fbpx
Wikipedia

History of Burundi

Burundi originated in the 16th century as a small kingdom in the African Great Lakes region. After European contact, it was united with the Kingdom of Rwanda, becoming the colony of Ruanda-Urundi - first colonised by Germany and then by Belgium. The colony gained independence in 1962, and split once again into Rwanda and Burundi. It is one of the few countries in Africa (along with Rwanda, Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini) to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state.

Kingdom of Burundi (1680–1966) edit

The origins of Burundi are known from a mix of oral history and archaeology.[1] There are two main founding legends for Burundi. Both suggest that the nation was founded by a man named Cambarantama. The other version, more common in pre-colonial Burundi says that Cambarantama came from the southern state of Buha.[2]

The first evidence of the Burundian state is from 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours and competing with Rwanda. Its greatest growth occurred under Ntare IV Rutaganzwa Rugamba, who ruled the country from about 1796 to 1850 and saw the kingdom double in size.

The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange.[3] The king, known as the mwami headed a princely aristocracy (ganwa) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers and herders.[3] In the mid-18th century, this Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of the ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure.[3]

European contact (1856) edit

European explorers and missionaries made brief visits to the area as early as 1856,[3] and they compared the organization of the kingdom of Burundi with that of the old Greek empire.[citation needed] It was not until 1899 that Burundi became a part of German East Africa.[3] Unlike the Rwandan monarchy, which decided to accept the German advances, the Burundian king Mwezi IV Gisabo opposed all European influence, refusing to wear European clothing and resisting the advance of European missionaries or administrators.

German East Africa (1899–1916) edit

The Germans used armed force and succeeded in doing great damage, but did not destroy the king's power. Eventually they backed one of the king's sons-in-law Maconco in a revolt against Gisabo. Gisabo was eventually forced to concede and agreed to German suzerainty. The Germans then helped him suppress Maconco's revolt. The smaller kingdoms along the western shore of Lake Victoria were also attached to Burundi.

Even after this the foreign presence was minimal and the kings continued to rule much as before. The Europeans did, however, bring devastating diseases affecting both people and animals. Affecting the entire region, Burundi was especially hard hit. A great famine hit in 1905, with others striking the entire Great Lakes region in 1914, 1923 and 1944. Between 1905 and 1914 half the population of the western plains region died.[citation needed]

Belgian and United Nations governance (1916–1962) edit

In 1916 Belgian troops conquered the area during the First World War.[3] In 1923, the League of Nations mandated to Belgium the territory of Ruanda-Urundi, encompassing modern-day Rwanda and Burundi,[3] the western kingdoms being assigned to Tanganyika.[4] The Belgians administered the territory through indirect rule, building on the Tutsi-dominated aristocratic hierarchy.[3]

Following the Second World War, Ruanda-Urundi became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.[3] The trust territory guidelines required that the trust territories be prepared for independence and majority rule but it wasn't until 10 November 1959 that Belgium committed itself to political reform and legalised the emergence of competing political parties.

On 20 January 1959, Burundi's ruler Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi's independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda-Urundi union.[5] In the following months, Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi.[5] The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress (UPRONA).[6] UPRONA was a multi-ethnic party led by Tutsi Prince Louis Rwagasore while the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) was supported by Belgium,[3] which was being ruled by the Christian Social Party, whose party leader, August de Schryver, was Minister of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi from 1959 until 1960.[7]

Burundi's first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated, robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalist.[8][9] Historians have speculated over Belgium's role in Rwagasore's death and the two highest ranking Belgian colonial officials in Burundi (Jean-Paul Harroy and Roberto Régnier) were accused of involvement by Rwagasore's convicted murderer (Jean Kageorgis).[10] The day after Kageorgis' execution Burundi was granted independence.[10]

Ethnic Distribution of Leadership Positions[11]
Ethnic group 1929 1933 1937 1945 1967 1987 1993 1997 2000a 2000b End-2001
Tutsi 22 15 18 28 71 72% 32% 38% 89% 100% 47%
Hutu 20 6 2 0 18 28% 68% 62% 11% 0% 53%

Independence (1962) edit

 
The flag of the Kingdom of Burundi (1962–1966).
 
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.

Full independence was achieved on July 1, 1962.[3] In the context of weak democratic institutions at independence, Tutsi King Mwambutsa IV Bangiriceng established a constitutional monarchy comprising equal numbers of Hutus and Tutsis.[3] The 15 January 1965 assassination of the Hutu prime minister Pierre Ngendandumwe set in motion a series of destabilizing Hutu revolts and subsequent governmental repression.[3]

These were in part in reaction to Rwanda's "Social Revolution" of 1959–1961, where Rwandan Tutsi were subject to mass murder by the new government of Hutu Grégoire Kayibanda. In Burundi the Tutsi became committed to ensuring they would not meet the same fate and much of the country's military and police forces became controlled by Tutsis. Unlike Rwanda, which allied itself with the United States in the Cold War, Burundi after independence became affiliated with China.[citation needed]

The monarchy refused to recognize gains by Hutu candidates in the first legislative elections held by Burundi as an independent country on 10 May 1965. In response, a group of Hutu carried out a failed coup attempt against the monarchy on 18 October 1965, which in turn prompted the killing of scores of Hutu politicians and intellectuals.[12] On 8 July 1966,[citation needed] King Mwambutsa IV was deposed by his son, Prince Ntare V,[3] who himself was deposed by his prime minister Capt. Michel Micombero[3] on 28 November 1966.[citation needed] Micombero abolished the monarchy and declared a republic.[3] A de facto military regime emerged and civil unrest continued throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s.[3] Micombero headed a clique of ruling Hima, the Tutsi subgroup located in southern Burundi.[13] Similar to 1965, rumors of an impending Hutu coup in 1969 prompted the arrest and execution of scores of prominent political and military figures.[12]

In June 1971, a group of Banyaruguru, the socially "higher up" subgroup of Tutsi located in the north of the country, were accused of conspiracy by the ruling Hima clique. On 14 January 1972, a military tribunal sentenced four Banyaruguru officers and five civilians to death, and seven to life imprisonment. To the Hima concerns about a Hutu uprising or Banyaruguru-led coup was added the return of Ntare V from exile, a potential rallying point for the Hutu majority.[13]

1972 genocide edit

On April 29, there was an outbreak of violence in the south of the country, also the base of the Hima, where bands of roving Hutu committed atrocities against Tutsi civilians. All civilian and military authorities in the city of Bururi were killed and the insurgents then seized the armories in the towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac. They then attempted to kill every Tutsi they could, as well as some Hutu who refused to participate in the rebellion, before retreating to Vyanda, near Bururi, and proclaiming a "Republic of Martyazo."[14] Somewhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed.[15]

