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Mosquito

December 20, 2023

This article is about the insect. For other uses, see Mosquito (disambiguation).

Mosquitoes are a family, the Culicidae, of some 3,600 species of small flies. The word "mosquito" (formed by mosca and diminutive -ito)[2] is Spanish for "little fly".[3][4] Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated, piercing-sucking mouthparts. All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers; females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood. Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators, small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them. Medical parasitologists view mosquitoes instead as vectors of disease, carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another.

Mosquito
Temporal range: 125 –0 Ma Early Cretaceous (Barremian) – Recent
Aedes aegypti
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Superfamily: Culicoidea
Family: Culicidae
Meigen, 1818[1]
Subfamilies
Diversity
112 genera

The mosquito life cycle consists of egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages. Eggs are laid on the water surface; they hatch into motile larvae that feed on aquatic algae and organic material. These larvae are important food sources for many freshwater animals, such as dragonfly nymphs, many fish, and birds such as ducks. Adult females of many species have mouthparts adapted to pierce the skin of a host and feed on blood of a wide range of vertebrate hosts, and some invertebrates, primarily other arthropods. Some species only produce eggs after a blood meal.

The mosquito's saliva is transferred to the host during the bite, and can cause an itchy rash. In addition, blood-feeding species can ingest pathogens while biting, and transmit them to later hosts. Those species include vectors of parasitic diseases such as malaria and filariasis, and arboviral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever. By transmitting diseases, mosquitoes cause the deaths of over 725,000 people each year.

Description and life cycle

Overview

 

Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The first three stages—egg, larva, and pupa—are largely aquatic,[5] the eggs usually being laid in stagnant water.[6] They hatch to become larvae, which feed, grow, and molt until they change into pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Mosquitoes have adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to around a month. Some species overwinter as adults in diapause.[7]

Adult

Mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow; the legs are long and thin. The body, usually grey or black, is slender, typically 3–6 mm long. At rest, mosquitoes hold their first pair of legs outwards, whereas the somewhat similar Chironomid midges hold these legs forwards.[8] The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km/h,[9] traveling up to 12 km in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second, driven indirectly by muscles which vibrate the thorax.[10][11]

Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in hot weather in as few as five days, but it may take up to a month.[12] At dusk, within days of pupating, males assemble in swarms, mating when females fly in.[13] In species that need blood for the eggs to develop, the female finds a host and drinks a full meal of blood. She then rests for two or three days to digest the meal and allow her eggs to develop. She is then ready to lay the eggs and repeat the cycle of feeding and laying.[13] Females can live for up to three weeks in nature, depending on temperature, humidity, their ability to obtain a blood meal, and avoiding being killed by their vertebrate hosts.[13][14]

  •  
    Anatomy of an adult female mosquito
  •  
    Adult yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti, typical of subfamily Culicinae. Male (left) has bushy antennae and longer palps than female (right)

Eggs

The eggs of most mosquitoes are laid in stagnant water, which may be a pond, a marsh, a temporary puddle, a water-filled hole in a tree, or the water-trapping leaf axils of a bromeliad. Some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. A few, like Opifex fuscus, can breed in salt-marshes.[6] Wyeomyia smithii breeds in the pitchers of pitcher plants, its larvae feeding on decaying insects that have drowned there.[15]

Oviposition, egg-laying, varies between species. Anopheles females fly over the water, touching down or dapping to place eggs on the surface one at a time; their eggs are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. A female can lay 100–200 eggs in her lifetime.[13] Aedes females drop their eggs singly, on damp mud or other surfaces near water; their eggs hatch only when flooded.[16] Females in genera such as Culex, Culiseta, and Uranotaenia lay their eggs in floating rafts.[17][18] Mansonia females lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads.[19]

Clutches of eggs of most mosquito species hatch simultaneously, but Aedes eggs in diapause hatch irregularly over an extended period.[16]

Larva

The mosquito larva's head has prominent mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen. It breathes air through a siphon on its abdomen, so must come to the surface frequently. It spends most of its time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microbes in the water's surface layer. It dives below the surface when disturbed. It swims either by propelling itself with its mouth brushes, or by jerkily wriggling its body. It develops through several stages, or instars, molting each time, after which it metamorphoses into a pupa.[12] Aedes larvae, except when very young, can withstand drying; they go into diapause for several months if their pond dries out.[16]

  •  
    Anopheles larva
  •  
    Anatomy of a Culex larva
  •  
    Culex larvae plus one pupa

Pupa

The head and thorax of the pupa are merged into a cephalothorax, with the abdomen curving around underneath. The pupa or "tumbler" can swim actively by flipping its abdomen. Like the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed; typically they pass their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, they swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae. If undisturbed, they soon float up again. The adult emerges from the pupa at the surface of the water and flies off.[12]

  •  
    Mosquito pupae, shortly before the adults emerged. The head and thorax are fused into the cephalothorax.

Feeding by adults

Diet

Further information: Anautogeny
 
Female Ochlerotatus notoscriptus feeding on blood from a human arm.

