2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons) 2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons) 2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons) 3.0 metric tons (3.3 short tons; 3.0 long tons)
  Russia N/A N/A N/A 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) 2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons) 2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons) 2.6 metric tons (2.9 short tons; 2.6 long tons)
  United Kingdom <0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons) 0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons) 2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons) 2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons) 2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons) 2.6 metric tons (2.9 short tons; 2.6 long tons) 2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons) 2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons) 2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons) 1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons) 2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons) 2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons) 1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)
  United States <0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons) <0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons) <0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons) 0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons) 1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons) 1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons)
  Czech Republic 0.07 metric tons (0.077 short tons; 0.069 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) 1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons) 1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)
  Hungary 0.008 metric tons (0.0088 short tons; 0.0079 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)
  Romania 0.01 metric tons (0.011 short tons; 0.0098 long tons) 0.02 metric tons (0.022 short tons; 0.020 long tons) 0.04 metric tons (0.044 short tons; 0.039 long tons) 0.04 metric tons (0.044 short tons; 0.039 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons) 0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons) 1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons) 1.7 metric tons (1.9 short tons; 1.7 long tons) 1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons) 0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons) 0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons)
  Denmark 0.05 metric tons (0.055 short tons; 0.049 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)
  Lithuania N/A N/A N/A 0.02 metric tons (0.022 short tons; 0.020 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons) 0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)
  Belarus N/A N/A N/A 0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons) 0.07 metric tons (0.077 short tons; 0.069 long tons) 0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons) 0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons) 0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons) 0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons) 0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)
World Total 5.2 metric tons (5.7 short tons; 5.1 long tons) 8.8 metric tons (9.7 short tons; 8.7 long tons) 19.2 metric tons (21.2 short tons; 18.9 long tons) 34.2 metric tons (37.7 short tons; 33.7 long tons) 39.5 metric tons (43.5 short tons; 38.9 long tons) 46.4 metric tons (51.1 short tons; 45.7 long tons) 50.5 metric tons (55.7 short tons; 49.7 long tons) 61.6 metric tons (67.9 short tons; 60.6 long tons) 62.5 metric tons (68.9 short tons; 61.5 long tons) 64.8 metric tons (71.4 short tons; 63.8 long tons) 72.5 metric tons (79.9 short tons; 71.4 long tons) 73.8 metric tons (81.4 short tons; 72.6 long tons) 71.2 metric tons (78.5 short tons; 70.1 long tons) 68.9 metric tons (75.9 short tons; 67.8 long tons) 76.6 metric tons (84.4 short tons; 75.4 long tons) 75.2 metric tons (82.9 short tons; 74.0 long tons) 70.5 metric tons (77.7 short tons; 69.4 long tons) 72.4 metric tons (79.8 short tons; 71.3 long tons)

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Brassica napus was originally described and published in Species Plantarum 2:666. 1753.[1]

References

Citations

  1. ^ GRIN 2010a.
  2. ^ a b USDA 2002, p. 26.
  3. ^ a b c Heuzé et al. 2020.
  4. ^ Martin 1965.
  5. ^ a b c Parnell, Curtis & Webb 2012.
  6. ^ Webb, Parnell & Doogue 1996.
  7. ^ a b c Callihan et al. 2000, p. 6.
  8. ^ a b c Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 56.
  9. ^ a b Alford 2008, pp. 1–2.
  10. ^ OED 2016.
  11. ^ GRIN 2012a.
  12. ^ a b c Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 54.
  13. ^ GRIN 2010b.
  14. ^ GRIN 2012b.
  15. ^ NCBI 2013.
  16. ^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 6.
  17. ^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 7.
  18. ^ Beesley & Wilde 1997, p. 104.
  19. ^ O'Brien 2008, p. 37.
  20. ^ Sahasrabudhe 1977, p. 323.
  21. ^ a b c USFDA 2010.
  22. ^ "Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  23. ^ EC 1980.
  24. ^ Potts, Rakow & Males 1999.
  25. ^ Bonjean et al. 2016, p. 6.
  26. ^ a b c Jaime, Rafael; Alcántara, Julio M.; Manzaneda, Antonio J.; Rey, Pedro J. (2018). "Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production". PLOS ONE. 13 (11): e0207124. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307124J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207124. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6218090. PMID 30395645.
  27. ^ a b AgMRC 2018.
  28. ^ a b c d Bertazzini & Forlani 2016, p. 2.
  29. ^ Lixandru 2017.
  30. ^ Salimon, Salih & Yousif 2010, p. 522.
  31. ^ Garrett 1998.
  32. ^ a b Smith 2004.
  33. ^ Walker 2010.
  34. ^ a b Reddy, Parvatha (2013). Recent Advances in Crop Protection. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. xix+268. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-0723-8. LCCN 2012948035. 978-81-322-0722-1. 978-81-322-0723-8.
  35. ^ a b Alford 2008, p. 3.
  36. ^ Alford 2008, p. 4.
  37. ^ Chambó et al. 2014, p. 2087.
  38. ^ Lindström et al. 2015, p. 759.
  39. ^ Lewis 2007.
