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Observatory

March 28, 2023

For other uses, see Observatory (disambiguation).

An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysical, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. Historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant (for measuring the distance between stars) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena).

The Sphinx Observatory on a mountain top in the Swiss Alps at 3,571 m (11,716 ft)

Astronomical observatories

Main article: List of astronomical observatories

Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based.

Ground-based observatories

 
Atacama Large Millimeter Array, Chile, at 5,058 m (16,594 ft)[1]
 
Paranal Observatory, Chile, home of the VLT at 2,635 m (8,645 ft)
 
The Mauna Kea Observatories, Hawaii, home of several of the world's largest optical telescopes at 4,205 m (13,796 ft)
 
Haleakala Observatory at 3,036 m (9,961 ft), Maui, Hawaii

Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes.

For optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a large percentage of clear nights per year, dry air, and are at high elevations. At high elevations, the Earth's atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical "seeing".[2] Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra.[3] Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the US, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory and Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile.

Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica.[4] This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility.

Radio observatories

Beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such an instrument, or collection of instruments, with supporting facilities such as control centres, visitor housing, data reduction centers, and/or maintenance facilities are called radio observatories. Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, TV, radar, and other EMI emitting devices, but unlike optical observatories, radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding. Some of the world's major radio observatories include the Very Large Array in New Mexico, United States, Jodrell Bank in the UK, Arecibo in Puerto Rico, Parkes in New South Wales, Australia, and Chajnantor in Chile.

Highest astronomical observatories

Main article: List of highest astronomical observatories

Since the mid-20th century, a number of astronomical observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4,000–5,000 m (13,000–16,000 ft). The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, located near the summit of a 4,205 m (13,796 ft) volcano in Hawaiʻi. The Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m (17,160 ft), was the world's highest permanent astronomical observatory[5] from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now been surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory,[6] an optical-infrared telescope on a remote 5,640 m (18,500 ft) mountaintop in the Atacama Desert of Chile.

 
Ancient Indian observatory at Delhi
 
"El Caracol" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, Mexico
 
Remains of the Maragheh observatory (under dome) at Maragheh, Iran
 
Jantar Mantar in Jaipur, India
 
The Estonian Tartu Observatory starting point of the Struve Geodetic Arc.[7][8]
 
19th century Observatory Sydney, Australia (1872)[9]
 
Ecuador's 1873-Quito Astronomical Observatory near the Equator[10][11]
 
The 1962-built Solar observatory on Lomnický peak in Slovakia[12][13]
 
Griffith Observatory on September 2006 in Los Angeles, California

Oldest astronomical observatories

The oldest proto-observatories, in the sense of an observation post for astronomy,[14]

The oldest true observatories, in the sense of a specialized research institute,[14][16][17] include:

Space-based observatories

Main article: Space telescope
 
The Hubble Space Telescope in Earth's orbit

Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet.[25] Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations.[26] As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was able to be serviced by the Space Shuttles while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

Airborne observatories

Main article: Airborne observatory
 
SOFIA on board a Boeing 747SP

Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earth's atmosphere. They also have an advantage over space telescopes: The instruments can be deployed, repaired and updated much more quickly and inexpensively. The Kuiper Airborne Observatory and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy use airplanes to observe in the infrared, which is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere. High-altitude balloons for X-ray astronomy have been used in a variety of countries.

Volcano observatories

Main article: Volcano observatory

A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory. Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption.[27]

