Sanskrit nominals

Sanskrit has inherited from its reconstructed parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of nominal morphology. Endings may be added directly to the root, or more frequently and especially in the later language, to a stem formed by the addition of a suffix to it.^[1]

Sanskrit is a highly inflected language that preserves all the declensional types found in Proto-Indo-European, including a few residual heteroclitic r/n-stems.^[2][3]

Basics

Declension of a noun in Sanskrit^[α] involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': three numbers and eight cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number is around 18 or so.^[4] Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.

In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:^[5][6]

1	3 numbers^[β]	singular^[γ], dual^[δ], plural^[ε]
2	3 genders^[ζ]	masculine^[η], feminine^[θ], neuter^[ι]
3	8 cases^[κ]	nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative

Building blocks

Roots

The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings^[λ] directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Sanskrit, especially the older form of Indo-Aryan termed Vedic Sanskrit.^[7]

Ancient noun roots in kindred languages

Sanskrit	Latin	PIE	Glossary
pā́d-	pē(d)s, ped-	*póds	foot^[a]
vā́c-	vōx, vōc-	*wṓkʷs	speech
rā́j-	rēx, rēg-	*h₃rḗǵs	king, ruler^[a]

Stems

In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.

Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated owing to the fact that a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor. ^[8][9]

${\displaystyle \underbrace {\underbrace {\mathrm {root+suffix} } _{\mathrm {stem} }+\mathrm {ending} } _{\mathrm {word} }}$ 

Cases

Sanskrit nouns are declined for eight cases:

• nominative: marks the subject of a verb.
• accusative: used for the direct object of a transitive verb.
• instrumental: marks the means by which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action, physically or abstractly.
• dative: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb.
• ablative: used to express motion away from something.
• genitive: marks a noun as modifying another noun.
• locative: corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by.
• vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee.^[10]

The kāraka classification

In the ancient literature, Pāṇini identified six classes as kārakas^[b], operating as accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, and locative cases.^[11] He defined them as follows (Aṣtādhyāyi, I.4.24–54):

1. Kartā ^[c]: 'he/that which is independent in action'. This is equivalent to the nominative case. ^[12]
2. Karman ^[d]: 'what the agent seeks most to attain': the accusative.
3. Karaṇa ^[e] 'that which effects most': the instrumental.
4. Sampradāna ^[f]: 'he whom one aims at with the object': the dative.
5. Apādāna ^[g]: '(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)': the ablative.
6. Adhikaraṇa ^[h]: or 'substratum': the locative.

Pāṇini did not identify the genitive Sambandha and vocative Sambodhana as kārakas.^[13]

Endings

The basic scheme of suffixion^[μ] is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.

However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi, such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r and so on.^[15][16]

	Singular		Dual		Plural
	Masc./Fem	Neu.	Masc./Fem	Neu.	Masc./Fem	Neu.
Nominative	-s	-∅	-au	-ī	-as	-i
Accusative	-am
Instrumental	-ā		-bhyām		-bhis
Dative	-e				-bhyas
Ablative	-as
Genitive			-os		-ām
Locative	-i				-su

Declension

Classification

Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:

• Short-vowel stems
  • a-stems
  • i- and u-stems
  • ṛ-stems
• Long-vowel stems
  • ā-stems
  • ī- and ū-stems
• Diphthong stems
• Consonant stems
  • Bare stems
  • as/is/us-stems
  • an- and in-stems
  • ant-/mant-/vant-stems
  • vāṅs-stems

When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms. This happens most profusely in the a-stem class. However, for reasons noted below, grammars both traditional and modern tend to start with this class.^[17][18][19]

a-stems

The vast majority of nouns in Sanskrit belong to this class, and are masculine or neuter. The position of the accent is maintained throughout, except in the masculine vocative singular. The paradigms are illustrated in their pre-sandhi forms, along with the formation treatment using two stems in the masculine devá- ^[A][i] and kā́ma- ^[B] and two in the neuter yugá- ^[C][a] and phála- ^[D] with different syllables accented.^{[20][21][22][23]}

a-stem adjectives are also to be found in big numbers, they are invariably masculine or neuter – feminines being formed either in -ā or, less frequently -ī. a-stem adjectives are also declined as below.^[24]