A week after the insurgent proclamation of a republic, government troops moved in. Meanwhile, President Micombero declared martial law on May 30 and asked Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko for assistance. Congolese paratroopers were deployed to secure the airport while the Burundi army moved into the countryside. Africanist René Lemarchand notes, "What followed was not so much a repression as a hideous slaughter of Hutu civilians. The carnage went on unabated through the month of August. By then virtually every educated Hutu element, down to secondary school students, was either dead or in flight."[14]

Because the perpetrators, composed of government troops and the Jeunesses Révolutionnaires Rwagasore (JRR), the youth wing of the Union for National Progress ruling party, targeted primarily civil servants, educated males and university students, solely because of their "Hutuness" and irrespective of whether they posed a threat, Lemarchand terms the eradication a "partial genocide."[16] One of the first to be killed was deposed monarch Ntare V, in Gitega.[17]

As president, Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed a staunch regime of law and order, sharply repressing Hutu militarism.

From late April to September 1972, an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Hutu were killed.[18] About 300,000 people became refugees, with most fleeing to Tanzania.[19] In an effort to attract sympathy from the United States, the Tutsi-dominated government accused the Hutu rebels of having Communist leanings, although there is no credible evidence that this was actually the case.[20] Lemarchand notes that, while crushing the rebellion was the first priority, the genocide was successful in a number of other objectives: ensuring the long-term stability of the Tutsi state by eliminating Hutu elites and potential elites; turning the army, police and gendarmerie into a Tutsi monopoly; denying the potential return of monarchy through the murder of Ntare V; and creating a new legitimacy for the Hima-dominated state as protector of the country, especially for the previously fractious Tutsi-Banyaruguru.[21][22]

Post-1972 genocide developments edit

In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza took power in a bloodless coup.[3] Although Bagaza led a Tutsi-dominated military regime, he encouraged land reform, electoral reform, and national reconciliation. In 1981, a new constitution was promulgated.[3] In 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state, as the sole candidate.[3] After his election, Bagaza's human rights record deteriorated as he suppressed religious activities and detained political opposition members.[3]

In 1987, Major Pierre Buyoya overthrew Col. Bagaza in a military coup d'état.[3] He dissolved opposition parties, suspended the 1981 constitution, and instituted his ruling Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN).[3] During 1988, increasing tensions between the ruling Tutsis and the majority Hutus resulted in violent confrontations between the army, the Hutu opposition, and Tutsi hardliners.[3] During this period, an estimated 150,000 people were killed, with tens of thousands of refugees fleeing to neighboring countries.[3][23] Buyoya formed a commission to investigate the causes of the 1988 unrest and to develop a charter for democratic reform.[3]

In 1991, Buyoya approved a constitution that provided for a president, non-ethnic government, and a parliament.[3] Burundi's first Hutu president, Melchior Ndadaye, of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU) Party, was elected in 1993.[3]

1993 genocide and civil war (1993–2005) edit

 
People fleeing during 1993 Burundian genocide

Ndadaye was assassinated three months later, in October 1993, by Tutsi army extremists. The country's situation rapidly declined as Hutu peasants began to rise up and massacre Tutsi. In acts of brutal retribution, the Tutsi army proceeded to round up thousands of Hutu and kill them. The Rwandan genocide in 1994, sparked by the killing of Ndadaye's successor Cyprien Ntaryamira, further aggravated the conflict in Burundi by sparking additional massacres of Tutsis.

A decade of civil war followed, as the Hutu formed militias in the refugee camps of northern Tanzania. An estimated 300,000 people were killed in clashes and reprisals against the local population, with 550,000 citizens (nine percent of the population) being displaced.[24] After the assassination of Ntaryamira, the Hutu presidency and Tutsi military operated under a power-sharing political system until July 1996, when Tutsi Pierre Buyoya seized power in a military coup. Under international pressure, the warring factions negotiated a peace agreement in Arusha in 2000, which called for ethnically balanced military and government and democratic elections.

The country has been hit hard by HIV/AIDS during this period. Sample testing by SOS Children had shown that those who were HIV positive were 20 percent of the urban population and 6% of the rural population.[25] The death toll due to the syndrome has been devastating: the UN estimated 12,000 deaths in 2001[26] and Oxfam estimated 40,000 deaths in 2001.[27]

Two powerful Hutu rebel groups (the CNDD-FDD and the FNL) refused to sign the peace agreement and fighting continued in the countryside. Finally, the CNDD-FDD agreed to sign a peace deal in November 2003 and joined the transitional government. The last remaining rebel group, the FNL, continued to reject the peace process and committed sporadic acts of violence in 2003 and 2004, finally signing a cease fire agreement in 2006.

Post-war (2005–present) edit

Post-war elections edit

In 2005, Burundi began the transition towards peace with its first elections since 1993. The CNDD-FDD won both the local and legislative elections, held in June and July respectively.[28] An indirect presidential election took place in August 2005, and the members of the legislature and senate elected Pierre Nkurunziza, a former teacher and CNDD rebel, who had been president of the CNDD-FDD party since August 2000.[29] He won with 151 of the 161 votes.[30]

Nkurunziza era (2005–2020) edit

Peacetime ushered in an era in which the ruling CNDD-FDD party dominated the political space in Burundi. President Pierre Nkurunziza, and a small clique of military generals from the party, tightly controlled the country.[31]

In 2005, Pierre Nkurunziza, became the first post-transitional president. He was elected by the National Assembly and Senate through the means of indirect presidential elections.

