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Burundi

May 03, 2024

Burundi,[c] officially the Republic of Burundi,[d] is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa. It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border. The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura, the latter being the country's largest city.[14]

Republic of Burundi
  • Repuburika y’Uburundi (Kirundi)
  • République du Burundi (French)
Motto: 
  • "Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere" (Kirundi)
  • "Unité, Travail, Progrès" (French)
  • "Union, Work, Progress" (English)
Anthem: Burundi Bwacu (Kirundi)
"Our Burundi"
CapitalGitega (political)
Bujumbura (economic)[a]
3°30′S 30°00′E / 3.500°S 30.000°E / -3.500; 30.000
Largest cityBujumbura
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(1980 census[citation needed])
  • ~3,000 Europeans
  • ~2,000 South Asians
Religion
(2020)[1]
Demonym(s)Burundian
GovernmentUnitary dominant-party presidential republic under an authoritarian state[2][3][4]
• President
Évariste Ndayishimiye[5]
Prosper Bazombanza
Gervais Ndirakobuca
LegislatureParliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
National Assembly
Establishment history
1680–1966
• Part of German East Africa
1890–1916
• Part of Ruanda-Urundi
1916–1962
• Independence from Belgium
1 July 1962
• Republic
28 November 1966
17 May 2018
Area
• Total
27,834 km2 (10,747 sq mi)[7] (142nd)
• Water (%)
10[8]
Population
• 2023 estimate
13,162,952[9] (77th)
• Density
473/km2 (1,225.1/sq mi) (17th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
 $11.551 billion[10] (164th)
• Per capita
 $890[10] (193rd)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
 $3.190 billion[10] (173rd)
• Per capita
 $245[10] (192nd)
Gini (2013)39.2[11]
medium
HDI (2022) 0.420[12]
low (187th)
CurrencyBurundian franc (FBu) (BIF)
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)
Driving sideright
ISO 3166 codeBI
Internet TLD.bi

The Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom. In 1885, it became part of the German colony of German East Africa.[15] After the First World War and Germany's defeat, the League of Nations mandated the territories of Burundi and neighboring Rwanda to Belgium in a combined territory called Rwanda-Urundi. After the Second World War, this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory. Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially retained the monarchy; a 1966 coup replaced the monarchy with a one-party republic. Over the next 27 years, Burundi was ruled by a series of Tutsi dictators and notably experienced a genocide of Hutus in 1972. In July 1993, Melchior Ndadaye became Burundi's first Hutu president following the country's first multi-party presidential election. His assassination three months later during a coup attempt provoked the 12-year Burundian Civil War. In 2000, the Arusha Agreement was adopted, which was largely integrated in a new constitution in 2005. Since the 2005 post-war elections, the country's dominant party has been the National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy (CNDD–FDD), widely accused of authoritarian governance and perpetuating the country's poor human rights record.

Burundi remains primarily a rural society, with just 13.4% of the population living in urban areas in 2019.[16] Burundi is densely populated, and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere. Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, and fewer than 1% are Twa.[17] The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English—Kirundi being officially recognised as the sole national language.[18] English was made an official language in 2014.[19]

One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi's land is used mostly for subsistence agriculture and grazing. Deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat loss are major ecological concerns.[20] As of 2005, the country was almost completely deforested. Less than 6% of its land was covered by trees, and over half of that being for commercial plantations.[21] Burundi is the poorest country in the world by nominal GDP per capita, and is one of the least developed countries. It faces widespread poverty, corruption, instability, authoritarianism, and illiteracy. The 2018 World Happiness Report ranked the country as the world's least happy with a rank of 156.[22] Burundi is a member of the African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC), and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Etymology edit

Modern Burundi is named after the King of Urundi, who ruled the region starting in the 16th century. It derives its name from a word "Urundi" in Kirundi the local language, which means "Another one".[23] Later the Belgian mandate to Ruanda-Urundi region came to rename it and their former capital "Usumbura" of both kingdoms by adding the letter "B" in front of it.

History edit

Main articles: History of Burundi and Ruanda-Urundi

Burundi is one of the few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, along with its neighbour Rwanda among others (such as Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini), to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state. The early history of Burundi, and especially the role and nature of the country's three dominant ethnic groups, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi, is highly debated amongst academics.[24]

Kingdom of Burundi edit

Main article: Kingdom of Burundi

The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi, or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him; succession struggles were common.[6] The king, known as the mwami (translated as ruler) headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers (mainly Hutu) and herders (mainly Tutsi). The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange.[25]

In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure. By this time, the royal court was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru. They had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi-Hima. In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people, and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa. The system had some fluidity, however. Some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state.[26]

The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa. On the other hand, there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu. Thus, the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio-cultural concept, instead of a purely ethnic one.[27][28] There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people.[29] In general, regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi's politics than ethnicity.[28]

Rule by Germany and Belgium edit

Main articles: German East Africa and Ruanda-Urundi

From 1884, the German East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes region. As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between the German East Africa Company, the British Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the German Empire was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire's interests in the region. The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891, in this way establishing the German colony of German East Africa, which included Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), and the mainland part of Tanzania (formerly known as Tanganyika).[30] The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s. The location of the present-day city of Gitega served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda-Urundi region.[31]

During the First World War, the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region. The Belgian and British colonial forces of the allied powers launched a coordinated attack on the German colony. The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. After the war, as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede "control" of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium.[32][33]

On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi, which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, became a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory, with Usumbura as its capital. In practical terms it was considered part of the Belgian colonial empire. Burundi, as part of Ruanda-Urundi, continued its kingship dynasty despite the presence of European authorities.[16][34]

The Belgians, however, preserved many of the kingdom's institutions; the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial period.[6] Following the Second World War, Ruanda-Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.[16] During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On 4 October 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers.[34] In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties.[32] These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium, on 1 July 1962.

Independence edit

 
Flag of the Kingdom of Burundi (1962–1966).
 
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.

On 20 January 1959, King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi's independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union.[35] In the following months, Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi.[35] The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress (UPRONA).

Burundi's push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there. As a result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi from 1959 to 1961.[36][37][38]

Burundi's first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multi-ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalist.[32][39]

The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962,[32] and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi.[40] Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore's father, serving as the country's king.[37] On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations.[41]

In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe, but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy. The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which Western anti-communist countries were confronting the communist People's Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo.[42] Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament, but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister, some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased. In October 1965, an attempted coup d'état led by the Hutu-dominated police was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero[37] purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a precursor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide.[43]

King Mwambutsa, who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son, Prince Ntare V, claimed the throne. In November that same year, the Tutsi Prime Minister, then-Captain Michel Micombero, carried out another coup, this time deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic, though his one-party government was effectively a military dictatorship.[32] As president, Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism.

Civil war and genocides edit

Further information: Burundian genocide (1972) and Burundian genocide (1993)

In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide. On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac and the rebels declared the short-lived Martyazo Republic.[44][45] The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion.[46][47] During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed.[48] At the same time, King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile, heightening political tension in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide, murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority. The total number of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80,000 and 210,000.[49][50] In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaïre, Rwanda and Tanzania.[50][51]

Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi's status as a one-party state.[37] In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms.

Major Pierre Buyoya, a Tutsi, overthrew Bagaza in 1987, suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN).[37] Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000[citation needed]; some international NGOs[who?] believed this understated the deaths.

The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit for the killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the "culture of impunity." Other analysts put the origins of the "culture of impunity" earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis.[citation needed]

In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya, asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks later, Buyoya appointed a new government, with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) as Prime Minister. Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity.[37] In 1992, the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi-party system,[37] but a civil war broke out.

An estimated total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993.[52] Since Burundi's independence in 1962, two genocides have taken place in the country: the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army,[53] and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council.[54]

First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population edit

In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, leader of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the first democratic election. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he attempted to smooth the country's bitter ethnic divide, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993, after only three months in office. The ensuing Burundian Civil War (1993–2005) saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination.[55]

In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira (Hutu) to the office of president. He and Juvénal Habyarimana, the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu), was appointed as president in October 1994. A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A feared general massacre was averted, but violence broke out. A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura,[citation needed] the then-capital, were killed. The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament.

In 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) again took power through a coup d'état. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the start of his second term as president, after his first term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps.[citation needed] Under Buyoya's rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha, Tanzania and Pretoria, South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan.

 
Belligerents of the Second Congo War. Burundi backed the rebels.

On 28 August 2000, a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted cease-fires, a 2001 peace plan and power-sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A cease-fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy).[56]

In 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) was elected president.[citation needed] In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliament and president occurred.[57]

Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), once a leader of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008, the Burundian government was talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF)[58] to bring peace to the country.[59]

Peace agreements edit

African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis. Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela took the helm. As the talks progressed, South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also lent their respective weight.

The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations. This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives, who may use their positive reputations, mediation, or the "carrot and stick" method as a means of obtaining or forcing an outcome, frequently along the lines of "bargaining" or "win-lose".[60]

The main objective was to transform the Burundian government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu. It was to take place in two major steps. First, a transitional power-sharing government would be established, with the presidents holding office for three-year terms. The second objective involved a restructuring of the armed forces, where the two groups would be represented equally.[61]

As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated, the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles. First, the Burundian officials perceived the goals as "unrealistic" and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, contradictory and confusing. Second, and perhaps most importantly, the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire. This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups. The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power-sharing government; they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements.