See also

References

  1. ^ "ALMA's Solitude". Picture of the Week. ESO. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  2. ^ Chaisson, Eric; McMillan, Steve (2002). Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall. pp. 116–119.
  3. ^ Chaisson, Eric; McMillan, Steve (2002). Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 119.
  4. ^ Saunders, Will; Lawrence, Jon S.; Storey, John W. V.; Ashley, Michael C. B.; Kato, Seiji; Minnis, Patrick; Winker, David M.; Liu, Guiping & Kulesa, Craig (2009). "Where Is the Best Site on Earth? Domes A, B, C, and F, and Ridges A and B". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 121 (883): 976–992. arXiv:0905.4156. Bibcode:2009PASP..121..976S. doi:10.1086/605780. S2CID 11166739.
  5. ^ Zanini, A.; Storini, M.; Saavedra, O. (2009). "Cosmic rays at High Mountain Observatories". Advances in Space Research. 44 (10): 1160–1165. Bibcode:2009AdSpR..44.1160Z. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2008.10.039.
  6. ^ Yoshii, Yuzuru; et al. (August 11, 2009). . Press Release. School of Science, the University of Tokyo. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
  7. ^ Taavi Tuvikene, Tartu Old Observatory, 18 February 2009
  8. ^
  9. ^ of the Sydney Observatory
  10. ^ . Archived from the original on 2012-01-18. Retrieved 2015-01-05.
  11. ^ Official website of the Quito Astronomical Observatory
  12. ^ "Slovakia's High Tatras mountains are seen from the solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak". BBC. 5 September 2014.
  13. ^ A long time exposed picture taken by night shows Slovakia's High Tatras mountains seen from the Solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak 2017-10-16 at the Wayback Machine 4 September 2014.
  14. ^ a b Micheau, Francoise. "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East": 992–3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), in Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Routledge. pp. 985–1007. ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2.
  15. ^ "Facts about Hipparchus: astronomical observatory, as discussed in astronomical observatory:". Encyclopædia Britannica.[dead link]
  16. ^ Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X
  17. ^ Kennedy, Edward S. (1962). "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili". Isis. 53 (2): 237–239. doi:10.1086/349558.
  18. ^ "Royal Institute and Observatory of the San Fernando Armada".
  19. ^ . Archived from the original on 2013-07-26.
  20. ^ . Archived from the original on 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2019-08-24.
  21. ^ "On its 200th Anniversary Tartu Old Observatory Opens Doors as a Museum". www.visitestonia.com. 26 April 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
  22. ^ . Cr.nps.gov. 2001-11-05. Archived from the original on 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
  23. ^ Portolano, M. (2000). "John Quincy Adams's Rhetorical Crusade for Astronomy". Isis. 91 (3): 480–503. doi:10.1086/384852. JSTOR 237905. PMID 11143785. S2CID 25585014.
  24. ^ History of astronomy at University of Helsinki 1834–1984 (in Finnish)
  25. ^ Chaisson, Eric; McMillan, Steve (2002). Astronomy Today, Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall.
  26. ^ "A Brief History of the Hubble Space Telescope: Why a Space Telescope?". NASA. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
  27. ^ U.S. Geological Survey. "USGS operates five U.S. Volcano Observatories". www.usgs.gov. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 8 February 2021.

Further reading

  • Aubin, David; Charlotte Bigg, and H. Otto Sibum, eds. The Heavens on Earth: Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth-Century Science and Culture (Duke University Press; 2010) 384 pages; Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden, the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I, and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th-century America.
  • Brunier, Serge, et al. Great Observatories of the World (2005)
  • Dick, Steven. Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory 1830–2000 (2003)
  • Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain, « Determining the right time, or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision at Neuchâtel Observatory in the mid-19th century », Journal for the History of Astronomy, 53(1), 2022, 27–48, https://doi.org/10.1177/00218286211068572
  • Leverington, David. Observatories and Telescopes of Modern Times - Ground-Based Optical and Radio Astronomy Facilities since 1945. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2016, ISBN 9780521899932.
  • McCray, W. Patrick. Giant Telescopes: Astronomical Ambition and the Promise of Technology (2004); focuses on the Gemini Observatory.
  • Sage, Leslie, and Gail Aschenbrenner. A Visitor's Guide to the Kitt Peak Observatories (2004)

External links

 
Look up observatory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Observatory.
  • (archived 19 September 2008)
  • (archived 4 September 2015)
  • Coordinates and satellite images of astronomical observatories on Earth
  • Milkyweb Astronomical Observatory Guide world's largest database of astronomical observatories since 2000 – about 2000 entries
  • List of amateur and professional observatories in North America with custom weather forecasts
  • Map showing many of the Astronomical Observatories around the world (with drilldown links)
  • Mt. Wilson Observatory