Both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar, aphid honeydew, and plant juices,[14] but in many species the females are also blood-sucking ectoparasites. In some of those species, a blood meal is essential for egg production; in others, it just enables the female to lay more eggs.[20] Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars. Blood supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids, but the main function of blood meals is to obtain proteins for egg production.[21][22] Mosquitoes like Toxorhynchites reproduce autogenously, not needing blood meals. Disease vector mosquitoes like Anopheles and Aedes are anautogenous, requiring blood to lay eggs. Many Culex species are partially anautogenous, needing blood only for their second and subsequent clutches of eggs.[23]

Host animals

Blood-sucking mosquitoes favour particular host species, though they are less selective when food is short. Different mosquito species favor amphibians, reptiles including snakes, birds, and mammals. For example, Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds, but as mosquito numbers rise they attack mammals including horses and humans, causing epidemics of Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America.[24] Loss of blood from many bites can add up to a large volume, occasionally causing the death of livestock as large as cattle and horses.[25] Malaria-transmitting mosquitoes seek out caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph,[26] causing harm.[27]

  •  
    Feeding on a snake
  •  
    Feeding on a frog
  •  
    Feeding on a bird

Finding hosts

 
Blood-feeding female mosquitoes find their hosts using multiple cues, including exhaled carbon dioxide, heat, and many different odorants.

Most mosquito species are crepuscular, feeding at dawn or dusk, and resting in a cool place through the heat of the day.[28] Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito, are known to fly and feed during daytime.[29] Female mosquitoes hunt for hosts by smelling substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom alcohol, found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition.[30] The semiochemical that most powerfully attracts Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal.[31] Another attractant is sulcatone.[32] A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration.[33] In Aedes, the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito flies about until it detects a host's odorants; then it flies towards them, using the concentration of odorants as its guide.[34] Mosquitoes prefer to feed on people with type O blood, an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women.[35][36] Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes has a heritable, genetically-controlled component.[37]

Mouthparts

Further information: Insect mouthparts

Female mosquito mouthparts are highly adapted to piercing skin and sucking blood. Males only drink sugary fluids, and have less specialized mouthparts.[38]

Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis, composed of the labium, U-shaped in section like a rain gutter, which sheaths a bundle (fascicle) of six piercing mouthparts or stylets. These are two mandibles, two maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labrum. The labium bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite, staying in contact with the skin and guiding the stylets downwards. The extremely sharp tips of the labrum and maxillae are moved backwards and forwards to saw their way into the skin, with just one thousandth of the force that would be needed to penetrate the skin with a needle, resulting in a painless insertion.[39][40][41]

  •  
    Evolution of mosquito mouthparts, with grasshopper mouthparts (shown both in situ and separately) representing a more primitive condition. All the mouthparts except the labium are stylets, formed into a fascicle or bundle.
  •  
    Mouthparts of a female mosquito while feeding on blood, showing the flexible labium sheath supporting the piercing and sucking tube which penetrates the host's skin

Saliva

Mosquito saliva contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding,[42] and antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar meal.[43]

For a mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent its vertebrate host's physiological responses. Mosquito saliva blocks the host's hemostasis system, with proteins that reduce vascular constriction, blood clotting, and platelet aggregation, to ensure the blood keeps flowing.[44] It modulates the host's immune response via a mixture of proteins which lower angiogenesis and immunity; create inflammation;[44][45] suppress tumor necrosis factor release from activated mast cells;[46] suppress interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production;[47][48] suppress T cell populations;[49][50][51] decrease expression of interferon−α/β, making virus infections more severe;[52][53] increase natural killer T cells in the blood; and decrease cytokine production.[54]

Egg development and blood digestion

 
An Anopheles stephensi female is engorged with blood and beginning to pass unwanted liquid fractions to make room in its gut for more of the solid nutrients.

Females of many blood-feeding species need a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. A sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development.[55] Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws her proboscis, and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like many Hemiptera that survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes excrete surplus liquid even as they feed. This permits females to accumulate a full meal of nutrient solids. The blood meal is digested over a period of several days.[55][56] Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut synthesizes protease enzymes, primarily trypsin assisted by aminopeptidase, that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids. These are used in the synthesis of vitellogenin, which in turn is made into egg yolk protein.[55][57]

Ecology

Distribution

Mosquitoes have a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring in every land region except Antarctica[55] and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates, such as Iceland, which is essentially free of mosquitoes.[58] This absence is probably caused by Iceland's climate. Its weather is unpredictable, freezing but often warming suddenly in mid-winter, making mosquitoes emerge from pupae in diapause, and then freezing again before they can complete their life cycle.[59][60]

Eggs of temperate zone mosquitoes are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions.[61][62] Many can tolerate subzero temperatures, while adults of some species can survive winter by sheltering in microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.[63] In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.[64]