  40. ^ [Schnug, E.(1986) Schwefelversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 4, 86-89]
  41. ^ [Haneklaus, S., Messick, D. L. und Schnug, E. (1994) Schwefel und Raps. RAPS 12, 28-29]
  42. ^ [Schnug, E. (1987) Spurennährstoffversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 5, 18-20]
  43. ^ [Schnug, E. und Evans, E. (1992) Symptomatologie von Manganmangel an Raps. Raps 10, 43-45]
  44. ^ [Schnug, E. und Haneklaus, S. (1990) Molybdänversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 8, 188-191]
  45. ^ a b Alford 2008, p. 7.
  46. ^ a b c Singh, Govind; Mehta, Naresh; Meena, Prabhu (2016). Alternaria Diseases of Crucifers: Biology, Ecology and Disease Management (1 ed.). Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. pp. xxxvii + 299. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0021-8. ISBN 978-981-10-0019-5. LCCN 2015958091. S2CID 27153886. 978-981-10-0021-8.
  47. ^ Chhikara, S.; Chaudhury, D.; Dhankher, O.; Jaiwal, P. (2012). "Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenic Brassica juncea provides protection against Alternaria brassicae". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture. 108: 83–89. doi:10.1007/s11240-011-0015-7. S2CID 255112076.
  48. ^ a b Alford 2008, p. 6.
  49. ^ Alford 2008, p. 9.
  50. ^ Hulse-Kemp et al. 2015, p. 1188.
  51. ^ Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1050.
  52. ^ a b Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1054.
  53. ^ Thiyam-Holländer, Eskin & Matthäus 2013, p. 4.
  54. ^ Mag 1983, p. 380.
  55. ^ a b Roché 2015, p. 5.
  56. ^ CFIA 2017.
  57. ^ [Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]
  58. ^ [ Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2016): Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story. In S. Kopriva (Ed.), Glucosinolates. pp. 281–302, 2016 Elsevier Ltd., ISBN 978-0-08-100327-5.
  59. ^ [Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]
  60. ^ Multinational Brassica Genome Project http://www.brassica.info. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  61. ^ Beckie et al. 2011, p. 43.
  62. ^ a b Hartley 2008.
  63. ^ (PDF). Foreign Agricultural Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  64. ^ Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10
  65. ^ FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.
  66. ^ FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.

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External links

  •   Media related to Brassica napus at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Media related to Rapeseed oil at Wikimedia Commons

February 04, 2023
rapeseed, brassica, napus, redirects, here, another, cultivar, same, species, grown, root, rutabaga, similar, brassica, plants, used, cooking, leafy, greens, also, called, rape, include, rapini, choy, brassica, napus, subsp, napus, also, known, rape, oilseed, . Brassica napus redirects here For another cultivar of the same species grown for its root see Rutabaga Similar Brassica plants used in cooking as leafy greens and also called rape may include rapini and choy sum Rapeseed Brassica napus subsp napus also known as rape or oilseed rape is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae mustard or cabbage family cultivated mainly for its oil rich seed which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid The term canola denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars which were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and are especially prized for use as human and animal food Rapeseed is the third largest source of vegetable oil and the second largest source of protein meal in the world 2 3 RapeseedScientific classificationKingdom PlantaeClade TracheophytesClade AngiospermsClade EudicotsClade RosidsOrder BrassicalesFamily BrassicaceaeGenus BrassicaSpecies B napusBinomial nameBrassica napusL note 1 Contents 1 Description 2 Etymology and taxonomy 3 Ecology 4 Uses 4 1 Vegetable oil 4 2 Animal feed 4 3 Biodiesel 4 4 Other 5 Cultivation 5 1 Climate change 6 Diseases and pests 6 1 Pests 7 Genetics and breeding 7 1 History of the cultivars 7 1 1 GMO cultivars 8 Production 9 See also 10 Explanatory notes 11 References 11 1 Citations 11 2 General sources 12 External linksDescription Edit Under a microscope The yellow cloud by Hanno Karlhuber Brassica napus grows to 100 cm 39 in in height with hairless fleshy pinnatifid and glaucous lower leaves 4 5 6 which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no petioles 7 B napus can be distinguished from B nigra by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem and from B rapa by its smaller petals which are less than 13 mm 1 2 in across 5 Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about 17 mm 2 3 in across 5 They are radial and consist of four petals in a typical cross form alternating with four sepals They have indeterminate racemose flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days The flowers have two lateral stamens with short filaments and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower s center upon flowering 8 The rapeseed pods are green and elongated siliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown They grow on pedicels 1 to 3 cm 3 8 to 1 3 16 in long and can range from 5 to 10 cm 2 to 4 in in length 7 Each pod has two compartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops 9 The seeds are round and have a diameter of 1 5 to 3 mm 1 16 to 1 8 in They have a reticulate surface texture 7 and are black and hard at maturity 9 Etymology and taxonomy EditThe term rape derives from the Latin word for turnip rapa or rapum cognate with the Greek word ῥafh rhaphe 10 The species Brassica napus belongs to the flowering plant family Brassicaceae Rapeseed