March 28, 2023
observatory, other, uses, disambiguation, observatory, location, used, observing, terrestrial, marine, celestial, events, astronomy, climatology, meteorology, geophysical, oceanography, volcanology, examples, disciplines, which, observatories, have, been, cons. For other uses see Observatory disambiguation An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial marine or celestial events Astronomy climatology meteorology geophysical oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed Historically observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant for measuring the distance between stars or Stonehenge which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena The Sphinx Observatory on a mountain top in the Swiss Alps at 3 571 m 11 716 ft Contents 1 Astronomical observatories 1 1 Ground based observatories 1 1 1 Radio observatories 1 1 2 Highest astronomical observatories 1 1 3 Oldest astronomical observatories 1 2 Space based observatories 1 3 Airborne observatories 2 Volcano observatories 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External linksAstronomical observatories EditMain article List of astronomical observatories Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories space based airborne ground based and underground based Ground based observatories Edit Atacama Large Millimeter Array Chile at 5 058 m 16 594 ft 1 Paranal Observatory Chile home of the VLT at 2 635 m 8 645 ft The Mauna Kea Observatories Hawaii home of several of the world s largest optical telescopes at 4 205 m 13 796 ft Haleakala Observatory at 3 036 m 9 961 ft Maui Hawaii Ground based observatories located on the surface of Earth are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure to protect the delicate instruments from the elements Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing and closed when the telescope is not in use In most cases the entire upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky Radio telescopes usually do not have domes For optical telescopes most ground based observatories are located far from major centers of population to avoid the effects of light pollution The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies a large percentage of clear nights per year dry air and are at high elevations At high elevations the Earth s atmosphere is thinner thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence and resulting in better astronomical seeing 2 Sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States Hawaii Canary Islands the Andes and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra 3 Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the US Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain and Paranal Observatory and Cerro Tololo Inter American Observatory in Chile Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground based observatory on Earth is Ridge A a place in the central part of Eastern Antarctica 4 This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility Radio observatories Edit Beginning in 1930s radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum Such an instrument or collection of instruments with supporting facilities such as control centres visitor housing data reduction centers and or maintenance facilities are called radio observatories Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference EMI from radio TV radar and other EMI emitting devices but unlike optical observatories radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding Some of the world s major radio observatories include the Very Large Array in New Mexico United States Jodrell Bank in the UK Arecibo in Puerto Rico Parkes in New South Wales Australia and Chajnantor in Chile Highest astronomical observatories Edit Main article List of highest astronomical observatories Since the mid 20th century a number of astronomical observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes above 4 000 5 000 m 13 000 16 000 ft The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory located near the summit of a 4 205 m 13 796 ft volcano in Hawaiʻi The Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia at 5 230 m 17 160 ft was the world s highest permanent astronomical observatory 5 from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009 It has now been surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory 6 an optical infrared telescope on a remote 5 640 m 18 500 ft mountaintop in the Atacama Desert of Chile Ancient Indian observatory at Delhi El Caracol observatory temple at Chichen Itza Mexico Remains of the Maragheh observatory under dome at Maragheh Iran Jantar Mantar in Jaipur India The Estonian Tartu Observatory starting point of the Struve Geodetic Arc 7 8 19th century Observatory Sydney Australia 1872 9 Ecuador s 1873 Quito Astronomical Observatory near the Equator 10 11 The 1962 built Solar observatory on Lomnicky peak in Slovakia 12 13 Griffith Observatory on September 2006 in Los Angeles California Oldest astronomical observatories Edit The oldest proto observatories in the sense of an observation post for astronomy 14 Wurdi Youang Australia Zorats Karer Karahunj Armenia Loughcrew Ireland Newgrange Ireland Stonehenge