a-stem masc singular

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dev·á-	kā́m·a-
Nominative	-s	-a- + -s	-as	dev·á·s	kā́m·a·s
Accusative	-am	-a- + -am	-am	dev·á·m	kā́m·a·m
Instrumental	-ā	-ā -ena	-ena	dev·éna	kā́m·ena
Dative	-e	-a- + -a- + e + a	-āya	dev·ā́ya	kā́m·āya
Ablative	-as	-as -āt	-āt	dev·ā́t	kā́m·āt
Genitive	-as	-as + ya	-asya	dev·ásya	kā́m·asya
Locative	-i	-a- + -i	-e	dev·é	kā́m·e
Vocative ^[j]	-Ø	–	-a	dév·a	kā́m·a

a-stem masc dual

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dev·á-	kā́m·a-
Nominative Accusative Vocative	-au	-au	-au	dev·áu	kā́m·au
Instrumental Dative Ablative	-bhyām	-ā- + bhyām	-ābhyām	dev·ā́bhyām	kā́m·ābhyām
Genitive Locative	-os	-a- + -y- + -os	-ayos	dev·á·yos	kā́m·a·yos

a-stem masc plural

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dev·á-	kā́m·a-
Nominative, Vocative	-as	-a- + -as	-ās	dev·ā́s	kā́m·ās
Accusative	-as	as -ān (-āṅs)	-ān (-āṅs ^[k])	dev·ā́n	kā́m·ān
Instrumental	-bhis	-bhis -ais	-ais	dev·aís	kā́m·ais
Dative Ablative	-bhyas	-a- + -i- + -bhyas	-ebhyas	dev·ébhyas	kā́m·ebhyas
Genitive	-ām	-ā- + -n- + ām	-ānām	dev·ā́nām	kā́m·ānām
Locative	-su	-a- + -i- + su	-eṣu	dev·éṣu	kā́m·eṣu

Neuters only differ from the masculine in the nominative and accusative forms, the two forms always being the same:

a-stem neuter sing, dual, plu

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	yug·á-	phál·a-
Nom, Acc SG	-Ø	-a- + -m	-am	yug·á·m	phál·a·m
Nom, Acc DU	-ī	-a- + -ī	-e	yug·é	phál·e
Nom, Acc PL	-i	-a- + an + -i	-āni	yug·ā́ni	phál·āni

i- and u-stems

i-stems

Final i-stem endings are closer to the standard set compared to the a-stem declension. In general, the -i is gunated in some cases, and a -n- is inserted intervocalically between the stem and the ending in a few other cases, especially in the neuter. The paradigms are illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms for masculine agní- ^[E][l], feminine gáti- ^[F][a] and neuter vā́ri- ^[G].^[26][27]

i-stem masc/fem

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	agní-	gáti-
Nom	-s	–	-s	agní·s	gáti·s
Acc	-am	-am	-m	agní·m	gáti·m
Ins	-ā	-n- + -ā –	-nā -ā	agní-nā	gáty·ā
Da	-e	guna(i) + e	-aye	agn·áy·e	gát·ay·e
Abl, Gen	-as	guna(i) + s -i- + -a- + -as	-es ^[m]	agn·és	gát·es gáty·ās
Loc	-i	-i -au	-au	agn·aú	gát·au
Voc	-Ø	–	-e	ágn·e	gát·e
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	agní-	gáti-
N.A.V	-au	-au -ī	-ī	agn·ī́	gát·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	–	-bhyām	agní·bhyām	gáti·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	-i- + -os	-yos	agny·ós	gáty·os
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	agní-	gáti-
Nom, Voc	-as	guna(i) + -as	-ayas	agn·áy·as	gát·ay·as
Acc	-as	as -īn (-īṅs)	-īn (-īṅs ^[k])	agn·ī́n	gát·īn
Ins	-bhis	–	-bhis	agní·bhis	gáti·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	–	-bhyas	agní·bhyas	gáti·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ī + -n- ām	-īnām	agn·īnā́m	gát·īnām
Loc	-su	–	-su	agní·ṣu	gáti·ṣu

Neuters as always remain identical in the nominative and accusative, and also in the vocative. In the other cases, a -n-^[n][ν] is inserted between the stem and the standard endings in all those cases where to avoid a collision of two vowels, making the whole process almost perfectly straightforward.