Former President Domitien Ndayizeye and his political supporters were arrested in 2006 and accused of plotting a coup, but later he was acquitted by the Supreme Court. International human rights groups claimed that the current government was framing Domitien Ndayizeye by torturing him into false confessions of a coup plot.[32] In December 2006 the International Crisis Group labeled Burundi's human rights status as "deteriorating". The organization reported that the government had arrested critics, muzzled the press, committed human rights abuses, and tightened its control over the economy, and that "unless it [reversed] this authoritarian course, it risk[ed] triggering violent unrest and losing the gains of peace process."[33]

In February 2007, the United Nations officially shut down its peacekeeping operations in Burundi and turned its attention to rebuilding the nation's economy, which relies heavily on tea and coffee, but which had suffered severely during 12 years of civil war. The UN had deployed 5,600 peacekeepers since 2004, and several hundred troops remained to work with the African Union in monitoring the ceasefire.[34] The UN Post Conflict Fund (PBF) pledged $35 million to Burundi to work on infrastructure, to promote democratic practices, to rebuild the military, and to defend human rights.[35]

2010 elections edit

Nkurunziza was re-elected in 2010 with more than 91% of the votes amidst an opposition boycott[36] and sworn in for his second term on 26 August 2010.[37]

2015 unrest edit

In April 2015, Nkurunziza announced that he would seek a third term in office. The opposition said that Nkurunziza's bid to extend his term was in defiance of the constitution, as it bars the president from running for a third term. However, Nkurunziza's allies said his first term did not count as he was appointed by parliament and not directly by the people. On April 26 police clashed with demonstrators protesting Nkurunziza's announcement that he would seek a third term in office. At least six people were killed in the first two days of ongoing protests. The government shut down multiple radio stations and arrested a prominent civil society leader, Pierre-Claver Mbonimpa. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said, in a statement, that he had despatched his special envoy for the region, Said Djinnit, to Burundi for talks with Nkurunziza. African Union commission head Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma said she welcomed a decision by Burundi's Senate to ask the Constitutional Court to rule whether Nkurunziza could stand for re-election. More than 24,000 people fled Burundi in April, as tensions mounted ahead of presidential elections in June, the UN refugee agency said.[38][39]

On May 13, 2015, Burundi army General Godefroid Niyombareh, former head of Burundian intelligence, declared a coup via radio while Nkurunziza was abroad attending a summit in Tanzania with other African leaders. Niyombareh had been fired by the President in February. Despite reports that gunshots had been heard and people were celebrating in the streets of the capital, government officials dismissed the threat and claimed to remain in control.[40]

Opposition groups announced on 26 June that they would boycott the election.[41][42]

Speaking to a Kenyan television station on 6 July, one of the coup leaders, General Leonard Ngendakumana, called for armed rebellion against Nkurunziza. He said that his group was responsible for the grenade attacks and said that "our intent is to intensify".[43] Fighting was reported in northern Burundi on 10–11 July.[44] The military said on 13 July that 31 rebels had been killed and 170 had been captured in those battles; it said that six of its own soldiers had also been wounded. The Burundian government stated that the rebels had crossed into northern Burundi through the Nyungwe Forest from Rwanda but the Rwandan government denied this.[45] Ngendakumana said that the rebels were from his group.[44]

Shortly after the election was held on 21 July, without the participation of the opposition, main opposition leader Agathon Rwasa proposed the formation of a national unity government, while warning of the potential for more violence and armed rebellion against Nkurunziza. As conditions for participating in such a government, Rwasa said that Nkurunziza's third term would need to be greatly truncated to no more than a year and new elections would have to be held, although he admitted that he doubted Nkurunziza would accept those conditions. He also urged those hoping to oust Nkurunziza through violence to instead focus on dialogue. The government welcomed the idea of forming a national unity government, but rejected the notion of truncating Nkurunziza's new term.[46]

The presidential election results were announced on 24 July 2015. Nkurunziza won the election with 69.41% of the vote. Agathon Rwasa was placed second and credited with 18.99% despite calling for a boycott.[47] This change of power led to an opening of social science research in the country, and later a reconsideration of the value and purpose of that research within the context of the larger political and societal violence.[48]

On 30 September 2016, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33/24. Its mandate is to "conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015, to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations."[49] The Human Rights Council extended the mandate of the commission for another year in September 2017. On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations. It further stressed that, "The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry, despite the Commission's repeated requests and initiatives."[50] The Commission conducted interviews with more than 500 Burundian refugees abroad and others who remained in their country and reached the conclusion that "serious human rights violations and abuses have been committed in Burundi since April 2015. The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions, acts of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, rape and other forms of sexual violence."[50]

Post-2015 edit

In a constitutional referendum in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.[51][52] However, much to the surprise of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 General Election.[53]

On 24 December 2018, the government moved Burundi's political capital from Bujumbura back to Gitega, where it had been until 1966.

The threat of the COVID-19 pandemic was played down officially by the regime. The Presidency issued a statement which warned its population against "hasty, extreme, unilateral measures" against the virus.[54] Human Rights Watch reported that some nurses had been told "not to talk about suspected cases, symptom patterns, or insufficient resources".[55]

Post-Nkurunziza (2020–present) edit

On 20 May 2020, Évariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote.[56] Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55.[53] There was some speculation that his death was COVID-19 related, though this is unconfirmed.[57] As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[53][56]

Initially, Ndayishimiye adopted a stronger response to the COVID-19 pandemic than his predecessor - calling the virus the nation's "worst enemy" shortly after taking office.[58] In January 2021, he closed national borders, having previously issued a statement which said that anyone bringing Covid into Burundi would be treated as "people bringing weapons to kill Burundians".[58] In February 2021, however, Burundi joined Tanzania in being the only African nations to reject vaccines from the COVAX scheme: the health minister Thaddee Ndikumana stated that “since more than 95% of patients are recovering, we estimate that the vaccines are not yet necessary.” [59] As of June 2021, Burundi has still not made any effort to procure vaccines - one of three countries to fail to take this step.[60]

See also edit

General:

References edit

  • Jean-Pierre Chrétien. The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History trans Scott Straus
  • Lemarchand, René (2009). The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4120-4.
  • Ngaruko, Floribert; Nkurunziza, Janvier D. (2005). "Civil War and Its Duration in Burundi". In Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas (eds.). Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis. Vol. 1: Africa. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. pp. 35–61. ISBN 978-0-8213-6047-7.
  • Pierre Englebert. State Legitimacy and Development in Africa

