fbpx
Wikipedia

Metre

May 03, 2024

This article is about the unit of length. For other uses of "metre" or "meter", see Meter (disambiguation).

The metre (or meter in US spelling; symbol: m) is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Since 2019, the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second, where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency of caesium.[2]

metre
The historical standard metre in Paris
General information
Unit systemSI
Unit oflength
Symbolm[1]
Conversions
1 m[1] in ...... is equal to ...
   SI units   
   Imperial/US units   
  • ≈ 1.0936 yd
  • ≈ 3.2808 ft
  • ≈ 39.37 in
   Nautical units   ≈ 0.00053996 nmi

The metre was originally defined in 1791 by the French National Assembly as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole along a great circle, so the Earth's polar circumference is approximately 40000 km.

In 1799, the metre was redefined in terms of a prototype metre bar, the bar used was changed in 1889, and in 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. The current definition was adopted in 1983 and modified slightly in 2002 to clarify that the metre is a measure of proper length. From 1983 until 2019, the metre was formally defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second. After the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this definition was rephrased to include the definition of a second in terms of the caesium frequency ΔνCs. This series of amendments did not alter the size of the metre significantly – today Earth's polar circumference measures 40007.863 km, a change of 0.022% from the original value of exactly 40000 km, which also includes improvements in the accuracy of measuring the circumference.

Spelling edit

 
Seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) – Use measure (Greek: ΜΕΤΡΩ ΧΡΩ)

Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations, the exceptions being the United States[3][4][5][6] and the Philippines[7] which use meter.

Measuring devices (such as ammeter, speedometer) are spelled "-meter" in all variants of English.[8] The suffix "-meter" has the same Greek origin as the unit of length.[9][10]

Etymology edit

The etymological roots of metre can be traced to the Greek verb μετρέω (metreo) ((I) measure, count or compare)[11] and noun μέτρον (metron) (a measure),[12] which were used for physical measurement, for poetic metre and by extension for moderation or avoiding extremism (as in "be measured in your response"). This range of uses is also found in Latin (metior, mensura), French (mètre, mesure), English and other languages. The Greek word is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *meh₁- 'to measure'. The motto ΜΕΤΡΩ ΧΡΩ (metro chro) in the seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which was a saying of the Greek statesman and philosopher Pittacus of Mytilene and may be translated as "Use measure!", thus calls for both measurement and moderation[citation needed]. The use of the word metre (for the French unit mètre) in English began at least as early as 1797.[13]

History of definition edit

Main article: History of the metre

Universal measure: the metre linked to the figure of the Earth edit

 
The Meridian room of the Paris Observatory (or Cassini room): the Paris meridian is drawn on the ground.

Galileo discovered gravitational acceleration to explain the fall of bodies at the surface of the Earth.[14] He also observed the regularity of the period of swing of the pendulum and that this period depended on the length of the pendulum.[15]

Kepler's laws of planetary motion served both to the discovery of Newton's law of universal gravitation and to the determination of the distance from Earth to the Sun by Giovanni Domenico Cassini.[16][17] They both also used a determination of the size of the Earth, then considered as a sphere, by Jean Picard through triangulation of Paris meridian.[18][19] In 1671, Jean Picard also measured the length of a seconds pendulum at Paris Observatory and proposed this unit of measurement to be called the astronomical radius (French: Rayon Astronomique).[20][21] In 1675, Tito Livio Burattini suggested the term metro cattolico meaning universal measure for this unit of length, but then it was discovered that the length of a seconds pendulum varies from place to place.[22][23][24][25]

 
Gravimeter with variant of Repsold–Bessel pendulum

Christiaan Huygens found out the centrifugal force which explained variations of gravitational acceleration depending on latitude.[26][27] He also mathematically formulated the link between the length of the simple pendulum and gravitational acceleration.[28] According to Alexis Clairaut, the study of variations in gravitational acceleration was a way to determine the figure of the Earth, whose crucial parameter was the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid. In the 18th century, in addition of its significance for cartography, geodesy grew in importance as a means of empirically demonstrating the theory of gravity, which Émilie du Châtelet promoted in France in combination with Leibniz's mathematical work and because the radius of the Earth was the unit to which all celestial distances were to be referred. Indeed, Earth proved to be an oblate spheroid through geodetic surveys in Ecuador and Lapland and this new data called into question the value of Earth radius as Picard had calculated it.[28][29][30][22][19]

After the Anglo-French Survey, the French Academy of Sciences commissioned an expedition led by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain, lasting from 1792 to 1798, which measured the distance between a belfry in Dunkirk and Montjuïc castle in Barcelona at the longitude of the Paris Panthéon. When the length of the metre was defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid was assumed to be 1/334.[31][32][19][33][34][35]

In 1841, Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel using the method of least squares calculated from several arc measurements a new value for the flattening of the Earth, which he determinated as 1/299.15.[36][37][38] He also devised a new instrument for measuring gravitational acceleration which was first used in Switzerland by Emile Plantamour, Charles Sanders Peirce and Isaac-Charles Élisée Cellérier (8.01.1818 – 2.10.1889), a Genevan mathematician soon independently discovered a mathematical formula to correct systematic errors of this device which had been noticed by Plantamour and Adolphe Hirsch.[39][40] This allowed Friedrich Robert Helmert to determine a remarkably accurate value of 1/298.3 for the flattening of the Earth when he proposed his ellipsoid of reference in 1901.[41] This was also the result of the Metre Convention of 1875, when the metre was adopted as an international scientific unit of length for the convenience of continental European geodesists following the example of Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler.[42][43][44][45][46][47]

Meridional definition edit

In 1790, one year before it was ultimately decided that the metre would be based on the Earth quadrant (a quarter of the Earth's circumference through its poles), Talleyrand proposed that the metre be the length of the seconds pendulum at a latitude of 45°. This option, with one-third of this length defining the foot, was also considered by Thomas Jefferson and others for redefining the yard in the United States shortly after gaining independence from the British Crown.[48][49]

Instead of the seconds pendulum method, the commission of the French Academy of Sciences – whose members included Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge and Condorcet – decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, determined through measurements along the meridian passing through Paris. Apart from the obvious consideration of safe access for French surveyors, the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for scientific reasons: a portion of the quadrant from Dunkirk to Barcelona (about 1000 km, or one-tenth of the total) could be surveyed with start- and end-points at sea level, and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant, where the effects of the Earth's oblateness were expected not to have to be accounted for. Improvements in the measuring devices designed by Borda and used for this survey also raised hopes for a more accurate determination of the length of this meridian arc.[50][51][52][53][35]

The task of surveying the Paris meridian arc took more than six years (1792–1798). The technical difficulties were not the only problems the surveyors had to face in the convulsed period of the aftermath of the French Revolution: Méchain and Delambre, and later Arago, were imprisoned several times during their surveys, and Méchain died in 1804 of yellow fever, which he contracted while trying to improve his original results in northern Spain. In the meantime, the commission of the French Academy of Sciences calculated a provisional value from older surveys of 443.44 lignes. This value was set by legislation on 7 April 1795.[50][51][53][54][55]

In 1799, a commission including Johan Georg Tralles, Jean Henri van Swinden, Adrien-Marie Legendre and Jean-Baptiste Delambre calculated the distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona using the data of the triangulation between these two towns and determined the portion of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator it represented. Pierre Méchain's and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's measurements were combined with the results of the Spanish-French geodetic mission and a value of 1/334 was found for the Earth's flattening. However, French astronomers knew from earlier estimates of the Earth's flattening that different meridian arcs could have different lengths and that their curvature could be irregular. The distance from the North Pole to the Equator was then extrapolated from the measurement of the Paris meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona and was determined as 5 130 740 toises. As the metre had to be equal to one ten-millionth of this distance, it was defined as 0.513074 toise or 3 feet and 11.296 lines of the Toise of Peru, which had been constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator. When the final result was known, a bar whose length was closest to the meridional definition of the metre was selected and placed in the National Archives on 22 June 1799 (4 messidor An VII in the Republican calendar) as a permanent record of the result.[56][19][50][53][57][58][59]

Early adoption of the metre as a scientific unit of length: the forerunners edit

 
Triangulation near New York City, 1817

In 1816, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was appointed first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast. Trained in geodesy in Switzerland, France and Germany, Hassler had brought a standard metre made in Paris to the United States in 1805. He designed a baseline apparatus which instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during measurements, used only one bar calibrated on the metre and optical contact. Thus the metre became the unit of length for geodesy in the United States.[60][61][46]

In 1830, Hassler became head of the Office of Weights and Measures, which became a part of the Survey of the Coast. He compared various units of length used in the United States at that time and measured coefficients of expansion to assess temperature effects on the measurements.[62]

In 1832, Carl Friedrich Gauss studied the Earth's magnetic field and proposed adding the second to the basic units of the metre and the kilogram in the form of the CGS system (centimetre, gram, second). In 1836, he founded the Magnetischer Verein, the first international scientific association, in collaboration with Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm Edouard Weber. The coordination of the observation of geophysical phenomena such as the Earth's magnetic field, lightning and gravity in different points of the globe stimulated the creation of the first international scientific associations. The foundation of the Magnetischer Verein would be followed by that of the Central European Arc Measurement (German: Mitteleuropaïsche Gradmessung) on the initiative of Johann Jacob Baeyer in 1863, and by that of the International Meteorological Organisation whose president, the Swiss meteorologist and physicist, Heinrich von Wild would represent Russia at the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).[58][41][63][64][65][66]

In 1834, Hassler, measured at Fire Island the first baseline of the Survey of the Coast, shortly before Louis Puissant declared to the French Academy of Sciences in 1836 that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain had made errors in the meridian arc measurement, which had been used to determine the length of the metre. Errors in the method of calculating the length of the Paris meridian were taken into account by Bessel when he proposed his reference ellipsoid in 1841.[67][68][69][37][38]

 
Ibáñez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish Standard and used at Aarberg, in canton of Bern, Switzerland

Egyptian astronomy has ancient roots which were revived in the 19th century by the modernist impetus of Muhammad Ali who founded in Sabtieh, Boulaq district, in Cairo an Observatory which he was keen to keep in harmony with the progress of this science still in progress. In 1858, a Technical Commission was set up to continue, by adopting the procedures instituted in Europe, the cadastre work inaugurated under Muhammad Ali. This Commission suggested to Viceroy Mohammed Sa'id Pasha the idea of buying geodetic devices which were ordered in France. While Mahmud Ahmad Hamdi al-Falaki was in charge, in Egypt, of the direction of the work of the general map, the viceroy entrusted to Ismail Mustafa al-Falaki the study, in Europe, of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure the geodesic bases and already built by Jean Brunner in Paris. Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars, and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard. The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose, as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard. In addition, the Spanish standard had been compared with Borda's double-toise N° 1, which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France, and was also to be compared to the Ibáñez apparatus. In 1954, the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Geodetic Arc with an arc running northwards from South Africa through Egypt would bring the course of a major meridian arc back to land where Eratosthenes had founded geodesy.[70][71][72][73][74]

 
West Europe–Africa Meridian-arc: a meridian arc extending from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, whose parameters were calculated from surveys carried out in the mid to late 19th century. It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth a = 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15. The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part. Greenwich meridian is depicted rather than Paris meridian.

Seventeen years after Bessel calculated his ellipsoid of reference, some of the meridian arcs the German astronomer had used for his calculation had been enlarged. This was a very important circumstance because the influence of errors due to vertical deflections was minimized in proportion to the length of the meridian arcs: the longer the meridian arcs, the more precise the image of the Earth ellipsoid would be.[36] After Struve Geodetic Arc measurement, it was resolved in the 1860s, at the initiative of Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero who would become the first president of both the International Geodetic Association and the International Committee for Weights and Measure, to remeasure the arc of meridian from Dunkirk to Formentera and to extend it from Shetland to the Sahara.[75][76][77][74] This did not pave the way to a new definition of the metre because it was known that the theoretical definition of the metre had been inaccessible and misleading at the time of Delambre and Mechain arc measurement, as the geoid is a ball, which on the whole can be assimilated to an oblate spheroid, but which in detail differs from it so as to prohibit any generalization and any extrapolation from the measurement of a single meridian arc.[34] In 1859, Friedrich von Schubert demonstrated that several meridians had not the same length, confirming an hypothesis of Jean Le Rond d'Alembert. He also proposed an ellipsoid with three unequal axes.[78][79] In 1860, Elie Ritter, a mathematician from Geneva, using Schubert's data computed that the Earth ellipsoid could rather be a spheroid of revolution accordingly to Adrien-Marie Legendre's model.[80] However, the following year, resuming his calculation on the basis of all the data available at the time, Ritter came to the conclusion that the problem was only resolved in an approximate manner, the data appearing too scant, and for some affected by vertical deflections, in particular the latitude of Montjuïc in the French meridian arc which determination had also been affected in a lesser proportion by systematic errors of the repeating circle.[81][82][34]

The definition of the length of a metre in the 1790s was founded upon Arc measurements in France and Peru with a definition that it was to be 1/40 millionth of the circumference of the earth measured through the poles. Such were the inaccuracies of that period that within a matter of just a few years more reliable measurements would have given a different value for the definition of this international standard. That does not invalidate the metre in any way but highlights the fact that continuing improvements in instrumentation made better measurements of the earth’s size possible.

— Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST, p. 40
 
Struve Geodetic Arc

It was well known that by measuring the latitude of two stations in Barcelona, Méchain had found that the difference between these latitudes was greater than predicted by direct measurement of distance by triangulation and that he did not dare to admit this inaccuracy.[83][84][54] This was later explained by clearance in the central axis of the repeating circle causing wear and consequently the zenith measurements contained significant systematic errors.[82] Polar motion predicted by Leonard Euler and later discovered by Seth Carlo Chandler also had an impact on accuracy of latitudes' determinations.[85][28][86][87] Among all these sources of error, it was mainly an unfavourable vertical deflection that gave an inaccurate determination of Barcelona's latitude and a metre "too short" compared to a more general definition taken from the average of a large number of arcs.[34]

As early as 1861, Johann Jacob Baeyer sent a memorandum to the King of Prussia recommending international collaboration in Central Europe with the aim of determining the shape and dimensions of the Earth. At the time of its creation, the association had sixteen member countries: Austrian Empire, Kingdom of Belgium, Denmark, seven German states (Grand Duchy of Baden, Kingdom of Bavaria, Kingdom of Hanover, Mecklenburg, Kingdom of Prussia, Kingdom of Saxony, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha), Kingdom of Italy, Netherlands, Russian Empire (for Poland), United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, as well as Switzerland. The Central European Arc Measurement created a Central Office, located at the Prussian Geodetic Institute, whose management was entrusted to Johann Jacob Baeyer.[88][87]

Baeyer's goal was a new determination of anomalies in the shape of the Earth using precise triangulations, combined with gravity measurements. This involved determining the geoid by means of gravimetric and leveling measurements, in order to deduce the exact knowledge of the terrestrial spheroid while taking into account local variations. To resolve this problem, it was necessary to carefully study considerable areas of land in all directions. Baeyer developed a plan to coordinate geodetic surveys in the space between the parallels of Palermo and Freetown Christiana (Denmark) and the meridians of Bonn and Trunz (German name for Milejewo in Poland). This territory was covered by a triangle network and included more than thirty observatories or stations whose position was determined astronomically. Bayer proposed to remeasure ten arcs of meridians and a larger number of arcs of parallels, to compare the curvature of the meridian arcs on the two slopes of the Alps, in order to determine the influence of this mountain range on vertical deflection. Baeyer also planned to determine the curvature of the seas, the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea in the south, the North Sea and the Baltic Sea in the north. In his mind, the cooperation of all the States of Central Europe could open the field to scientific research of the highest interest, research that each State, taken in isolation, was not able to undertake.[89][90]

Spain and Portugal joined the European Arc Measurement in 1866. French Empire hesitated for a long time before giving in to the demands of the Association, which asked the French geodesists to take part in its work. It was only after the Franco-Prussian War, that Charles-Eugène Delaunay represented France at the Congress of Vienna in 1871. In 1874, Hervé Faye was appointed member of the Permanent Commission which was presided by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.[68][91][77][47]

The International Geodetic Association gained global importance with the accession of Chile, Mexico and Japan in 1888; Argentina and United-States in 1889; and British Empire in 1898. The convention of the International Geodetic Association expired at the end of 1916. It was not renewed due to the First World War. However, the activities of the International Latitude Service were continued through an Association Géodesique réduite entre États neutre thanks to the efforts of H.G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen and Raoul Gautier (1854–1931), respectively directors of Leiden Observatory and Geneva Observatory.[74][87]

International prototype metre bar edit

 
Closeup of National Prototype Metre Bar No. 27, made in 1889 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in collaboration with Johnson Mattey and given to the United States, which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter, an authentic copy of the Mètre des Archives produced in 1799 in Paris, which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought to the United States in 1805

After the French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars led to the adoption of the metre in Latin America following independence of Brazil and Hispanic America, while the American Revolution prompted the foundation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830. In continental Europe, Napoleonic Wars fostered German nationalism which later led to unification of Germany in 1871. Meanwhile, most European countries had adopted the metre. In the 1870s, German Empire played a pivotal role in the unification of the metric system through the European Arc Measurement but its overwhelming influence was mitigated by that of neutral states. While the German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster, director of the Berlin Observatory and director of the German Weights and Measures Service boycotted the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, along with the Russian and Austrian representatives, in order to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the German born, Swiss astronomer, Adolphe Hirsch conformed to the opinion of Italy and Spain to create, in spite of French reluctance, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadventage of the Conservatoire national des Arts et Métiers.[90][65][92]

At that time, units of measurement were defined by primary standards, and unique artifacts made of different alloys with distinct coefficients of expansion were the legal basis of units of length. A wrought iron ruler, the Toise of Peru, also called Toise de l'Académie, was the French primary standard of the toise, and the metre was officially defined by an artifact made of platinum kept in the National Archives. Besides the latter, another platinum and twelve iron standards of the metre were made by Étienne Lenoir in 1799. One of them became known as the Committee Meter in the United States and served as standard of length in the United States Coast Survey until 1890. According to geodesists, these standards were secondary standards deduced from the Toise of Peru. In Europe, except Spain, surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru. Among these, the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in Prussia and in France. These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature. The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take thermal expansion into account without measuring the temperature. A French scientific instrument maker, Jean Nicolas Fortin, had made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru, one for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, a second for Heinrich Christian Schumacher in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Bessel in 1823. In 1831, Henri-Prudence Gambey also realized a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at Altona Observatory.[93][94][66][56][95][96][37][46][42]

 
Historic Dutch replicas of metric standards in the collection of Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam: iron metre with case constructed by Étienne Lenoir in 1799, copper grave kilogram with case (1798), copper volume measures (1829)

In the second half of the 19th century, the creation of the International Geodetic Association would mark the adoption of new scientific methods.[97] It then became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs, since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the electrical telegraph. Furthermore, advances in metrology combined with those of gravimetry have led to a new era of geodesy. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the gravitational acceleration by means of pendulum.[98][56]

In 1866, the most important concern was that the Toise of Peru, the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator, might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless, while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to Altona and Koenigsberg Observatories, which he had compared to each other about 1840. This assertion was particularly worrying, because when the primary Imperial yard standard had partially been destroyed in 1834, a new standard of reference was constructed using copies of the "Standard Yard, 1760", instead of the pendulum's length as provided for in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824, because the pendulum method proved unreliable. Nevertheless Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures as an office within the Coast Survey contributed to the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States, and preceded the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the European Arc Measurement (German: Europäische Gradmessung) to establish a "European international bureau for weights and measures".[93][99][47][90][56][100][101][102][103]

 
Creating the metre-alloy in 1874 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Present Henri Tresca, George Matthey, Saint-Claire Deville, and Debray.

In 1867 at the second General Conference of the International Association of Geodesy held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.[104][105][106] According to a preliminary proposal made in Neuchâtel the precedent year, the General Conference recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise of Bessel, the creation of an International Metre Commission, and the foundation of a World institute for the comparison of geodetic standards, the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[107][104][106][108][109]

Hassler's metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia.[62][61] In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild and Moritz von Jacobi, whose theorem has long supported the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes for the figure of the Earth, inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work.[102][22]

In the 1870s and in light of modern precision, a series of international conferences was held to devise new metric standards. When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre-alloy of 1874, a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and Spanish representative at the Paris Conference in 1875, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero intervened with the French Academy of Sciences to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the metric system according to the progress of sciences.[110][43][66][111]

The Metre Convention (Convention du Mètre) of 1875 mandated the establishment of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) to be located in Sèvres, France. This new organisation was to construct and preserve a prototype metre bar, distribute national metric prototypes, and maintain comparisons between them and non-metric measurement standards. The organisation distributed such bars in 1889 at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM: Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures), establishing the International Prototype Metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar composed of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium, measured at the melting point of ice.[110]

Metrology and paradigm shift in physics edit

 
Invar wire baseline apparatus

The comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale. The BIPM's thermometry work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron–nickel, in particular invar, whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods, and for which its director, the Swiss physicist Charles-Edouard Guillaume, was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920. Guillaume's Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which metrology was leaving the field of geodesy to become a technological application of physics.[112][113][114]

In 1921, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to another Swiss scientist, Albert Einstein, who following Michelson–Morley experiment had questioned the luminiferous aether in 1905, just as Newton had questioned Descartes' Vortex theory in 1687 after Jean Richer's pendulum experiment in Cayenne, French Guiana.[115][116][18][22]

Furthermore, special relativity changed conceptions of time and mass, while general relativity changed that of space. According to Newton, space was Euclidean, infinite and without boundaries and bodies gravitated around each other without changing the structure of space. Einstein's theory of gravity states, on the contrary, that the mass of a body has an effect on all other bodies while modifying the structure of space. A massive body induces a curvature of the space around it in which the path of light is inflected, as was demonstrated by the displacement of the position of a star observed near the Sun during an eclipse in 1919.[117]

Wavelength definition edit

In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell suggested that light emitted by an element be used as the standard both for the unit of length and for the second. These two quantities could then be used to define the unit of mass.[118] About the unit of length he wrote:

In the present state of science the most universal standard of length which we could assume would be the wave length in vacuum of a particular kind of light, emitted by some widely diffused substance such as sodium, which has well-defined lines in its spectrum. Such a standard would be independent of any changes in the dimensions of the earth, and should be adopted by those who expect their writings to be more permanent than that body.

— James Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd edition, Vol. 1, p. 3

Charles Sanders Peirce's work promoted the advent of American science at the forefront of global metrology. Alongside his intercomparisons of artifacts of the metre and contributions to gravimetry through improvement of reversible pendulum, Peirce was the first to tie experimentally the metre to the wave length of a spectral line. According to him the standard length might be compared with that of a wave of light identified by a line in the solar spectrum. Albert Michelson soon took up the idea and improved it.[103][119]

In 1893, the standard metre was first measured with an interferometer by Albert A. Michelson, the inventor of the device and an advocate of using some particular wavelength of light as a standard of length. By 1925, interferometry was in regular use at the BIPM. However, the International Prototype Metre remained the standard until 1960, when the eleventh CGPM defined the metre in the new International System of Units (SI) as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in vacuum.[120]

Speed of light definition edit

To further reduce uncertainty, the 17th CGPM in 1983 replaced the definition of the metre with its current definition, thus fixing the length of the metre in terms of the second and the speed of light:[121][122]

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second.

This definition fixed the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 299792458 metres per second[121] (≈300000 km/s or ≈1.079 billion km/hour[123]). An intended by-product of the 17th CGPM's definition was that it enabled scientists to compare lasers accurately using frequency, resulting in wavelengths with one-fifth the uncertainty involved in the direct comparison of wavelengths, because interferometer errors were eliminated. To further facilitate reproducibility from lab to lab, the 17th CGPM also made the iodine-stabilised helium–neon laser "a recommended radiation" for realising the metre.[124] For the purpose of delineating the metre, the BIPM currently considers the HeNe laser wavelength, λHeNe, to be 632.99121258 nm with an estimated relative standard uncertainty (U) of 2.1×10−11.[124][125][126]

This uncertainty is currently one limiting factor in laboratory realisations of the metre, and it is several orders of magnitude poorer than that of the second, based upon the caesium fountain atomic clock (U = 5×10−16).[127] Consequently, a realisation of the metre is usually delineated (not defined) today in labs as 1579800.762042(33) wavelengths of helium–neon laser light in vacuum, the error stated being only that of frequency determination.[124] This bracket notation expressing the error is explained in the article on measurement uncertainty.

Practical realisation of the metre is subject to uncertainties in characterising the medium, to various uncertainties of interferometry, and to uncertainties in measuring the frequency of the source.[128] A commonly used medium is air, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has set up an online calculator to convert wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air.[129] As described by NIST, in air, the uncertainties in characterising the medium are dominated by errors in measuring temperature and pressure. Errors in the theoretical formulas used are secondary.[130]

By implementing a refractive index correction such as this, an approximate realisation of the metre can be implemented in air, for example, using the formulation of the metre as 1579800.762042(33) wavelengths of helium–neon laser light in vacuum, and converting the wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air. Air is only one possible medium to use in a realisation of the metre, and any partial vacuum can be used, or some inert atmosphere like helium gas, provided the appropriate corrections for refractive index are implemented.[131]

The metre is defined as the path length travelled by light in a given time, and practical laboratory length measurements in metres are determined by counting the number of wavelengths of laser light of one of the standard types that fit into the length,[134] and converting the selected unit of wavelength to metres. Three major factors limit the accuracy attainable with laser interferometers for a length measurement:[128][135]

  • uncertainty in vacuum wavelength of the source,
  • uncertainty in the refractive index of the medium,
  • least count resolution of the interferometer.

Of these, the last is peculiar to the interferometer itself. The conversion of a length in wavelengths to a length in metres is based upon the relation

 

which converts the unit of wavelength λ to metres using c, the speed of light in vacuum in m/s. Here n is the refractive index of the medium in which the measurement is made, and f is the measured frequency of the source. Although conversion from wavelengths to metres introduces an additional error in the overall length due to measurement error in determining the refractive index and the frequency, the measurement of frequency is one of the most accurate measurements available.[135]

The CIPM issued a clarification in 2002:

Its definition, therefore, applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored (note that, at the surface of the Earth, this effect in the vertical direction is about 1 part in 1016 per metre). In this case, the effects to be taken into account are those of special relativity only.

Timeline edit

Date Deciding body Decision
8 May 1790 French National Assembly The length of the new metre to be equal to the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second.[50]
30 Mar 1791 French National Assembly Accepts the proposal by the French Academy of Sciences that the new definition for the metre be equal to one ten-millionth of the length of a great circle quadrant along the Earth's meridian through Paris, that is the distance from the equator to the north pole along that quadrant.[136]
1795 Provisional metre bar made of brass and based on Paris meridan arc (French: Méridienne de France) measured by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaillle and Cesar-François Cassini de Thury, legally equal to 443.44 lines of the toise du Pérou (a standard French unit of length from 1766).[50][19][137][138] [The line was 1/864 of a toise.]
10 Dec 1799 French National Assembly Specifies the platinum metre bar, presented on 22 June 1799 and deposited in the National Archives, as the final standard. Legally equal to 443.296 lines on the toise du Pérou.[138]
24–28 Sept 1889 1st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Defines the metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of platinum with 10% iridium, measured at the melting point of ice.[138][139]
27 Sept – 6 Oct 1927 7th CGPM Redefines the metre as the distance, at 0 °C (273 K), between the axes of the two central lines marked on the prototype bar of platinum–iridium, this bar being subject to one standard atmosphere of pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least 10 mm (1 cm) diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm (57.1 cm) from each other.[140]
14 Oct 1960 11th CGPM Defines the metre as 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom.[141]
21 Oct 1983 17th CGPM Defines the metre as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.[142][143]
2002 International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) Considers the metre to be a unit of proper length and thus recommends this definition be restricted to "lengths ℓ which are sufficiently short for the effects predicted by general relativity to be negligible with respect to the uncertainties of realisation".[144]
Definitions of the metre since 1795[145]
Basis of definition Date Absolute
uncertainty 		Relative
uncertainty
1/10000000 part of the quadrant along the meridian, measurement by Delambre and Méchain (443.296 lines) 1795 500–100 μm 10−4
First prototype Mètre des Archives platinum bar standard 1799 50–10 μm 10−5
Platinum–iridium bar at melting point of ice (1st CGPM) 1889 0.2–0.1 μm 10−7
Platinum–iridium bar at melting point of ice, atmospheric pressure, supported by two rollers (7th CGPM) 1927 n.a. n.a.
Hyperfine atomic transition; 1650763.73 wavelengths of light from a specified transition in krypton-86 (11th CGPM) 1960 4 nm 4×10−9[146]
Length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 second (17th CGPM) 1983 0.1 nm 10−10

Early adoptions of the metre internationally edit

Main article: Metrication

In France, the metre was adopted as an exclusive measure in 1801 under the Consulate. This continued under the First French Empire until 1812, when Napoleon decreed the introduction of the non-decimal mesures usuelles, which remained in use in France up to 1840 in the reign of Louis Philippe.[50] Meanwhile, the metre was adopted by the Republic of Geneva.[147] After the joining of the canton of Geneva to Switzerland in 1815, Guillaume Henri Dufour published the first official Swiss map, for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length.[148][149]

Adoption dates by country edit

SI prefixed forms of metre edit

Main article: Orders of magnitude (length)

SI prefixes can be used to denote decimal multiples and submultiples of the metre, as shown in the table below. Long distances are usually expressed in km, astronomical units (149.6 Gm), light-years (10 Pm), or parsecs (31 Pm), rather than in Mm, Gm, Tm, Pm, Em, Zm or Ym; "30 cm", "30 m", and "300 m" are more common than "3 dm", "3 dam", and "3 hm", respectively.