In 2000,[62] the Burundian President signed the treaty, as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions. Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government, and when the ceasefire would begin. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord; as a result, violence intensified. Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania, the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict; the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government. However, smaller militant Hutu groups – such as the Forces for National Liberation – remained active.[63]

UN involvement edit

Between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania, South Africa and Uganda, gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. Initially the South African Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from exile. These forces became part of the African Union Mission to Burundi, deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi.[64]

The mission's mandate, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, has been to monitor cease-fire, carry out disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel, support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return, assist with elections, protect international staff and Burundian civilians, monitor Burundi's troublesome borders, including halting illicit arms flows, and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well. It has greatly benefited from the transitional government, which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected.[64]

The main difficulty in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group. This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN's presence. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process. All political parties have accepted a formula for inter-ethnic power-sharing: no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated.[64]

The focus of the UN's mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution, so that elections may be held and a new government installed. Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations. In February 2005, the constitution was approved with over 90% of the popular vote. In May, June and August 2005, three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency.

While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders, as well as the population at large.[64] It was involved with several "quick effect" projects, including rehabilitating and building schools, orphanages, health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines.

The 2005 Constitution formalised a complex power-sharing architecture that has been described as "associational" in its logic, as it aims to provide guarantees of representation for the Tutsi minority without entrenching the ethnic cleavage at the centre of Burundian politics.[65] This institutional design provides an original contribution from Burundian negotiators and constitution makers to institutional options to manage ethnic conflict.[citation needed]

2006 to 2018 edit

 
View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.

Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction.[66] Toward achieving economic reconstruction, Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries.[66] In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community in 2007.

However, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the FLN (Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), were not totally implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened.[67] In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country.[66] The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners.[68] In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants were living. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged.[68]

The 2007 report[68] of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system. Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity continued to go unpunished.[citation needed]

In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them 'provisional immunity' from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity .[68] Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity.

On 17 April 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, with the mediation of Charles Nqakula, South Africa's Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations.[69]

The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peace-building initiatives. In the early 2010s, the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected, given the prevalence of arms in the country. However, these evaluations failed to include date from local populations, which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives.[70]

As of 2012, Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions, including the mission to Somalia against Al-Shabaab militants.[71] In 2014, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established, initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018.[72][73]

2015 unrest edit

Main article: Burundian unrest (2015–2018)

In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term in office.[74] Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third term in office but the country's constitutional court agreed with Nkurunziza (although some of its members had fled the country at the time of its vote).[75]

An attempted coup d'état on 13 May failed to depose Nkurunziza. [76] [77] He returned to Burundi, began purging his government, and arrested several of the coup leaders.[78][79][80][81][82] Following the attempted coup, protests however continued and over 100,000 people had fled the country by 20 May causing a humanitarian emergency. There are reports of continued and widespread abuses of human rights, including unlawful killings, torture, disappearances, and restrictions on freedom of expression.[83][84]

Despite calls by the United Nations, the African Union, the United States, France, South Africa, Belgium, and various other governments to refrain, the ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June, but these were boycotted by the opposition.

On 30 September 2016, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33/24. Its mandate is to "conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015, to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations."[85] On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations. It further stressed that, "The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry, despite the Commission's repeated requests and initiatives."[86] The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions, acts of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, rape and other forms of sexual violence."[86]

2018 to present edit

In a constitutional referendum in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.[87][88] However, much to the surprise of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 general election.[89]

On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote.[90] Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55.[89] There was some speculation that his death was COVID-19 related, though this is unconfirmed.[91] As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[89][90]

In December 2021, a large prison fire killed dozens in the capital city of Gitega.[92]

In November 2022, in challenges to the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Burundi's economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent, according to an assessment of the International Monetary Fund.

Currently, Burundi remains as one of the poorest nations on Earth based on a Gross National Income (GNI) of $270 per capita.[93]

Government edit

Main article: Politics of Burundi
 
Pierre Nkurunziza, President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020.

Burundi's political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi.[32] On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution,[94] which provided for a multi-party political process and reflected multi-party competition.[95] Six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly's seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.[96]

Burundi's legislative branch is a bicameral assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38% of seats, and 10% of the assembly controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats were controlled by other parties. Burundi's constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% female members, as well as three Batwa members.[32] Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five-year terms.[97]

The Transitional Senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for former presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi's constitution, 30% of Senate members must be female. Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi's provinces and communes.[32] For each of Burundi's eighteen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One term for the Transitional Senate is five years.[97]

Together, Burundi's legislative branch elect the president to a five-year term.[97] Burundi's president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers, which is also part of the executive branch.[96] The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers.[32] Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi's legislature. The president also chooses two vice-presidents.[97] Following the 2015 election, the president of Burundi was Pierre Nkurunziza. The first vice-president was Therence Sinunguruza, and the Second Vice-president was Gervais Rufyikiri.[98]

On 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote. Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55. As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[99][100]

The Cour Suprême (Supreme Court) is Burundi's highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi's provinces as well as 123 local tribunals.[96]

 
Embassy of Burundi in Brussels

Human rights edit

See also: Human rights in Burundi and LGBT rights in Burundi

Burundi's government has been repeatedly criticised by human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch[101] for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist Jean-Claude Kavumbagu for issues related to his reporting. Amnesty International (AI) named him a prisoner of conscience and called for his "immediate and unconditional release."

In April 2009, the government of Burundi changed the law to criminalise homosexuality. Persons found guilty of consensual same-sex relations risk three months to two years in prison and/or a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 Burundian francs.[102] Amnesty International has condemned the action, calling it a violation of Burundi's obligations under international and regional human rights law, and against the constitution, which guarantees the right to privacy.[103]

Burundi officially left the International Criminal Court (ICC) on 27 October 2017, the first country in the world to do so.[104] The move came after the UN accused the country of various crimes and human rights violations, such as extrajudicial killings, torture and sexual violence, in a September 2017 report.[104] The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted.[105][106]

Subdivisions edit

Main articles: Provinces of Burundi, Communes of Burundi, and Collines of Burundi

Burundi is divided into 18 provinces,[107] 119 communes,[32] and 2,638 collines (hills).[108] Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries.

Burundi's provinces and communes were created on Christmas Day in 1959 by a Belgian colonial decree. They replaced the pre-existing system of chieftains.[109]

In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces, Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie.[110] The newest province, Rumonge, was created on 26 March 2015 from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi.[111]

In July 2022, the government of Burundi announced a complete overhaul of the country's territorial subdivisions. The proposed change would reduce the amounts of provinces from 18 to 5, and reduce the amount of communes from 119 to 42. The change needs the approval of the parliament of Burundi to take effect.[109]


Geography edit

 
Map of Burundi
 
Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi
Main articles: Geography of Burundi and Climate of Burundi

One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate. Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the East African Rift. The country lies on a rolling plateau in the centre of Africa. Burundi is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. It lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests, Central Zambezian miombo woodlands, and Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic ecoregions.[114]

The average elevation of the central plateau is 1,707 m (5,600 ft), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 2,685 m (8,810 ft),[115] lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital, Bujumbura. The source of the Nile River is in Bururi province, and is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River.[116][clarification needed] Lake Victoria is also an important water source, which serves as a fork to the Kagera River.[117][118] Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika, located in much of Burundi's southwestern corner.[119]

There are two national parks: Kibira National Park to the northwest (a small region of rainforest, adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda), and Ruvubu National Park to the northeast (along the Rurubu River, also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations.[120]

Wildlife edit

Main article: Wildlife of Burundi

Economy edit

Main article: Economy of Burundi
See also: List of companies based in Burundi
 
Historical development of GDP per capita

Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantly agricultural, accounting for 50% of GDP in 2017[121] and employing more than 90% of the population. Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90% of agriculture.[122] Burundi's primary exports are coffee and tea, which account for 90% of foreign exchange earnings, though exports are a relatively small share of GDP. Other agricultural products include cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk and hides. Even though subsistence farming is highly relied upon, many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves. This is due to large population growth and no coherent policies governing land ownership. In 2014, the average farm size was about one acre.

Burundi is the world's poorest country, owing in part to its landlocked geography,[16] lack of access to education and the proliferation of HIV/AIDS. Approximately 80% of Burundi's population lives in poverty.[123] Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the 20th century,[34] and according to the World Food Programme, 56.8% of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition.[124] Burundi's export earnings – and its ability to pay for imports – rests primarily on weather conditions and international coffee and tea prices.

The purchasing power of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation. As a result of deepening poverty, Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors. Foreign aid represents 42% of Burundi's national income, the second highest rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009, which should boost its regional trade ties, and also in 2009 received $700 million in debt relief. Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with ever-changing rules.[16]

Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor levels of satisfaction with life; the World Happiness Report 2018 rated them the world's least happy.[22][125]

 
Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika.

Some of Burundi's natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper and platinum.[126] Besides agriculture, other industries include: the assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing, and light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, and soap.

In regards to telecommunications infrastructure, Burundi is ranked second to last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Burundi ranked number 147 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 144 in 2013.[127]

Lack of access to financial services is a serious problem for the majority of the population, particularly in densely populated rural areas: only 2% of the total population holds bank accounts and fewer than 0.5% use bank lending services. Microfinance, however, plays a larger role, with 4% of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions – a larger share of the population than that reached by banking and postal services combined. 26 licensed microfinance institutions (MFIs) offer savings, deposits, and short- to medium-term credit. The dependence of the sector on donor assistance is limited.[128]

Burundi is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation. Burundi economy has declined since 1990s and Burundi is behind all neighbouring countries.