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ Reid, Richard J. (Richard James) (9 January 2020). A history of modern Africa : 1800 to the present. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-38192-1. OCLC 1091235649.
  2. ^ "Burundi - Ethnic Conflict, Hutu-Tutsi, Colonization | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab . U.S. State Department. August 2000. Archived from the original on June 6, 2002.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)   This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  4. ^ "Tanganyika | historical state, Tanzania | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-24.
  5. ^ a b Weinstein, Warren; Robert Schrere (1976). Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies: A Case Study of Burundi. Syracuse University: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs. p. 7. ISBN 0-915984-20-2.
  6. ^ "Burundi - History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-24.
  7. ^ afrika focus — Volume 28, Nr. 2, 2015 — pp. 156 -164, The murder of Burundi’s prime minister, Louis Rwagasore, Guy Poppe, http://www.afrikafocus.eu/file/96
  8. ^ "Ethnicity and Burundi’s Refugees" 2009-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, African Studies Quarterly: The online journal for African Studies. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
  9. ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia".
  10. ^ a b afrika focus — Volume 28, Nr. 2, 2015 — pp. 156 -164, The murder of Burundi’s prime minister, Louis Rwagasore, Guy Poppe, http://www.afrikafocus.eu/file/96
  11. ^ Numbers from 1929-1967 are actual number of leadership positions held; subsequent numbers are percentages of the total. Ngaruko & Nkurunziza, 41
  12. ^ a b Lemarchand, 134
  13. ^ a b Lemarchand, 137
  14. ^ a b Lemarchand, 136
  15. ^ Lemarchand, (2008). Section "B – Decision-Makers, Organizers and Actors" cites (Chrétien Jean-Pierre and Dupaquier, Jean-Francois, 2007, Burundi 1972: Au bord des génocides, Paris: L'Harmattan. p. 106)
  16. ^ Lemarchand, 132 & 134
  17. ^ Lemarchand, 137-138
  18. ^ Lemarchand, 129
  19. ^ (PDF) (in French). International Crisis Group. 2 December 2003. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 17, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-30. La première s'est produite en 1972 suite au génocide perpétré par l'armée contre l'élite hutu, entraînant la fuite de quelque 300 000 personnes, réfugiées principalement en Tanzanie.
  20. ^ Melvern, Linda. (2020). Intent to Deceive : Denying the Genocide of the Tutsi. Verso. ISBN 978-1-78873-330-4. OCLC 1138680744.
  21. ^ Lemarchand, 138
  22. ^ See also René Lemarchand (2008-07-27). "Case Study: The Burundi Killings of 1972". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
  23. ^ Minorities at Risk Project, Chronology for Hutus in Burundi, 2004, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38731e.html [accessed 16 June 2021]
  24. ^ "Burundi Civil War". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
  25. ^ "Burundi; war, poverty and misfortune", SOS Children's Villages
  26. ^ "Burundi". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  27. ^ "A Situation Analysis On The Hiv/Aids Epidemic In Burundi and Oxfam International's Potential Role In The National Response To The Epidemic" (PDF). Oxfam International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
  28. ^ "Indirect Legislative Elections in Sub-Saharan Africa". africanelections.tripod.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
  29. ^ "Burundi's born-again ex-rebel leader". 2005-08-26. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
  30. ^ "Recent Elections Archive: 2005". africanelections.tripod.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
  31. ^ "Burundi | Crisis24". crisis24.garda.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
  32. ^ "Former president's arrest seen as part of pattern of abuse". The New Humanitarian. 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
  33. ^ . International Crisis Group. 2006-11-30. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-29.
  34. ^ "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1719 (2006)". www.un.org. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
  35. ^ "INDEPENDENT EXTERNAL EVALUATION PEACEBUILDING FUND PROJECTS IN BURUNDI - Burundi". ReliefWeb. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
  36. ^ "AFP: Burundi's president Pierre Nkurunziza re-elected". Agence France-Presse. 1 July 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
  37. ^ "Re-elected Burundian president takes oath as African leaders present", Xinhua, 26 August 2010.
  38. ^ What explains Burundi’s protests?
  39. ^ Burundi anti-President Nkurunziza protests in Bujumbura
  40. ^ Melvin, Don (May 13, 2015). "Amid fears of ethnic violence, coup attempt reported in Burundi". CNN. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  41. ^ Manirabarusha, Clement (26 June 2015). "Burundi crisis escalates as opposition boycotts elections". Reuters.
  42. ^ "Burundi Crisis Escalates as Opposition Boycotts Elections". NDTV.com. 26 June 2015.
  43. ^ Fumbuka Ng'wanakilala, "Burundi coup general says force only way to oust president", Reuters, 6 July 2015.
  44. ^ a b Clement Manirabarusha, "Gunmen captured, killed by Burundi army in clashes in north: governor", Reuters, 12 July 2015.
  45. ^ Gerard Nzohabona, "Burundi military: 31 suspected rebels killed in fighting", Associated Press, 13 July 2015.
  46. ^ Clement Manirabarusha and Edmund Blair, "Burundi opposition leader calls for unity government to avert conflict", Reuters, 22 July 2015.
  47. ^ "Nkurunziza wins third term as Burundi president: electoral commission", Reuters, 24 July 2015.
  48. ^ Curtis, Devon E. A. (2019). "What Is Our Research For? Responsibility, Humility and the Production of Knowledge about Burundi". Africa Spectrum. 54 (1): 4–21. doi:10.1177/0002039719852229. ISSN 0002-0397. JSTOR 45217069.
  49. ^ "OHCHR - Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Burundi". www.ohchr.org. from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  50. ^ a b "OHCHR - Commission calls on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations". www.ohchr.org. from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  51. ^ Moore, Jina (2018-05-17). "In Tiny Burundi, a Huge Vote (Published 2018)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  52. ^ . www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2018. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  53. ^ a b c Dahir, Abdi Latif (2020-06-09). "President of Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza, 55, Dies of Heart Attack". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  54. ^ Burundi, Republique de la (25 February 2020). "COMMUNIQUE DU GOUVERNEMENT DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU BURUNDI DANS LE CADRE DE LA LUTTE CONTRE LE CORONA VIRUS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  55. ^ "Health Workers: Heroes, Yes, But They Need Our Support". Human Rights Watch. 2021-03-04. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  56. ^ a b "Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye?". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  57. ^ correspondent, Jason Burke Africa (2020-06-09). "Burundi president dies of illness suspected to be coronavirus". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  58. ^ a b "Burundi closes borders again as COVID-19 cases on the rise". ABC News. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  59. ^ "Tanzania, Burundi not to get COVID-19 vaccine doses". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  60. ^ "Three Vaccine Holdouts Imperil the World". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2021-06-14.