For a mosquito to transmit disease, there must be favorable seasonal conditions,[65] primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation.[66] El Niño affects the location and number of outbreaks in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and India. Climate change impacts the seasonal factors and in turn the dispersal of mosquitoes.[67] Climate models can use historic data to recreate past outbreaks and to predict the risk of vector-borne disease, based on an area's forecasted climate.[68] Mosquito-borne diseases are currently most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, and India. An emergence in Europe was observed early in the 21st century. It is predicted that by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be suitable for transmission of Plasmodium vivax malaria for two months of the year, and that by 2080, the same will be true for southern Scotland.[69][70]

Predators and parasites

Mosquito larvae are among the commonest animals in ponds, and they form an important food source for freshwater predators. Among the many aquatic insects that catch mosquito larvae are dragonfly and damselfly nymphs, whirligig beetles, and water striders. Vertebrate predators include fish such as catfish and the mosquitofish, amphibians including the spadefoot toad and the giant tree frog, freshwater turtles such as the red-eared slider, and birds such as ducks.[71]

Emerging adults are consumed at the pond surface by predatory flies including Empididae and Dolichopodidae, and by spiders. Flying adults are captured by dragonflies and damselflies, by birds such as swifts and swallows, and by bats.[72]

Mosquitoes are parasitised by hydrachnid mites, ciliates such as Glaucoma, microsporidians such as Thelania, and fungi including species of Saprolegniaceae and Entomophthoraceae.[72]

Pollination

 
A mosquito visiting a marigold flower for nectar

Several flowers including members of the Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Orchidaceae are pollinated by mosquitoes, which visit to obtain sugar-rich nectar. They are attracted to flowers by a range of semiochemicals such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and terpenes. Mosquitoes have visited and pollinated flowers since the Cretaceous period. It is possible that plant-sucking preadapted mosquitoes to blood-sucking.[14]

Parasitism

Further information: Parasitism

Ecologically, blood-feeding mosquitoes are micropredators, small animals that feed on larger animals without immediately killing them. Evolutionary biologists see this as a form of parasitism; in Edward O. Wilson's phrase "Parasites ... are predators that eat prey in units of less than one."[73] Micropredation is one of six major evolutionarily stable strategies within parasitism. It is distinguished by leaving the host still able to reproduce, unlike the activity of parasitic castrators or parasitoids; and having multiple hosts, unlike conventional parasites.[74][75] From this perspective, mosquitoes are ectoparasites, feeding on blood from the outside of their hosts, using their piercing mouthparts, rather than entering their bodies. Unlike some other ectoparasites such as fleas and lice, mosquitoes do not remain constantly on the body of the host, but visit only to feed.[76]

Evolution

Fossil record

 
Culex malariager mosquito infected with the malarial parasite Plasmodium dominicana, in Dominican amber of Miocene age, 15–20 million years ago[77]

The oldest known mosquitoes are currently those of Libanoculex intermedius found in Lebanese amber, dating to the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous, around 125 million years ago. The mouthparts of male individuals of this species are similar to living female mosquitoes, indicating that they consumed blood, unlike living male mosquitoes.[78] Three other species of Cretaceous mosquito are currently known. Burmaculex antiquus and Priscoculex burmanicus are known from Burmese amber from Myanmar, which dates to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago.[79][80] Paleoculicis minutus, is known from Canadian amber from Alberta, Canada, which dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 79 million years ago.[81] P. burmanicus can be definitively assigned to the Anophelinae, indicating that the split between this subfamily and the Culicinae took place over 99 million years ago.[80] Molecular estimates suggest that this split occurred 197.5 million years ago, during the Early Jurassic, but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous.[82]

Taxonomy

Further information: List of mosquito genera

Over 3,500 species of mosquitoes in 112 genera have been described.[83][84] They are traditionally divided into two subfamilies, the Anophelinae and the Culicinae, which carry different diseases. Roughly speaking, protozoal diseases like malaria are transmitted by anophelines, while viral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever are transmitted by culicines.[85]

The name Culicidae was introduced by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in his seven-volume classification published in 1818–1838.[86] Mosquito taxonomy was advanced in 1901 when the English entomologist Frederick Vincent Theobald published his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae.[87] He had been provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum (Natural History) from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Joseph Chamberlain, who had written that "in view of the possible connection of Malaria with mosquitoes, it is desirable to obtain exact knowledge of the different species of mosquitoes and allied insects in the various tropical colonies. I will therefore ask you ... to have collections made of the winged insects in the Colony which bite men or animals."[88]

Phylogeny

External

Mosquitoes are members of a family of true flies (Diptera): the Culicidae (from the Latin culex, genitive culicis, meaning "midge" or "gnat").[89] The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project.[90][91]

Diptera

Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies)  

Culicomorpha

Chironomidae (non-biting midges)  

Simulioidea (blackflies and biting midges)  

Culicoidea

Dixidae (meniscus midges)  

Corethrellidae (frog-biting midges)

Chaoboridae (phantom midges)  

Culicidae  

other midges and gnats  

all other flies, inc. Brachycera  

(true flies)  

Internal

Kyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquito phylogenetics in 2009, using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species. They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal, but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved.[92]

Culicidae

basal spp.

Anophelinae

 

Culicinae

other spp.

Aedini  

other spp.