Burundi was ranked 130th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[129]

Currency edit

Main article: Burundian franc

Burundi's currency is the Burundian franc. It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes, though coins have never been issued in centimes in independent Burundi; centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the Belgian Congo franc.

Monetary policy is controlled by the central bank, Bank of the Republic of Burundi.

Current BIF exchange rates
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Transport edit

Main article: Transport in Burundi
 
Bujumbura International Airport terminal in Bujumbura
 
Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi

Burundi's transport network is limited and underdeveloped. According to a 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index, Burundi is the least globalised of 140 surveyed countries.[130] Bujumbura International Airport is the only airport with a paved runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines (Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways and RwandAir). Kigali is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura. The country has a road network but as of 2005 less than 10% of the country's roads were paved and as of 2012 private bus companies were the main operators of buses on the international route to Kigali; however, there were no bus connections to the other neighbouring countries (Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo).[131] Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry (the MV Mwongozo) to Kigoma in Tanzania.[132] There is a long-term plan to link the country via rail to Kigali and then onward to Kampala and Kenya.

Demographics edit

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Burundi
Source:[133]
Rank Name Province Pop.
 
Bujumbura
 
Gitega 		1 Bujumbura Bujumbura Mairie 374,809  
Ngozi
 
Rumonge
2 Gitega Gitega 135,467
3 Ngozi Ngozi 39,884
4 Rumonge Bururi 35,931
5 Cibitoke Cibitoke 23,885
6 Kayanza Kayanza 21,767
7 Bubanza Bubanza 20,031
8 Karuzi Karuzi 10,705
9 Kirundo Kirundo 10,024
10 Muyinga Muyinga 9,609
 
Men in colourful clothing with drums
 
Children in Bujumbura, Burundi
Main articles: Demographics of Burundi and Languages of Burundi

As of October 2021, Burundi was estimated by the United Nations to have a population of 12,346,893,[134][135] compared to only 2,456,000 in 1950.[136] The population growth rate is 2.5 percent per year, more than double the average global pace, and a Burundian woman has on average 5.10 children, more than double the international fertility rate.[137] Burundi had the tenth highest total fertility rate in the world, just behind Somalia, in 2021.[16]

Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 Burundian refugees.[138]

Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013.[16] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[32] Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi and fewer than 1% are indigenous Twa.[17]

Languages edit

Main article: Languages of Burundi

The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi, French, and English. English was made an official language in 2014.[19] Virtually the entire population speaks Kirundi, and just under 10% speak French.[139]

Religion edit

Main article: Religion in Burundi

Sources estimate the Christian population at 80–90%, with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60–65%. Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 15–25%. An estimated 5% of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs. Muslims constitute 2–5%, the majority of whom are Sunnis and live in urban areas.[16][140][141]

Health edit

Main article: Health in Burundi

Burundi has the worst hunger and malnourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the Global Hunger Index.[137] The civil war in 1962 put a stop on the medical advancements in the country.[142] Burundi, again, went into a violent cycle in 2015, jeopardising the citizens of Burundi's medical care.[143] Like other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Burundi uses indigenous medicine in addition to biomedicine. In the 1980s, Burundi's health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality control for and begin new research on pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants.[142] At the same time, the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners (ATRADIBU) was founded, which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi (CRPMT).[142] The recent influx of international aid has supported the work of biomedical health systems in Burundi. However, international aid workers have traditionally stayed away from indigenous medicine in Burundi.[142] As of 2015, roughly 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia, diarrhoea, and malaria.[143] The current violence in Burundi has limited the country's access to medication and hospital equipment. The life expectancy in Burundi, as of 2015, was 60.1 years.[144] In 2013, Burundi spent 8% of their GDP on healthcare.[144] While Burundi's fertility rate is 6.1 children per women, the country's infant mortality rate is 61.9 deaths for every 1,000 live births.[144] Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever.[144]

Culture edit

 
Drums from Gitega
Main articles: Culture of Burundi, Tourism in Burundi, and Music of Burundi

Burundi's culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighbouring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest. Since farming is the main industry, a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes, corn, rice and peas. Due to the expense, meat is eaten only a few times per month.

When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke, a beer, together from a large container to symbolise unity.[145]

Notable Burundians include the footballer Mohammed Tchité and singer Jean-Pierre Nimbona, popularly known as Kidumu (who is based in Nairobi, Kenya).

Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weaving is a popular craft for local artisans,[146] as well as other crafts such as masks, shields, statues and pottery.[147]

Drumming is an important part of the cultural heritage. The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi, who have performed for over 40 years, are noted for traditional drumming using the karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso and ikiranya drums.[148] Dance often accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga and the inyagara.[147]

 
Football in Burundi

The country's oral tradition is strong, relaying history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi.[149]

Basketball and track and field are noted sports. Martial arts are popular, as well. There are five major judo clubs: Club Judo de l'Entente Sportive, in Downtown, and four others throughout the city.[150] Association football is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are mancala games.

Most Christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest.[151] Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July.[152] In 2005, the Burundian government declared Eid al-Fitr, an Islamic holiday, to be a public holiday.[153]

Media edit

See also: Mass media in Burundi

Education edit

 
Carolus Magnus School in Burundi
Main article: Education in Burundi

In 2012, the adult literacy rate in Burundi was estimated to be 74.71% for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24, while the youth literacy rate was much higher at 92.58%.[154] Burundi has a comparatively high literacy rate to other countries in the region, which is only about 10% lower than the global average.[154] Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education.[155]

Burundi has one public university, University of Burundi. There are museums in the cities, such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega.

In 2010 a new elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School, Quebec, Canada.[156][157]

As of 2022, Burundi invested the equivalent of 5% of its GDP in education.[154]

Science and technology edit

Burundi's Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation (2013) covers the following areas: food technology; medical sciences; energy, mining and transportation; water; desertification; environmental biotechnology and indigenous knowledge; materials science; engineering and industry; ICTs; space sciences; mathematical sciences; and social and human sciences.

With regard to material sciences, Burundi's publication intensity doubled from 0.6 to 1.2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019, placing it in the top 15 for sub-Saharan Africa for this strategic technology.[158]

Medical sciences remain the main focus of research: medical researchers accounted for 4% of the country's scientists in 2018 but 41% of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019.[158]

The focus of the Strategic Plan for Science, Technology, Research and Innovation (2013) has been on developing an institutional framework and infrastructure, fostering greater regional and international co-operation and placing science in society. In October 2014, the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health a centre of excellence. Data are unavailable on output on nutritional sciences, the institute's area of specialization, but between 2011 and 2019, Burundi scientists produced seven articles on each of HIV and tropical communicable diseases and a further five on tuberculosis, all focus areas for the Sustainable Development Goals.[158]

The Strategic Plan has also focused on training researchers. Researcher density (in head counts) grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018. The amount of funding available to each researcher more than doubled from PPP$14,310 (constant 2005 values) to PPP$22,480, since the domestic research effort has also risen since 2012, from 0.11% to 0.21% of GDP.[158]

Burundi has almost tripled its scientific output since 2011 but the pace has not picked up since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. With six scientific publications per million inhabitants, Burundi still has one of the lowest publication rate in Central and East Africa.[158] Some 97.5% of publications involved foreign co-authorship between 2017 and 2019, with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners.[158]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ While Gitega has been established as the political capital, Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital.
  2. ^ Barundi are citizens of Burundi, Banyarwanda by tribe because their origin is of Rwanda around 17th century when the Kingdom was founded. They share the same family clans with Banyarwanda nationals, Banyarwanda tribe from Congo DR, Uganda and Tanzania. Different citizenship, government but same tribe that contains same clans. On top of that they use the same Language that contains multiple dialects including Kirundi and Kinyarwanda that have been standardized as the national languages of Burundi and Rwanda respectively, (other dialects include Ha, Shubi, Hangaza, Vinza, Kinyabwisha, Kinyamulenge, Rufumbira).
  3. ^ /bəˈrʊndi/ ⓘ bə-RUUN-dee or /bəˈrʌndi/ bə-RUN-dee
  4. ^ Kirundi: Repuburika y’Uburundi[13] [u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi]; Swahili: Jamuhuri ya Burundi; French: République du Burundi [buʁundi, byʁyndi]

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Bibliography edit

  • Eggers, Ellen K. (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5302-7.
  • Lemarchand, Rene (1996). Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56623-0.

Further reading edit

  • Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy
  • Allen, J. A.; et al. (2003). Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 1-85743-183-9.
  • Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi
  • Chrétien, Jean-Pierre The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History
  • Daley, Patricia Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region
  • Gates, Henry Lewis; Anthony Appiah (1999). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
  • Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad
  • Jennings, Christian Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness
  • Kayoya, Michel My Father's Footsteps (Sur les traces de mon père) East African Publishing House, 1973
  • Kayoya, Michel Entre deux mondes (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide.
  • Kidder, Tracy, Strength in What Remains (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US)
  • Krueger, Robert; Kathleen Tobin Krueger (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71486-1.
  • Melady, Thomas Patrick Burundi: The Tragic Years
  • Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi
  • Uvin, Peter Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi
  • Watt, Nigel Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country
  • Weinstein, Warren (2006). Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-0962-1. 1st. edition.

External links edit

 
Scholia has a country profile for Burundi.