The terms micron and millimicron have been used instead of micrometre (μm) and nanometre (nm), respectively, but this practice is discouraged.[151]


SI multiples of metre (m)
Submultiples Multiples
Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name
10−1 m dm decimetre 101 m dam decametre
10−2 m cm centimetre 102 m hm hectometre
10−3 m mm millimetre 103 m km kilometre
10−6 m μm micrometre 106 m Mm megametre
10−9 m nm nanometre 109 m Gm gigametre
10−12 m pm picometre 1012 m Tm terametre
10−15 m fm femtometre 1015 m Pm petametre
10−18 m am attometre 1018 m Em exametre
10−21 m zm zeptometre 1021 m Zm zettametre
10−24 m ym yoctometre 1024 m Ym yottametre
10−27 m rm rontometre 1027 m Rm ronnametre
10−30 m qm quectometre 1030 m Qm quettametre

Equivalents in other units edit

Metric unit
expressed in non-SI units 		Non-SI unit
expressed in metric units
1 metre ≈ 1.0936 yard 1 yard = 0.9144 metre
1 metre ≈ 39.370 inches 1 inch = 0.0254 metre
1 centimetre ≈ 0.39370 inch 1 inch = 2.54 centimetres
1 millimetre ≈ 0.039370 inch 1 inch = 25.4 millimetres
1 metre = 1010 ångström 1 ångström = 10−10 metre
1 nanometre = 10 ångström 1 ångström = 100 picometres

Within this table, "inch" and "yard" mean "international inch" and "international yard"[152] respectively, though approximate conversions in the left column hold for both international and survey units.

"≈" means "is approximately equal to";
"=" means "is exactly equal to".

One metre is exactly equivalent to 5 000/127 inches and to 1 250/1 143 yards.

A simple mnemonic to assist with conversion is "three 3s": 1 metre is nearly equivalent to 3 feet 3+3⁄8 inches. This gives an overestimate of 0.125 mm.

The ancient Egyptian cubit was about 0.5 m (surviving rods are 523–529 mm).[153] Scottish and English definitions of the ell (two cubits) were 941 mm (0.941 m) and 1143 mm (1.143 m) respectively.[154][155] The ancient Parisian toise (fathom) was slightly shorter than 2 m and was standardised at exactly 2 m in the mesures usuelles system, such that 1 m was exactly 1⁄2 toise.[156] The Russian verst was 1.0668 km.[157] The Swedish mil was 10.688 km, but was changed to 10 km when Sweden converted to metric units.[158]

See also edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metre.
 
Look up metre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Notes edit

  1. ^ "Base unit definitions: Meter". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
  2. ^ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (20 May 2019), The International System of Units (SI) (PDF) (9th ed.), ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0, from the original on 18 October 2021
  3. ^ "The International System of Units (SI) – NIST" (PDF). US: National Institute of Standards and Technology. 26 March 2008. The spelling of English words is in accordance with the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual, which follows Webster's Third New International Dictionary rather than the Oxford Dictionary. Thus the spellings 'meter', 'liter', 'deka', and 'cesium' are used rather than 'metre', 'litre', 'deca', and 'caesium' as in the original BIPM English text.
  4. ^ The most recent official brochure about the International System of Units (SI), written in French by the Bureau international des poids et mesures, International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) uses the spelling metre; an English translation, included to make the SI standard more widely accessible also uses the spelling metre (BIPM, 2006, p. 130ff). However, in 2008 the U.S. English translation published by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) chose to use the spelling meter in accordance with the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual. The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 gives the Secretary of Commerce of the US the responsibility of interpreting or modifying the SI for use in the US. The Secretary of Commerce delegated this authority to the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Turner). In 2008, NIST published the US version (Taylor and Thompson, 2008a) of the English text of the eighth edition of the BIPM publication Le Système international d'unités (SI) (BIPM, 2006). In the NIST publication, the spellings "meter", "liter" and "deka" are used rather than "metre", "litre" and "deca" as in the original BIPM English text (Taylor and Thompson (2008a), p. iii). The Director of the NIST officially recognised this publication, together with Taylor and Thompson (2008b), as the "legal interpretation" of the SI for the United States (Turner). Thus, the spelling metre is referred to as the "international spelling"; the spelling meter, as the "American spelling".
  5. ^ Naughtin, Pat (2008). (PDF). Metrication Matters. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  6. ^ "Meter vs. metre". Grammarist. 21 February 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  7. ^ The Philippines uses English as an official language and this largely follows American English since the country became a colony of the United States. While the law that converted the country to use the metric system uses metre (Batas Pambansa Blg. 8) following the SI spelling, in actual practice, meter is used in government and everyday commerce, as evidenced by laws (kilometer, Republic Act No. 7160), Supreme Court decisions (meter, G.R. No. 185240), and national standards (centimeter, PNS/BAFS 181:2016).
  8. ^ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. 2008. Retrieved 19 September 2012., s.v. ammeter, meter, parking meter, speedometer.
  9. ^ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1992., s.v. meter.
  10. ^ . Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 26 April 2017.
  11. ^ μετρέω. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  12. ^ μέτρον in Liddell and Scott.
  13. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Clarendon Press 2nd ed. 1989, vol. IX p. 697 col. 3.
  14. ^ "Museo Galileo - In depth - Gravitational acceleration". catalogue.museogalileo.it. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  15. ^ "Museo Galileo - In depth - Pendulum". catalogue.museogalileo.it. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  16. ^ "M13. From Kepler's Laws To Universal Gravitation – Basic Physics". Retrieved 30 December 2023.
  17. ^ Bond, Peter (2014). L'exploration du système solaire. Dupont-Bloch, Nicolas. ([Édition française revue et corrigée] ed.). Louvain-la-Neuve: De Boeck. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9782804184964. OCLC 894499177.
  18. ^ a b "Lettres philosophiques/Lettre 15 - Wikisource". fr.wikisource.org (in French). Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  19. ^ a b c d e Levallois, Jean-Jacques (1986). "La Vie des sciences". Gallica (in French). pp. 262, 285, 288–290, 269, 276–277, 283. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
  20. ^ Picard, Jean (1620–1682) Auteur du texte (1671). Mesure de la terre [par l'abbé Picard]. pp. 3–5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Bigourdan 1901, pp. 8, 158–159.
  22. ^ a b c d "Earth, Figure of the" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 801–813.
  23. ^ Poynting, John Henry; Thomson, Joseph John (1907). A Textbook of Physics. C. Griffin. pp. 20.
  24. ^ "Science. 1791, l'adoption révolutionnaire du mètre". humanite.fr (in French). 25 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  25. ^ Lucendo, Jorge (23 April 2020). Centuries of Inventions: Encyclopedia and History of Inventions. Jorge Lucendo. p. 246. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
  26. ^ Silas, Walter (30 October 2022). "Centrifugal force Vs centripetal force". Probing the Universe. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
  27. ^ "Gravity: Notes: Latitude Dependent Changes in Gravitational Acceleration". pburnley.faculty.unlv.edu. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
  28. ^ a b c Perrier, Général (1935). "Historique Sommaire De La Geodesie". Thalès. 2: 117–129, p. 128. ISSN 0398-7817. JSTOR 43861533.
  29. ^ Badinter, Élisabeth (2018). Les passions intellectuelles. Normandie roto impr. Paris: Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-20345-3. OCLC 1061216207.
  30. ^ Touzery, Mireille (3 July 2008). "Émilie Du Châtelet, un passeur scientifique au XVIIIe siècle". La revue pour l'histoire du CNRS (in French) (21). doi:10.4000/histoire-cnrs.7752. ISSN 1298-9800.
  31. ^ Capderou, Michel (31 October 2011). Satellites : de Kepler au GPS (in French). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 46. ISBN 978-2-287-99049-6.
  32. ^ Ramani, Madhvi. "How France created the metric system". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  33. ^ Jean-Jacques Levallois, La méridienne de Dunkerque à Barcelone et la détermination du mètre (1792 – 1799), Vermessung, Photogrammetrie, Kulturtechnik, 89 (1991), 375-380.
  34. ^ a b c d Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek (1991). "La méridienne de Dunkerque à Barcelone et la déterminiation du mètre (1972-1799)". Vermessung, Photogrammetrie, Kulturtechnik: VPK = Mensuration, Photogrammétrie, Génie Rural (in French). 89 (7): 377–378. doi:10.5169/seals-234595. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  35. ^ a b Martin, Jean-Pierre; McConnell, Anita (20 December 2008). "Joining the observatories of Paris and Greenwich". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 62 (4): 355–372. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2008.0029. ISSN 0035-9149. S2CID 143514819.
  36. ^ a b von Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm (July 1857). "Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica. pp. 509, 510. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
  37. ^ a b c Viik, T (2006). "F. W. Bessel and geodesy". Struve Geodetic Arc, 2006 International Conference, The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time, Haparanda and Pajala, Sweden, 13–15 August 2006. pp. 10, 6. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.517.9501.
  38. ^ a b Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (1 December 1841). "Über einen Fehler in der Berechnung der französischen Gradmessung und seineh Einfluß auf die Bestimmung der Figur der Erde. Von Herrn Geh. Rath und Ritter Bessel". Astronomische Nachrichten. 19 (7): 97. Bibcode:1841AN.....19...97B. doi:10.1002/asna.18420190702. ISSN 0004-6337.
  39. ^   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Carlos (1881). Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira (PDF). Madrid: Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado. pp. 70–78.
  40. ^ "Rapport de M. Faye sur un Mémoire de M. Peirce concernant la constance de la pesanteur à Paris et les corrections exigées par les anciennes déterminations de Borda et de Biot". Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences. 90: 1463–1466. 1880. Retrieved 10 October 2018 – via Gallica.
  41. ^ a b Encyclopedia Universalis. Encyclopedia Universalis. 1996. pp. 320, 370. Vol 10. ISBN 978-2-85229-290-1. OCLC 36747385.
  42. ^ a b Brunner, Jean (1 January 1857). "Appareil construit pour les opérations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l'étendue de l'Espagne le réseau trigonométrique qui couvre la France in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 150–153. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  43. ^ a b Pérard, Albert (1957). "Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero (14 avril 1825 – 29 janvier 1891), par Albert Pérard (inauguration d'un monument élevé à sa mémoire)" (PDF). Institut de France – Académie des sciences. pp. 26–28.
  44. ^ Adolphe Hirsch, Le général Ibáñez notice nécrologique lue au comité international des poids et mesures, le 12 septembre et dans la conférence géodésique de Florence, le 8 octobre 1891, Neuchâtel, imprimerie Attinger frères.
  45. ^ Wolf, Rudolf (1 January 1891). "Histoire de l'appareil Ibañez-Brunner in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 370–371. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
  46. ^ a b c Clarke, Alexander Ross (1873), "XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James", Philosophical Transactions, vol. 163, London, p. 463, doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014
  47. ^ a b c Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung (PDF) (in German). Berlin: Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung. 1868. pp. 123–134.
  48. ^ "The seconds pendulum". www.roma1.infn.it. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  49. ^ Cochrane, Rexmond (1966). . Measures for progress: a history of the National Bureau of Standards. U.S. Department of Commerce. p. 532. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  50. ^ a b c d e f g Larousse, Pierre (1866–1877). Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle : français, historique, géographique, mythologique, bibliographique.... T. 11 MEMO-O / par M. Pierre Larousse. p. 163.
  51. ^ a b "L'histoire des unités | Réseau National de la Métrologie Française". metrologie-francaise.lne.fr. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  52. ^ Biot, Jean-Baptiste (1774–1862) Auteur du texte; Arago, François (1786-1853) Auteur du texte (1821). Recueil d'observations géodésiques, astronomiques et physiques, exécutées par ordre du Bureau des longitudes de France en Espagne, en France, en Angleterre et en Écosse, pour déterminer la variation de la pesanteur et des degrés terrestres sur le prolongement du méridien de Paris... rédigé par MM. Biot et Arago,... pp. viii–ix.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ a b c Suzanne, Débarbat. "Fixation de la longueur définitive du mètre". FranceArchives (in French). Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  54. ^ a b Delambre, Jean-Baptiste (1749–1822) Auteur du texte (1912). Grandeur et figure de la terre / J.-B.-J. Delambre; ouvrage augmenté de notes, de cartes et publié par les soins de G. Bigourdan,... pp. 202–203, 2015, 141–142, 178.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ "Comprendre – Histoire de l'observatoire de Paris - Pierre-François-André Méchain". promenade.imcce.fr. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  56. ^ a b c d Clarke, Alexander Ross; James, Henry (1 January 1867). "X. Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia, made at the ordnance Survey Office, Southampton". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 157: 174. doi:10.1098/rstl.1867.0010. S2CID 109333769.
  57. ^ "Histoire du mètre | Métrologie". metrologie.entreprises.gouv.fr. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  58. ^ a b Débarbat, Suzanne; Quinn, Terry (1 January 2019). "Les origines du système métrique en France et la Convention du mètre de 1875, qui a ouvert la voie au Système international d'unités et à sa révision de 2018". Comptes Rendus Physique. The new International System of Units / Le nouveau Système international d’unités. 20 (1): 6–21. Bibcode:2019CRPhy..20....6D. doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2018.12.002. ISSN 1631-0705. S2CID 126724939.
  59. ^ Delambre, Jean-Baptiste (1749–1822) Auteur du texte; Méchain, Pierre (1744–1804) Auteur du texte (1806–1810). Base du système métrique décimal, ou Mesure de l'arc du méridien compris entre les parallèles de Dunkerque et Barcelone. T. 1 /, exécutée en 1792 et années suivantes, par MM. Méchain et Delambre, rédigée par M. Delambre,... pp. 93–94, 10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ American Philosophical Society.; Society, American Philosophical; Poupard, James (1825). Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. new ser.:v.2 (1825). Philadelphia [etc.] pp. 234–278.
  61. ^ a b Cajori, Florian (1921). "Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey". The Scientific Monthly. 13 (2): 117–129. Bibcode:1921SciMo..13..117C. ISSN 0096-3771.
  62. ^ a b Parr, Albert C. (1 April 2006). "A Tale About the First Weights and Measures Intercomparison in the United States in 1832". Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. 111 (1): 31–32, 36. doi:10.6028/jres.111.003. PMC 4654608. PMID 27274915 – via NIST.
  63. ^ . public.wmo.int. 8 December 2015. Archived from the original on 18 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  64. ^ "Wild, Heinrich". hls-dhs-dss.ch (in German). Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  65. ^ a b Heinrich VON WILD (1833–1902) in COMlTÉ INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURES. PROCÈS-VERBAUX DES SÉANCES. DEUXIÈME SÉRIE. TOME II. SESSION DE 1903. pp. 5–7.
  66. ^ a b c Quinn, T. J. (2012). From artefacts to atoms : the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. Oxford. pp. 20, 37–38, 91–92, 70–72, 114–117, 144–147, 8. ISBN 978-0-19-990991-9. OCLC 861693071.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  67. ^ Hassler, Harriet; Burroughs, Charles A. (2007). Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843). NIST Research Library. pp. 51–52.
  68. ^ a b Lebon, Ernest (1846–1922) Auteur du texte (1899). Histoire abrégée de l'astronomie / par Ernest Lebon,... pp. 168–171.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Puissant, Louis (1769–1843) Auteur du texte. Nouvelle détermination de la distance méridienne de Montjouy à Formentera, dévoilant l'inexactitude de celle dont il est fait mention dans la base du système métrique décimal, par M. Puissant,... lu à l'Académie des sciences, le 2 mai 1836.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah (1876). Bulletin de la Société de géographie d'Égypte. University of Michigan. [Le Caire]. pp. 6–16.
  71. ^ texte, Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1825–1901) Auteur du (1886). Notes biographiques de S. E. Mahmoud Pacha el Falaki (l'astronome), par Ismail-Bey Moustapha et le colonel Moktar-Bey. pp. 10–11.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ texte, Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1825-1901) Auteur du (1864). Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien / par Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha, ...{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  73. ^ "Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST" (PDF). pp. 40, 143–144.
  74. ^ a b c Soler, T. (1 February 1997). "A profile of General Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero: first president of the International Geodetic Association". Journal of Geodesy. 71 (3): 176–188. Bibcode:1997JGeod..71..176S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.492.3967. doi:10.1007/s001900050086. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 119447198.
  75. ^ J. M. López de Azcona, "Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Carlos", Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. VII, 1–2, Scribner's, New York, 1981.
  76. ^ commission, Internationale Erdmessung Permanente (1892). Comptes-rendus des séances de la Commission permanente de l'Association géodésique internationale réunie à Florence du 8 au 17 octobre 1891 (in French). De Gruyter, Incorporated. pp. 23–25, 100–109. ISBN 978-3-11-128691-4.
  77. ^ a b "El General Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Marqués de Mulhacén".
  78. ^ Historische Commission bei der königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften (1908), "Schubert, Theodor von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Bd. 54, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (1. ed.), München/Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, p. 231, retrieved 1 October 2023
  79. ^ D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond. "Figure de la Terre, in Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une Société de Gens de lettres". artflsrv04.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
  80. ^ Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genève.; Genève, Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de (1859). Memoires de la Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genève. Vol. 15. Geneve: Georg [etc.] pp. 441–444, 484–485.
  81. ^ Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genève.; Genève, Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de (1861). Memoires de la Société de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Genève. Vol. 16. Geneve: Georg [etc.] pp. 165–196.
  82. ^ a b Martina Schiavon. La geodesia y la investigación científica en la Francia del siglo XIX : la medida del arco de meridiano franco-argelino (1870–1895). Revista Colombiana de Sociología, 2004, Estudios sociales de la ciencia y la tecnologia, 23, pp. 11–30.
  83. ^ "c à Paris; vitesse de la lumière ..." expositions.obspm.fr. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  84. ^ Jouffroy, Achille de (1785-1859) Auteur du texte (1852–1853). Dictionnaire des inventions et découvertes anciennes et modernes, dans les sciences, les arts et l'industrie.... 2. H–Z / recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le marquis de Jouffroy; publié par l'abbé Migne,... p. 419.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ Yokoyama, Koichi; Manabe, Seiji; Sakai, Satoshi (2000). "History of the International Polar Motion Service/International Latitude Service". International Astronomical Union Colloquium. 178: 147–162. doi:10.1017/S0252921100061285. ISSN 0252-9211.
  86. ^ "Polar motion | Earth's axis, wobble, precession | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  87. ^ a b c Torge, Wolfgang (2016). Rizos, Chris; Willis, Pascal (eds.). "From a Regional Project to an International Organization: The "Baeyer-Helmert-Era" of the International Association of Geodesy 1862–1916". IAG 150 Years. International Association of Geodesy Symposia. 143. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 3–18. doi:10.1007/1345_2015_42. ISBN 978-3-319-30895-1.
  88. ^ Levallois, J. J. (1 September 1980). "Notice historique". Bulletin géodésique (in French). 54 (3): 248–313. Bibcode:1980BGeod..54..248L. doi:10.1007/BF02521470. ISSN 1432-1394. S2CID 198204435.
  89. ^ Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek (1892). "Exposé historique des travaux de la commission géodésique suisse de 1862 à 1892". Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel (in French). 21: 33. doi:10.5169/seals-88335. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
  90. ^ a b c Quinn, Terry (2019). "Wilhelm Foerster's Role in the Metre Convention of 1875 and in the Early Years of the International Committee for Weights and Measures". Annalen der Physik. 531 (5): 2. Bibcode:2019AnP...53100355Q. doi:10.1002/andp.201800355. ISSN 1521-3889. S2CID 125240402.
  91. ^ Drewes, Hermann; Kuglitsch, Franz; Adám, József; Rózsa, Szabolcs (2016). "The Geodesist's Handbook 2016". Journal of Geodesy. 90 (10): 914. Bibcode:2016JGeod..90..907D. doi:10.1007/s00190-016-0948-z. ISSN 0949-7714. S2CID 125925505.
  92. ^ "Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundespräsidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements, J. J. Scherer in Erwin Bucher, Peter Stalder (ed.), Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland, vol. 3, doc. 66, dodis.ch/42045, Bern 1986". Dodis. 30 March 1875.
  93. ^ a b Wolf, M. C (1882). Recherches historiques sur les étalons de poids et mesures de l'observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire (in French). Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 7–8, 20, 32. OCLC 16069502.
  94. ^ Bigourdan 1901, pp. 8, 158–159, 176–177.
  95. ^ NIST Special Publication. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1966. p. 529.
  96. ^ "Borda et le système métrique". Association Mesure Lab (in French). Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  97. ^ Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek (1892). "Exposé historique des travaux de la commission géodésique suisse de 1862 à 1892". Bulletin de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchâtel (in German). 21: 33. doi:10.5169/seals-88335. Retrieved 29 August 2023.
  98. ^ Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion pública de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira, Madrid, Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D.E. Aguado, 1881, p. 78
  99. ^ a b "Metric Act of 1866 – US Metric Association". usma.org. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
  100. ^ Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (1 April 1840). "Über das preufs. Längenmaaß und die zu seiner Verbreitung durch Copien ergriffenen Maaßregeln". Astronomische Nachrichten. 17 (13): 193. Bibcode:1840AN.....17..193B. doi:10.1002/asna.18400171302. ISSN 0004-6337.
  101. ^ Britain, Great (1824). The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
  102. ^ a b Guillaume, Ed. (1 January 1916). "Le Systeme Metrique est-il en Peril?". L'Astronomie. 30: 244–245. Bibcode:1916LAstr..30..242G. ISSN 0004-6302.
  103. ^ a b Crease, Robert P. (1 December 2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce and the first absolute measurement standard". Physics Today. 62 (12): 39–44. Bibcode:2009PhT....62l..39C. doi:10.1063/1.3273015. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 121338356.
  104. ^ a b Hirsch, Adolphe (1891). "Don Carlos Ibanez (1825–1891)" (PDF). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. pp. 4, 8. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  105. ^ "BIPM – International Metre Commission". www.bipm.org. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  106. ^ a b "A Note on the History of the IAG". IAG Homepage. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  107. ^ Ross, Clarke Alexander; James, Henry (1 January 1873). "XIII. Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, Austria, Spain, United States, Cape of Good Hope, and of a second Russian standard, made at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 163: 445–469. doi:10.1098/rstl.1873.0014.
  108. ^ Brunner, Jean (1857). "Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences / publiés... par MM. les secrétaires perpétuels". Gallica (in French). pp. 150–153. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
  109. ^ Guillaume, Charles-Édouard (1927). La Création du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures et son Œuvre [The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and its work]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. p. 321.
  110. ^ a b National Institute of Standards and Technology 2003; Historical context of the SI: Unit of length (meter)
  111. ^ Dodis, Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz | Documents diplomatiques suisses | Documenti diplomatici svizzeri | Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland | (30 March 1875), Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundespräsidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements, J. J. Scherer (in French), Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz | Documents diplomatiques suisses | Documenti diplomatici svizzeri | Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland | Dodis, retrieved 20 September 2021
  112. ^ "BIPM – la définition du mètre". www.bipm.org. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
  113. ^ "Dr. C. E. Guillaume". Nature. 134 (3397): 874. 1 December 1934. Bibcode:1934Natur.134R.874.. doi:10.1038/134874b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4140694.
  114. ^ Guillaume, C.-H.-Ed (1 January 1906). "La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques". Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée. 5: 242–263. doi:10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200.
  115. ^ Huet, Sylvestre. "Einstein, le révolutionnaire de la lumière". Libération (in French). Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  116. ^ Ferreiro, Larrie D. (31 May 2011). Measure of the Earth: The Enlightenment Expedition That Reshaped Our World. Basic Books. pp. 19–23. ISBN 978-0-465-02345-5.
  117. ^ Stephen Hawking, Paris, Dunod, 2003, 2014, 929 p., p. 816–817
  118. ^ Maxwell, James Clerk (1873). A Treatise On Electricity and Magnetism. Vol. 1. London: MacMillan and Co. p. 3.
  119. ^ Lenzen, Victor F. (1965). "The Contributions of Charles S. Peirce to Metrology". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 109 (1): 29–46. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 985776.
  120. ^ Marion, Jerry B. (1982). Physics For Science and Engineering. CBS College Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-4-8337-0098-6.
  121. ^ a b "17th General Conference on Weights and Measures (1983), Resolution 1". Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  122. ^ BIPM (20 May 2019). "Mise en pratique for the definition of the meter in the SI". BIPM.
  123. ^ The exact value is 299792458 m/s = 1079252848.8 km/h.
  124. ^ a b c "Iodine (λ ≈ 633 nm)" (PDF). Mise en Pratique. BIPM. 2003. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
  125. ^ The term "relative standard uncertainty" is explained by NIST on their web site: "Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty". The NIST Reference on constants, units, and uncertainties: Fundamental physical constants. NIST. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  126. ^ National Research Council 2010.
  127. ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology 2011.
  128. ^ a b A more detailed listing of errors can be found in Beers, John S; Penzes, William B (December 1992). "§4 Re-evaluation of measurement errors" (PDF). NIST length scale interferometer measurement assurance; NIST document NISTIR 4998. pp. 9 ff. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  129. ^ The formulas used in the calculator and the documentation behind them are found at "Engineering metrology toolbox: Refractive index of air calculator". NIST. 23 September 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2011. The choice is offered to use either the modified Edlén equation or the Ciddor equation. The documentation provides a discussion of how to choose between the two possibilities.
  130. ^ "§VI: Uncertainty and range of validity". Engineering metrology toolbox: Refractive index of air calculator. NIST. 23 September 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
  131. ^ Dunning, F. B.; Hulet, Randall G. (1997). "Physical limits on accuracy and resolution: setting the scale". Atomic, molecular, and optical physics: electromagnetic radiation, Volume 29, Part 3. Academic Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-12-475977-0. The error [introduced by using air] can be reduced tenfold if the chamber is filled with an atmosphere of helium rather than air.
  132. ^ "Recommended values of standard frequencies". BIPM. 9 September 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
  133. ^ National Physical Laboratory 2010.
  134. ^ The BIPM maintains a list of recommended radiations on their web site.[132][133]
  135. ^ a b Zagar, 1999, pp. 6–65ff.
  136. ^ Bigourdan1901, pp. 20–21.
  137. ^ Wolf, Charles (1827–1918) Auteur du texte (1882). Recherches historiques sur les étalons de poids et mesures de l'Observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi à les construire / par M. C. Wolf... (in French). pp. C.38–39, C.2–4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  138. ^ a b c "Histoire du mètre". Direction Générale des Entreprises (DGE) (in French). Retrieved 16 May 2019.
  139. ^ "CGPM : Compte rendus de la 1ère réunion (1889)" (PDF). BIPM.
  140. ^ "CGPM : Comptes rendus de le 7e réunion (1927)" (PDF). p. 49.
  141. ^ Judson 1976.
  142. ^ Taylor and Thompson (2008a), Appendix 1, p. 70.
  143. ^ "Meter is Redefined". US: National Geographic Society. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  144. ^ Taylor and Thompson (2008a), Appendix 1, p. 77.
  145. ^ Cardarelli 2003.
  146. ^ Definition of the metre Resolution 1 of the 17th meeting of the CGPM (1983)
  147. ^ "Metrisches System". hls-dhs-dss.ch (in German). Retrieved 15 December 2021.
  148. ^ "Kartografie". hls-dhs-dss.ch (in German). Retrieved 13 December 2021.
  149. ^ Dufour, G.-H. (1861). "Notice sur la carte de la Suisse dressée par l'État Major Fédéral". Le Globe. Revue genevoise de géographie. 2 (1): 5–22. doi:10.3406/globe.1861.7582.
  150. ^ a b "Metrisches System". hls-dhs-dss.ch (in German). Retrieved 9 December 2021.
  151. ^ Taylor & Thompson 2003, p. 11.
  152. ^ Astin & Karo 1959.
  153. ^ Arnold Dieter (1991). Building in Egypt: pharaonic stone masonry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506350-9. p.251.
  154. ^ . Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  155. ^ The Penny Magazine of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Charles Knight. 6 June 1840. pp. 221–22.
  156. ^ Hallock, William; Wade, Herbert T (1906). "Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system". London: The Macmillan Company. pp. 66–69.
  157. ^ Cardarelli 2004.
  158. ^ Hofstad, Knut. "Mil". Store norske leksikon. Retrieved 18 October 2019.