Sabethini  

Interactions with humans

 
Anopheles albimanus mosquito feeding on a human arm. As mosquitoes are the only vectors of malaria, controlling them reduces its incidence.

Vectors of disease

Main article: Mosquito-borne disease

Mosquitoes are vectors for many disease-causing microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, and protozoan parasites. Nearly 700 million people acquire a mosquito-borne illness each year, resulting in over 725,000 deaths.[93] Common mosquito-borne viral diseases include yellow fever[94] and dengue fever transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti.[95] Parasitic diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria and lymphatic filariasis. The Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria are carried by female Anopheles mosquitoes. Lymphatic filariasis, the main cause of elephantiasis, is spread by a wide variety of mosquitoes.[96] A bacterial disease spread by Culex and Culiseta mosquitoes is tularemia.[97]

Control

 
Mosquito nets can prevent people being bitten while they sleep.

Approaches

Main article: Mosquito control

Many measures have been tried for mosquito control, including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets, biological control with parasites such as fungi[98][99] and nematodes,[100] or predators such as fish,[101][102][103] copepods,[104] dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko.[105] Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males.[106] Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored.[107] Control of disease-carrying mosquitoes may one day become possible using gene drives.[108][109]

Repellents

Main article: Insect repellent
 
Mosquito repellents (including a mosquito coil) in a Finnish store

Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects.[110] Some CDC-recommended repellents are picaridin, eucalyptus oil (PMD), and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535).[111] Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C. coccineum) has been reviewed favorably in research published in 2021.[112] Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent humans from being bitten by a mosquito.[113]

Bites

Further information: Mosquito bite allergies

Mosquito bites lead to a variety of skin reactions and more seriously to mosquito bite allergies.[114] Such hypersensitivity to mosquito bites is an excessive reaction to mosquito saliva proteins.[115] Numerous species of mosquito can trigger such reactions, including Aedes aegypti, A. vexans, A. albopictus, Anopheles sinensis, Culex pipiens,[116] Aedes communis, Anopheles stephensi,[117] C. quinquefasciatus, C. tritaeniorhynchus,[118] and Ochlerotatus triseriatus.[119] Cross-reactivity between salivary proteins of different mosquitoes implies that allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species.[120] Treatment can be with anti-itch medications include some taken orally, such as diphenhydramine, or applied to the skin like antihistamines or corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone. Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) also provides relief.[121] Both topical heat[122] and cold may be useful as treatments.[123]

In human culture

Greek mythology

 
Arthur Rackham's illustration of the fable of "The Bull and the Mosquito", 1912

Ancient Greek beast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito" and "The Bull and the Mosquito", with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia.[124]

Origin myths

The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito. One Ostiak myth tells of a man-eating giant, Punegusse, who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind. Other myths from the Yakuts, Goldes (Nanai people), and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. The Tatars of the Altai had a variant of the same myth, involving the fragments of the dead giant, Andalma-Muus, becoming mosquitoes and other insects.[125]

Lafcadio Hearn tells that in Japan, mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition of Jiki-ketsu-gaki, or "blood-drinking pretas".[126]

Modern era

How a Mosquito Operates (1912)

Winsor McCay's 1912 film How a Mosquito Operates was one of the earliest works of animation. It has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality.[127] It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man.[128]

The de Havilland Mosquito was a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.[129]

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Further reading

  • Winegard, Timothy Charles (2019). The mosquito: a human history of our deadliest predator. Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-1524743413. OCLC 1111638283.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Culicidae.
  • Mosquito at IFAS
  • A film clip describing The Life Cycle of the Mosquito is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
  • Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance Wikibooks