3°30′S 30°00′E / 3.500°S 30.000°E / -3.500; 30.000

May 03, 2024
burundi, officially, republic, landlocked, country, great, rift, valley, junction, between, african, great, lakes, region, east, africa, bordered, rwanda, north, tanzania, east, southeast, democratic, republic, congo, west, lake, tanganyika, lies, along, south. Burundi c officially the Republic of Burundi d is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and East Africa It is bordered by Rwanda to the north Tanzania to the east and southeast and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border The capital cities are Gitega and Bujumbura the latter being the country s largest city 14 Republic of BurundiRepuburika y Uburundi Kirundi Republique du Burundi French Flag Coat of armsMotto Ubumwe Ibikorwa Amajambere Kirundi Unite Travail Progres French Union Work Progress English Anthem Burundi Bwacu Kirundi Our Burundi source source Show globeShow map of AfricaCapitalGitega political Bujumbura economic a 3 30 S 30 00 E 3 500 S 30 000 E 3 500 30 000Largest cityBujumburaOfficial languagesKirundiFrenchEnglishEthnic groups 1980 census citation needed 99 Barundi b 85 Hutu 14 Tutsi 1 Twa 3 000 Europeans 2 000 South AsiansReligion 2020 1 93 4 Christianity 63 7 Catholicism 25 2 Protestantism 4 5 other Christian4 3 traditional faiths2 1 Islam0 2 others noneDemonym s BurundianGovernmentUnitary dominant party presidential republic under an authoritarian state 2 3 4 PresidentEvariste Ndayishimiye 5 Vice PresidentProsper Bazombanza Prime MinisterGervais NdirakobucaLegislatureParliament Upper houseSenate Lower houseNational AssemblyEstablishment history Kingdom of Urundi 6 1680 1966 Part of German East Africa1890 1916 Part of Ruanda Urundi1916 1962 Independence from Belgium1 July 1962 Republic28 November 1966 Current constitution17 May 2018Area Total27 834 km2 10 747 sq mi 7 142nd Water 10 8 Population 2023 estimate13 162 952 9 77th Density473 km2 1 225 1 sq mi 17th GDP PPP 2023 estimate Total 11 551 billion 10 164th Per capita 890 10 193rd GDP nominal 2023 estimate Total 3 190 billion 10 173rd Per capita 245 10 192nd Gini 2013 39 2 11 mediumHDI 2022 0 420 12 low 187th CurrencyBurundian franc FBu BIF Time zoneUTC 2 CAT Driving siderightISO 3166 codeBIInternet TLD bi The Twa Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years For more than 200 of those years Burundi was an independent kingdom In 1885 it became part of the German colony of German East Africa 15 After the First World War and Germany s defeat the League of Nations mandated the territories of Burundi and neighboring Rwanda to Belgium in a combined territory called Rwanda Urundi After the Second World War this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially retained the monarchy a 1966 coup replaced the monarchy with a one party republic Over the next 27 years Burundi was ruled by a series of Tutsi dictators and notably experienced a genocide of Hutus in 1972 In July 1993 Melchior Ndadaye became Burundi s first Hutu president following the country s first multi party presidential election His assassination three months later during a coup attempt provoked the 12 year Burundian Civil War In 2000 the Arusha Agreement was adopted which was largely integrated in a new constitution in 2005 Since the 2005 post war elections the country s dominant party has been the National Council for the Defense of Democracy Forces for the Defense of Democracy CNDD FDD widely accused of authoritarian governance and perpetuating the country s poor human rights record Burundi remains primarily a rural society with just 13 4 of the population living in urban areas in 2019 16 Burundi is densely populated and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere Roughly 85 of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin 15 are Tutsi and fewer than 1 are Twa 17 The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi French and English Kirundi being officially recognised as the sole national language 18 English was made an official language in 2014 19 One of the smallest countries in Africa Burundi s land is used mostly for subsistence agriculture and grazing Deforestation soil erosion and habitat loss are major ecological concerns 20 As of 2005 update the country was almost completely deforested Less than 6 of its land was covered by trees and over half of that being for commercial plantations 21 Burundi is the poorest country in the world by nominal GDP per capita and is one of the least developed countries It faces widespread poverty corruption instability authoritarianism and illiteracy The 2018 World Happiness Report ranked the country as the world s least happy with a rank of 156 22 Burundi is a member of the African Union Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa United Nations East African Community EAC and the Non Aligned Movement Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Kingdom of Burundi 2 2 Rule by Germany and Belgium 2 3 Independence 2 4 Civil war and genocides 2 5 First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population 2 6 Peace agreements 2 7 UN involvement 2 8 2006 to 2018 2 8 1 2015 unrest 2 9 2018 to present 3 Government 3 1 Human rights 3 2 Subdivisions 4 Geography 4 1 Wildlife 5 Economy 5 1 Currency 5 2 Transport 6 Demographics 6 1 Languages 6 2 Religion 6 3 Health 7 Culture 7 1 Media 7 2 Education 7 3 Science and technology 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology editModern Burundi is named after the King of Urundi who ruled the region starting in the 16th century It derives its name from a word Urundi in Kirundi the local language which means Another one 23 Later the Belgian mandate to Ruanda Urundi region came to rename it and their former capital Usumbura of both kingdoms by adding the letter B in front of it History editMain articles History of Burundi and Ruanda Urundi Burundi is one of the few countries in Sub Saharan Africa along with its neighbour Rwanda among others such as Botswana Lesotho and Eswatini to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre colonial era African state The early history of Burundi and especially the role and nature of the country s three dominant ethnic groups the Twa Hutu and Tutsi is highly debated amongst academics 24 Kingdom of Burundi edit Main article Kingdom of Burundi The first evidence of the Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills Over the following centuries it expanded annexing smaller neighbours The Kingdom of Burundi or Urundi in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him succession struggles were common 6 The king known as the mwami translated as ruler headed a princely aristocracy ganwa which owned most of the land and required a tribute or tax from local farmers mainly Hutu and herders mainly Tutsi The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange 25 In the mid 18th century the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land production and distribution with the development of the ubugabire a patron client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure By this time the royal court was made up of the Tutsi Banyaruguru They had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi Hima In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa The system had some fluidity however Some Hutu people belonged to the nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state 26 The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa On the other hand there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu Thus the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio cultural concept instead of a purely ethnic one 27 28 There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people 29 In general regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi s politics than ethnicity 28 Rule by Germany and Belgium edit Main articles German East Africa and Ruanda Urundi From 1884 the German East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes region As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between the German East Africa Company the British Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar the German Empire was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire s interests in the region The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891 in this way establishing the German colony of German East Africa which included Burundi Urundi Rwanda Ruanda and the mainland part of Tanzania formerly known as Tanganyika 30 The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s The location of the present day city of Gitega served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda Urundi region 31 During the First World War the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region The Belgian and British colonial forces of the allied powers launched a coordinated attack on the German colony The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916 Burundi and Rwanda were occupied The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora an administrative centre of central German East Africa After the war as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles Germany was forced to cede control of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium 32 33 On 20 October 1924 Ruanda Urundi which consisted of modern day Rwanda and Burundi became a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory with Usumbura as its capital In practical terms it was considered part of the Belgian colonial empire Burundi as part of Ruanda Urundi continued its kingship dynasty despite the presence of European authorities 16 34 The Belgians however preserved many of the kingdom s institutions the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post colonial period 6 Following the Second World War Ruanda Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority 16 During the 1940s a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country On 4 October 1943 powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi s government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms Chiefdoms were in charge of land and lower sub chiefdoms were established Native authorities also had powers 34 In 1948 Belgium allowed the region to form political parties 32 These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium on 1 July 1962 Independence edit nbsp Flag of the Kingdom of Burundi 1962 1966 nbsp Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura On 20 January 1959 King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi s independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda Urundi union 35 In the following months Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi 35 The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress UPRONA Burundi s push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there As a result of the Rwandan Revolution many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi from 1959 to 1961 36 37 38 Burundi s first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA a multi ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80 of the electorate s votes In the wake of the elections on 13 October the 29 year old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated robbing Burundi of its most popular and well known nationalist 32 39 The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962 32 and legally changed its name from Ruanda Urundi to Burundi 40 Burundi became a constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV Prince Rwagasore s father serving as the country s king 37 On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations 41 In 1963 King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister Pierre Ngendandumwe but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which Western anti communist countries were confronting the communist People s Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo 42 Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased In October 1965 an attempted coup d etat led by the Hutu dominated police was carried out but failed The Tutsi dominated army then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero 37 purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5 000 people in a precursor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide 43 King Mwambutsa who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965 was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son Prince Ntare V claimed the throne In November that same year the Tutsi Prime Minister then Captain Michel Micombero carried out another coup this time deposing Ntare abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic though his one party government was effectively a military dictatorship 32 As president Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People s Republic of China He imposed a staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism Civil war and genocides edit Further information Burundian genocide 1972 and Burundian genocide 1993 In late April 1972 two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide On 27 April 1972 a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza Lac and the rebels declared