External links edit

  • BBC News, Burundi Timeline
  • Background Note: Burundi

history, burundi, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, july, 200. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources History of Burundi news newspapers books scholar JSTOR July 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Burundi originated in the 16th century as a small kingdom in the African Great Lakes region After European contact it was united with the Kingdom of Rwanda becoming the colony of Ruanda Urundi first colonised by Germany and then by Belgium The colony gained independence in 1962 and split once again into Rwanda and Burundi It is one of the few countries in Africa along with Rwanda Botswana Lesotho and Eswatini to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre colonial era African state Contents 1 Kingdom of Burundi 1680 1966 1 1 European contact 1856 1 2 German East Africa 1899 1916 1 3 Belgian and United Nations governance 1916 1962 2 Independence 1962 2 1 1972 genocide 2 2 Post 1972 genocide developments 3 1993 genocide and civil war 1993 2005 4 Post war 2005 present 4 1 Post war elections 4 2 Nkurunziza era 2005 2020 4 2 1 2010 elections 4 2 2 2015 unrest 4 2 3 Post 2015 4 3 Post Nkurunziza 2020 present 5 See also 6 References 7 Footnotes 8 External linksKingdom of Burundi 1680 1966 editFurther information Kingdom of Burundi The origins of Burundi are known from a mix of oral history and archaeology 1 There are two main founding legends for Burundi Both suggest that the nation was founded by a man named Cambarantama The other version more common in pre colonial Burundi says that Cambarantama came from the southern state of Buha 2 The first evidence of the Burundian state is from 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills Over the following centuries it expanded annexing smaller neighbours and competing with Rwanda Its greatest growth occurred under Ntare IV Rutaganzwa Rugamba who ruled the country from about 1796 to 1850 and saw the kingdom double in size The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange 3 The king known as the mwami headed a princely aristocracy ganwa which owned most of the land and required a tribute or tax from local farmers and herders 3 In the mid 18th century this Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land production and distribution with the development of the ubugabire a patron client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure 3 European contact 1856 edit European explorers and missionaries made brief visits to the area as early as 1856 3 and they compared the organization of the kingdom of Burundi with that of the old Greek empire citation needed It was not until 1899 that Burundi became a part of German East Africa 3 Unlike the Rwandan monarchy which decided to accept the German advances the Burundian king Mwezi IV Gisabo opposed all European influence refusing to wear European clothing and resisting the advance of European missionaries or administrators German East Africa 1899 1916 edit Further information German East Africa The Germans used armed force and succeeded in doing great damage but did not destroy the king s power Eventually they backed one of the king s sons in law Maconco in a revolt against Gisabo Gisabo was eventually forced to concede and agreed to German suzerainty The Germans then helped him suppress Maconco s revolt The smaller kingdoms along the western shore of Lake Victoria were also attached to Burundi Even after this the foreign presence was minimal and the kings continued to rule much as before The Europeans did however bring devastating diseases affecting both people and animals Affecting the entire region Burundi was especially hard hit A great famine hit in 1905 with others striking the entire Great Lakes region in 1914 1923 and 1944 Between 1905 and 1914 half the population of the western plains region died citation needed Belgian and United Nations governance 1916 1962 edit Further information Ruanda Urundi In 1916 Belgian troops conquered the area during the First World War 3 In 1923 the League of Nations mandated to Belgium the territory of Ruanda Urundi encompassing modern day Rwanda and Burundi 3 the western kingdoms being assigned to Tanganyika 4 The Belgians administered the territory through indirect rule building on the Tutsi dominated aristocratic hierarchy 3 Following the Second World War Ruanda Urundi became a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority 3 The trust territory guidelines required that the trust territories be prepared for independence and majority rule but it wasn t until 10 November 1959 that Belgium committed itself to political reform and legalised the emergence of competing political parties On 20 January 1959 Burundi s ruler Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi s independence from Belgium and dissolution of the Ruanda Urundi union 5 In the following months Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi 5 The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress UPRONA 6 UPRONA was a multi ethnic party led by Tutsi Prince Louis Rwagasore while the Christian Democratic Party PDC was supported by Belgium 3 which was being ruled by the Christian Social Party whose party leader August de Schryver was Minister of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda Urundi from 1959 until 1960 7 Burundi s first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA won just over 80 of the electorate s votes In the wake of the elections on 13 October the 29 year old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated robbing Burundi of its most popular and well known nationalist 8 9 Historians have speculated over Belgium s role in Rwagasore s death and the two highest ranking Belgian colonial officials in Burundi Jean Paul Harroy and Roberto Regnier were accused of involvement by Rwagasore s convicted murderer Jean Kageorgis 10 The day after Kageorgis execution Burundi was granted independence 10 Ethnic Distribution of Leadership Positions 11 Ethnic group 1929 1933 1937 1945 1967 1987 1993 1997 2000a 2000b End 2001 Tutsi 22 15 18 28 71 72 32 38 89 100 47 Hutu 20 6 2 0 18 28 68 62 11 0 53 Independence 1962 edit nbsp The flag of the Kingdom of Burundi 1962 1966 nbsp Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura Full independence was achieved on July 1 1962 3 In the context of weak democratic institutions at independence Tutsi King Mwambutsa IV Bangiriceng established a constitutional monarchy comprising equal numbers of Hutus and Tutsis 3 The 15 January 1965 assassination of the Hutu prime minister Pierre Ngendandumwe set in motion a series of destabilizing Hutu revolts and subsequent governmental repression 3 These were in part in reaction to Rwanda s Social Revolution of 1959 1961 where Rwandan Tutsi were subject to mass murder by the new government of Hutu Gregoire Kayibanda In Burundi the Tutsi became committed to ensuring they would not meet the same fate and much of the country s military and police forces became controlled by Tutsis Unlike Rwanda which allied itself with the United States in the Cold War Burundi after independence became affiliated with China citation needed The monarchy refused to recognize gains by Hutu candidates in the first legislative elections held by Burundi as an independent country on 10 May 1965 In response a group of Hutu carried out a failed coup attempt against the monarchy on 18 October 1965 which in turn prompted the killing of scores of Hutu politicians and intellectuals 12 On 8 July 1966 citation needed King Mwambutsa IV was deposed by his son Prince Ntare V 3 who himself was deposed by his prime minister Capt Michel Micombero 3 on 28 November 1966 citation needed Micombero abolished the monarchy and declared a republic 3 A de facto military regime emerged and civil unrest continued throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s 3 Micombero headed a clique of ruling Hima the Tutsi