December 20, 2023
mosquito, this, article, about, insect, other, uses, disambiguation, family, culicidae, some, species, small, flies, word, mosquito, formed, mosca, diminutive, spanish, little, have, slender, segmented, body, pair, wings, three, pairs, long, hair, like, legs, . This article is about the insect For other uses see Mosquito disambiguation Mosquitoes are a family the Culicidae of some 3 600 species of small flies The word mosquito formed by mosca and diminutive ito 2 is Spanish for little fly 3 4 Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body one pair of wings three pairs of long hair like legs and specialized highly elongated piercing sucking mouthparts All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them Medical parasitologists view mosquitoes instead as vectors of disease carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another MosquitoTemporal range 125 0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Early Cretaceous Barremian RecentAedes aegyptiScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ArthropodaClass InsectaOrder DipteraSuperfamily CulicoideaFamily CulicidaeMeigen 1818 1 SubfamiliesAnophelinae CulicinaeDiversity112 generaThe mosquito life cycle consists of egg larva pupa and adult stages Eggs are laid on the water surface they hatch into motile larvae that feed on aquatic algae and organic material These larvae are important food sources for many freshwater animals such as dragonfly nymphs many fish and birds such as ducks Adult females of many species have mouthparts adapted to pierce the skin of a host and feed on blood of a wide range of vertebrate hosts and some invertebrates primarily other arthropods Some species only produce eggs after a blood meal The mosquito s saliva is transferred to the host during the bite and can cause an itchy rash In addition blood feeding species can ingest pathogens while biting and transmit them to later hosts Those species include vectors of parasitic diseases such as malaria and filariasis and arboviral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever By transmitting diseases mosquitoes cause the deaths of over 725 000 people each year Contents 1 Description and life cycle 1 1 Overview 1 2 Adult 1 3 Eggs 1 4 Larva 1 5 Pupa 2 Feeding by adults 2 1 Diet 2 2 Host animals 2 3 Finding hosts 2 4 Mouthparts 2 5 Saliva 2 6 Egg development and blood digestion 3 Ecology 3 1 Distribution 3 2 Predators and parasites 3 3 Pollination 3 4 Parasitism 4 Evolution 4 1 Fossil record 4 2 Taxonomy 4 3 Phylogeny 4 3 1 External 4 3 2 Internal 5 Interactions with humans 5 1 Vectors of disease 5 2 Control 5 3 Approaches 5 4 Repellents 5 5 Bites 6 In human culture 6 1 Greek mythology 6 2 Origin myths 6 3 Modern era 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksDescription and life cycleOverview nbsp Like all flies mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles egg larva pupa and adult The first three stages egg larva and pupa are largely aquatic 5 the eggs usually being laid in stagnant water 6 They hatch to become larvae which feed grow and molt until they change into pupae The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface Mosquitoes have adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to around a month Some species overwinter as adults in diapause 7 Adult Mosquitoes have one pair of wings with distinct scales on the surface Their wings are long and narrow the legs are long and thin The body usually grey or black is slender typically 3 6 mm long At rest mosquitoes hold their first pair of legs outwards whereas the somewhat similar Chironomid midges hold these legs forwards 8 The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km h 9 traveling up to 12 km in a night Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second driven indirectly by muscles which vibrate the thorax 10 11 Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in hot weather in as few as five days but it may take up to a month 12 At dusk within days of pupating males assemble in swarms mating when females fly in 13 In species that need blood for the eggs to develop the female finds a host and drinks a full meal of blood She then rests for two or three days to digest the meal and allow her eggs to develop She is then ready to lay the eggs and repeat the cycle of feeding and laying 13 Females can live for up to three weeks in nature depending on temperature humidity their ability to obtain a blood meal and avoiding being killed by their vertebrate hosts 13 14 nbsp Anatomy of an adult female mosquito nbsp Adult yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti typical of subfamily Culicinae Male left has bushy antennae and longer palps than female right Eggs The eggs of most mosquitoes are laid in stagnant water which may be a pond a marsh a temporary puddle a water filled hole in a tree or the water trapping leaf axils of a bromeliad Some lay near the water s edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants A few like Opifex fuscus can breed in salt marshes 6 Wyeomyia smithii breeds in the pitchers of pitcher plants its larvae feeding on decaying insects that have drowned there 15 Oviposition egg laying varies between species Anopheles females fly over the water touching down or dapping to place eggs on the surface one at a time their eggs are roughly cigar shaped and have floats down their sides A female can lay 100 200 eggs in her lifetime 13 Aedes females drop their eggs singly on damp mud or other surfaces near water their eggs hatch only when flooded 16 Females in genera such as Culex Culiseta and Uranotaenia lay their eggs in floating rafts 17 18 Mansonia females lay their eggs in arrays attached usually to the under surfaces of waterlily pads 19 Clutches of eggs of most mosquito species hatch simultaneously but Aedes eggs in diapause hatch irregularly over an extended period 16 nbsp Anopheles eggs with side floats nbsp Electron micrograph of a culicine egg nbsp Culex egg raftLarva The mosquito larva s head has prominent mouth brushes used for feeding a large thorax with no legs and a segmented abdomen It breathes air through a siphon on its abdomen so must come to the surface frequently It spends most of its time feeding on algae bacteria and other microbes in the water s surface layer It dives below the surface when disturbed It swims either by propelling itself with its mouth brushes or by jerkily wriggling its body It develops through several stages or instars molting each time after which it metamorphoses into a pupa 12 Aedes larvae except when very young can withstand drying they go into diapause for several months if their pond dries out 16 nbsp Anopheles larva nbsp Anatomy of a Culex larva nbsp Culex larvae plus one pupaPupa The head and thorax