References edit

  • Alder, Ken (2002). The Measure of All Things : The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-1675-3.
  • Astin, A. V. & Karo, H. Arnold, (1959), Refinement of values for the yard and the pound, Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards, republished on National Geodetic Survey web site and the Federal Register (Doc. 59–5442, Filed, 30 June 1959)
  • Judson, Lewis V. (1 October 1976) [1963]. Barbrow, Louis E. (ed.). Weights and Measures Standards of the United States, a brief history. Derived from a prior work by Louis A. Fisher (1905). US: US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. doi:10.6028/NBS.SP.447. LCCN 76-600055. NBS Special Publication 447; NIST SP 447; 003-003-01654-3.
  • Bigourdan, Guillaume (1901). Le système métrique des poids et mesures; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme [The metric system of weights and measures; its establishment and gradual propagation, with the history of the operations which served to determine the meter and the kilogram]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars.
  • Clarke, Alexander Ross; Helmert, Friedrich Robert (1911b). "Earth, Figure of the" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 801–813.
  • Guedj, Denis (2001). La Mesure du Monde [The Measure of the World]. Translated by Goldhammer, Art. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Cardarelli, François (2003). "Chapter 2: The International system of Units" (PDF). Encydopaedia of scientific units, weights, and measures: their SI equivalences and origins. Springer-Verlag London Limited. Table 2.1, p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85233-682-0. Retrieved 26 January 2017. Data from Giacomo, P., Du platine à la lumière [From platinum to light], Bull. Bur. Nat. Metrologie, 102 (1995) 5–14.
  • Cardarelli, F. (2004). Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measures: Their SI Equivalences and Origins (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 120–124. ISBN 1-85233-682-X.
  • Historical context of the SI: Meter. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
  • National Institute of Standards and Technology. (27 June 2011). NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock. Author.
  • National Physical Laboratory. (25 March 2010). Iodine-Stabilised Lasers. Author.
  • . National Research Council Canada. 5 February 2010. Archived from the original on 4 December 2011.
  • Republic of the Philippines. (2 December 1978). Batas Pambansa Blg. 8: An Act Defining the Metric System and its Units, Providing for its Implementation and for Other Purposes. Author.
  • Republic of the Philippines. (10 October 1991). Republic Act No. 7160: The Local Government Code of the Philippines. Author.
  • Supreme Court of the Philippines (Second Division). (20 January 2010). . Author.
  • Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (Eds.). (2008a). . United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Système International d' Unités (SI) (Special Publication 330). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
  • Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (2008b). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (Special Publication 811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
  • Turner, J. (deputy director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology). (16 May 2008). "Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States". Federal Register Vol. 73, No. 96, p. 28432–28433.
  • Zagar, B.G. (1999). Laser interferometer displacement sensors in J.G. Webster (ed.). The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8347-1.