subgroup located in southern Burundi 13 Similar to 1965 rumors of an impending Hutu coup in 1969 prompted the arrest and execution of scores of prominent political and military figures 12 In June 1971 a group of Banyaruguru the socially higher up subgroup of Tutsi located in the north of the country were accused of conspiracy by the ruling Hima clique On 14 January 1972 a military tribunal sentenced four Banyaruguru officers and five civilians to death and seven to life imprisonment To the Hima concerns about a Hutu uprising or Banyaruguru led coup was added the return of Ntare V from exile a potential rallying point for the Hutu majority 13 1972 genocide edit Main article Ikiza On April 29 there was an outbreak of violence in the south of the country also the base of the Hima where bands of roving Hutu committed atrocities against Tutsi civilians All civilian and military authorities in the city of Bururi were killed and the insurgents then seized the armories in the towns of Rumonge and Nyanza Lac They then attempted to kill every Tutsi they could as well as some Hutu who refused to participate in the rebellion before retreating to Vyanda near Bururi and proclaiming a Republic of Martyazo 14 Somewhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed 15 A week after the insurgent proclamation of a republic government troops moved in Meanwhile President Micombero declared martial law on May 30 and asked Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko for assistance Congolese paratroopers were deployed to secure the airport while the Burundi army moved into the countryside Africanist Rene Lemarchand notes What followed was not so much a repression as a hideous slaughter of Hutu civilians The carnage went on unabated through the month of August By then virtually every educated Hutu element down to secondary school students was either dead or in flight 14 Because the perpetrators composed of government troops and the Jeunesses Revolutionnaires Rwagasore JRR the youth wing of the Union for National Progress ruling party targeted primarily civil servants educated males and university students solely because of their Hutuness and irrespective of whether they posed a threat Lemarchand terms the eradication a partial genocide 16 One of the first to be killed was deposed monarch Ntare V in Gitega 17 As president Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People s Republic of China He imposed a staunch regime of law and order sharply repressing Hutu militarism From late April to September 1972 an estimated 200 000 to 300 000 Hutu were killed 18 About 300 000 people became refugees with most fleeing to Tanzania 19 In an effort to attract sympathy from the United States the Tutsi dominated government accused the Hutu rebels of having Communist leanings although there is no credible evidence that this was actually the case 20 Lemarchand notes that while crushing the rebellion was the first priority the genocide was successful in a number of other objectives ensuring the long term stability of the Tutsi state by eliminating Hutu elites and potential elites turning the army police and gendarmerie into a Tutsi monopoly denying the potential return of monarchy through the murder of Ntare V and creating a new legitimacy for the Hima dominated state as protector of the country especially for the previously fractious Tutsi Banyaruguru 21 22 Post 1972 genocide developments edit In 1976 Colonel Jean Baptiste Bagaza took power in a bloodless coup 3 Although Bagaza led a Tutsi dominated military regime he encouraged land reform electoral reform and national reconciliation In 1981 a new constitution was promulgated 3 In 1984 Bagaza was elected head of state as the sole candidate 3 After his election Bagaza s human rights record deteriorated as he suppressed religious activities and detained political opposition members 3 In 1987 Major Pierre Buyoya overthrew Col Bagaza in a military coup d etat 3 He dissolved opposition parties suspended the 1981 constitution and instituted his ruling Military Committee for National Salvation CSMN 3 During 1988 increasing tensions between the ruling Tutsis and the majority Hutus resulted in violent confrontations between the army the Hutu opposition and Tutsi hardliners 3 During this period an estimated 150 000 people were killed with tens of thousands of refugees fleeing to neighboring countries 3 23 Buyoya formed a commission to investigate the causes of the 1988 unrest and to develop a charter for democratic reform 3 In 1991 Buyoya approved a constitution that provided for a president non ethnic government and a parliament 3 Burundi s first Hutu president Melchior Ndadaye of the Hutu dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi FRODEBU Party was elected in 1993 3 1993 genocide and civil war 1993 2005 editMain articles Burundi genocide 1993 and Burundi Civil War nbsp People fleeing during 1993 Burundian genocide Ndadaye was assassinated three months later in October 1993 by Tutsi army extremists The country s situation rapidly declined as Hutu peasants began to rise up and massacre Tutsi In acts of brutal retribution the Tutsi army proceeded to round up thousands of Hutu and kill them The Rwandan genocide in 1994 sparked by the killing of Ndadaye s successor Cyprien Ntaryamira further aggravated the conflict in Burundi by sparking additional massacres of Tutsis A decade of civil war followed as the Hutu formed militias in the refugee camps of northern Tanzania An estimated 300 000 people were killed in clashes and reprisals against the local population with 550 000 citizens nine percent of the population being displaced 24 After the assassination of Ntaryamira the Hutu presidency and Tutsi military operated under a power sharing political system until July 1996 when Tutsi Pierre Buyoya seized power in a military coup Under international pressure the warring factions negotiated a peace agreement in Arusha in 2000 which called for ethnically balanced military and government and democratic elections The country has been hit hard by HIV AIDS during this period Sample testing by SOS Children had shown that those who were HIV positive were 20 percent of the urban population and 6 of the rural population 25 The death toll due to the syndrome has been devastating the UN estimated 12 000 deaths in 2001 26 and Oxfam estimated 40 000 deaths in 2001 27 Two powerful Hutu rebel groups the CNDD FDD and the FNL refused to sign the peace agreement and fighting continued in the countryside Finally the CNDD FDD agreed to sign a peace deal in November 2003 and joined the transitional government The last remaining rebel group the FNL continued to reject the peace process and committed sporadic acts of violence in 2003 and 2004 finally signing a cease fire agreement in 2006 Post war 2005 present editPost war elections edit In 2005 Burundi began the transition towards peace with its first elections since 1993 The CNDD FDD won both the local and legislative elections held in June and July respectively 28 An indirect presidential election took place in August 2005 and the members of the legislature and senate elected Pierre Nkurunziza a former teacher and CNDD rebel who had been president of the CNDD FDD party since August 2000 29 He won with 151 of the 161 votes 30 Nkurunziza era 2005 2020 edit Peacetime ushered in an era in which the ruling CNDD FDD party dominated the political space in Burundi President Pierre Nkurunziza and a small clique of military generals from the party tightly controlled the country 31 In 2005 Pierre Nkurunziza became the first post transitional president He was elected by the National Assembly and Senate through the means of indirect presidential elections Former President Domitien Ndayizeye and his political supporters were arrested in 2006 and accused of plotting a coup but later he was acquitted by the Supreme Court International human rights groups claimed that the current government was framing Domitien Ndayizeye