of the pupa are merged into a cephalothorax with the abdomen curving around underneath The pupa or tumbler can swim actively by flipping its abdomen Like the larva the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes They do not feed typically they pass their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets If alarmed they swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae If undisturbed they soon float up again The adult emerges from the pupa at the surface of the water and flies off 12 nbsp Mosquito pupae shortly before the adults emerged The head and thorax are fused into the cephalothorax Feeding by adultsDiet Further information Anautogeny nbsp Female Ochlerotatus notoscriptus feeding on blood from a human arm Both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar aphid honeydew and plant juices 14 but in many species the females are also blood sucking ectoparasites In some of those species a blood meal is essential for egg production in others it just enables the female to lay more eggs 20 Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars Blood supplies more concentrated nutrients such as lipids but the main function of blood meals is to obtain proteins for egg production 21 22 Mosquitoes like Toxorhynchites reproduce autogenously not needing blood meals Disease vector mosquitoes like Anopheles and Aedes are anautogenous requiring blood to lay eggs Many Culex species are partially anautogenous needing blood only for their second and subsequent clutches of eggs 23 Host animals Blood sucking mosquitoes favour particular host species though they are less selective when food is short Different mosquito species favor amphibians reptiles including snakes birds and mammals For example Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds but as mosquito numbers rise they attack mammals including horses and humans causing epidemics of Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America 24 Loss of blood from many bites can add up to a large volume occasionally causing the death of livestock as large as cattle and horses 25 Malaria transmitting mosquitoes seek out caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph 26 causing harm 27 nbsp Feeding on a snake nbsp Feeding on a frog nbsp Feeding on a birdFinding hosts nbsp Blood feeding female mosquitoes find their hosts using multiple cues including exhaled carbon dioxide heat and many different odorants Most mosquito species are crepuscular feeding at dawn or dusk and resting in a cool place through the heat of the day 28 Some species such as the Asian tiger mosquito are known to fly and feed during daytime 29 Female mosquitoes hunt for hosts by smelling substances such as carbon dioxide CO2 and 1 octen 3 ol mushroom alcohol found in exhaled breath produced from the host and through visual recognition 30 The semiochemical that most powerfully attracts Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal 31 Another attractant is sulcatone 32 A large part of the mosquito s sense of smell or olfactory system is devoted to sniffing out blood sources Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration 33 In Aedes the search for a host takes place in two phases First the mosquito flies about until it detects a host s odorants then it flies towards them using the concentration of odorants as its guide 34 Mosquitoes prefer to feed on people with type O blood an abundance of skin bacteria high body heat and pregnant women 35 36 Individuals attractiveness to mosquitoes has a heritable genetically controlled component 37 Mouthparts Further information Insect mouthparts Female mosquito mouthparts are highly adapted to piercing skin and sucking blood Males only drink sugary fluids and have less specialized mouthparts 38 Externally the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis composed of the labium U shaped in section like a rain gutter which sheaths a bundle fascicle of six piercing mouthparts or stylets These are two mandibles two maxillae the hypopharynx and the labrum The labium bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite staying in contact with the skin and guiding the stylets downwards The extremely sharp tips of the labrum and maxillae are moved backwards and forwards to saw their way into the skin with just one thousandth of the force that would be needed to penetrate the skin with a needle resulting in a painless insertion 39 40 41 nbsp Evolution of mosquito mouthparts with grasshopper mouthparts shown both in situ and separately representing a more primitive condition All the mouthparts except the labium are stylets formed into a fascicle or bundle nbsp Mouthparts of a female mosquito while feeding on blood showing the flexible labium sheath supporting the piercing and sucking tube which penetrates the host s skinSaliva Mosquito saliva contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding 42 and antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar meal 43 For a mosquito to obtain a blood meal it must circumvent its vertebrate host s physiological responses Mosquito saliva blocks the host s hemostasis system with proteins that reduce vascular constriction blood clotting and platelet aggregation to ensure the blood keeps flowing 44 It modulates the host s immune response via a mixture of proteins which lower angiogenesis and immunity create inflammation 44 45 suppress tumor necrosis factor release from activated mast cells 46 suppress interleukin IL 2 and IFN g production 47 48 suppress T cell populations 49 50 51 decrease expression of interferon a b making virus infections more severe 52 53 increase natural killer T cells in the blood and decrease cytokine production 54 Egg development and blood digestion nbsp An Anopheles stephensi female is engorged with blood and beginning to pass unwanted liquid fractions to make room in its gut for more of the solid nutrients Females of many blood feeding species need a blood meal to begin the process of egg development A sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development 55 Upon completion of feeding the mosquito withdraws her proboscis and as the gut fills up the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood This keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach Like many Hemiptera that survive on dilute liquid diets many adult mosquitoes excrete surplus liquid even as they feed This permits females to accumulate a full meal of nutrient solids The blood meal is digested over a period of several days 55 56 Once blood is in the stomach the midgut synthesizes protease enzymes primarily trypsin assisted by aminopeptidase that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids These are used in the synthesis of vitellogenin which in turn is made into egg yolk