is a subspecies with the autonym B napus subsp napus 11 It encompasses winter and spring oilseed vegetable and fodder rape 12 Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form variety B napus var pabularia which used to be common as a winter annual vegetable 13 12 The second subspecies of B napus is B napussubsp rapifera also subsp napobrassica the rutabaga swede or yellow turnip 14 15 B napus is a digenomic amphidiploid that occurred due to the interspecific hybridization between B oleracea and B rapa 16 It is a self compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid Brassica species 17 Ecology EditIn Northern Ireland U K B napus and B rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground 18 Uses Edit Roasted canola Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils animal feed and biodiesel Rapeseed was the third leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000 after soybean and palm oil 2 It is the world s second leading source of protein meal after soybean 3 Vegetable oil Edit Main article Rapeseed oil Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid which is damaging to cardiac muscle of animals and glucosinolates which made it less nutritious in animal feed 19 Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54 erucic acid 20 Food grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars known as canola oil or low erucic acid rapeseed oil LEAR oil has been generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration 21 Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2 erucic acid by weight in the US 21 and 2 in the EU 22 with special regulations for infant food These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human infants 21 23 Animal feed Edit Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct The byproduct is a high protein animal feed competitive with soybean Rapeseed is an excellent silage crop fermented and stored in air tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed The feed is employed mostly for cattle feeding but is also used for pigs and poultry 3 However the high levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates in natural rapeseed oil significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed 24 Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China 25 Biodiesel Edit Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel either as biodiesel straight in heated fuel systems or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2 to 20 biodiesel Owing to the costs of growing crushing and refining rapeseed biodiesel rapeseed derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe accounting for about 80 of the feedstock citation needed partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources such as soybeans but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels 26 Other Edit Rapeseed is also used as a cover crop in the US during the winter as it prevents soil erosion produces large amounts of biomass suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting 27 Rapeseed has a high melliferous potential produces substances that can be collected by insects and is a main forage crop for honeybees 28 Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color peppery taste and due to its fast crystallization time a soft solid texture It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly 29 The low fructose to glucose ratio in monofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in the honeycomb forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped 28 As a biolubricant rapeseed has possible uses for bio medical applications e g lubricants for artificial joints and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes 30 Biolubricant containing 70 or more canola rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive 31 Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster 32 33 as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains and only about 3 to 6 of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds 32 Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the soil as a biofumigant 34 It suppresses such fungal crop pathogens as Rhizoctonia solani and Pratylenchus penetr 34 39 Cultivation Edit Crops from the genus Brassica including rapeseed were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by mankind as early as 10 000 years ago Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B C and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago 12 Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering It is sown in autumn and remains in a leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6 8 weeks until midsummer 8 In Europe winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four year rotations with cereals such as wheat and barley and break crops such as peas and beans This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another 35 Winter rape is less susceptible to crop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests 36 Karkola Paijanne Tavastia Finland Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter hardy and does not require vernalization The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination 8 Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well drained soils prefers a pH between 5 5 and 8 3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity 27 It is predominantly a wind pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when bee pollinated 37 almost double the final yield 28 but the effect is cultivar dependent 38 It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen containing fertilisers and the manufacture of these generates N2O An estimated 3 5 of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O 39 Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients Especially its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production 40 41 Among the micronutrients rapeseed special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given to boron 42 manganese 43 and molybdenum 44 Climate change Edit Further information Effects of climate change on agriculture The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially 26 Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of Brassica for cultivation 26 Diseases and pests EditThe main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are canker light leaf spot Pyrenopeziza brassicae alternaria and sclerotinia stem rots Canker causes leaf spotting and premature ripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn winter fall winter period A conazole or triazole fungicide treatment is required in late autumn fall and in spring against canker while broad spectrum fungicides are used during the spring summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control 45 Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil borne diseases such as sclerotinia verticillium wilt and clubroot 35 Transgenic rapeseed shows great promise for disease resistance 46 Transexpression of a class II chitinase from barley Hordeum vulgare and a type I ribosome inactivating protein into B juncea produces a large fungal resistance effect 46 Chhikara et al 2012 47 finds that this combination of transgenes reduces hyphal growth by 44 and delays disease presentation in Alternaria brassicicola of juncea 46 Pests Edit Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects nematodes slugs as well as wood pigeons 48 The brassica pod midge Dasineura brassicae cabbage seed weevil Ceutorhynchus assimilis cabbage stem weevil Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus cabbage stem flea beetle Psylliodes chrysocephala rape stem weevil Ceutorhynchus napi and pollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe 49 The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds bore into the plant s stem and feed on pollen leaves and flowers Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large scale use of prophylactic insecticides in many countries 45 Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs 48 Genetics and breeding EditIn 2014 an SNP array was released for B napus by Dalton Morgan et al 50 and another by Clarke et al in 2016 51 both of which have since become widely used in molecular breeding In a demonstration of the importance of epigenetics Hauben et al 2009 found that isogenic lines did not have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions due to epigenetic differences 52 Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing SLAF seq was applied to B napus by Geng et al in 2016 revealing the genetics of the past domestication process providing data for genome wide association studies GWAS and being used to construct a high density linkage map 52 History of the cultivars Edit In 1973 Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption 53 Seed oil and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark in 1978 of the Canola Council of Canada as canola 54 55 Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that must contain less than 2 erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air dried oil free meal 55 56 In the 1980ies decreasing atmospherical sulphur inputs to Norher European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the new bred low glucosinolate varieties 00 varieties resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering a highly spcifice symptom of sulphur deficiency in rapeseed crops 57 which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity Canadian blood 58 The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00 oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers but not to specific feaatures of the genetically alterated 00 varieties 59 Following the European Parliament s Transport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe 28 Bayer Cropscience in collaboration with BGI Shenzhen China KeyGene the Netherlands and the University of Queensland Australia announced it had sequenced the entire genome of B napus and its constituent genomes present in B rapa and B oleracea in 2009 The A genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project 60 needs update A genetically modified variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998 engineered for glyphosate tolerance and is considered to be the most disease and drought resistant canola By 2009 90 of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort 61 GMO cultivars Edit Main article Roundup Ready Canola The Monsanto company genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide Roundup In 1998 they brought this to the Canadian market Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee However these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the Roundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non canola fields to kill weeds before planting Roundup Ready volunteers were left behind causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds 62 In a closely followed legal battle the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto s patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of Roundup Ready in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc v Schmeiser but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages The case garnered international controversy as a court sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops In March 2008 an out of court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO canola crop on Schmeiser s farm at a cost of about CAN 660 62 Production EditThe Food and Agriculture Organization FAO reports global