Great Britain Chankillo Peru El Caracol Mexico Abu Simbel Egypt Kokino Kumanovo North Macedonia Observatory at Rhodes Greece 15 Goseck circle Germany Ujjain India Arkaim Russia Cheomseongdae South Korea Angkor Wat CambodiaThe oldest true observatories in the sense of a specialized research institute 14 16 17 include 825 AD Al Shammisiyyah observatory Baghdad Iraq 869 Mahodayapuram Observatory Kerala India 1259 Maragheh observatory Azerbaijan Iran 1276 Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory China 1420 Ulugh Beg Observatory Samarqand Uzbekistan 1442 Beijing Ancient Observatory China 1577 Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad Din Turkey 1580 Uraniborg Denmark 1581 Stjerneborg Denmark 1633 Leiden Observatory Netherlands 1642 Panzano Observatory Italy 1642 Round Tower Denmark 1667 Paris Observatory France 1675 Royal Greenwich Observatory England 1695 Sukharev Tower Russia 1711 Berlin Observatory Germany 1724 Jantar Mantar India 1753 Stockholm Observatory Sweden 1753 Vilnius University Observatory Lithuania 1753 Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada Spain 18 1759 Trieste Observatory Italy 1757 Macfarlane Observatory Scotland 1759 Turin Observatory Italy 1764 Brera Astronomical Observatory Italy 1765 Mohr Observatory Indonesia 1771 Lviv Observatory Ukraine 1774 Observatory of the Vatican Italy 1785 Dunsink Observatory Ireland 1786 Madras Observatory India 1789 Armagh Observatory Northern Ireland 1790 Royal Observatory of Madrid Spain 19 1803 National Astronomical Observatory Bogota Colombia 20 1811 Tartu Old Observatory Estonia 21 1812 Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte Naples Italy 1830 1842 Depot of Charts amp Instruments US Naval Observatory 22 23 USA 1830 Yale University Observatory Atheneum USA 1834 Helsinki University Observatory Finland 24 1838 Hopkins Observatory Williams College USA 1838 Loomis Observatory Western Reserve Academy USA 1839 Pulkovo Observatory Russia 1839 1847 Harvard College Observatory USA 1842 Cincinnati Observatory USA 1844 Georgetown University Astronomical Observatory USA 1854 Detroit Observatory USA 1873 Quito Astronomical Observatory Ecuador 1878 Lisbon Astronomical Observatory Portugal 1884 McCormick Observatory USA 1888 Lick Observatory USA 1890 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory USA 1894 Lowell Observatory USA 1895 Theodor Jacobsen Observatory USA 1897 Yerkes Observatory USA 1899 Kodaikanal Solar Observatory IndiaSpace based observatories Edit Main article Space telescope The Hubble Space Telescope in Earth s orbit Space based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space many in orbit around the Earth Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth s atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground based telescopes The Earth s atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation X rays and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet 25 Another advantage of space based telescopes is that because of their location above the Earth s atmosphere their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground based observations 26 As a result the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground based telescope with a similar aperture However all these advantages do come with a price Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground based telescopes Due to their location space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain The Hubble Space Telescope was able to be serviced by the Space Shuttles while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all Airborne observatories Edit Main article Airborne observatory SOFIA on board a Boeing 747SP Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations putting them above most of the Earth s atmosphere They also have an advantage over space telescopes The instruments can be deployed repaired and updated much more quickly and inexpensively The Kuiper Airborne Observatory and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy use airplanes to observe in the infrared which is absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere High altitude balloons for X ray astronomy have been used in a variety of countries Volcano observatories EditMain article Volcano observatory A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP Volcano Disaster Assistance Program to be deployed on demand Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption 27 See also EditEquatorial room Fundamental station Ground station List of astronomical observatories List of observatory codes List of telescope parts and construction Observatory Street Oxford England Science tourism Space telescope Telescope Timeline of telescopes observatories and observing technology Weather observatory for weather forecasting Research stationReferences Edit ALMA s Solitude Picture of the Week ESO Retrieved 26 December 2012 Chaisson Eric McMillan Steve 2002 Astronomy Today Fourth Edition Prentice Hall pp 116 119 Chaisson Eric McMillan Steve 2002 Astronomy Today Fourth Edition Prentice Hall p 119 Saunders Will Lawrence Jon S Storey John W V Ashley Michael C B Kato Seiji Minnis Patrick Winker David M Liu Guiping amp Kulesa Craig 