protein 55 57 EcologyDistribution Mosquitoes have a cosmopolitan distribution occurring in every land region except Antarctica 55 and a few islands with polar or subpolar climates such as Iceland which is essentially free of mosquitoes 58 This absence is probably caused by Iceland s climate Its weather is unpredictable freezing but often warming suddenly in mid winter making mosquitoes emerge from pupae in diapause and then freezing again before they can complete their life cycle 59 60 Eggs of temperate zone mosquitoes are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions 61 62 Many can tolerate subzero temperatures while adults of some species can survive winter by sheltering in microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees 63 In warm and humid tropical regions some mosquito species are active for the entire year but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt water pools form on the permafrost During that time though they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd 64 For a mosquito to transmit disease there must be favorable seasonal conditions 65 primarily humidity temperature and precipitation 66 El Nino affects the location and number of outbreaks in East Africa Latin America Southeast Asia and India Climate change impacts the seasonal factors and in turn the dispersal of mosquitoes 67 Climate models can use historic data to recreate past outbreaks and to predict the risk of vector borne disease based on an area s forecasted climate 68 Mosquito borne diseases are currently most prevalent in East Africa Latin America Southeast Asia and India An emergence in Europe was observed early in the 21st century It is predicted that by 2030 the climate of southern Great Britain will be suitable for transmission of Plasmodium vivax malaria for two months of the year and that by 2080 the same will be true for southern Scotland 69 70 Predators and parasites Mosquito larvae are among the commonest animals in ponds and they form an important food source for freshwater predators Among the many aquatic insects that catch mosquito larvae are dragonfly and damselfly nymphs whirligig beetles and water striders Vertebrate predators include fish such as catfish and the mosquitofish amphibians including the spadefoot toad and the giant tree frog freshwater turtles such as the red eared slider and birds such as ducks 71 Emerging adults are consumed at the pond surface by predatory flies including Empididae and Dolichopodidae and by spiders Flying adults are captured by dragonflies and damselflies by birds such as swifts and swallows and by bats 72 Mosquitoes are parasitised by hydrachnid mites ciliates such as Glaucoma microsporidians such as Thelania and fungi including species of Saprolegniaceae and Entomophthoraceae 72 Pollination nbsp A mosquito visiting a marigold flower for nectarSeveral flowers including members of the Asteraceae Rosaceae and Orchidaceae are pollinated by mosquitoes which visit to obtain sugar rich nectar They are attracted to flowers by a range of semiochemicals such as alcohols aldehydes ketones and terpenes Mosquitoes have visited and pollinated flowers since the Cretaceous period It is possible that plant sucking preadapted mosquitoes to blood sucking 14 Parasitism Further information Parasitism Ecologically blood feeding mosquitoes are micropredators small animals that feed on larger animals without immediately killing them Evolutionary biologists see this as a form of parasitism in Edward O Wilson s phrase Parasites are predators that eat prey in units of less than one 73 Micropredation is one of six major evolutionarily stable strategies within parasitism It is distinguished by leaving the host still able to reproduce unlike the activity of parasitic castrators or parasitoids and having multiple hosts unlike conventional parasites 74 75 From this perspective mosquitoes are ectoparasites feeding on blood from the outside of their hosts using their piercing mouthparts rather than entering their bodies Unlike some other ectoparasites such as fleas and lice mosquitoes do not remain constantly on the body of the host but visit only to feed 76 EvolutionFossil record nbsp Culex malariager mosquito infected with the malarial parasite Plasmodium dominicana in Dominican amber of Miocene age 15 20 million years ago 77 The oldest known mosquitoes are currently those of Libanoculex intermedius found in Lebanese amber dating to the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous around 125 million years ago The mouthparts of male individuals of this species are similar to living female mosquitoes indicating that they consumed blood unlike living male mosquitoes 78 Three other species of Cretaceous mosquito are currently known Burmaculex antiquus and Priscoculex burmanicus are known from Burmese amber from Myanmar which dates to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous around 99 million years ago 79 80 Paleoculicis minutus is known from Canadian amber from Alberta Canada which dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous around 79 million years ago 81 P burmanicus can be definitively assigned to the Anophelinae indicating that the split between this subfamily and the Culicinae took place over 99 million years ago 80 Molecular estimates suggest that this split occurred 197 5 million years ago during the Early Jurassic but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous 82 Taxonomy Further information List of mosquito genera Over 3 500 species of mosquitoes in 112 genera have been described 83 84 They are traditionally divided into two subfamilies the Anophelinae and the Culicinae which carry different diseases Roughly speaking protozoal diseases like malaria are transmitted by anophelines while viral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever are transmitted by culicines 85 The name Culicidae was introduced by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in his seven volume classification published in 1818 1838 86 Mosquito taxonomy was advanced in 1901 when the English entomologist Frederick Vincent Theobald published his 5 volume monograph on the Culicidae 87 He had been provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum Natural History from around the world on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies Joseph Chamberlain who had written that in view of the possible connection of Malaria with mosquitoes it is desirable to obtain exact knowledge of the different species of mosquitoes and allied insects in the various tropical colonies I will therefore ask you to have collections made of the winged insects in the Colony which bite men or animals 88 Phylogeny External Mosquitoes are members of a family of true flies Diptera the Culicidae from the Latin