production of 36 million metric tons 40 million short tons 35 million long tons in the 2003 2004 season and an estimated 58 4 million metric tons 64 4 million short tons 57 5 million long tons in the 2010 2011 season 63 Worldwide production of rapeseed including canola has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007 The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil Since 2002 production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and U S to 6 million metric tons 6 6 million short tons 5 9 million long tons in 2006 Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect 64 Top rapeseed producers in millions of tonnes STs LTs 65 66 Country 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000 2005 2007 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 MT ST LT Canada 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 1 8 metric tons 2 0 short tons 1 8 long tons 3 5 metric tons 3 9 short tons 3 4 long tons 6 4 metric tons 7 1 short tons 6 3 long tons 7 2 metric tons 7 9 short tons 7 1 long tons 9 4 metric tons 10 4 short tons 9 3 long tons 9 6 metric tons 10 6 short tons 9 4 long tons 11 8 metric tons 13 0 short tons 11 6 long tons 14 2 metric tons 15 7 short tons 14 0 long tons 15 4 metric tons 17 0 short tons 15 2 long tons 17 9 metric tons 19 7 short tons 17 6 long tons 15 5 metric tons 17 1 short tons 15 3 long tons 18 4 metric tons 20 3 short tons 18 1 long tons 18 4 metric tons 20 3 short tons 18 1 long tons 21 3 metric tons 23 5 short tons 21 0 long tons 20 3 metric tons 22 4 short tons 20 0 long tons 18 6 metric tons 20 5 short tons 18 3 long tons 19 5 metric tons 21 5 short tons 19 2 long tons China 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 5 metric tons 1 7 short tons 1 5 long tons 5 6 metric tons 6 2 short tons 5 5 long tons 9 8 metric tons 10 8 short tons 9 6 long tons 11 3 metric tons 12 5 short tons 11 1 long tons 13 0 metric tons 14 3 short tons 12 8 long tons 10 5 metric tons 11 6 short tons 10 3 long tons 13 5 metric tons 14 9 short tons 13 3 long tons 13 4 metric tons 14 8 short tons 13 2 long tons 14 0 metric tons 15 4 short tons 13 8 long tons 14 4 metric tons 15 9 short tons 14 2 long tons 14 8 metric tons 16 3 short tons 14 6 long tons 14 9 metric tons 16 4 short tons 14 7 long tons 15 3 metric tons 16 9 short tons 15 1 long tons 13 3 metric tons 14 7 short tons 13 1 long tons 13 3 metric tons 14 7 short tons 13 1 long tons 13 5 metric tons 14 9 short tons 13 3 long tons 14 0 metric tons 15 4 short tons 13 8 long tons India 1 5 metric tons 1 7 short tons 1 5 long tons 2 3 metric tons 2 5 short tons 2 3 long tons 3 1 metric tons 3 4 short tons 3 1 long tons 5 8 metric tons 6 4 short tons 5 7 long tons 5 8 metric tons 6 4 short tons 5 7 long tons 7 6 metric tons 8 4 short tons 7 5 long tons 7 4 metric tons 8 2 short tons 7 3 long tons 7 2 metric tons 7 9 short tons 7 1 long tons 8 2 metric tons 9 0 short tons 8 1 long tons 6 8 metric tons 7 5 short tons 6 7 long tons 7 8 metric tons 8 6 short tons 7 7 long tons 7 9 metric tons 8 7 short tons 7 8 long tons 6 3 metric tons 6 9 short tons 6 2 long tons 6 8 metric tons 7 5 short tons 6 7 long tons 7 9 metric tons 8 7 short tons 7 8 long tons 8 4 metric tons 9 3 short tons 8 3 long tons 9 3 metric tons 10 3 short tons 9 2 long tons 9 1 metric tons 10 0 short tons 9 0 long tons France 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 2 8 metric tons 3 1 short tons 2 8 long tons 3 5 metric tons 3 9 short tons 3 4 long tons 4 5 metric tons 5 0 short tons 4 4 long tons 4 7 metric tons 5 2 short tons 4 6 long tons 5 6 metric tons 6 2 short tons 5 5 long tons 5 4 metric tons 6 0 short tons 5 3 long tons 5 5 metric tons 6 1 short tons 5 4 long tons 4 4 metric tons 4 9 short tons 4 3 long tons 5 5 metric tons 6 1 short tons 5 4 long tons 5 3 metric tons 5 8 short tons 5 2 long tons 4 7 metric tons 5 2 short tons 4 6 long tons 5 3 metric tons 5 8 short tons 5 2 long tons 5 0 metric tons 5 5 short tons 4 9 long tons 3 5 metric tons 3 9 short tons 3 4 long tons 3 3 metric tons 3 6 short tons 3 2 long tons Pakistan lt 0 007 metric tons 0 0077 short tons 0 0069 long tons lt 0 06 metric tons 0 066 short tons 0 059 long tons lt 0 03 metric tons 0 033 short tons 0 030 long tons lt 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 9 metric tons 2 1 short tons 1 9 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 2 4 metric tons 2 6 short tons 2 4 long tons 2 2 metric tons 2 4 short tons 2 2 long tons 1 7 metric tons 1 9 short tons 1 7 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 2 2 metric tons 2 4 short tons 2 2 long tons 2 8 metric tons 3 1 short tons 2 8 long tons 3 3 metric tons 3 6 short tons 3 2 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons Germany 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 3 1 metric tons 3 4 short tons 3 1 long tons 3 6 metric tons 4 0 short tons 3 5 long tons 5 0 metric tons 5 5 short tons 4 9 long tons 5 3 metric tons 5 8 short tons 5 2 long tons 6 3 metric tons 6 9 short tons 6 2 long tons 3 9 metric tons 4 3 short tons 3 8 long tons 4 8 metric tons 5 3 short tons 4 7 long tons 5 8 metric tons 6 4 short tons 5 7 long tons 6 2 metric tons 6 8 short tons 6 1 long tons 5 0 metric tons 5 5 short tons 4 9 long tons 4 6 metric tons 5 1 short tons 4 5 long tons 4 3 metric tons 4 7 short tons 4 2 long tons 3 7 metric tons 4 1 short tons 3 6 long tons 2 8 metric tons 3 1 short tons 2 8 long tons 3 5 metric tons 3 9 short tons 3 4 long tons Australia lt 0 007 metric tons 0 0077 short tons 0 0069 long tons lt 0 06 metric tons 0 066 short tons 0 059 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 1 8 metric tons 2 0 short tons 1 8 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 9 metric tons 2 1 short tons 