the short lived Martyazo Republic 44 45 The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion 46 47 During this initial Hutu outbreak anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed 48 At the same time King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile heightening political tension in the country On 29 April 1972 the 24 year old Ntare V was murdered In subsequent months the Tutsi dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority The total number of casualties was never established but contemporary estimates put the number of people killed between 80 000 and 210 000 49 50 In addition several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaire Rwanda and Tanzania 50 51 Following the civil war and genocide Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn In 1976 Colonel Jean Baptiste Bagaza a Tutsi led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform His administration drafted a new constitution in 1981 which maintained Burundi s status as a one party state 37 In August 1984 Bagaza was elected head of state During his tenure Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms Major Pierre Buyoya a Tutsi overthrew Bagaza in 1987 suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation CSMN 37 Anti Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU which had re organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981 led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988 The government put the death toll at 5 000 citation needed some international NGOs who believed this understated the deaths The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972 Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for carried out and taken credit for the killings Analysts have called this period the beginning of the culture of impunity Other analysts put the origins of the culture of impunity earlier in 1965 and 1972 when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis citation needed In the aftermath of the killings a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya asking for more representation of the Hutu in the administration They were arrested and jailed A few weeks later Buyoya appointed a new government with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers He appointed Adrien Sibomana Hutu as Prime Minister Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity 37 In 1992 the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi party system 37 but a civil war broke out An estimated total of 250 000 people died in Burundi from the various conflicts between 1962 and 1993 52 Since Burundi s independence in 1962 two genocides have taken place in the country the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi dominated army 53 and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council 54 First attempt at democracy and war between Tutsi National Army and Hutu population edit In June 1993 Melchior Ndadaye leader of the Hutu dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi FRODEBU won the first democratic election He became the first Hutu head of state leading a pro Hutu government Though he attempted to smooth the country s bitter ethnic divide his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi dominated army and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993 after only three months in office The ensuing Burundian Civil War 1993 2005 saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and the Tutsi majority army It is estimated that some 300 000 people mostly civilians were killed in the years following the assassination 55 In early 1994 the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira Hutu to the office of president He and Juvenal Habyarimana the president of Rwanda both Hutus died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994 More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda Speaker of Parliament Sylvestre Ntibantunganya Hutu was appointed as president in October 1994 A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed A feared general massacre was averted but violence broke out A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura citation needed the then capital were killed The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament In 1996 Pierre Buyoya Tutsi again took power through a coup d etat He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998 This was the start of his second term as president after his first term from 1987 to 1993 In response to rebel attacks the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps citation needed Under Buyoya s rule long peace talks started mediated by South Africa Both parties signed agreements in Arusha Tanzania and Pretoria South Africa to share power in Burundi The agreements took four years to plan nbsp Belligerents of the Second Congo War Burundi backed the rebels On 28 August 2000 a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years After several aborted cease fires a 2001 peace plan and power sharing agreement has been relatively successful A cease fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group CNDD FDD National Council for the Defense of Democracy Forces for the Defense of Democracy 56 In 2003 FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye Hutu was elected president citation needed In early 2005 ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi s government Throughout the year elections for parliament and president occurred 57 Pierre Nkurunziza Hutu once a leader of a rebel group was elected president in 2005 As of 2008 update the Burundian government was talking with the Hutu led Palipehutu National Liberation Forces NLF 58 to bring peace to the country 59 Peace agreements edit African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995 following his death South African President Nelson Mandela took the helm As the talks progressed South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also lent their respective weight The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives who may use their positive reputations mediation or the carrot and stick method as a means of obtaining or forcing an outcome frequently along the lines of bargaining or win lose 60 The main objective was to transform the Burundian government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu It was to take place in two major steps First a transitional power sharing government would be established with the presidents holding office for three year terms The second objective involved a restructuring of the armed forces where the two groups would be represented equally 61 As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles First the Burundian officials perceived the goals as unrealistic and viewed the treaty as ambiguous contradictory and confusing Second and perhaps most importantly the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power sharing government they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements In 2000 62 the Burundian President signed the treaty as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government and when the ceasefire would begin The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord as a result violence intensified Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government However smaller militant Hutu groups such as the Forces for National Liberation remained active 63 UN involvement edit This section has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This section relies largely or entirely on a single source Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources Find sources Burundi news newspapers books scholar JSTOR March 2018 This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information March 2018 Learn how and when to remove this message Between 1993 and 2003 many rounds of peace talks overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania South Africa and Uganda gradually established power sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups Initially the South African Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from exile These forces became part of the African Union Mission to Burundi deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government In June 2004 the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi 64 The mission s mandate under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter has been to monitor cease fire carry out disarmament demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return assist with elections protect international staff and Burundian civilians monitor Burundi s troublesome borders including halting illicit arms flows and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution judiciary armed forces and police The mission has been allotted 5 650 military personnel 120 civilian police and about 1 000 international and local civilian personnel The mission has been functioning well It has greatly benefited from the transitional government which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected 64 The main difficulty in the early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN s presence By June 2005 the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process All political parties have accepted a formula for inter ethnic power sharing no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated 64 The focus of the UN s mission had been to enshrine the power sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution so that elections may be held and a new government installed Disarmament demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations In February 2005 the constitution was approved with over 90 of the popular vote In May June and August 2005 three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war weary population the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders as well as the population at large 64 It was involved with several quick effect projects including rehabilitating and building schools orphanages health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines The 2005 Constitution formalised a complex power sharing architecture that has been described as associational in its logic as it aims to provide guarantees of representation for the Tutsi minority without entrenching the ethnic cleavage at the centre of Burundian politics 65 This institutional design provides an original contribution from Burundian negotiators and constitution makers to institutional options to manage ethnic conflict citation needed 2006 to 2018 edit nbsp View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006 Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006 The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re focused on helping with reconstruction 66 Toward achieving economic reconstruction Rwanda D R Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries 66 In addition Burundi along with Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007 However the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group the FLN Forces for National Liberation also called NLF or FROLINA were not totally implemented and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team claiming that their security was threatened 67 In September 2007 rival FLN factions clashed in the capital killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country 66 The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners 68 In late 2007 and early 2008 FLN combatants attacked government protected camps where former combatants were living The homes of rural residents were also pillaged 68 The 2007 report 68 of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement is required Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN The latter also recruits child soldiers The rate of violence against women is high Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system Genocide war crimes and crimes against humanity continued to go unpunished citation needed In late March 2008 the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them provisional immunity from arrest This would cover ordinary crimes but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity 68 Even though the government has granted this in the past to people the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity On 17 April 2008 the FLN bombarded Bujumbura The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008 In August 2008 President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa with the mediation of Charles Nqakula South Africa s Minister for Safety and Security This was the first direct meeting since June 2007 Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations 69 The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peace building initiatives In the early 2010s the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected given the prevalence of arms in the country However these evaluations failed to include date from local populations which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives 70 As of 2012 Burundi was participating in African Union peacekeeping missions including the mission to Somalia against Al Shabaab militants 71 In 2014 