May 03, 2024
metre, this, article, about, unit, length, other, uses, metre, meter, meter, disambiguation, metre, meter, spelling, symbol, base, unit, length, international, system, units, since, 2019, metre, been, defined, length, path, travelled, light, vacuum, during, ti. This article is about the unit of length For other uses of metre or meter see Meter disambiguation The metre or meter in US spelling symbol m is the base unit of length in the International System of Units SI Since 2019 the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 299792 458 of a second where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency of caesium 2 metreThe historical standard metre in ParisGeneral informationUnit systemSIUnit oflengthSymbolm 1 Conversions1 m 1 in is equal to SI units 1000 mm0 001 km Imperial US units 1 0936 yd 3 2808 ft 39 37 in Nautical units 0 000539 96 nmi The metre was originally defined in 1791 by the French National Assembly as one ten millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole along a great circle so the Earth s polar circumference is approximately 40000 km In 1799 the metre was redefined in terms of a prototype metre bar the bar used was changed in 1889 and in 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton 86 The current definition was adopted in 1983 and modified slightly in 2002 to clarify that the metre is a measure of proper length From 1983 until 2019 the metre was formally defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1 299792 458 of a second After the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units this definition was rephrased to include the definition of a second in terms of the caesium frequency DnCs This series of amendments did not alter the size of the metre significantly today Earth s polar circumference measures 40007 863 km a change of 0 022 from the original value of exactly 40000 km which also includes improvements in the accuracy of measuring the circumference Contents 1 Spelling 2 Etymology 3 History of definition 3 1 Universal measure the metre linked to the figure of the Earth 3 1 1 Meridional definition 3 1 2 Early adoption of the metre as a scientific unit of length the forerunners 3 1 3 International prototype metre bar 3 2 Metrology and paradigm shift in physics 3 2 1 Wavelength definition 3 2 2 Speed of light definition 3 3 Timeline 4 Early adoptions of the metre internationally 4 1 Adoption dates by country 5 SI prefixed forms of metre 6 Equivalents in other units 7 See also 8 Notes 9 ReferencesSpelling edit nbsp Seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures BIPM Use measure Greek METRW XRW Metre is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English speaking nations the exceptions being the United States 3 4 5 6 and the Philippines 7 which use meter Measuring devices such as ammeter speedometer are spelled meter in all variants of English 8 The suffix meter has the same Greek origin as the unit of length 9 10 Etymology editThe etymological roots of metre can be traced to the Greek verb metrew metreo I measure count or compare 11 and noun metron metron a measure 12 which were used for physical measurement for poetic metre and by extension for moderation or avoiding extremism as in be measured in your response This range of uses is also found in Latin metior mensura French metre mesure English and other languages The Greek word is derived from the Proto Indo European root meh to measure The motto METRW XRW metro chro in the seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures BIPM which was a saying of the Greek statesman and philosopher Pittacus of Mytilene and may be translated as Use measure thus calls for both measurement and moderation citation needed The use of the word metre for the French unit metre in English began at least as early as 1797 13 History of definition editMain article History of the metre This section duplicates the scope of other articles specifically History of the metre Please discuss this issue and help introduce a summary style to the section by replacing the section with a link and a summary or by splitting the content into a new article August 2023 This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience Please help by removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia s inclusion policy September 2023 Learn how and when to remove this message Universal measure the metre linked to the figure of the Earth edit nbsp The Meridian room of the Paris Observatory or Cassini room the Paris meridian is drawn on the ground Galileo discovered gravitational acceleration to explain the fall of bodies at the surface of the Earth 14 He also observed the regularity of the period of swing of the pendulum and that this period depended on the length of the pendulum 15 Kepler s laws of planetary motion served both to the discovery of Newton s law of universal gravitation and to the determination of the distance from Earth to the Sun by Giovanni Domenico Cassini 16 17 They both also used a determination of the size of the Earth then considered as a sphere by Jean Picard through triangulation of Paris meridian 18 19 In 1671 Jean Picard also measured the length of a seconds pendulum at Paris Observatory and proposed this unit of measurement to be called the astronomical radius French Rayon Astronomique 20 21 In 1675 Tito Livio Burattini suggested the term metro cattolico meaning universal measure for this unit of length but then it was discovered that the length of a seconds pendulum varies from place to place 22 23 24 25 nbsp Gravimeter with variant of Repsold Bessel pendulum Christiaan Huygens found out the centrifugal force which explained variations of gravitational acceleration depending on latitude 26 27 He also mathematically formulated the link between the length of the simple pendulum and gravitational acceleration 28 According to Alexis Clairaut the study of variations in gravitational acceleration was a way to determine the figure of the Earth whose crucial parameter was the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid In the 18th century in addition of its significance for cartography geodesy grew in importance as a means of empirically demonstrating the theory of gravity which Emilie du Chatelet promoted in France in combination with Leibniz s mathematical work and because the radius of the Earth was the unit to which all celestial distances were to be referred Indeed Earth proved to be an oblate spheroid through geodetic surveys in Ecuador and Lapland and this new data called into question the value of Earth radius as Picard had calculated it 28 29 30 22 19 After the Anglo French Survey the French Academy of Sciences commissioned an expedition led by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Mechain lasting from 1792 to 1798 which measured the distance between a belfry in Dunkirk and Montjuic castle in Barcelona at the longitude of the Paris Pantheon When the length of the metre was defined as one ten millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid was assumed to be 1 334 31 32 19 33 34 35 In 1841 Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel using the method of least squares calculated from several arc measurements a new value for the flattening of the Earth which he determinated as 1 299 15 36 37 38 He also devised a new instrument for measuring gravitational acceleration which was first used in Switzerland by Emile Plantamour Charles Sanders Peirce and Isaac Charles Elisee Cellerier 8 01 1818 2 10 1889 a Genevan mathematician soon independently discovered a mathematical formula to correct systematic errors of this device which had been noticed by Plantamour and Adolphe Hirsch 39 40 This allowed Friedrich Robert Helmert to determine a remarkably accurate value of 1 298 3 for the flattening of the Earth when he proposed his ellipsoid of reference in 1901 41 This was also the result of the Metre Convention of 1875 when the metre was adopted as an international scientific unit of length for the convenience of continental European geodesists following the example of Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler 42 43 44 45 46 47 Meridional definition edit In 1790 one year before it was ultimately decided that the metre would be based on the Earth quadrant a quarter of the Earth s circumference through its poles Talleyrand proposed that the metre be the length of the seconds pendulum at a latitude of 45 This option with one third of this length defining the foot was also considered by Thomas Jefferson and others for redefining the yard in the United States shortly after gaining independence from the British Crown 48 49 Instead of the seconds pendulum method the commission of the French Academy of Sciences whose members included Borda Lagrange Laplace Monge and Condorcet decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator determined through measurements along the meridian passing through Paris Apart from the obvious consideration of safe access for French surveyors the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for scientific reasons a portion of the quadrant from Dunkirk to Barcelona about 1000 km or one tenth of the total could be surveyed with start and end points at sea level and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant where the effects of the Earth s oblateness were expected not to have to be accounted for Improvements in the measuring devices designed by Borda and used for this survey also raised hopes for a more accurate determination of the length of this meridian arc 50 51 52 53 35 The task of surveying the Paris meridian arc took more than six years 1792 1798 The technical difficulties were not the only problems the surveyors had to face in the convulsed period of the aftermath of the French Revolution Mechain and Delambre and later Arago were imprisoned several times during their surveys and Mechain died in 1804 of yellow fever which he contracted while trying to improve his original results in northern Spain In the meantime the commission of the French Academy of Sciences calculated a provisional value from older surveys of 443 44 lignes This value was set by legislation on 7 April 1795 50 51 53 54 55 In 1799 a commission including Johan Georg Tralles Jean Henri van Swinden Adrien Marie Legendre and Jean Baptiste Delambre calculated the distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona using the data of the triangulation between these two towns and determined the portion of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator it represented Pierre Mechain s and Jean Baptiste Delambre s measurements were combined with the results of the Spanish French geodetic mission and a value of 1 334 was found for the Earth s flattening However French astronomers knew from earlier estimates of the Earth s flattening that different meridian arcs could have different lengths and that their curvature could be irregular The distance from the North Pole to the Equator was then extrapolated from the measurement of the Paris meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona and was determined as 5 130 740 toises As the metre had to be equal to one ten millionth of this distance it was defined as 0 513074 toise or 3 feet and 11 296 lines of the Toise of Peru which had been constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator When the final result was known a bar whose length was closest to the meridional definition of the metre was selected and placed in the National Archives on 22 June 1799 4 messidor An VII in the Republican calendar as a permanent record of the result 56 19 50 53 57 58 59 Early adoption of the metre as a scientific unit of length the forerunners edit nbsp Triangulation near New York City 1817 In 1816 Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was appointed first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast Trained in geodesy in Switzerland France and Germany Hassler had brought a standard metre made in Paris to the United States in 1805 He designed a baseline apparatus which instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during measurements used only one bar calibrated on the metre and optical contact Thus the metre became the unit of length for geodesy in the United States 60 61 46 In 1830 Hassler became head of the Office of Weights and Measures which became a part of the Survey of the Coast He compared various units of length used in the United States at that time and measured coefficients of expansion to assess temperature effects on the measurements 62 In 1832 Carl Friedrich Gauss studied the Earth s magnetic field and proposed adding the second to the basic units of the metre and the kilogram in the form of the CGS system centimetre gram second In 1836 he founded the Magnetischer Verein the first international scientific association in collaboration with Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm Edouard Weber The coordination of the observation of geophysical phenomena such as the Earth s magnetic field lightning and gravity in different points of the globe stimulated the creation of the first international scientific associations The foundation of the Magnetischer Verein would be followed by that of the Central European Arc Measurement German Mitteleuropaische Gradmessung on the initiative of Johann Jacob Baeyer in 1863 and by that of the International Meteorological Organisation whose president the Swiss meteorologist and physicist Heinrich von Wild would represent Russia at the International Committee for Weights and Measures CIPM 58 41 63 64 65 66 In 1834 Hassler measured at Fire Island the first baseline of the Survey of the Coast shortly before Louis Puissant declared to the French Academy of Sciences in 1836 that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Mechain had made errors in the meridian arc measurement which had been used to determine the length of the metre Errors in the method of calculating the length of the Paris meridian were taken into account by Bessel when he proposed his reference ellipsoid in 1841 67 68 69 37 38 nbsp Ibanez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish Standard and used at Aarberg in canton of Bern Switzerland Egyptian astronomy has ancient roots which were revived in the 19th century by the modernist impetus of Muhammad Ali who founded in Sabtieh Boulaq district in Cairo an Observatory which he was keen to keep in harmony with the progress of this science still in progress In 1858 a Technical Commission was set up to continue by adopting the procedures instituted in Europe the cadastre work inaugurated under Muhammad Ali This Commission suggested to Viceroy Mohammed Sa id Pasha the idea of buying geodetic devices which were ordered in France While Mahmud Ahmad Hamdi al Falaki was in charge in Egypt of the direction of the work of the general map the viceroy entrusted to Ismail Mustafa al Falaki the study in Europe of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure the geodesic bases and already built by Jean Brunner in Paris Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard In addition the Spanish standard had been compared with Borda s double toise N 1 which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France and was also to be compared to the Ibanez apparatus In 1954 the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Geodetic Arc with an arc running northwards from South Africa through Egypt would bring the course of a major meridian arc back to land where Eratosthenes had founded geodesy 70 71 72 73 74 nbsp West Europe Africa Meridian arc a meridian arc extending from the Shetland Islands through Great Britain France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria whose parameters were calculated from surveys carried out in the mid to late 19th century It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth a 6 377 935 metres the ellipticity being assumed as 1 299 15 The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform being in the mean about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part Greenwich meridian is depicted rather than Paris meridian Seventeen years after Bessel calculated his ellipsoid of reference some of the meridian arcs the German astronomer had used for his calculation had been enlarged This was a very important circumstance because the influence of errors due to vertical deflections was minimized in proportion to the length of the meridian arcs the longer the meridian arcs the more precise the image of the Earth ellipsoid would be 36 After Struve Geodetic Arc measurement it was resolved in the 1860s at the initiative of Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero who would become the first president of both the International Geodetic Association and the International Committee for Weights and Measure to remeasure the arc of meridian from Dunkirk to Formentera and to extend it from Shetland to the Sahara 75 76 77 74 This did not pave the way to a new definition of the metre because it was known that the theoretical definition of the metre had been inaccessible and misleading at the time of Delambre and Mechain arc measurement as the geoid is a ball which on the whole can be assimilated to an oblate spheroid but which in detail differs from it so as to prohibit any generalization and any extrapolation from the measurement of a single meridian arc 34 In 1859 Friedrich von Schubert demonstrated that several meridians had not the same length confirming an hypothesis of Jean Le Rond d Alembert He also proposed an ellipsoid with three unequal axes 78 79 In 1860 Elie Ritter a mathematician from Geneva using Schubert s data computed that the Earth ellipsoid could rather be a spheroid of revolution accordingly to Adrien Marie Legendre s model 80 However the following year resuming his calculation on the basis of all the data available at the time Ritter came to the conclusion that the problem was only resolved in an approximate manner the data appearing too scant and for some affected by vertical deflections in particular the latitude of Montjuic in the French meridian arc which determination had also been affected in a lesser proportion by systematic errors of the repeating circle 81 82 34 The definition of the length of a metre in the 1790s was founded upon Arc measurements in France and Peru with a definition that it was to be 1 40 millionth of the circumference of the earth measured through the poles Such were the inaccuracies of that period that within a matter of just a few years more reliable measurements would have given a different value for the definition of this international standard That does not invalidate the metre in any way but highlights the fact that continuing improvements in instrumentation made better measurements of the earth s size possible Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST p 40 nbsp Struve Geodetic