by torturing him into false confessions of a coup plot 32 In December 2006 the International Crisis Group labeled Burundi s human rights status as deteriorating The organization reported that the government had arrested critics muzzled the press committed human rights abuses and tightened its control over the economy and that unless it reversed this authoritarian course it risk ed triggering violent unrest and losing the gains of peace process 33 In February 2007 the United Nations officially shut down its peacekeeping operations in Burundi and turned its attention to rebuilding the nation s economy which relies heavily on tea and coffee but which had suffered severely during 12 years of civil war The UN had deployed 5 600 peacekeepers since 2004 and several hundred troops remained to work with the African Union in monitoring the ceasefire 34 The UN Post Conflict Fund PBF pledged 35 million to Burundi to work on infrastructure to promote democratic practices to rebuild the military and to defend human rights 35 2010 elections edit Main article 2010 Burundian presidential election Nkurunziza was re elected in 2010 with more than 91 of the votes amidst an opposition boycott 36 and sworn in for his second term on 26 August 2010 37 2015 unrest edit Main article 2015 Burundi unrest In April 2015 Nkurunziza announced that he would seek a third term in office The opposition said that Nkurunziza s bid to extend his term was in defiance of the constitution as it bars the president from running for a third term However Nkurunziza s allies said his first term did not count as he was appointed by parliament and not directly by the people On April 26 police clashed with demonstrators protesting Nkurunziza s announcement that he would seek a third term in office At least six people were killed in the first two days of ongoing protests The government shut down multiple radio stations and arrested a prominent civil society leader Pierre Claver Mbonimpa UN Secretary General Ban Ki moon said in a statement that he had despatched his special envoy for the region Said Djinnit to Burundi for talks with Nkurunziza African Union commission head Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma said she welcomed a decision by Burundi s Senate to ask the Constitutional Court to rule whether Nkurunziza could stand for re election More than 24 000 people fled Burundi in April as tensions mounted ahead of presidential elections in June the UN refugee agency said 38 39 On May 13 2015 Burundi army General Godefroid Niyombareh former head of Burundian intelligence declared a coup via radio while Nkurunziza was abroad attending a summit in Tanzania with other African leaders Niyombareh had been fired by the President in February Despite reports that gunshots had been heard and people were celebrating in the streets of the capital government officials dismissed the threat and claimed to remain in control 40 Opposition groups announced on 26 June that they would boycott the election 41 42 Speaking to a Kenyan television station on 6 July one of the coup leaders General Leonard Ngendakumana called for armed rebellion against Nkurunziza He said that his group was responsible for the grenade attacks and said that our intent is to intensify 43 Fighting was reported in northern Burundi on 10 11 July 44 The military said on 13 July that 31 rebels had been killed and 170 had been captured in those battles it said that six of its own soldiers had also been wounded The Burundian government stated that the rebels had crossed into northern Burundi through the Nyungwe Forest from Rwanda but the Rwandan government denied this 45 Ngendakumana said that the rebels were from his group 44 Shortly after the election was held on 21 July without the participation of the opposition main opposition leader Agathon Rwasa proposed the formation of a national unity government while warning of the potential for more violence and armed rebellion against Nkurunziza As conditions for participating in such a government Rwasa said that Nkurunziza s third term would need to be greatly truncated to no more than a year and new elections would have to be held although he admitted that he doubted Nkurunziza would accept those conditions He also urged those hoping to oust Nkurunziza through violence to instead focus on dialogue The government welcomed the idea of forming a national unity government but rejected the notion of truncating Nkurunziza s new term 46 The presidential election results were announced on 24 July 2015 Nkurunziza won the election with 69 41 of the vote Agathon Rwasa was placed second and credited with 18 99 despite calling for a boycott 47 This change of power led to an opening of social science research in the country and later a reconsideration of the value and purpose of that research within the context of the larger political and societal violence 48 On 30 September 2016 the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi through resolution 33 24 Its mandate is to conduct a thorough investigation into human rights violations and abuses committed in Burundi since April 2015 to identify alleged perpetrators and to formulate recommendations 49 The Human Rights Council extended the mandate of the commission for another year in September 2017 On 29 September 2017 the Commission of Inquiry on Burundi called on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations It further stressed that The Burundian government has so far refused to cooperate with the Commission of Inquiry despite the Commission s repeated requests and initiatives 50 The Commission conducted interviews with more than 500 Burundian refugees abroad and others who remained in their country and reached the conclusion that serious human rights violations and abuses have been committed in Burundi since April 2015 The violations the Commission documented include arbitrary arrests and detentions acts of torture and cruel inhuman or degrading treatment extrajudicial executions enforced disappearances rape and other forms of sexual violence 50 Post 2015 edit In a constitutional referendum in May 2018 Burundians voted by 79 08 to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034 51 52 However much to the surprise of most observers Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 General Election 53 On 24 December 2018 the government moved Burundi s political capital from Bujumbura back to Gitega where it had been until 1966 The threat of the COVID 19 pandemic was played down officially by the regime The Presidency issued a statement which warned its population against hasty extreme unilateral measures against the virus 54 Human Rights Watch reported that some nurses had been told not to talk about suspected cases symptom patterns or insufficient resources 55 Post Nkurunziza 2020 present edit On 20 May 2020 Evariste Ndayishimiye a candidate who was hand picked as Nkurunziza s successor by the CNDD FDD won the election with 71 45 of the vote 56 Shortly after on 9 June 2020 Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest at the age of 55 53 There was some speculation that his death was COVID 19 related though this is unconfirmed 57 As per the constitution Pascal Nyabenda the president of the national assembly led the government until Ndayishimiye s inauguration on 18 June 2020 53 56 Initially Ndayishimiye adopted a stronger response to the COVID 19 pandemic than his predecessor calling the virus the nation s worst enemy shortly after taking office 58 In January 2021 he closed national borders having previously issued a statement which said that anyone bringing Covid into Burundi would be treated as people bringing weapons to kill Burundians 58 In February 2021 however Burundi joined Tanzania in being the only African nations to reject vaccines from the COVAX scheme the health minister Thaddee Ndikumana stated that since more than 95 of patients are recovering we estimate that the vaccines are not yet necessary 59 As of June 