culex genitive culicis meaning midge or gnat 89 The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project 90 91 Diptera Ptychopteromorpha phantom and primitive crane flies nbsp Culicomorpha Chironomidae non biting midges nbsp Simulioidea blackflies and biting midges nbsp Culicoidea Dixidae meniscus midges nbsp Corethrellidae frog biting midges Chaoboridae phantom midges nbsp Culicidae nbsp other midges and gnats nbsp all other flies inc Brachycera nbsp true flies Internal Kyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquito phylogenetics in 2009 using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved 92 Culicidae basal spp Anophelinae nbsp Culicinae other spp Aedini nbsp other spp Sabethini nbsp Interactions with humans nbsp Anopheles albimanus mosquito feeding on a human arm As mosquitoes are the only vectors of malaria controlling them reduces its incidence Vectors of disease Main article Mosquito borne disease Mosquitoes are vectors for many disease causing microorganisms including bacteria viruses and protozoan parasites Nearly 700 million people acquire a mosquito borne illness each year resulting in over 725 000 deaths 93 Common mosquito borne viral diseases include yellow fever 94 and dengue fever transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti 95 Parasitic diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include malaria and lymphatic filariasis The Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria are carried by female Anopheles mosquitoes Lymphatic filariasis the main cause of elephantiasis is spread by a wide variety of mosquitoes 96 A bacterial disease spread by Culex and Culiseta mosquitoes is tularemia 97 Control nbsp Mosquito nets can prevent people being bitten while they sleep Approaches Main article Mosquito control Many measures have been tried for mosquito control including the elimination of breeding places exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets biological control with parasites such as fungi 98 99 and nematodes 100 or predators such as fish 101 102 103 copepods 104 dragonfly nymphs and adults and some species of lizard and gecko 105 Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males 106 Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility chromosomal translocations sex distortion and gene replacement solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance have been explored 107 Control of disease carrying mosquitoes may one day become possible using gene drives 108 109 Repellents Main article Insect repellent nbsp Mosquito repellents including a mosquito coil in a Finnish storeInsect repellents are applied on skin and give short term protection against mosquito bites The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects 110 Some CDC recommended repellents are picaridin eucalyptus oil PMD and ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate IR3535 111 Pyrethrum from Chrysanthemum species particularly C cinerariifolium and C coccineum has been reviewed favorably in research published in 2021 112 Electronic insect repellent devices that produce ultrasounds intended to keep away insects and mosquitoes are marketed No EPA or university study has shown that these devices prevent humans from being bitten by a mosquito 113 Bites Further information Mosquito bite allergies Mosquito bites lead to a variety of skin reactions and more seriously to mosquito bite allergies 114 Such hypersensitivity to mosquito bites is an excessive reaction to mosquito saliva proteins 115 Numerous species of mosquito can trigger such reactions including Aedes aegypti A vexans A albopictus Anopheles sinensis Culex pipiens 116 Aedes communis Anopheles stephensi 117 C quinquefasciatus C tritaeniorhynchus 118 and Ochlerotatus triseriatus 119 Cross reactivity between salivary proteins of different mosquitoes implies that allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species 120 Treatment can be with anti itch medications include some taken orally such as diphenhydramine or applied to the skin like antihistamines or corticosteroids such as hydrocortisone Aqueous ammonia 3 6 also provides relief 121 Both topical heat 122 and cold may be useful as treatments 123 In human cultureGreek mythology nbsp Arthur Rackham s illustration of the fable of The Bull and the Mosquito 1912Ancient Greek beast fables including The Elephant and the Mosquito and The Bull and the Mosquito with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one derive ultimately from Mesopotamia 124 Origin myths The peoples of Siberia have origin myths surrounding the mosquito One Ostiak myth tells of a man eating giant Punegusse who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead The hero eventually burns the giant but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind Other myths from the Yakuts Goldes Nanai people and Samoyed have the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon Similar tales found in Native North American myth with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man eater suggest a common origin The Tatars of the Altai had a variant of the same myth involving the fragments of the dead 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22253544 Treatment of Insect bites and stings nhs uk 2017 10 19 Archived from the original on 2018 10 31 Retrieved 2018 10 31 Adrados Francisco Rodriguez 1999 History of the Graeco Latin Fable BRILL p 324 ISBN 978 90 04 11454 8 Archived from the original on 2016 05 28 Retrieved 2016 02 18 Holmberg Uno 1927 Finno Ugric and Siberian The Mythology of All Races Boston Marshall Jones Company vol 4 IX The Origin of the Mosquito p 386 Hearn Lafcadio 2020 1968 Mosquitoes Kwaidan Stories and Studies of Strange Things Dover Publications pp 72 74 ISBN 978 1420967517 Webster Chris 2012 Action Analysis for Animators Focal Press ISBN 978 0 240 81218 2 Archived from the original on 2021 11 04 Retrieved 2022 09 04 Canemaker John 2005 Winsor McCay His Life and Art Abrams Books p 165 ISBN 978 0 8109 5941 5 De Havilland Mosquito The Aviation History Online Museum Archived from the original on 11 January 2017 Retrieved 21 November 2015 Further readingWinegard Timothy Charles 2019 The mosquito a human history of our deadliest predator Penguin Random House ISBN 978 1524743413 OCLC 1111638283 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Culicidae Mosquito at IFAS A film clip describing The Life Cycle of the Mosquito is available for viewing at the Internet Archive Parasitic Insects Mites and Ticks Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance Wikibooks Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Mosquito amp oldid 1190770164 Larva, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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