Arc It was well known that by measuring the latitude of two stations in Barcelona Mechain had found that the difference between these latitudes was greater than predicted by direct measurement of distance by triangulation and that he did not dare to admit this inaccuracy 83 84 54 This was later explained by clearance in the central axis of the repeating circle causing wear and consequently the zenith measurements contained significant systematic errors 82 Polar motion predicted by Leonard Euler and later discovered by Seth Carlo Chandler also had an impact on accuracy of latitudes determinations 85 28 86 87 Among all these sources of error it was mainly an unfavourable vertical deflection that gave an inaccurate determination of Barcelona s latitude and a metre too short compared to a more general definition taken from the average of a large number of arcs 34 As early as 1861 Johann Jacob Baeyer sent a memorandum to the King of Prussia recommending international collaboration in Central Europe with the aim of determining the shape and dimensions of the Earth At the time of its creation the association had sixteen member countries Austrian Empire Kingdom of Belgium Denmark seven German states Grand Duchy of Baden Kingdom of Bavaria Kingdom of Hanover Mecklenburg Kingdom of Prussia Kingdom of Saxony Saxe Coburg and Gotha Kingdom of Italy Netherlands Russian Empire for Poland United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway as well as Switzerland The Central European Arc Measurement created a Central Office located at the Prussian Geodetic Institute whose management was entrusted to Johann Jacob Baeyer 88 87 Baeyer s goal was a new determination of anomalies in the shape of the Earth using precise triangulations combined with gravity measurements This involved determining the geoid by means of gravimetric and leveling measurements in order to deduce the exact knowledge of the terrestrial spheroid while taking into account local variations To resolve this problem it was necessary to carefully study considerable areas of land in all directions Baeyer developed a plan to coordinate geodetic surveys in the space between the parallels of Palermo and Freetown Christiana Denmark and the meridians of Bonn and Trunz German name for Milejewo in Poland This territory was covered by a triangle network and included more than thirty observatories or stations whose position was determined astronomically Bayer proposed to remeasure ten arcs of meridians and a larger number of arcs of parallels to compare the curvature of the meridian arcs on the two slopes of the Alps in order to determine the influence of this mountain range on vertical deflection Baeyer also planned to determine the curvature of the seas the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea in the south the North Sea and the Baltic Sea in the north In his mind the cooperation of all the States of Central Europe could open the field to scientific research of the highest interest research that each State taken in isolation was not able to undertake 89 90 Spain and Portugal joined the European Arc Measurement in 1866 French Empire hesitated for a long time before giving in to the demands of the Association which asked the French geodesists to take part in its work It was only after the Franco Prussian War that Charles Eugene Delaunay represented France at the Congress of Vienna in 1871 In 1874 Herve Faye was appointed member of the Permanent Commission which was presided by Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero 68 91 77 47 The International Geodetic Association gained global importance with the accession of Chile Mexico and Japan in 1888 Argentina and United States in 1889 and British Empire in 1898 The convention of the International Geodetic Association expired at the end of 1916 It was not renewed due to the First World War However the activities of the International Latitude Service were continued through an Association Geodesique reduite entre Etats neutre thanks to the efforts of H G van de Sande Bakhuyzen and Raoul Gautier 1854 1931 respectively directors of Leiden Observatory and Geneva Observatory 74 87 International prototype metre bar edit nbsp Closeup of National Prototype Metre Bar No 27 made in 1889 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures BIPM in collaboration with Johnson Mattey and given to the United States which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter an authentic copy of the Metre des Archives produced in 1799 in Paris which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought to the United States in 1805 After the French Revolution Napoleonic Wars led to the adoption of the metre in Latin America following independence of Brazil and Hispanic America while the American Revolution prompted the foundation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830 In continental Europe Napoleonic Wars fostered German nationalism which later led to unification of Germany in 1871 Meanwhile most European countries had adopted the metre In the 1870s German Empire played a pivotal role in the unification of the metric system through the European Arc Measurement but its overwhelming influence was mitigated by that of neutral states While the German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster director of the Berlin Observatory and director of the German Weights and Measures Service boycotted the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission along with the Russian and Austrian representatives in order to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures the German born Swiss astronomer Adolphe Hirsch conformed to the opinion of Italy and Spain to create in spite of French reluctance the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadventage of the Conservatoire national des Arts et Metiers 90 65 92 At that time units of measurement were defined by primary standards and unique artifacts made of different alloys with distinct coefficients of expansion were the legal basis of units of length A wrought iron ruler the Toise of Peru also called Toise de l Academie was the French primary standard of the toise and the metre was officially defined by an artifact made of platinum kept in the National Archives Besides the latter another platinum and twelve iron standards of the metre were made by Etienne Lenoir in 1799 One of them became known as the Committee Meter in the United States and served as standard of length in the United States Coast Survey until 1890 According to geodesists these standards were secondary standards deduced from the Toise of Peru In Europe except Spain surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru Among these the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in Prussia and in France These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take thermal expansion into account without measuring the temperature A French scientific instrument maker Jean Nicolas Fortin had made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru one for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve a second for Heinrich Christian Schumacher in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Bessel in 1823 In 1831 Henri Prudence Gambey also realized a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at Altona Observatory 93 94 66 56 95 96 37 46 42 nbsp Historic Dutch replicas of metric standards in the collection of Rijksmuseum Amsterdam iron metre with case constructed by Etienne Lenoir in 1799 copper grave kilogram with case 1798 copper volume measures 1829 In the second half of the 19th century the creation of the International Geodetic Association would mark the adoption of new scientific methods 97 It then became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the electrical telegraph Furthermore advances in metrology combined with those of gravimetry have led to a new era of geodesy If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the gravitational acceleration by means of pendulum 98 56 In 1866 the most important concern was that the Toise of Peru the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to Altona and Koenigsberg Observatories which he had compared to each other about 1840 This assertion was particularly worrying because when the primary Imperial yard standard had partially been destroyed in 1834 a new standard of reference was constructed using copies of the Standard Yard 1760 instead of the pendulum s length as provided for in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 because the pendulum method proved unreliable Nevertheless Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler s use of the metre and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures as an office within the Coast Survey contributed to the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States and preceded the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the European Arc Measurement German Europaische Gradmessung to establish a European international bureau for weights and measures 93 99 47 90 56 100 101 102 103 nbsp Creating the metre alloy in 1874 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers Present Henri Tresca George Matthey Saint Claire Deville and Debray In 1867 at the second General Conference of the International Association of Geodesy held in Berlin the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth 104 105 106 According to a preliminary proposal made in Neuchatel the precedent year the General Conference recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise of Bessel the creation of an International Metre Commission and the foundation of a World institute for the comparison of geodetic standards the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures 107 104 106 108 109 Hassler s metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia 62 61 In 1869 the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve Heinrich von Wild and Moritz von Jacobi whose theorem has long supported the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes for the figure of the Earth inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work 102 22 In the 1870s and in light of modern precision a series of international conferences was held to devise new metric standards When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre alloy of 1874 a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and Spanish representative at the Paris Conference in 1875 Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero intervened with the French Academy of Sciences to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the metric system according to the progress of sciences 110 43 66 111 The Metre Convention Convention du Metre of 1875 mandated the establishment of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Mesures to be located in Sevres France This new organisation was to construct and preserve a prototype metre bar distribute national metric prototypes and maintain comparisons between them and non metric measurement standards The organisation distributed such bars in 1889 at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures CGPM Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures establishing the International Prototype Metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar composed of an alloy of 90 platinum and 10 iridium measured at the melting point of ice 110 Metrology and paradigm shift in physics edit nbsp Invar wire baseline apparatus The comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale The BIPM s thermometry work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron nickel in particular invar whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods and for which its director the Swiss physicist Charles Edouard Guillaume was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920 Guillaume s Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which metrology was leaving the field of geodesy to become a technological application of physics 112 113 114 In 1921 the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to another Swiss scientist Albert Einstein who following Michelson Morley experiment had questioned the luminiferous aether in 1905 just as Newton had questioned Descartes Vortex theory in 1687 after Jean Richer s pendulum experiment in Cayenne French Guiana 115 116 18 22 Furthermore special relativity changed conceptions of time and mass while general relativity changed that of space According to Newton space was Euclidean infinite and without boundaries and bodies gravitated around each other without changing the structure of space Einstein s theory of gravity states on the contrary that the mass of a body has an effect on all other bodies while modifying the structure of space A massive body induces a curvature of the space around it in which the path of light is inflected as was demonstrated by the displacement of the position of a star observed near the Sun during an eclipse in 1919 117 Wavelength definition edit In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell suggested that light emitted by an element be used as the standard both for the unit of length and for the second These two quantities could then be used to define the unit of mass 118 About the unit of length he wrote In the present state of science the most universal standard of length which we could assume would be the wave length in vacuum of a particular kind of light emitted by some widely diffused substance such as sodium which has well defined lines in its spectrum Such a standard would be independent of any changes in the dimensions of the earth and should be adopted by those who expect their writings to be more permanent than that body James Clerk Maxwell A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism 3rd edition Vol 1 p 3 Charles Sanders Peirce s work promoted the advent of American science at the forefront of global metrology Alongside his intercomparisons of artifacts of the metre and contributions to gravimetry through improvement of reversible pendulum Peirce was the first to tie experimentally the metre to the wave length of a spectral line According to him the standard length might be compared with that of a wave of light identified by a line in the solar spectrum Albert Michelson soon took up the idea and improved it 103 119 In 1893 the standard metre was first measured with an interferometer by Albert A Michelson the inventor of the device and an advocate of using some particular wavelength of light as a standard of length By 1925 interferometry was in regular use at the BIPM However the International Prototype Metre remained the standard until 1960 when the eleventh CGPM defined the metre in the new International System of Units SI as equal to 1650 763 73 wavelengths of the orange red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton 86 atom in vacuum 120 Speed of light definition edit To further reduce uncertainty the 17th CGPM in 1983 replaced the definition of the metre with its current definition thus fixing the length of the metre in terms of the second and the speed of light 121 122 The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 299 792 458 of a second dd This definition fixed the speed of light in vacuum at exactly 299792 458 metres per second 121 300000 km s or 1 079 billion km hour 123 An intended by product of the 17th CGPM s definition was that it enabled scientists to compare lasers accurately using frequency resulting in wavelengths with one fifth the uncertainty involved in the direct comparison of wavelengths because interferometer errors were eliminated To further facilitate reproducibility from lab to lab the 17th CGPM also made the iodine stabilised helium neon laser a recommended radiation for realising the metre 124 For the purpose of delineating the metre the BIPM currently considers the HeNe laser wavelength lHeNe to be 632 991212 58 nm with an estimated relative standard uncertainty U of 2 1 10 11 124 125 126 This uncertainty is currently one limiting factor in laboratory realisations of the metre and it is several orders of magnitude poorer than that of the second based upon the caesium fountain atomic clock U 5 10 16 127 Consequently a realisation of the metre is usually delineated not defined today in labs as 1579 800 762042 33 wavelengths of helium neon laser light in vacuum the error stated being only that of frequency determination 124 This bracket notation expressing the error is explained in the article on measurement uncertainty Practical realisation of the metre is subject to uncertainties in characterising the medium to various uncertainties of interferometry and to uncertainties in measuring the frequency of the source 128 A commonly used medium is air and the National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST has set up an online calculator to convert wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air 129 As described by NIST in air the uncertainties in characterising the medium are dominated by errors in measuring temperature and pressure Errors in the theoretical formulas used are secondary 130 By implementing a refractive index correction such as this an approximate realisation of the metre can be implemented in air for example using the formulation of the metre as 1579 800 762042 33 wavelengths of helium neon laser light in vacuum and converting the wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air Air is only one possible medium to use in a realisation of the metre and any partial vacuum can be used or some inert atmosphere like helium gas provided the appropriate corrections for refractive index are implemented 131 The metre is defined as the path length travelled by light in a given time and practical laboratory length measurements in metres are determined by counting the number of wavelengths of laser light of one of the standard types that fit into the length 134 and converting the selected unit of wavelength to metres Three major factors limit the accuracy attainable with laser interferometers for a length measurement 128 135 uncertainty in vacuum wavelength of the source uncertainty in the refractive index of the medium least count resolution of the interferometer Of these the last is peculiar to the interferometer itself The conversion of a length in wavelengths to a length in metres is based upon the relation l c n f displaystyle lambda frac c nf nbsp which converts the unit of wavelength l to metres using c the speed of light in vacuum in m s Here n is the refractive index of the medium in which the measurement is made and f is the measured frequency of the source Although conversion from wavelengths to metres introduces an additional error in the overall length due to measurement error in determining the refractive index and the frequency the measurement of frequency is one of the most accurate measurements available 