1 9 long tons 2 4 metric tons 2 6 short tons 2 4 long tons 3 4 metric tons 3 7 short tons 3 3 long tons 4 1 metric tons 4 5 short tons 4 0 long tons 3 8 metric tons 4 2 short tons 3 7 long tons 3 5 metric tons 3 9 short tons 3 4 long tons 2 9 metric tons 3 2 short tons 2 9 long tons 4 3 metric tons 4 7 short tons 4 2 long tons 3 9 metric tons 4 3 short tons 3 8 long tons 2 4 metric tons 2 6 short tons 2 4 long tons 2 3 metric tons 2 5 short tons 2 3 long tons Poland 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 2 1 metric tons 2 3 short tons 2 1 long tons 2 5 metric tons 2 8 short tons 2 5 long tons 1 9 metric tons 2 1 short tons 1 9 long tons 1 9 metric tons 2 1 short tons 1 9 long tons 2 7 metric tons 3 0 short tons 2 7 long tons 3 3 metric tons 3 6 short tons 3 2 long tons 2 7 metric tons 3 0 short tons 2 7 long tons 2 2 metric tons 2 4 short tons 2 2 long tons 2 7 metric tons 3 0 short tons 2 7 long tons 2 1 metric tons 2 3 short tons 2 1 long tons 2 3 metric tons 2 5 short tons 2 3 long tons 3 0 metric tons 3 3 short tons 3 0 long tons Russia N A N A N A 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 3 metric tons 1 4 short tons 1 3 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 5 metric tons 1 7 short tons 1 5 long tons 2 0 metric tons 2 2 short tons 2 0 long tons 2 1 metric tons 2 3 short tons 2 1 long tons 2 6 metric tons 2 9 short tons 2 6 long tons United Kingdom lt 0 007 metric tons 0 0077 short tons 0 0069 long tons 0 06 metric tons 0 066 short tons 0 059 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 1 9 metric tons 2 1 short tons 1 9 long tons 2 1 metric tons 2 3 short tons 2 1 long tons 2 0 metric tons 2 2 short tons 2 0 long tons 2 8 metric tons 3 1 short tons 2 8 long tons 2 6 metric tons 2 9 short tons 2 6 long tons 2 1 metric tons 2 3 short tons 2 1 long tons 2 5 metric tons 2 8 short tons 2 5 long tons 2 5 metric tons 2 8 short tons 2 5 long tons 1 8 metric tons 2 0 short tons 1 8 long tons 2 2 metric tons 2 4 short tons 2 2 long tons 2 0 metric tons 2 2 short tons 2 0 long tons 1 8 metric tons 2 0 short tons 1 8 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons United States lt 0 007 metric tons 0 0077 short tons 0 0069 long tons lt 0 06 metric tons 0 066 short tons 0 059 long tons lt 0 03 metric tons 0 033 short tons 0 030 long tons 0 2 metric tons 0 22 short tons 0 20 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 3 metric tons 1 4 short tons 1 3 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 6 metric tons 1 8 short tons 1 6 long tons 1 6 metric tons 1 8 short tons 1 6 long tons 1 6 metric tons 1 8 short tons 1 6 long tons Czech Republic 0 07 metric tons 0 077 short tons 0 069 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 8 metric tons 0 88 short tons 0 79 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 5 metric tons 1 7 short tons 1 5 long tons 1 3 metric tons 1 4 short tons 1 3 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 1 4 metric tons 1 5 short tons 1 4 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons 1 2 metric tons 1 3 short tons 1 2 long tons Hungary 0 008 metric tons 0 0088 short tons 0 0079 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 2 metric tons 0 22 short tons 0 20 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons Romania 0 01 metric tons 0 011 short tons 0 0098 long tons 0 02 metric tons 0 022 short tons 0 020 long tons 0 04 metric tons 0 044 short tons 0 039 long tons 0 04 metric tons 0 044 short tons 0 039 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 2 metric tons 0 22 short tons 0 20 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 1 metric tons 1 2 short tons 1 1 long tons 0 9 metric tons 0 99 short tons 0 89 long tons 1 3 metric tons 1 4 short tons 1 3 long tons 1 7 metric tons 1 9 short tons 1 7 long tons 1 6 metric tons 1 8 short tons 1 6 long tons 0 8 metric tons 0 88 short tons 0 79 long tons 0 8 metric tons 0 88 short tons 0 79 long tons Denmark 0 05 metric tons 0 055 short tons 0 049 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 8 metric tons 0 88 short tons 0 79 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons Lithuania N A N A N A 0 02 metric tons 0 022 short tons 0 020 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 2 metric tons 0 22 short tons 0 20 long tons 0 3 metric tons 0 33 short tons 0 30 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 1 0 metric ton 1 1 short tons 0 98 long tons Belarus N A N A N A 0 03 metric tons 0 033 short tons 0 030 long tons 0 07 metric tons 0 077 short tons 0 069 long tons 0 1 metric tons 0 11 short tons 0 098 long tons 0 2 metric tons 0 22 short tons 0 20 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons 0 4 metric tons 0 44 short tons 0 39 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 5 metric tons 0 55 short tons 0 49 long tons 0 6 metric tons 0 66 short tons 0 59 long tons 0 7 metric tons 0 77 short tons 0 69 long tons World Total 5 2 metric tons 5 7 short tons 5 1 long tons 8 8 metric tons 9 7 short tons 8 7 long tons 19 2 metric tons 21 2 short tons 18 9 long tons 34 2 metric tons 37 7 short tons 33 7 long tons 39 5 metric tons 43 5 short tons 38 9 long tons 46 4 metric tons 51 1 short tons 45 7 long tons 50 5 metric tons 55 7 short tons 49 7 long tons 61 6 metric tons 67 9 short tons 60 6 long tons 62 5 metric tons 68 9 short tons 61 5 long tons 64 8 metric tons 71 4 short tons 63 8 long tons 72 5 metric tons 79 9 short tons 71 4 long tons 73 8 metric tons 81 4 short tons 72 6 long tons 71 2 metric tons 78 5 short tons 70 1 long tons 68 9 metric tons 75 9 short tons 67 8 long tons 76 6 metric tons 84 4 short tons 75 4 long tons 75 2 metric tons 82 9 short tons 74 0 long tons 70 5 metric tons 77 7 short tons 69 4 long tons 72 4 