2009 Where Is the Best Site on Earth Domes A B C and F and Ridges A and B Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 121 883 976 992 arXiv 0905 4156 Bibcode 2009PASP 121 976S doi 10 1086 605780 S2CID 11166739 Zanini A Storini M Saavedra O 2009 Cosmic rays at High Mountain Observatories Advances in Space Research 44 10 1160 1165 Bibcode 2009AdSpR 44 1160Z doi 10 1016 j asr 2008 10 039 Yoshii Yuzuru et al August 11 2009 The 1m telescope at the Atacama Observatory has Started Scientific Operation detecting the Hydrogen Emission Line from the Galactic Center in the Infrared Light Press Release School of Science the University of Tokyo Archived from the original on 28 May 2010 Retrieved 21 December 2009 Taavi Tuvikene Tartu Old Observatory 18 February 2009 Tartu Observatory Official website English version Official Web Site of the Sydney Observatory One of the Oldest Observatories in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory Archived from the original on 2012 01 18 Retrieved 2015 01 05 Official website of the Quito Astronomical Observatory Slovakia s High Tatras mountains are seen from the solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak BBC 5 September 2014 A long time exposed picture taken by night shows Slovakia s High Tatras mountains seen from the Solar observatory station on the Lomnicky Stit peak Archived 2017 10 16 at the Wayback Machine 4 September 2014 a b Micheau Francoise The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East 992 3 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help in Rashed Roshdi Morelon Regis 1996 Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science Routledge pp 985 1007 ISBN 978 0 415 12410 2 Facts about Hipparchus astronomical observatory as discussed in astronomical observatory Encyclopaedia Britannica dead link Peter Barrett 2004 Science and Theology Since Copernicus The Search for Understanding p 18 Continuum International Publishing Group ISBN 0 567 08969 X Kennedy Edward S 1962 Review The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili Isis 53 2 237 239 doi 10 1086 349558 Royal Institute and Observatory of the San Fernando Armada Real Observatorio de Madrid Breve semblanza historica Archived from the original on 2013 07 26 Observatorio Astronomico Nacional Universidad Nacional de Colombia Archived from the original on 2008 05 11 Retrieved 2019 08 24 On its 200th Anniversary Tartu Old Observatory Opens Doors as a Museum www visitestonia com 26 April 2011 Retrieved 26 January 2013 National Park Service Astronomy and Astrophysics United States Naval Observatory Cr nps gov 2001 11 05 Archived from the original on 2011 06 29 Retrieved 2011 11 03 Portolano M 2000 John Quincy Adams s Rhetorical Crusade for Astronomy Isis 91 3 480 503 doi 10 1086 384852 JSTOR 237905 PMID 11143785 S2CID 25585014 History of astronomy at University of Helsinki 1834 1984 in Finnish Chaisson Eric McMillan Steve 2002 Astronomy Today Fourth Edition Prentice Hall A Brief History of the Hubble Space Telescope Why a Space Telescope NASA Retrieved 2006 08 14 U S Geological Survey USGS operates five U S Volcano Observatories www usgs gov U S Geological Survey Retrieved 8 February 2021 Further reading EditAubin David Charlotte Bigg and H Otto Sibum eds The Heavens on Earth Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth Century Science and Culture Duke University Press 2010 384 pages Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th century America Brunier Serge et al Great Observatories of the World 2005 Dick Steven Sky and Ocean Joined The U S Naval Observatory 1830 2000 2003 Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain Determining the right time or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision at Neuchatel Observatory in the mid 19th century Journal for the History of Astronomy 53 1 2022 27 48 https doi org 10 1177 00218286211068572 Leverington David Observatories and Telescopes of Modern Times Ground Based Optical and Radio Astronomy Facilities since 1945 Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2016 ISBN 9780521899932 McCray W Patrick Giant Telescopes Astronomical Ambition and the Promise of Technology 2004 focuses on the Gemini Observatory Sage Leslie and Gail Aschenbrenner A Visitor s Guide to the Kitt Peak Observatories 2004 External links Edit Look up observatory in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikimedia Commons has media related to Observatory Western Visayas Local Urban Observatory archived 19 September 2008 Dearborn Observatory Records Northwestern University Archives Evanston Illinois archived 4 September 2015 Coordinates and satellite images of astronomical observatories on Earth Milkyweb Astronomical Observatory Guide world s largest database of astronomical observatories since 2000 about 2000 entries List of amateur and professional observatories in North America with custom weather forecasts Map showing many of the Astronomical Observatories around the world with drilldown links Mt Wilson ObservatoryPortals Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Observatory amp oldid 1143407171, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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