2021 Burundi has still not made any effort to procure vaccines one of three countries to fail to take this step 60 See also editBurundi Civil War Colonial Heads of Burundi Heads of government of Burundi List of kings of Burundi List of presidents of Burundi Livingstone Stanley Monument Burundi Politics of Burundi Bujumbura history and timeline General History of AfricaReferences editJean Pierre Chretien The Great Lakes of Africa Two Thousand Years of History trans Scott Straus Lemarchand Rene 2009 The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 4120 4 Ngaruko Floribert Nkurunziza Janvier D 2005 Civil War and Its Duration in Burundi In Collier Paul Sambanis Nicholas eds Understanding Civil War Evidence and Analysis Vol 1 Africa Washington D C The World Bank pp 35 61 ISBN 978 0 8213 6047 7 Pierre Englebert State Legitimacy and Development in AfricaFootnotes edit Reid Richard J Richard James 9 January 2020 A history of modern Africa 1800 to the present John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 119 38192 1 OCLC 1091235649 Burundi Ethnic Conflict Hutu Tutsi Colonization Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 10 17 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Background Note Burundi U S State Department August 2000 Archived from the original on June 6 2002 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint unfit URL link nbsp This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Tanganyika historical state Tanzania Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 01 24 a b Weinstein Warren Robert Schrere 1976 Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies A Case Study of Burundi Syracuse University Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs p 7 ISBN 0 915984 20 2 Burundi History Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 01 24 afrika focus Volume 28 Nr 2 2015 pp 156 164 The murder of Burundi s prime minister Louis Rwagasore Guy Poppe http www afrikafocus eu file 96 Ethnicity and Burundi s Refugees Archived 2009 01 05 at the Wayback Machine African Studies Quarterly The online journal for African Studies Retrieved 12 July 2008 East Africa Living Encyclopedia a b afrika focus Volume 28 Nr 2 2015 pp 156 164 The murder of Burundi s prime minister Louis Rwagasore Guy Poppe http www afrikafocus eu file 96 Numbers from 1929 1967 are actual number of leadership positions held subsequent numbers are percentages of the total Ngaruko amp Nkurunziza 41 a b Lemarchand 134 a b Lemarchand 137 a b Lemarchand 136 Lemarchand 2008 Section B Decision Makers Organizers and Actors cites Chretien Jean Pierre and Dupaquier Jean Francois 2007 Burundi 1972 Au bord des genocides Paris L Harmattan p 106 Lemarchand 132 amp 134 Lemarchand 137 138 Lemarchand 129 Refugees and Internally Displaced in Burundi The Urgent Need for a Consensus on Their Repatriation and Reintegration PDF in French International Crisis Group 2 December 2003 p 2 Archived from the original PDF on April 17 2009 Retrieved 2009 06 30 La premiere s est produite en 1972 suite au genocide perpetre par l armee contre l elite hutu entrainant la fuite de quelque 300 000 personnes refugiees principalement en Tanzanie Melvern Linda 2020 Intent to Deceive Denying the Genocide of the Tutsi Verso ISBN 978 1 78873 330 4 OCLC 1138680744 Lemarchand 138 See also Rene Lemarchand 2008 07 27 Case Study The Burundi Killings of 1972 Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence Retrieved 2009 06 30 Minorities at Risk Project Chronology for Hutus in Burundi 2004 available at https www refworld org docid 469f38731e html accessed 16 June 2021 Burundi Civil War GlobalSecurity org Retrieved 2009 06 30 Burundi war poverty and misfortune SOS Children s Villages Burundi www unaids org Retrieved 2021 08 11 A Situation Analysis On The Hiv Aids Epidemic In Burundi and Oxfam International s Potential Role In The National Response To The Epidemic PDF Oxfam International Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 Indirect Legislative Elections in Sub Saharan Africa africanelections tripod com Retrieved 2021 01 18 Burundi s born again ex rebel leader 2005 08 26 Retrieved 2021 01 18 Recent Elections Archive 2005 africanelections tripod com Retrieved 2021 01 18 Burundi Crisis24 crisis24 garda com Retrieved 2021 01 18 Former president s arrest seen as part of pattern of abuse The New Humanitarian 2006 08 25 Retrieved 2021 01 22 Burundi Democracy and Peace at Risk International Crisis Group 2006 11 30 Archived from the original on April 18 2009 Retrieved 2009 06 29 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1719 2006 www un org Retrieved 2021 01 22 INDEPENDENT EXTERNAL EVALUATION PEACEBUILDING FUND PROJECTS IN BURUNDI Burundi ReliefWeb 31 March 2010 Retrieved 2021 01 22 AFP Burundi s president Pierre Nkurunziza re elected Agence France Presse 1 July 2010 Retrieved 4 July 2010 Re elected Burundian president takes oath as African leaders present Xinhua 26 August 2010 What explains Burundi s protests Burundi anti President Nkurunziza protests in Bujumbura Melvin Don May 13 2015 Amid fears of ethnic violence coup attempt reported in Burundi CNN Retrieved 13 May 2015 Manirabarusha Clement 26 June 2015 Burundi crisis escalates as opposition boycotts elections Reuters Burundi Crisis Escalates as Opposition Boycotts Elections NDTV com 26 June 2015 Fumbuka Ng wanakilala Burundi coup general says force only way to oust president Reuters 6 July 2015 a b Clement Manirabarusha Gunmen captured killed by Burundi army in clashes in north governor Reuters 12 July 2015 Gerard Nzohabona Burundi military 31 suspected rebels killed in fighting Associated Press 13 July 2015 Clement Manirabarusha and Edmund Blair Burundi opposition leader calls for unity government to avert conflict Reuters 22 July 2015 Nkurunziza wins third term as Burundi president electoral commission Reuters 24 July 2015 Curtis Devon E A 2019 What Is Our Research For Responsibility Humility and the Production of Knowledge about Burundi Africa Spectrum 54 1 4 21 doi 10 1177 0002039719852229 ISSN 0002 0397 JSTOR 45217069 OHCHR Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Burundi www ohchr org Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 10 October 2017 a b OHCHR Commission calls on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations www ohchr org Archived from the original on 11 October 2017 Retrieved 10 October 2017 Moore Jina 2018 05 17 In Tiny Burundi a Huge Vote Published 2018 The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2021 01 08 Amendments to constitution of Burundi approved electoral commission Xinhua English news cn www xinhuanet com Archived from the original on May 22 2018 Retrieved 2021 01 08 a b c Dahir Abdi Latif 2020 06 09 President of Burundi Pierre Nkurunziza 55 Dies of Heart Attack The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2021 01 08 Burundi Republique de la 25 February 2020 COMMUNIQUE DU GOUVERNEMENT DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU BURUNDI DANS LE CADRE DE LA LUTTE CONTRE LE CORONA VIRUS PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2022 10 09 Retrieved 8 March 2021 Health Workers Heroes Yes But They Need Our Support Human Rights Watch 2021 03 04 Retrieved 2021 03 08 a b Who is Burundi s new president Evariste Ndayishimiye www aljazeera com Retrieved 2021 01 08 correspondent Jason Burke Africa 2020 06 09 Burundi president dies of illness suspected to be coronavirus The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 2021 03 08 a b Burundi closes borders again as COVID 19 cases on the rise ABC News Retrieved 2021 03 08 Tanzania Burundi not to get COVID 19 vaccine doses www aa com tr Retrieved 2021 03 08 Three Vaccine Holdouts Imperil the World www bloomberg com Retrieved 2021 06 14 External links editBBC News Burundi Timeline Background Note Burundi Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title History of Burundi amp oldid 1219891514, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.