135 The CIPM issued a clarification in 2002 Its definition therefore applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored note that at the surface of the Earth this effect in the vertical direction is about 1 part in 1016 per metre In this case the effects to be taken into account are those of special relativity only Timeline edit Date Deciding body Decision 8 May 1790 French National Assembly The length of the new metre to be equal to the length of a pendulum with a half period of one second 50 30 Mar 1791 French National Assembly Accepts the proposal by the French Academy of Sciences that the new definition for the metre be equal to one ten millionth of the length of a great circle quadrant along the Earth s meridian through Paris that is the distance from the equator to the north pole along that quadrant 136 1795 Provisional metre bar made of brass and based on Paris meridan arc French Meridienne de France measured by Nicolas Louis de Lacaillle and Cesar Francois Cassini de Thury legally equal to 443 44 lines of the toise du Perou a standard French unit of length from 1766 50 19 137 138 The line was 1 864 of a toise 10 Dec 1799 French National Assembly Specifies the platinum metre bar presented on 22 June 1799 and deposited in the National Archives as the final standard Legally equal to 443 296 lines on the toise du Perou 138 24 28 Sept 1889 1st General Conference on Weights and Measures CGPM Defines the metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of platinum with 10 iridium measured at the melting point of ice 138 139 27 Sept 6 Oct 1927 7th CGPM Redefines the metre as the distance at 0 C 273 K between the axes of the two central lines marked on the prototype bar of platinum iridium this bar being subject to one standard atmosphere of pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least 10 mm 1 cm diameter symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm 57 1 cm from each other 140 14 Oct 1960 11th CGPM Defines the metre as 1650 763 73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton 86 atom 141 21 Oct 1983 17th CGPM Defines the metre as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 299 792 458 of a second 142 143 2002 International Committee for Weights and Measures CIPM Considers the metre to be a unit of proper length and thus recommends this definition be restricted to lengths ℓ which are sufficiently short for the effects predicted by general relativity to be negligible with respect to the uncertainties of realisation 144 Definitions of the metre since 1795 145 Basis of definition Date Absoluteuncertainty Relativeuncertainty 1 10000 000 part of the quadrant along the meridian measurement by Delambre and Mechain 443 296 lines 1795 500 100 mm 10 4 First prototype Metre des Archives platinum bar standard 1799 50 10 mm 10 5 Platinum iridium bar at melting point of ice 1st CGPM 1889 0 2 0 1 mm 10 7 Platinum iridium bar at melting point of ice atmospheric pressure supported by two rollers 7th CGPM 1927 n a n a Hyperfine atomic transition 1650 763 73 wavelengths of light from a specified transition in krypton 86 11th CGPM 1960 4 nm 4 10 9 146 Length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in 1 299792 458 second 17th CGPM 1983 0 1 nm 10 10Early adoptions of the metre internationally editMain article Metrication In France the metre was adopted as an exclusive measure in 1801 under the Consulate This continued under the First French Empire until 1812 when Napoleon decreed the introduction of the non decimal mesures usuelles which remained in use in France up to 1840 in the reign of Louis Philippe 50 Meanwhile the metre was adopted by the Republic of Geneva 147 After the joining of the canton of Geneva to Switzerland in 1815 Guillaume Henri Dufour published the first official Swiss map for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length 148 149 Adoption dates by country edit France 1801 1812 then 1840 50 Republic of Geneva Switzerland 1813 150 Kingdom of the Netherlands 1820 Kingdom of Belgium 1830 Chile 1848 Kingdom of Sardinia Italy 1850 Spain 1852 Portugal 1852 Colombia 1853 Ecuador 1856 Mexico 1857 Brazil 1862 Argentina 1863 Italy 1863 United States 1866 99 German Empire Germany 1872 Austria 1875 Switzerland 1877 150 SI prefixed forms of metre editMain article Orders of magnitude length SI prefixes can be used to denote decimal multiples and submultiples of the metre as shown in the table below Long distances are usually expressed in km astronomical units 149 6 Gm light years 10 Pm or parsecs 31 Pm rather than in Mm Gm Tm Pm Em Zm or Ym 30 cm 30 m and 300 m are more common than 3 dm 3 dam and 3 hm respectively The terms micron and millimicron have been used instead of micrometre mm and nanometre nm respectively but this practice is discouraged 151 SI multiples of metre m Submultiples Multiples Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name 10 1 m dm decimetre 101 m dam decametre 10 2 m cm centimetre 102 m hm hectometre 10 3 m mm millimetre 103 m km kilometre 10 6 m mm micrometre 106 m Mm megametre 10 9 m nm nanometre 109 m Gm gigametre 10 12 m pm picometre 1012 m Tm terametre 10 15 m fm femtometre 1015 m Pm petametre 10 18 m am attometre 1018 m Em exametre 10 21 m zm zeptometre 1021 m Zm zettametre 10 24 m ym yoctometre 1024 m Ym yottametre 10 27 m rm rontometre 1027 m Rm ronnametre 10 30 m qm quectometre 1030 m Qm quettametreEquivalents in other units editMetric unitexpressed in non SI units Non SI unitexpressed in metric units 1 metre 1 0936 yard 1 yard 0 9144 metre 1 metre 39 370 inches 1 inch 0 0254 metre 1 centimetre 0 39370 inch 1 inch 2 54 centimetres 1 millimetre 0 039370 inch 1 inch 25 4 millimetres 1 metre 1010 angstrom 1 angstrom 10 10 metre 1 nanometre 10 angstrom 1 angstrom 100 picometres Within this table inch and yard mean international inch and international yard 152 respectively though approximate conversions in the left column hold for both international and survey units means is approximately equal to means is exactly equal to One metre is exactly equivalent to 5 000 127 inches and to 1 250 1 143 yards A simple mnemonic to assist with conversion is three 3s 1 metre is nearly equivalent to 3 feet 3 3 8 inches This gives an overestimate of 0 125 mm The ancient Egyptian cubit was about 0 5 m surviving rods are 523 529 mm 153 Scottish and English definitions of the ell two cubits were 941 mm 0 941 m and 1143 mm 1 143 m respectively 154 155 The ancient Parisian toise fathom was slightly shorter than 2 m and was standardised at exactly 2 m in the mesures usuelles system such that 1 m was exactly 1 2 toise 156 The Russian verst was 1 0668 km 157 The Swedish mil was 10 688 km but was changed to 10 km when Sweden converted to metric units 158 See also edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metre nbsp Look up metre in Wiktionary the free dictionary ISO 1 standard reference temperature for length measurements Metric prefix Vertical positionNotes edit Base unit definitions Meter National Institute of Standards and Technology Retrieved 28 September 2010 International Bureau of Weights and Measures 20 May 2019 The International System of Units SI PDF 9th ed ISBN 978 92 822 2272 0 archived from the original on 18 October 2021 The International System of Units SI NIST PDF US National Institute of Standards and Technology 26 March 2008 The spelling of English words is in accordance with the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual which follows Webster s Third New International Dictionary rather than the Oxford Dictionary Thus the spellings meter liter deka and cesium are used rather than metre litre deca and caesium as in the original BIPM English text The most recent official brochure about the International System of Units SI written in French by the Bureau international des poids et mesures International Bureau of Weights and Measures BIPM uses the spelling metre an English translation included to make the SI standard more widely accessible also uses the spelling metre BIPM 2006 p 130ff However in 2008 the U S English translation published by the U S National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST chose to use the spelling meter in accordance with the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 gives the Secretary of Commerce of the US the responsibility of interpreting or modifying the SI for use in the US The Secretary of Commerce delegated this authority to the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology Turner In 2008 NIST published the US version Taylor and Thompson 2008a of the English text of the eighth edition of the BIPM publication Le Systeme international d unites SI BIPM 2006 In the NIST publication the spellings meter liter and deka are used rather than metre litre and deca as in the original BIPM English text Taylor and Thompson 2008a p iii The Director of the NIST officially recognised this publication together with Taylor and Thompson 2008b as the legal interpretation of the SI for the United States Turner Thus the spelling metre is referred to as the international spelling the spelling meter as the American spelling Naughtin Pat 2008 Spelling metre or meter PDF Metrication Matters Archived from the original on 11 October 2016 Retrieved 12 March 2017 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link Meter vs metre Grammarist 21 February 2011 Retrieved 12 March 2017 The Philippines uses English as an official language and this largely follows American English since the country became a colony of the United States While the law that converted the country to use the metric system uses metre Batas Pambansa Blg 8 following the SI spelling in actual practice meter is used in government and everyday commerce as evidenced by laws kilometer Republic Act No 7160 Supreme Court decisions meter G R No 185240 and national standards centimeter PNS BAFS 181 2016 Cambridge Advanced Learner s Dictionary Cambridge University Press 2008 Retrieved 19 September 2012 s v ammeter meter parking meter speedometer American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 3rd ed Boston Houghton Mifflin 1992 s v meter meter definition of meter in English Oxford Dictionaries Archived from the original on 26 April 2017 metrew Liddell Henry George Scott Robert A Greek English Lexicon at the Perseus Project metron in Liddell and Scott Oxford English Dictionary Clarendon Press 2nd ed 1989 vol IX p 697 col 3 Museo Galileo In depth Gravitational acceleration catalogue museogalileo it Retrieved 29 December 2023 Museo Galileo In depth Pendulum catalogue museogalileo it Retrieved 29 December 2023 M13 From Kepler s Laws To Universal Gravitation Basic Physics Retrieved 30 December 2023 Bond Peter 2014 L exploration du systeme solaire Dupont Bloch Nicolas Edition francaise revue et corrigee ed Louvain la Neuve De Boeck pp 5 6 ISBN 9782804184964 OCLC 894499177 a b Lettres philosophiques Lettre 15 Wikisource fr wikisource org in French Retrieved 7 October 2023 a b c d e Levallois Jean Jacques 1986 La Vie des sciences Gallica in French pp 262 285 288 290 269 276 277 283 Retrieved 13 May 2019 Picard Jean 1620 1682 Auteur du texte 1671 Mesure de la terre par l abbe Picard pp 3 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Bigourdan 1901 pp 8 158 159 a b c d Earth Figure of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 8 11th ed 1911 pp 801 813 Poynting John Henry Thomson Joseph John 1907 A Textbook of Physics C Griffin pp 20 Science 1791 l adoption revolutionnaire du metre humanite fr in French 25 March 2021 Retrieved 3 August 2021 Lucendo Jorge 23 April 2020 Centuries of Inventions Encyclopedia and History of Inventions Jorge Lucendo p 246 Retrieved 2 August 2021 Silas Walter 30 October 2022 Centrifugal force Vs centripetal force Probing the Universe Retrieved 30 December 2023 Gravity Notes Latitude Dependent Changes in Gravitational Acceleration pburnley faculty unlv edu Retrieved 30 December 2023 a b c Perrier General 1935 Historique Sommaire De La Geodesie Thales 2 117 129 p 128 ISSN 0398 7817 JSTOR 43861533 Badinter Elisabeth 2018 Les passions intellectuelles Normandie roto impr Paris Robert Laffont ISBN 978 2 221 20345 3 OCLC 1061216207 Touzery Mireille 3 July 2008 Emilie Du Chatelet un passeur scientifique au XVIIIe siecle La revue pour l histoire du CNRS in French 21 doi 10 4000 histoire cnrs 7752 ISSN 1298 9800 Capderou Michel 31 October 2011 Satellites de Kepler au GPS in French Springer Science amp Business Media p 46 ISBN 978 2 287 99049 6 Ramani Madhvi How France created the metric system www bbc com Retrieved 21 May 2019 Jean Jacques Levallois La meridienne de Dunkerque a Barcelone et la determination du metre 1792 1799 Vermessung Photogrammetrie Kulturtechnik 89 1991 375 380 a b c d Zuerich ETH Bibliothek 1991 La meridienne de Dunkerque a Barcelone et la determiniation du metre 1972 1799 Vermessung Photogrammetrie Kulturtechnik VPK Mensuration Photogrammetrie Genie Rural in French 89 7 377 378 doi 10 5169 seals 234595 Retrieved 12 October 2021 a b Martin Jean Pierre McConnell Anita 20 December 2008 Joining the observatories of Paris and Greenwich Notes and Records of the Royal Society 62 4 355 372 doi 10 1098 rsnr 2008 0029 ISSN 0035 9149 S2CID 143514819 a b von Struve Friedrich Georg Wilhelm July 1857 Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l Academie des sciences publies par MM les secretaires perpetuels Gallica pp 509 510 Retrieved 30 August 2021 a b c Viik T 2006 F W Bessel and geodesy Struve Geodetic Arc 2006 International Conference The Struve Arc and Extensions in Space and Time Haparanda and Pajala Sweden 13 15 August 2006 pp 10 6 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 517 9501 a b Bessel Friedrich Wilhelm 1 December 1841 Uber einen Fehler in der Berechnung der franzosischen Gradmessung und seineh Einfluss auf die Bestimmung der Figur der Erde Von Herrn Geh Rath und Ritter Bessel Astronomische Nachrichten 19 7 97 Bibcode 1841AN 19 97B doi 10 1002 asna 18420190702 ISSN 0004 6337 nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero Carlos 1881 Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion publica de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira PDF Madrid Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D E Aguado pp 70 78 Rapport de M Faye sur un Memoire de M Peirce concernant la constance de la pesanteur a Paris et les corrections exigees par les anciennes determinations de Borda et de Biot Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l Academie des sciences 90 1463 1466 1880 Retrieved 10 October 2018 via Gallica a b Encyclopedia Universalis Encyclopedia Universalis 1996 pp 320 370 Vol 10 ISBN 978 2 85229 290 1 OCLC 36747385 a b Brunner Jean 1 January 1857 Appareil construit pour les operations au moyen desquelles on prolongera dans toute l etendue de l Espagne le reseau trigonometrique qui couvre la France in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l Academie des sciences publies par MM les secretaires perpetuels Gallica in French pp 150 153 Retrieved 31 August 2023 a b Perard Albert 1957 Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero 14 avril 1825 29 janvier 1891 par Albert Perard inauguration d un monument eleve a sa memoire PDF Institut de France Academie des sciences pp 26 28 Adolphe Hirsch Le general Ibanez notice necrologique lue au comite international des poids et mesures le 12 septembre et dans la conference geodesique de Florence le 8 octobre 1891 Neuchatel imprimerie Attinger freres Wolf Rudolf 1 January 1891 Histoire de l appareil Ibanez Brunner in Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l Academie des sciences publies par MM les secretaires perpetuels Gallica in French pp 370 371 Retrieved 31 August 2023 a b c Clarke Alexander Ross 1873 XIII Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England Austria Spain United States Cape of Good Hope and of a second Russian standard made at the Ordnance Survey Office Southampton With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James Philosophical Transactions vol 163 London p 463 doi 10 1098 rstl 1873 0014 a b c Bericht uber die Verhandlungen der vom 30 September bis 7 October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europaischen Gradmessung PDF in German Berlin Central Bureau der Europaischen Gradmessung 1868 pp 123 134 The seconds pendulum www roma1 infn it Retrieved 6 October 2023 Cochrane Rexmond 1966 Appendix B The metric system in the United States Measures for progress a history of the National Bureau of Standards U S Department of Commerce p 532 Archived from the original on 27 April 2011 Retrieved 5 March 2011 a b c d e f g Larousse Pierre 1866 1877 Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siecle francais historique geographique mythologique bibliographique T 11 MEMO O par M Pierre Larousse p 163 a b L histoire des unites Reseau National de la Metrologie Francaise metrologie francaise lne fr Retrieved 6 October 2023 Biot Jean Baptiste 1774 1862 Auteur du texte Arago Francois 1786 1853 Auteur du texte 1821 Recueil d observations geodesiques astronomiques et physiques executees par ordre du Bureau des longitudes de France en Espagne en France en Angleterre et en Ecosse pour determiner la variation de la pesanteur et des degres terrestres sur le prolongement du meridien de Paris redige par MM Biot et Arago pp viii ix a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link a b c Suzanne Debarbat Fixation de la longueur definitive du metre FranceArchives in French Retrieved 6 October 2023 a b Delambre Jean Baptiste 1749 1822 Auteur du texte 1912 Grandeur et figure de la terre J B J Delambre ouvrage augmente de notes de cartes et publie par les soins de G Bigourdan pp 202 203 2015 141 142 178 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Comprendre Histoire de l observatoire de Paris Pierre Francois Andre Mechain promenade imcce fr Retrieved 15 October 2023 a b c d Clarke Alexander Ross James Henry 1 January 1867 X Abstract of the results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England France Belgium Prussia Russia India Australia made at the ordnance Survey Office Southampton Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 157 174 doi 10 1098 rstl 1867 0010 S2CID 109333769 Histoire du metre Metrologie metrologie entreprises gouv fr Retrieved 6 October 2023 a b Debarbat Suzanne Quinn Terry 1 January 2019 Les origines du systeme metrique en France et la Convention du metre de 1875 qui a ouvert la voie au Systeme international d unites et a sa revision de 2018 Comptes Rendus Physique The new International System of Units Le nouveau Systeme international d unites 20 1 6 21 Bibcode 2019CRPhy 20 6D doi 10 1016 j crhy 2018 12 002 ISSN 1631 0705 S2CID 126724939 Delambre Jean Baptiste 1749 1822 Auteur du texte Mechain Pierre 1744 1804 Auteur du texte 1806 1810 Base du systeme metrique decimal ou Mesure de l arc du meridien compris