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established initially for four years and then extended for another four in 2018 72 73 2015 unrest edit Main article Burundian unrest 2015 2018 In April 2015 protests broke out after the ruling party announced President Pierre Nkurunziza would seek a third term in office 74 Protestors claimed Nkurunziza could not run for a third term in office but the country s constitutional court agreed with Nkurunziza although some of its members had fled the country at the time of its vote 75 An attempted coup d etat on 13 May failed to depose Nkurunziza 76 77 He returned to Burundi began purging his government and arrested several of the coup leaders 78 79 80 81 82 Following the attempted coup protests however continued and over 100 000 people had fled the country by 20 May causing a humanitarian emergency There are reports of continued and widespread abuses of human rights including unlawful killings torture disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression 83 84 Despite calls by the United Nations the African Union the United States France South Africa Belgium and various other governments to refrain the ruling party held parliamentary elections on 29 June but these were boycotted by the opposition On 30 September 2016 the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33 24 Its mandate is to conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015 to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations 85 On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations It further stressed that The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry despite the Commission s repeated requests and initiatives 86 The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions acts of torture and cruel inhuman or degrading treatment extrajudicial executions enforced disappearances rape and other forms of sexual violence 86 2018 to present edit In a constitutional referendum in May 2018 Burundians voted by 79 08 to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034 87 88 However much to the surprise of most observers Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 general election 89 On 20 May 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye a candidate who was hand picked as Nkurunziza s successor by the CNDD FDD won the election with 71 45 of the vote 90 Shortly after on 9 June 2020 Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest at the age of 55 89 There was some speculation that his death was COVID 19 related though this is unconfirmed 91 As per the constitution Pascal Nyabenda the president of the national assembly led the government until Ndayishimiye s inauguration on 18 June 2020 89 90 In December 2021 a large prison fire killed dozens in the capital city of Gitega 92 In November 2022 in challenges to the COVID 19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine Burundi s economic growth increased slightly to 3 percent according to an assessment of the International Monetary Fund Currently Burundi remains as one of the poorest nations on Earth based on a Gross National Income GNI of 270 per capita 93 Government editMain article Politics of Burundi nbsp Pierre Nkurunziza President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020 Burundi s political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi party state The president of Burundi is the head of state and head of government There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi 32 On 13 March 1992 Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution 94 which provided for a multi party political process and reflected multi party competition 95 Six years later on 6 June 1998 the constitution was changed broadening National Assembly s seats and making provisions for two vice presidents Because of the Arusha Accord Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000 96 Burundi s legislative branch is a bicameral assembly consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate As of 2004 update the Transitional National Assembly consisted of 170 members with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38 of seats and 10 of the assembly controlled by UPRONA Fifty two seats were controlled by other parties Burundi s constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60 Hutu 40 Tutsi and 30 female members as well as three Batwa members 32 Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve five year terms 97 The Transitional Senate has fifty one members and three seats are reserved for former presidents Due to stipulations in Burundi s constitution 30 of Senate members must be female Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges which consist of members from each of Burundi s provinces and communes 32 For each of Burundi s eighteen provinces one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen One term for the Transitional Senate is five years 97 Together Burundi s legislative branch elect the president to a five year term 97 Burundi s president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers which is also part of the executive branch 96 The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers 32 Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two thirds of Burundi s legislature The president also chooses two vice presidents 97 Following the 2015 election the president of Burundi was Pierre Nkurunziza The first vice president was Therence Sinunguruza and the Second Vice president was Gervais Rufyikiri 98 On 20 May 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye a candidate who was hand picked as Nkurunziza s successor by the CNDD FDD won the election with 71 45 of the vote Shortly after on 9 June 2020 Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest at the age of 55 As per the constitution Pascal Nyabenda the president of the national assembly led the government until Ndayishimiye s inauguration on 18 June 2020 99 100 The Cour Supreme Supreme Court is Burundi s highest court There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi s provinces as well as 123 local tribunals 96 nbsp Embassy of Burundi in Brussels Human rights edit See also Human rights in Burundi and LGBT rights in Burundi Burundi s government has been repeatedly criticised by human rights organisations including Human Rights Watch 101 for the multiple arrests and trials of journalist Jean Claude Kavumbagu for issues related to his reporting Amnesty International AI named him a prisoner of conscience and called for his immediate and unconditional release In April 2009 the government of Burundi changed the law to criminalise homosexuality Persons found guilty of consensual same sex relations risk three months to two years in prison and or a fine of 50 000 to 100 000 Burundian francs 102 Amnesty International has condemned the action calling it a violation of Burundi s obligations under international and regional human rights law and against the constitution which guarantees the right to privacy 103 Burundi officially left the International Criminal Court ICC on 27 October 2017 the first country in the world to do so 104 The move came after the UN accused the country of various crimes and human rights violations such as extrajudicial killings torture and sexual violence in a September 2017 report 104 The ICC announced on 9 November 2017 that human rights violations from the time Burundi was a member would still be prosecuted 105 106 Subdivisions edit Main articles Provinces of Burundi Communes of Burundi and Collines of Burundi This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information June 2023 Burundi is divided into 18 provinces 107 119 communes 32 and 2 638 collines hills 108 Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries Burundi s provinces and communes were created on Christmas Day in 1959 by a Belgian colonial decree They replaced the pre existing system of chieftains 109 In 2000 the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces Bujumbura Rural and Bujumbura Mairie 110 The newest province Rumonge was created on 26 March 2015 from portions of Bujumbura Rural and Bururi 111 In July 2022 the government of Burundi announced a complete overhaul of the country s territorial subdivisions The proposed change would reduce the amounts of provinces from 18 to 5 and reduce the amount of communes from 119 to 42 The change needs the approval of the parliament of Burundi to take effect 109 Province Capital Area km2 112 Population 2008 census 107 Density per km2 Communes Eastern Burundi Cankuzo Cankuzo 1 964 54 228 873 116 5 5 Gitega Gitega 1 978 96 725 223 366 5 11 Rutana Rutana 1 959 45 333 510 170 2 6 Ruyigi Ruyigi 2 338 88 400 530 171 2 7 Northern Burundi Karuzi Karuzi 1 457 40 436 443 299 5 7 Kayanza Kayanza 1 233 24 585 412 474 7 9 Kirundo Kirundo 1 703 34 628 256 368 8 7 Muyinga Muyinga 1 836 26 632 409 344 4 7 Ngozi Ngozi 1 473 86 660 717 448 3 9 Southern Burundi Bururi Bururi 1 644 68 313 102 190 4 6 Makamba Makamba 1 959 60 430 899 219 9 6 Rumonge Rumonge 1 079 72 352 026 326 0 5 Western Burundi Bubanza Bubanza 1 089 04 338 023 310 4 5 Bujumbura Mairie Bujumbura 86 52 497 166 5746 3 13 Bujumbura Rural Isale 113 1 059 84 464 818 438 6 9 Cibitoke Cibitoke 1 635 53 460 435 281 5 6 Muramvya Muramvya 695 52 292 589 420 7 5 Mwaro Mwaro 839 60 273 143 325 3 6 nbsp Geography edit nbsp Map of Burundi nbsp Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi Main articles Geography of Burundi and Climate of Burundi One of the smallest countries in Africa Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift the western extension of the East African Rift The country lies on a rolling plateau in the centre of Africa Burundi is bordered by Rwanda to the north Tanzania to the east and southeast and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west It lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests Central Zambezian miombo woodlands and Victoria Basin forest savanna mosaic ecoregions 114 The average elevation of the central plateau is 1 707 m 5 600 ft with lower elevations at the borders The highest peak Mount Heha at 2 685 m 8 810 ft 115 lies to the southeast of the largest city and economic capital Bujumbura The source of the Nile River is in Bururi province and is linked from Lake Victoria to its headwaters via the Ruvyironza River 116 clarification needed Lake Victoria is also an important water source which serves as a fork to the Kagera River 117 118 Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika located in much of Burundi s southwestern corner 119 There are two national parks Kibira National Park to the northwest a small region of rainforest adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda and Ruvubu National Park to the northeast along the Rurubu River also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations 120 Wildlife edit Main article Wildlife of BurundiEconomy editMain article Economy of Burundi See also List of companies based in Burundi nbsp Historical development of GDP per capita Burundi is a landlocked resource poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector The economy is predominantly agricultural accounting for 50 of GDP in 2017 121 and employing more than 90 of the population Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90 of agriculture 122 Burundi s primary exports are coffee and tea which account for 90 of foreign exchange earnings though exports are a relatively small share of GDP Other agricultural products include cotton tea maize sorghum sweet potatoes bananas manioc tapioca beef milk and hides Even though subsistence farming is highly relied upon many people do not have the resources to sustain themselves This is due to large population growth and no coherent policies governing land ownership In 2014 the average farm size was about one acre Burundi is the world s poorest country owing in part to its landlocked geography 16 lack of access to education and the proliferation of HIV AIDS Approximately 80 of Burundi s population lives in poverty 123 Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi most notably in the 20th century 34 and according to the World Food Programme 56 8 of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition 124 Burundi s export earnings and its ability to pay for imports rests primarily on weather conditions and international coffee and tea prices The purchasing power of most Burundians has decreased as wage increases have not kept up with inflation As a result of deepening poverty Burundi will remain heavily dependent on aid from bilateral and multilateral donors Foreign aid represents 42 of Burundi s national income the second highest rate in Sub Saharan Africa Burundi joined the East African Community in 2009 which should boost its regional trade ties and also in 2009 received 700 million in debt relief Government corruption is hindering the development of a healthy private sector as companies seek to navigate an environment with ever changing rules 16 Studies since 2007 have shown Burundians to have extremely poor levels of satisfaction with life the World Happiness Report 2018 rated them the world s least happy 22 125 