metric tons 79 8 short tons 71 3 long tons See also EditTriangle of UExplanatory notes Edit Brassica napus was originally described and published in Species Plantarum 2 666 1753 1 References EditCitations Edit GRIN 2010a sfn error no target CITEREFGRIN2010a help a b USDA 2002 p 26 a b c Heuze et al 2020 Martin 1965 a b c Parnell Curtis amp Webb 2012 Webb Parnell amp Doogue 1996 a b c Callihan et al 2000 p 6 a b c Snowdon Luhs amp Friedt 2006 p 56 a b Alford 2008 pp 1 2 OED 2016 GRIN 2012a sfn error no target CITEREFGRIN2012a help a b c Snowdon Luhs amp Friedt 2006 p 54 GRIN 2010b sfn error no target CITEREFGRIN2010b help GRIN 2012b sfn error no target CITEREFGRIN2012b help NCBI 2013 Downey amp Rimmer 1993 p 6 Downey amp Rimmer 1993 p 7 Beesley amp Wilde 1997 p 104 O Brien 2008 p 37 Sahasrabudhe 1977 p 323 a b c USFDA 2010 Regulation EC No 1881 2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs eur lex europa eu Retrieved 21 April 2021 EC 1980 Potts Rakow amp Males 1999 Bonjean et al 2016 p 6 a b c Jaime Rafael Alcantara Julio M Manzaneda Antonio J Rey Pedro J 2018 Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production PLOS ONE 13 11 e0207124 Bibcode 2018PLoSO 1307124J doi 10 1371 journal pone 0207124 ISSN 1932 6203 PMC 6218090 PMID 30395645 a b AgMRC 2018 a b c d Bertazzini amp Forlani 2016 p 2 Lixandru 2017 Salimon Salih amp Yousif 2010 p 522 Garrett 1998 a b Smith 2004 Walker 2010 a b Reddy Parvatha 2013 Recent Advances in Crop Protection Springer Science Business Media pp xix 268 doi 10 1007 978 81 322 0723 8 LCCN 2012948035 978 81 322 0722 1 978 81 322 0723 8 a b Alford 2008 p 3 Alford 2008 p 4 Chambo et al 2014 p 2087 Lindstrom et al 2015 p 759 Lewis 2007 Schnug E 1986 Schwefelversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau Raps 4 86 89 Haneklaus S Messick D L und Schnug E 1994 Schwefel und Raps RAPS 12 28 29 Schnug E 1987 Spurennahrstoffversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau Raps 5 18 20 Schnug E und Evans E 1992 Symptomatologie von Manganmangel an Raps Raps 10 43 45 Schnug E und Haneklaus S 1990 Molybdanversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau Raps 8 188 191 a b Alford 2008 p 7 a b c Singh Govind Mehta Naresh Meena Prabhu 2016 Alternaria Diseases of Crucifers Biology Ecology and Disease Management 1 ed Singapore Springer Science Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd pp xxxvii 299 doi 10 1007 978 981 10 0021 8 ISBN 978 981 10 0019 5 LCCN 2015958091 S2CID 27153886 978 981 10 0021 8 Chhikara S Chaudhury D Dhankher O Jaiwal P 2012 Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenic Brassica juncea provides protection against Alternaria brassicae Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture 108 83 89 doi 10 1007 s11240 011 0015 7 S2CID 255112076 a b Alford 2008 p 6 Alford 2008 p 9 Hulse Kemp et al 2015 p 1188 Rasheed et al 2017 p 1050 a b Rasheed et al 2017 p 1054 Thiyam Hollander Eskin amp Matthaus 2013 p 4 Mag 1983 p 380 a b Roche 2015 p 5 CFIA 2017 Schnug E and Haneklaus S 2005 Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape Brassica Napus L The aesthetics of starvation Phyton 45 3 79 95 2005 Schnug E and Haneklaus S 2016 Glucosinolates The Agricultural Story In S Kopriva Ed Glucosinolates pp 281 302 2016 Elsevier Ltd ISBN 978 0 08 100327 5 Haberli R Wahli T Haneklaus S and Schnug E 1995 Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer Capreola capreola population in Switzerland Proc 9th Int Rapeseed Congress 4 1415 1417 Cambridge UK Multinational Brassica Genome Project http www brassica info a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help Beckie et al 2011 p 43 a b Hartley 2008 Oilseeds World Markets and Trade PDF Foreign Agricultural Service Archived from the original PDF on 8 February 2012 Retrieved 17 February 2012 Canola Growing Great 2016 The Canola Council of Canada 2007 page 3 10 FAOSTAT UN Food amp Agriculture Organisation FAOSTAT UN Food amp Agriculture Organisation General sources Edit AgMRC 2018 Rapeseed Agricultural Marketing Resource Center Retrieved 20 March 2019 Alford David V 2008 Biocontrol of Oilseed Rape Pests Wiley ISBN 9781405171564 Retrieved 23 March 2019 Beckie Hugh J Harker K Neil Legere Anne Morrison Malcolm J Seguin Swartz Ginette Falk Kevin C 2011 GM Canola The Canadian Experience PDF Farm Policy Journal 8 1 43 49 Retrieved 20 August 2012 Beesley Stan Wilde John 1997 Urban Flora of Belfast Queen s University of Belfast ISBN 9780853896951 Bertazzini Michele Forlani Giuseppe 16 March 2016 Intraspecific Variability of Floral Nectar Volume and Composition in Rapeseed Brassica napus L var oleifera Frontiers in Plant Science 7 288 doi 10 3389 fpls 2016 00288 ISSN 1664 462X PMC 4792878 PMID 27014311 Bonjean Alain P Dequidt Celine Sang Tina Limagrain Groupe 18 November 2016 Rapeseed in China OCL 23 6 D605 doi 10 1051 ocl 2016045 ISSN 2272 6977 Retrieved 20 March 2019 Callihan Robert H Brennan Jeff Miller Tim Brown Jack Moore Mary 2000 Mustards in Mustards Guide to Identification of Canola Mustard Rapeseed and Related Weeds University of Idaho CFIA 22 December 2017 The Biology of Brassica napus L Canola Rapeseed Plant and Biotechnology Risk Assessment Unit Plant Health Science Division Canadian Food Inspection Agency Retrieved 18 April 2020 Chambo E D De Oliveira N T Garcia R C Duarte Junior J B Ruvolo Takasusuki M C Toledo V A December 2014 Pollination of rapeseed Brassica napus by Africanized honeybees Hymenoptera Apidae on two sowing dates Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences 86 4 2087 2100 doi 10 1590 0001 3765201420140134 ISSN 0001 3765 PMID 25590743 Downey R K Rimmer S R 14 October 1993 Advances in Agronomy Academic Press ISBN 9780080563633 Retrieved 24 April 2020 EC 1980 Commission Directive 80 891 EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats Official Journal of the European Communities 254 Garrett Skip November 1998 Vegetable Oil For Lubricating Chain Saws United States Forest Service Retrieved 22 April 2012 Germplasm Resources Information Network 2010a Taxon Brassica napus L Taxonomy for Plants USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program Retrieved 25 November 2013 Germplasm Resources Information Network 2010b Taxon Brassica napus L subsp napus var pabularia DC Alef Taxonomy for Plants USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program Retrieved 18 April 2020 Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012a Taxon Brassica napus L subsp napus Taxonomy for Plants USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program Retrieved 18 April 2020 Germplasm Resources Information Network 2012b Taxon Brassica napus L subsp rapifera Metzg Taxonomy for Plants USDA ARS National Genetic Resources Program Retrieved 18 April 2020 Hartley Matt 20 March 2008 Grain Farmer Claims Moral Victory in Seed Battle Against Monsanto The Globe and Mail Retrieved 30 August 2011 Heuze V Tran G Sauvant D Lessire M Lebas F 31 January 2020 Rapeseed meal Feedipedia Retrieved 18 April 2020 Hulse Kemp Amanda M Lemm Jana Plieske Joerg Ashrafi Hamid Buyyarapu Ramesh Fang David D Frelichowski James Giband Marc Hague Steve Hinze Lori L Kochan Kelli J Riggs Penny K Scheffler Jodi A Udall Joshua A Ulloa Mauricio Wang Shirley S Zhu Qian Hao Bag Sumit K Bhardwaj Archana Burke John J Byers Robert L Claverie Michel Gore Michael A Harker David B Islam Mohammad Sariful Jenkins Johnie N Jones Don C Lacape Jean Marc Llewellyn Danny J Percy Richard G Pepper Alan E Poland Jesse A Mohan Rai Krishan Sawant Samir V Singh Sunil Kumar Spriggs Andrew Taylor Jen M Wang Fei Yourstone Scott M Zheng Xiuting Lawley Cindy T Ganal Martin W Van Deynze Allen Wilson Iain W Stelly David M 1 June 2015 Development of a 63K SNP Array for Cotton and High Density Mapping of Intraspecific and Interspecific Populations of Gossypium spp G3 Genes Genomes Genetics Genetics Society of America OUP 5 6 1187 1209 doi 10 1534 g3 115 018416 ISSN 2160 1836 PMC 4478548 PMID 25908569 S2CID 11590488 Lewis Marlo Jr 12 November 2007 Biofuel mandates cause global warming scientists say Openmarket org Retrieved 22 April 2012 Lindstrom Sandra A M Herbertsson Lina Rundlof Maj Smith Henrik G Bommarco Riccardo 9 December 2015 Large scale pollination experiment demonstrates the importance of insect pollination in winter oilseed rape Oecologia 180 3 759 769 doi 10 1007 s00442 015 3517 x ISSN 0029 8549 PMID 26650584 S2CID 17513467 Lixandru Marius 27 March 2017 Properties and Benefits of Rapeseed Honey natureword com Retrieved 20 March 2019 Martin William K 1965 The Concise British Flora in Colour Ebury Press amp Michael Joseph Mag T K 1983 Canola oil processing in Canada Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 60 2Part2 380 384 doi 10 1007 BF02543522 S2CID 97800211 NCBI 2013 Brassica napus subsp rapifera NCBI taxonomy database Retrieved 18 April 2020 OED 2016 rape n 2 Online Etymology Dictionary Douglas Harper Retrieved 18 July 2016 O Brien Richard D 2008 Fats and Oils Formulating and Processing for Applications 3 ed CRC Press ISBN 9781420061666 Retrieved 18 April 2020 Parnell John Curtis Tom Webb David A 2012 Webb s an Irish Flora Cork University Press ISBN 9781859184783 Potts Derek A Rakow Gerhard W Males Daryl R 1999 Canola Quality Brassica juncea A New Oilseed Crop for the Canadian Prairies Global Council for Innovation in Rapeseed and Canola Retrieved 18 April 2020 Rasheed Awais Hao Yuanfeng Xia Xianchun Khan Awais Xu Yunbi Varshney Rajeev K He Zhonghu 2017 Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms Progress Challenges and Perspectives Molecular Plant Chin Acad Sci Chin Soc Plant Bio Shanghai Inst Bio Sci Elsevier 10 8 1047 1064 doi 10 1016 j molp 2017 06 008 ISSN 1674 2052 PMID 28669791 S2CID 33780984 Roche Kenneth J 27 November 2015 Canola A Modern Crop for a Modern Era PhD Doctor of Plant Health Program DPH University of Nebraska Lincoln Retrieved 18 April 2020 Sahasrabudhe M R 1977 Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 54 8 323 324 doi 10 1007 BF02672436 S2CID 84400266 Salimon Jumat Salih Nadia Yousif Emad 2010 Biolubricants Raw materials chemical modifications and environmental benefits European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 112 5 519 530 doi 10 1002 ejlt 200900205 ISSN 1438 9312 Smith Marilyn 29 January 2004 Ecological reservation in Belarus fosters new approaches to soil remediation IAEA Retrieved 20 October 2012 Snowdon Rod Luhs Wilfried Friedt Wolfgang 2006 Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants Oilseeds Springer Science Business Media ISBN 9783540343875 Retrieved 21 March 2019 Thiyam Hollander Usha Eskin Michael Matthaus Bertrand 2013 Canola and Rapeseed Production Processing Food Quality and Nutrition Boca Raton FL CRC Press ISBN 9781466513884 Retrieved 25 November 2015 USDA 2002 Agricultural Statistics 2002 United States Department of Agriculture ISBN 0160511135 Retrieved 20 March 2019 USFDA 1 April 2010 CFR Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Food and Drug Administration Retrieved 19 April 2020 Walker Shaun 18 November 2010 Return to the fields of Chernobyl The Independent Retrieved 31 October 2012 Webb David A Parnell John Doogue D 1996 An Irish Flora Dundalgan Press ISBN 9780852211311 External links Edit Media related to Brassica napus at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Rapeseed oil at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rapeseed amp oldid 1137286446, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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