entre les paralleles de Dunkerque et Barcelone T 1 executee en 1792 et annees suivantes par MM Mechain et Delambre redigee par M Delambre pp 93 94 10 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link American Philosophical Society Society American Philosophical Poupard James 1825 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Vol new ser v 2 1825 Philadelphia etc pp 234 278 a b Cajori Florian 1921 Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey The Scientific Monthly 13 2 117 129 Bibcode 1921SciMo 13 117C ISSN 0096 3771 a b Parr Albert C 1 April 2006 A Tale About the First Weights and Measures Intercomparison in the United States in 1832 Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 111 1 31 32 36 doi 10 6028 jres 111 003 PMC 4654608 PMID 27274915 via NIST History of IMO public wmo int 8 December 2015 Archived from the original on 18 December 2023 Retrieved 7 October 2023 Wild Heinrich hls dhs dss ch in German Retrieved 7 October 2023 a b Heinrich VON WILD 1833 1902 in COMlTE INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURES PROCES VERBAUX DES SEANCES DEUXIEME SERIE TOME II SESSION DE 1903 pp 5 7 a b c Quinn T J 2012 From artefacts to atoms the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards Oxford pp 20 37 38 91 92 70 72 114 117 144 147 8 ISBN 978 0 19 990991 9 OCLC 861693071 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Hassler Harriet Burroughs Charles A 2007 Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler 1770 1843 NIST Research Library pp 51 52 a b Lebon Ernest 1846 1922 Auteur du texte 1899 Histoire abregee de l astronomie par Ernest Lebon pp 168 171 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Puissant Louis 1769 1843 Auteur du texte Nouvelle determination de la distance meridienne de Montjouy a Formentera devoilant l inexactitude de celle dont il est fait mention dans la base du systeme metrique decimal par M Puissant lu a l Academie des sciences le 2 mai 1836 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Jamʻiyah al Jughrafiyah al Miṣriyah 1876 Bulletin de la Societe de geographie d Egypte University of Michigan Le Caire pp 6 16 texte Ismaʿil Afandi Muṣṭafa 1825 1901 Auteur du 1886 Notes biographiques de S E Mahmoud Pacha el Falaki l astronome par Ismail Bey Moustapha et le colonel Moktar Bey pp 10 11 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link texte Ismaʿil Afandi Muṣṭafa 1825 1901 Auteur du 1864 Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et etalonnage de l appareil a mesurer les bases geodesiques appartenant au gouvernement egyptien par Ismail Effendi Moustapha a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Nomination of the STRUVE GEODETIC ARC for inscription on the WORLD HERITAGE LIST PDF pp 40 143 144 a b c Soler T 1 February 1997 A profile of General Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero first president of the International Geodetic Association Journal of Geodesy 71 3 176 188 Bibcode 1997JGeod 71 176S CiteSeerX 10 1 1 492 3967 doi 10 1007 s001900050086 ISSN 1432 1394 S2CID 119447198 J M Lopez de Azcona Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero Carlos Dictionary of Scientific Biography vol VII 1 2 Scribner s New York 1981 commission Internationale Erdmessung Permanente 1892 Comptes rendus des seances de la Commission permanente de l Association geodesique internationale reunie a Florence du 8 au 17 octobre 1891 in French De Gruyter Incorporated pp 23 25 100 109 ISBN 978 3 11 128691 4 a b El General Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero Marques de Mulhacen Historische Commission bei der konigl Akademie der Wissenschaften 1908 Schubert Theodor von Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Bd 54 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 1 ed Munchen Leipzig Duncker amp Humblot p 231 retrieved 1 October 2023 D Alembert Jean Le Rond Figure de la Terre in Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences des arts et des metiers par une Societe de Gens de lettres artflsrv04 uchicago edu Retrieved 1 October 2023 Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de Geneve Geneve Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de 1859 Memoires de la Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de Geneve Vol 15 Geneve Georg etc pp 441 444 484 485 Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de Geneve Geneve Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de 1861 Memoires de la Societe de physique et d histoire naturelle de Geneve Vol 16 Geneve Georg etc pp 165 196 a b Martina Schiavon La geodesia y la investigacion cientifica en la Francia del siglo XIX la medida del arco de meridiano franco argelino 1870 1895 Revista Colombiana de Sociologia 2004 Estudios sociales de la ciencia y la tecnologia 23 pp 11 30 c a Paris vitesse de la lumiere expositions obspm fr Retrieved 12 October 2021 Jouffroy Achille de 1785 1859 Auteur du texte 1852 1853 Dictionnaire des inventions et decouvertes anciennes et modernes dans les sciences les arts et l industrie 2 H Z recueillis et mis en ordre par M le marquis de Jouffroy publie par l abbe Migne p 419 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Yokoyama Koichi Manabe Seiji Sakai Satoshi 2000 History of the International Polar Motion Service International Latitude Service International Astronomical Union Colloquium 178 147 162 doi 10 1017 S0252921100061285 ISSN 0252 9211 Polar motion Earth s axis wobble precession Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 27 August 2023 a b c Torge Wolfgang 2016 Rizos Chris Willis Pascal eds From a Regional Project to an International Organization The Baeyer Helmert Era of the International Association of Geodesy 1862 1916 IAG 150 Years International Association of Geodesy Symposia 143 Cham Springer International Publishing 3 18 doi 10 1007 1345 2015 42 ISBN 978 3 319 30895 1 Levallois J J 1 September 1980 Notice historique Bulletin geodesique in French 54 3 248 313 Bibcode 1980BGeod 54 248L doi 10 1007 BF02521470 ISSN 1432 1394 S2CID 198204435 Zuerich ETH Bibliothek 1892 Expose historique des travaux de la commission geodesique suisse de 1862 a 1892 Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel in French 21 33 doi 10 5169 seals 88335 Retrieved 11 October 2023 a b c Quinn Terry 2019 Wilhelm Foerster s Role in the Metre Convention of 1875 and in the Early Years of the International Committee for Weights and Measures Annalen der Physik 531 5 2 Bibcode 2019AnP 53100355Q doi 10 1002 andp 201800355 ISSN 1521 3889 S2CID 125240402 Drewes Hermann Kuglitsch Franz Adam Jozsef Rozsa Szabolcs 2016 The Geodesist s Handbook 2016 Journal of Geodesy 90 10 914 Bibcode 2016JGeod 90 907D doi 10 1007 s00190 016 0948 z ISSN 0949 7714 S2CID 125925505 Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundesprasidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements J J Scherer in Erwin Bucher Peter Stalder ed Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland vol 3 doc 66 dodis ch 42045 Bern 1986 Dodis 30 March 1875 a b Wolf M C 1882 Recherches historiques sur les etalons de poids et mesures de l observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire in French Paris Gauthier Villars pp 7 8 20 32 OCLC 16069502 Bigourdan 1901 pp 8 158 159 176 177 NIST Special Publication U S Government Printing Office 1966 p 529 Borda et le systeme metrique Association Mesure Lab in French Retrieved 29 August 2023 Zuerich ETH Bibliothek 1892 Expose historique des travaux de la commission geodesique suisse de 1862 a 1892 Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel in German 21 33 doi 10 5169 seals 88335 Retrieved 29 August 2023 Carlos Ibanez e Ibanez de Ibero Discursos leidos ante la Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas Fisicas y Naturales en la recepcion publica de Don Joaquin Barraquer y Rovira Madrid Imprenta de la Viuda e Hijo de D E Aguado 1881 p 78 a b Metric Act of 1866 US Metric Association usma org Retrieved 15 March 2021 Bessel Friedrich Wilhelm 1 April 1840 Uber das preufs Langenmaass und die zu seiner Verbreitung durch Copien ergriffenen Maassregeln Astronomische Nachrichten 17 13 193 Bibcode 1840AN 17 193B doi 10 1002 asna 18400171302 ISSN 0004 6337 Britain Great 1824 The Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland a b Guillaume Ed 1 January 1916 Le Systeme Metrique est il en Peril L Astronomie 30 244 245 Bibcode 1916LAstr 30 242G ISSN 0004 6302 a b Crease Robert P 1 December 2009 Charles Sanders Peirce and the first absolute measurement standard Physics Today 62 12 39 44 Bibcode 2009PhT 62l 39C doi 10 1063 1 3273015 ISSN 0031 9228 S2CID 121338356 a b Hirsch Adolphe 1891 Don Carlos Ibanez 1825 1891 PDF Bureau International des Poids et Mesures pp 4 8 Retrieved 22 May 2017 BIPM International Metre Commission www bipm org Retrieved 26 May 2017 a b A Note on the History of the IAG IAG Homepage Retrieved 26 May 2017 Ross Clarke Alexander James Henry 1 January 1873 XIII Results of the comparisons of the standards of length of England Austria Spain United States Cape of Good Hope and of a second Russian standard made at the Ordnance Survey Office Southampton With a preface and notes on the Greek and Egyptian measures of length by Sir Henry James Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 163 445 469 doi 10 1098 rstl 1873 0014 Brunner Jean 1857 Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l Academie des sciences publies par MM les secretaires perpetuels Gallica in French pp 150 153 Retrieved 15 May 2019 Guillaume Charles Edouard 1927 La Creation du Bureau International des Poids et Mesures et son Œuvre The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and its work Paris Gauthier Villars p 321 a b National Institute of Standards and Technology 2003 Historical context of the SI Unit of length meter Dodis Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz Documents diplomatiques suisses Documenti diplomatici svizzeri Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland 30 March 1875 Bericht der schweizerischen Delegierten an der internationalen Meterkonferenz an den Bundesprasidenten und Vorsteher des Politischen Departements J J Scherer in French Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz Documents diplomatiques suisses Documenti diplomatici svizzeri Diplomatic Documents of Switzerland Dodis retrieved 20 September 2021 BIPM la definition du metre www bipm org Retrieved 15 May 2019 Dr C E Guillaume Nature 134 3397 874 1 December 1934 Bibcode 1934Natur 134R 874 doi 10 1038 134874b0 ISSN 1476 4687 S2CID 4140694 Guillaume C H Ed 1 January 1906 La mesure rapide des bases geodesiques Journal de Physique Theorique et Appliquee 5 242 263 doi 10 1051 jphystap 019060050024200 Huet Sylvestre Einstein le revolutionnaire de la lumiere Liberation in French Retrieved 7 October 2023 Ferreiro Larrie D 31 May 2011 Measure of the Earth The Enlightenment Expedition That Reshaped Our World Basic Books pp 19 23 ISBN 978 0 465 02345 5 Stephen Hawking Paris Dunod 2003 2014 929 p p 816 817 Maxwell James Clerk 1873 A Treatise On Electricity and Magnetism Vol 1 London MacMillan and Co p 3 Lenzen Victor F 1965 The Contributions of Charles S Peirce to Metrology Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 109 1 29 46 ISSN 0003 049X JSTOR 985776 Marion Jerry B 1982 Physics For Science and Engineering CBS College Publishing p 3 ISBN 978 4 8337 0098 6 a b 17th General Conference on Weights and Measures 1983 Resolution 1 Retrieved 7 December 2022 BIPM 20 May 2019 Mise en pratique for the definition of the meter in the SI BIPM The exact value is 299792 458 m s 1079 252 848 8 km h a b c Iodine l 633 nm PDF Mise en Pratique BIPM 2003 Retrieved 16 December 2011 The term relative standard uncertainty is explained by NIST on their web site Standard Uncertainty and Relative Standard Uncertainty The NIST Reference on constants units and uncertainties Fundamental physical constants NIST Retrieved 19 December 2011 National Research Council 2010 National Institute of Standards and Technology 2011 a b A more detailed listing of errors can be found in Beers John S Penzes William B December 1992 4 Re evaluation of measurement errors PDF NIST length scale interferometer measurement assurance NIST document NISTIR 4998 pp 9 ff Retrieved 17 December 2011 The formulas used in the calculator and the documentation behind them are found at Engineering metrology toolbox Refractive index of air calculator NIST 23 September 2010 Retrieved 16 December 2011 The choice is offered to use either the modified Edlen equation or the Ciddor equation The documentation provides a discussion of how to choose between the two possibilities VI Uncertainty and range of validity Engineering metrology toolbox Refractive index of air calculator NIST 23 September 2010 Retrieved 16 December 2011 Dunning F B Hulet Randall G 1997 Physical limits on accuracy and resolution setting the scale Atomic molecular and optical physics electromagnetic radiation Volume 29 Part 3 Academic Press p 316 ISBN 978 0 12 475977 0 The error introduced by using air can be reduced tenfold if the chamber is filled with an atmosphere of helium rather than air Recommended values of standard frequencies BIPM 9 September 2010 Retrieved 22 January 2012 National Physical Laboratory 2010 The BIPM maintains a list of recommended radiations on their web site 132 133 a b Zagar 1999 pp 6 65ff Bigourdan1901 pp 20 21 Wolf Charles 1827 1918 Auteur du texte 1882 Recherches historiques sur les etalons de poids et mesures de l Observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire par M C Wolf in French pp C 38 39 C 2 4 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link a b c Histoire du metre Direction Generale des Entreprises DGE in French Retrieved 16 May 2019 CGPM Compte rendus de la 1ere reunion 1889 PDF BIPM CGPM Comptes rendus de le 7e reunion 1927 PDF p 49 Judson 1976 Taylor and Thompson 2008a Appendix 1 p 70 Meter is Redefined US National Geographic Society Retrieved 22 October 2019 Taylor and Thompson 2008a Appendix 1 p 77 Cardarelli 2003 Definition of the metre Resolution 1 of the 17th meeting of the CGPM 1983 Metrisches System hls dhs dss ch in German Retrieved 15 December 2021 Kartografie hls dhs dss ch in German Retrieved 13 December 2021 Dufour G H 1861 Notice sur la carte de la Suisse dressee par l Etat Major Federal Le Globe Revue genevoise de geographie 2 1 5 22 doi 10 3406 globe 1861 7582 a b Metrisches System hls dhs dss ch in German Retrieved 9 December 2021 Taylor amp Thompson 2003 p 11 Astin amp Karo 1959 Arnold Dieter 1991 Building in Egypt pharaonic stone masonry Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 506350 9 p 251 Dictionary of the Scots Language Archived from the original on 21 March 2012 Retrieved 6 August 2011 The Penny Magazine of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Charles Knight 6 June 1840 pp 221 22 Hallock William Wade Herbert T 1906 Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system London The Macmillan Company pp 66 69 Cardarelli 2004 Hofstad Knut Mil Store norske leksikon Retrieved 18 October 2019 References editAlder Ken 2002 The Measure of All Things The Seven Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World New York Free Press ISBN 978 0 7432 1675 3 Astin A V amp Karo H Arnold 1959 Refinement of values for the yard and the pound Washington DC National Bureau of Standards republished on National Geodetic Survey web site and the Federal Register Doc 59 5442 Filed 30 June 1959 Judson Lewis V 1 October 1976 1963 Barbrow Louis E ed Weights and Measures Standards of the United States a brief history Derived from a prior work by Louis A Fisher 1905 US US Department of Commerce National Bureau of Standards doi 10 6028 NBS SP 447 LCCN 76 600055 NBS Special Publication 447 NIST SP 447 003 003 01654 3 Bigourdan Guillaume 1901 Le systeme metrique des poids et mesures son etablissement et sa propagation graduelle avec l histoire des operations qui ont servi a determiner le metre et le kilogramme The metric system of weights and measures its establishment and gradual propagation with the history of the operations which served to determine the meter and the kilogram Paris Gauthier Villars Clarke Alexander Ross Helmert Friedrich Robert 1911b Earth Figure of the In Chisholm Hugh ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 8 11th ed Cambridge University Press pp 801 813 Guedj Denis 2001 La Mesure du Monde The Measure of the World Translated by Goldhammer Art Chicago University of Chicago Press Cardarelli Francois 2003 Chapter 2 The International system of Units PDF Encydopaedia of scientific units weights and measures their SI equivalences and origins Springer Verlag London Limited Table 2 1 p 5 ISBN 978 1 85233 682 0 Retrieved 26 January 2017 Data from Giacomo P Du platine a la lumiere From platinum to light Bull Bur Nat Metrologie 102 1995 5 14 Cardarelli F 2004 Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units Weights and Measures Their SI Equivalences and Origins 2nd ed Springer pp 120 124 ISBN 1 85233 682 X Historical context of the SI Meter Retrieved 26 May 2010 National Institute of Standards and Technology 27 June 2011 NIST F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock Author National Physical Laboratory 25 March 2010 Iodine Stabilised Lasers Author Maintaining the SI unit of length National Research Council Canada 5 February 2010 Archived from the original on 4 December 2011 Republic of the Philippines 2 December 1978 Batas Pambansa Blg 8 An Act Defining the Metric System and its Units Providing for its Implementation and for Other Purposes Author Republic of the Philippines 10 October 1991 Republic Act No 7160 The Local Government Code of the Philippines Author Supreme Court of the Philippines Second Division 20 January 2010 G R No 185240 Author Taylor B N and Thompson A Eds 2008a The International System of Units SI United States version of the English text of the eighth edition 2006 of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Systeme International d Unites SI Special Publication 330 Gaithersburg MD National Institute of Standards and Technology Retrieved 18 August 2008 Taylor B N and Thompson A 2008b Guide for the Use of the International System of Units Special Publication 811 Gaithersburg MD National Institute of Standards and Technology Retrieved 23 August 2008 Turner J deputy director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology 16 May 2008 Interpretation of the International System of Units the Metric System of Measurement for the United States Federal Register Vol 73 No 96 p 28432 28433 Zagar B G 1999 Laser interferometer displacement sensors in J G Webster ed The Measurement Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook CRC Press ISBN 0 8493 8347 1 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Metre amp oldid 1219554066, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.