nbsp Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika Some of Burundi s natural resources include uranium nickel cobalt copper and platinum 126 Besides agriculture other industries include the assembly of imported components public works construction food processing and light consumer goods such as blankets shoes and soap In regards to telecommunications infrastructure Burundi is ranked second to last in the World Economic Forum s Network Readiness Index NRI an indicator for determining the development level of a country s information and communication technologies Burundi ranked number 147 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking down from 144 in 2013 127 Lack of access to financial services is a serious problem for the majority of the population particularly in densely populated rural areas only 2 of the total population holds bank accounts and fewer than 0 5 use bank lending services Microfinance however plays a larger role with 4 of Burundians being members of microfinance institutions a larger share of the population than that reached by banking and postal services combined 26 licensed microfinance institutions MFIs offer savings deposits and short to medium term credit The dependence of the sector on donor assistance is limited 128 Burundi is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation Burundi economy has declined since 1990s and Burundi is behind all neighbouring countries Burundi was ranked 130th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023 129 Currency edit Main article Burundian franc Burundi s currency is the Burundian franc It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes though coins have never been issued in centimes in independent Burundi centime coins were circulated only when Burundi used the Belgian Congo franc Monetary policy is controlled by the central bank Bank of the Republic of Burundi Current BIF exchange ratesFrom Google Finance AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USD From Yahoo Finance AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USD From XE com AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USD From OANDA AUD CAD CHF CNY EUR GBP HKD JPY USD Transport edit Main article Transport in Burundi nbsp Bujumbura International Airport terminal in Bujumbura nbsp Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi Burundi s transport network is limited and underdeveloped According to a 2012 DHL Global Connectedness Index Burundi is the least globalised of 140 surveyed countries 130 Bujumbura International Airport is the only airport with a paved runway and as of May 2017 it was serviced by four airlines Brussels Airlines Ethiopian Airlines Kenya Airways and RwandAir Kigali is the city with the most daily flight connections to Bujumbura The country has a road network but as of 2005 update less than 10 of the country s roads were paved and as of 2012 update private bus companies were the main operators of buses on the international route to Kigali however there were no bus connections to the other neighbouring countries Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo 131 Bujumbura is connected by a passenger and cargo ferry the MV Mwongozo to Kigoma in Tanzania 132 There is a long term plan to link the country via rail to Kigali and then onward to Kampala and Kenya Demographics edit Largest cities or towns in Burundi Source 133 Rank Name Province Pop nbsp Bujumbura nbsp Gitega 1 Bujumbura Bujumbura Mairie 374 809 nbsp Ngozi nbsp Rumonge 2 Gitega Gitega 135 467 3 Ngozi Ngozi 39 884 4 Rumonge Bururi 35 931 5 Cibitoke Cibitoke 23 885 6 Kayanza Kayanza 21 767 7 Bubanza Bubanza 20 031 8 Karuzi Karuzi 10 705 9 Kirundo Kirundo 10 024 10 Muyinga Muyinga 9 609 nbsp Men in colourful clothing with drums nbsp Children in Bujumbura Burundi Main articles Demographics of Burundi and Languages of Burundi As of October 2021 Burundi was estimated by the United Nations to have a population of 12 346 893 134 135 compared to only 2 456 000 in 1950 136 The population growth rate is 2 5 percent per year more than double the average global pace and a Burundian woman has on average 5 10 children more than double the international fertility rate 137 Burundi had the tenth highest total fertility rate in the world just behind Somalia in 2021 16 Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war In 2006 the United States accepted approximately 10 000 Burundian refugees 138 Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society with just 13 of the population living in urban areas in 2013 16 The population density of around 315 people per square kilometre 753 per sq mi is the second highest in Sub Saharan Africa 32 Roughly 85 of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin 15 are Tutsi and fewer than 1 are indigenous Twa 17 Languages edit Main article Languages of Burundi The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi French and English English was made an official language in 2014 19 Virtually the entire population speaks Kirundi and just under 10 speak French 139 Religion edit Main article Religion in Burundi Sources estimate the Christian population at 80 90 with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 60 65 Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 15 25 An estimated 5 of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs Muslims constitute 2 5 the majority of whom are Sunnis and live in urban areas 16 140 141 Health edit Main article Health in Burundi Burundi has the worst hunger and malnourishment rates of all 120 countries ranked in the Global Hunger Index 137 The civil war in 1962 put a stop on the medical advancements in the country 142 Burundi again went into a violent cycle in 2015 jeopardising the citizens of Burundi s medical care 143 Like other countries in Sub Saharan Africa Burundi uses indigenous medicine in addition to biomedicine In the 1980s Burundi s health authorities asked the United Nations Development Program for support to develop quality control for and begin new research on pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants 142 At the same time the Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners ATRADIBU was founded which teamed up with the governments agency to set up the Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi CRPMT 142 The recent influx of international aid has supported the work of biomedical health systems in Burundi However international aid workers have traditionally stayed away from indigenous medicine in Burundi 142 As of 2015 roughly 1 out of 10 children in Burundi die before the age of 5 from preventable and treatable illnesses such as pneumonia diarrhoea and malaria 143 The current violence in Burundi has limited the country s access to medication and hospital equipment The life expectancy in Burundi as of 2015 was 60 1 years 144 In 2013 Burundi spent 8 of their GDP on healthcare 144 While Burundi s fertility rate is 6 1 children per women the country s infant mortality rate is 61 9 deaths for every 1 000 live births 144 Common diseases in Burundi include malaria and typhoid fever 144 Culture edit nbsp Drums from Gitega Main articles Culture of Burundi Tourism in Burundi and Music of Burundi Burundi s culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighbouring countries though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest Since farming is the main industry a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes corn rice and peas Due to the expense meat is eaten only a few times per month When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke a beer together from a large container to symbolise unity 145 Notable Burundians include the footballer Mohammed Tchite and singer Jean Pierre Nimbona popularly known as Kidumu who is based in Nairobi Kenya Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists Basket weaving is a popular craft for local artisans 146 as well as other crafts such as masks shields statues and pottery 147 Drumming is an important part of the cultural heritage The world famous Royal Drummers of Burundi who have performed for over 40 years are noted for traditional drumming using the karyenda amashako ibishikiso and ikiranya drums 148 Dance often accompanies drumming performance which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings The abatimbo which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals and the fast paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances Some musical instruments of note are the flute zither ikembe indonongo umuduri inanga and the inyagara 147 nbsp Football in Burundi The country s oral tradition is strong relaying history and life lessons through storytelling poetry and song Imigani indirimbo amazina and ivyivugo are literary genres in Burundi 149 Basketball and track and field are noted sports Martial arts are popular as well There are five major judo clubs Club Judo de l Entente Sportive in Downtown and four others throughout the city 150 Association football is a popular pastime throughout the country as are mancala games Most Christian holidays are celebrated with Christmas being the largest 151 Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on 1 July 152 In 2005 the Burundian government declared Eid al Fitr an Islamic holiday to be a public holiday 153 Media edit See also Mass media in Burundi Education edit This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information June 2018 nbsp Carolus Magnus School in Burundi Main article Education in Burundi In 2012 the adult literacy rate in Burundi was estimated to be 74 71 for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24 while the youth literacy rate was much higher at 92 58 154 Burundi has a comparatively high literacy rate to other countries in the region which is only about 10 lower than the global average 154 Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education 155 Burundi has one public university University of Burundi There are museums in the cities such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega In 2010 a new elementary school was opened in the small village of Rwoga that is funded by the pupils of Westwood High School Quebec Canada 156 157 As of 2022 Burundi invested the equivalent of 5 of its GDP in education 154 Science and technology edit Burundi s Strategic Plan for Science Technology Research and Innovation 2013 covers the following areas food technology medical sciences energy mining and transportation water desertification environmental biotechnology and indigenous knowledge materials science engineering and industry ICTs space sciences mathematical sciences and social and human sciences With regard to material sciences Burundi s publication intensity doubled from 0 6 to 1 2 articles per million inhabitants between 2012 and 2019 placing it in the top 15 for sub Saharan Africa for this strategic technology 158 Medical sciences remain the main focus of research medical researchers accounted for 4 of the country s scientists in 2018 but 41 of scientific publications between 2011 and 2019 158 The focus of the Strategic Plan for Science Technology Research and Innovation 2013 has been on developing an institutional framework and infrastructure fostering greater regional and international co operation and placing science in society In October 2014 the EAC Secretariat designated the National Institute of Public Health a centre of excellence Data are unavailable on output on nutritional sciences the institute s area of specialization but between 2011 and 2019 Burundi scientists produced seven articles on each of HIV and tropical communicable diseases and a further five on tuberculosis all focus areas for the Sustainable Development Goals 158 The Strategic Plan has also focused on training researchers Researcher density in head counts grew from 40 to 55 researchers per million inhabitants between 2011 and 2018 The amount of funding available to each researcher more than doubled from PPP 14 310 constant 2005 values to PPP 22 480 since the domestic research effort has also risen since 2012 from 0 11 to 0 21 of GDP 158 Burundi has almost tripled its scientific output since 2011 but the pace has not picked up since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 With six scientific publications per million inhabitants Burundi still has one of the lowest publication rate in Central and East Africa 158 Some 97 5 of publications involved foreign co authorship between 2017 and 2019 with Ugandans figuring among the top five partners 158 See also edit nbsp Burundi portal Outline of Burundi Culture of Burundi Index of Burundi related articles Wildlife of Burundi National Defence Force Burundi Notes edit While Gitega has been established as the political capital Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital Barundi are citizens of Burundi Banyarwanda by tribe because their origin is of Rwanda around 17th century when the Kingdom was founded They share the same family clans with Banyarwanda nationals Banyarwanda tribe from Congo DR Uganda and Tanzania Different citizenship government but same tribe that contains same clans On top of that they use the same Language that contains multiple dialects including Kirundi and Kinyarwanda that have been standardized as the national languages of Burundi and Rwanda respectively other dialects include Ha Shubi Hangaza Vinza Kinyabwisha Kinyamulenge Rufumbira b e ˈ r ʊ n d i be RUUN dee or b e ˈ r ʌ n d i be RUN dee Kirundi Repuburika y Uburundi 13 u bu ɾǔː ndi Swahili Jamuhuri ya Burundi French Republique du Burundi buʁundi byʁyndi References edit National Profiles Douet Marion Not In The Regime s DNA Authoritarian Burundi s Slow Reopening Barrons Retrieved 5 January 2024 Inside the most brutal dictatorship you ve never heard of British GQ 10 September 2019 Retrieved 5 January 2024 Feron Elise 14 November 2023 Throwing in my two cents Burundian diaspora youth between conventional and transformative forms of mobilization Globalizations 1 16 doi 10 1080 14747731 2023 2282256 ISSN 1474 7731 Burundi s ruling party wins presidential election Reuters 26 May 2020 a b c Kingdom of Burundi Encyclopaedia Britannica Online ed Retrieved 15 October 2016 Quelques donnees pour le Burundi in French ISTEEBU Archived from the original on 28 July 2017 Retrieved 17 December 2015 Annuaire statistique du Burundi PDF Report in French ISTEEBU July 2015 p 105 Archived from the original PDF on 7 June 2016 Retrieved 17 December 2015 Burundi The World Factbook 2024 ed Central Intelligence Agency Retrieved 22 June 2023 a b c d World Economic Outlook Database October 2023 Edition Burundi IMF org International Monetary Fund 10 October 2023 Retrieved 24 October 2023 Gini Index World Bank Estimate World Development Indicators The World Bank Archived from the original on 26 June 2015 Retrieved 13 January 2015 https hdr undp org system files documents global report document hdr2023 24reporten pdf HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023 24 United Nations Development Programme United Nations Development Programme 13 March 2024 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Check url value help Constitution de la Republique du Burundi promulguee le 07 juin 2018 3 July 2018 Loi n 1 04 du 04 fevrier 2019 portant Fixation de la Capitale Politique et de la Capitale Economique du Burundi 13 February 2019 Retrieved 24 February 2019 Strizek Helmut 2006 Geschenkte Kolonien Ruanda und Burundi unter deutscher Herrschaft Donated colonies Rwanda and Burundi under German rule Berlin Ch Links Verlag ISBN 978 3861533900 a b c d e f g h Burundi The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency 31 January 2024 retrieved 5 February 2024 a b Eggers p ix Maurer Sous la direction de Bruno 1 October 2016 Les approches bi plurilingues d enseignement apprentissage autour du programme Ecoles et langues nationales en Afrique ELAN Afrique Actes du colloque du 26 27 mars 2015 Universite Paul Valery Montpellier France Archives contemporaines ISBN 9782813001955 Archived from the original on 10 April 2018 Retrieved 10 April 2018 via Google Books a b Burundi l anglais officialise aux cotes du francais et du kirundi RFI in French 29 August 2014 Retrieved 14 July 2021 Bermingham Eldredge Dick Christopher W and Moritz Craig 2005 Tropical Rainforests Past Present and Future Chicago Illinois University of Chicago Press p 146 ISBN 0 226 04468 8 Butler Rhett A 2006 Burundi Mongabay Archived from the original on 5 May 2006 a b Collinson Patrick 14 March 2018 Finland is the happiest country in the world says UN report The Guardian Archived from the original on 14 March 2018 Retrieved 15 March 2018 How King Ntare Rushatsi of Urundi came up with the name of his founding Kingdom Burundi s Name Origin From Google Uvin Peter 1999 Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda Different Paths to Mass Violence in Comparative Politics Vol 31 No 3 Apr 1999 pp 253 272 Published by Comparative Politics Ph D Programs in Political Science City University of New York Page 254 VANDEGINSTE S Stones left unturned law and transitional justice in Burundi Antwerp Oxford Portland Intersentia 2010 p 17 R O Collins amp J M Burns 2007 A History of Sub Saharan Africa Cambridge University Press Page 125 Chretien Jean Pierre 2003 The Great Lakes of Africa Two Thousand Years of History Cambridge Massachusetts MIT Press ISBN 978 1 890951 34 4 a b WEISSMAN S Preventing genocide in Burundi lessons from international diplomacy Washington D C United States Institute of Peace Press 1998 p5 Burundi 1 July 2015 Archived from the original on 1 July 2015 Retrieved 27 January 2020 German East Africa former German dependency Africa Encyclopaedia Britannica Archived from the original on 2 September 2017 Retrieved 16 September 2017 In archived text German East Africa German Deutsch Ostafrika former dependency of imperial Germany corresponding to present day Rwanda and 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primarily Hutu killed by Tutsi 120 000 Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine a b International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi 2002 Paragraph 85 The Micombero regime responded with a genocidal repression that is estimated to have caused over a hundred thousand victims and forced several hundred thousand Hutus into exile Longman Timothy Paul 1998 Proxy Targets Civilians in the War in Burundi Human Rights Watch p 12 ISBN 978 1 56432 179 4 Hagget Peter Encyclopedia of World Geography Tarrytown New York Marshall Cavendish 2002 ISBN 0 7614 7306 8 Past genocides Burundi resources Archived 25 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine on the website of Prevent Genocide International lists the following resources Michael Bowen Passing By The United States and Genocide in Burundi 1972 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 1973 49 pp Rene Lemarchand Selective genocide in Burundi Report Minority Rights Group no 20 1974 36 pp Lemarchand 1996 Edward L Nyankanzi Genocide Rwanda and Burundi 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April 2017 Archived from the original on 5 April 2017 Retrieved 27 January 2020 Burundi Cities by Population World Population Prospects 2022 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division Retrieved 17 July 2022 World Population Prospects 2022 Demographic indicators by region subregion and country annually for 1950 2100 XSLX Total Population as of 1 July thousands United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division Retrieved 17 July 2022 Table 2 Total population by country 1950 2000 2015 2025 and 2050 medium variant Archived 8 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine PDF United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division p 27 a b Jillian Keenan The Blood Cries Out Archived 12 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine In one of Africa s most densely populated countries brothers are killing brothers over the right to farm mere acres of earth There s just not enough land to go around in Burundi and it could push the country into civil war Foreign Policy FP Kaufman Stephen U S Accepting Approximately 10 000 Refugees from Burundi Archived 13 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine 17 October 2006 U S Department of State Retrieved on 30 June 2008 La langue francaise dans le monde 2022 Pew Research Center s Religion amp Public Life Project Burundi Archived 4 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Pew Research Center 2010 Burundi U S Department of State State gov 17 November 2010 Retrieved on 24 November 2012 a b c d Falisse Jean Benoit Masino Serena Ngenzebuhoro Raymond 2018 Indigenous medicine and biomedical health care in fragile settings insights from Burundi Health Policy and Planning 33 4 483 493 doi 10 1093 heapol czy002 hdl 20 500 11820 461331f7 1c9d 45f2 b778 933e8c1c4735 PMID 29452365 S2CID 4917618 a b Panalpina flies UNICEF relief to Burundi 70 tons of primary medical care goods arrived in Burundi African Press Organization 30 November 2015 permanent dead link a b c d Burundi Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations permanent dead link Eating the Burundian Way Archived from the original on 16 June 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 30 June 2008 Levin Adam 2005 The Art of African Shopping Cape Town South Africa Struik p 36 ISBN 978 1 77007 070 7 a b Burundi Arts and Literature Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 30 June 2008 Center for the Arts Presents the Royal Drummers of Burundi Archived 3 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Mason Gazette 14 September 2006 George Mason University Retrieved on 20 July 2008 Vansina Jan 1985 Oral Tradition as History Madison Wisconsin University of Wisconsin Press p 114 ISBN 0 299 10214 9 Sports and Recreation Archived from the original on 16 June 2006 Retrieved 24 November 2012 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 20 July 2008 Burundi Holidays Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada Retrieved 30 June 2008 Trawicky Bernard and Gregory Ruth Wilhelme 2000 Anniversaries and Holidays Chicago Illinois American Library Association p 110 ISBN 0 8389 0695 8 Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday Archived 17 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine BBC 3 November 2005 Retrieved on 30 June 2008 a b c IDEA idea usaid gov Retrieved 14 November 2023 Learning in Burundi Archived from the original on 1 October 2006 Retrieved 21 July 2008 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Cultural Profiles Project Citizenship and Immigration Canada cp pc ca Bridge To Burundi Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 4 April 2014 Westwood Bridge to Burundi Archived 26 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Facebook Retrieved on 4 April 2014 a b c d e f Njoki Kingiri Awono Onana 11 June 2021 Schneegans S Straza T Lewis J eds Central and East Africa In UNESCO Science Report the Race Against Time for Smarter Development Paris UNESCO pp 496 533 ISBN 978 92 3 100450 6 Bibliography editEggers Ellen K 2006 Historical Dictionary of Burundi 3rd ed Lanham Maryland Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 5302 7 Lemarchand Rene 1996 Burundi Ethnic Conflict and Genocide Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 56623 0 Further reading editAbdallah Ahmedou Ould Burundi on the Brink 1993 95 A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy Allen J A et al 2003 Africa South of the Sahara 2004 South of the Sahara New York New York Taylor and Francis Group ISBN 1 85743 183 9 Bentley Kristina and Southall Roger An African Peace Process Mandela South Africa and Burundi Chretien Jean Pierre The Great Lakes of Africa Two Thousand Years of History Daley Patricia Gender and Genocide in Burundi The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region Gates Henry Lewis Anthony Appiah 1999 Africana The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience New York New York Basic Civitas Books ISBN 0 465 00071 1 Ewusi Kale and Akwanga Ebenezer Burundi s Negative Peace The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad Jennings Christian Across the Red River Rwanda Burundi and the Heart of Darkness Kayoya Michel My Father s Footsteps Sur les traces de mon pere East African Publishing House 1973 Kayoya Michel Entre deux mondes Between two worlds Lavigerie Editeurs Bujumbura 1971 Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide Kidder Tracy Strength in What Remains A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US Krueger Robert Kathleen Tobin Krueger 2007 From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi Our Embassy Years during Genocide Austin Texas University of Texas Press ISBN 978 0 292 71486 1 Melady Thomas Patrick Burundi The Tragic Years Nivonzima David and Fendell Len Unlocking Horns Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi Uvin Peter Life After Violence A People s Story of Burundi Watt Nigel Burundi The Biography of a Small African Country Weinstein Warren 2006 Historical Dictionary of Burundi Metuchen New Jersey Scarecrow Press ISBN 0 8108 0962 1 1st edition External links editBurundi at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Definitions from Wiktionary nbsp Media from Commons nbsp News from Wikinews nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Texts from Wikisource nbsp Textbooks from Wikibooks nbsp Resources from Wikiversity nbsp Travel information from Wikivoyage nbsp Scholia has a country profile for Burundi Records of the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi UNICIB 1995 1996 Archived 8 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine at the United Nations Archives in French Official Burundi government website Archived 20 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi Chief of State and Cabinet Members Burundi The World Factbook Central Intelligence Agency Burundi from UCB Libraries GovPubs Burundi at Curlie Burundi from the BBC News nbsp Wikimedia Atlas of Burundi Key Development Forecasts for Burundi from International Futures 3 30 S 30 00 E 3 500 S 30 000 E 3 500 30 000 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Burundi amp oldid 1221964295, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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