i-stem neut

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	vā́ri-
N.A.V	-Ø	–	-Ø	vā́ri
Ins	-ā	-n-	-nā	vā́ri·ṇ·ā
Dat	-e	-n-	-ne	vā́ri·ṇ·e
Abl,Gen	-as	-n-	-nas	vā́ri·ṇ·as
Loc	-i	-n-	-ni	vā́ri·ṇ·i
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	vā́ri-
N.A.V	-ī	-n-	-nī	vā́ri·ṇ·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	–	-bhyām	vā́ri·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	-n-	-nos	vā́ri·ṇ·os
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	vā́ri-
N.A.V	-i	-īni	-īni	vā́rī·ṇ·i
Ins	-bhis	–	-bhis	vā́ri·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	–	-bhyas	vā́ri·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ī + -n- ām	-īnām	vā́r·īṇām
Loc	-su	–	-su	vā́ri·ṣu

u-stems

i- and u-stem declensions are so similar that they can be grouped together. The u-stem paradigms illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms are for masculine śátru- ^[H], feminine dhenú- ^[I] and neuter mádhu- ^[J][a].^[28][29]

u-stem masc/fem

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	śátru-	dhenú-
Nom	-s	–	-s	śátru·s	dhenú·s
Acc	-am	-am	-m	śátru·m	dhenú·m
Ins	-ā	-n- + -ā –	-nā -ā	śátru-ṇā	dhenv·ā̀
Dat	-e	guna(u) + e	-ave	śátr·av·e	dhen·áv·e
Abl, Gen	-as	guna(u) + s -u- + -a- + -as ^[m]	-os	śátr·os	dhen·ós dhenv·ā̀s
Loc	-i	-i -au	-au	śátr·au	dhen·aú
Voc	-Ø	–	-o	śátr·o	dhen·ó
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	śátru-	dhenú-
N.A.V	-au	-au -ū	-ū	śátr·ū	dhen·ū́
I.D.A	-bhyām	–	-bhyām	śátru·bhyām	dhenú·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	-u- + -os	-vos	śátrv·os	dhenv·ós
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	śátru-	dhenú-
Nom, Voc	-as	guna(u) + -as	-avas	śátr·av·as	dhen·áv·as
Acc	-as	as -ūn (-ūṅs) -ūs	-ūn (-ūṅs ^[k]) -ūs	śátr·ūn	dhen·ū́s
Ins	-bhis	–	-bhis	śátru·bhis	dhenú·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	–	-bhyas	śátru·bhyas	dhenú·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ū + -n- ām	-ūnām	śátr·ūṇām	dhen·ūnā́m
Loc	-su	–	-su	śátru·ṣu	dhenú·ṣu

Neuters are also just as straightforward as for i-stems.

u-stem neut

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	mádhu-
N.A.V	-Ø	–	-Ø	mádhu
Ins	-ā	-n-	-nā	mádhu·n·ā
Dat	-e	-n-	-ne	mádhu·n·e
Abl, Gen	-as	-n-	-nas	mádhu·n·as
Loc	-i	-n-	-ni	mádhu·n·i
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	mádhu-
N.A.V	-ī	-n-	-nī	mádhu·n·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	–	-bhyām	mádhu·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	-n-	-nos	mádhu·n·os
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	mádhu-
N.A.V	-i	-i -ūni	-ūni	mádhū·n·i
Ins	-bhis	–	-bhis	mádhu·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	–	-bhyas	mádhu·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ū + -n- ām	-ūnām	mádh·ūnām
Loc	-su	–	-su	mádhu·ṣu

i- and u-stem adjectives are a small class of so—called primary adjectives, such as bahus, -us, -u ^[K] and śucis, -is, -i ^[L], as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become vī.^[30]

ṛ-stems

ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ ^[M], though also include kinship terms like pitṛ ^[N][a], mātṛ ^[O][a], and svasṛ ^[P][a].^[31] The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.

ṛ-stem masc/fem/neut

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dātṛ́-	svásṛ-	pitṛ́-	dhātṛ́-^[Q]^[o]
Nom	-s	vṛddhi(ṛ) (-rs)	-ā	dātā́	svásā́	pitā́	dhātṛ́
Acc	-am	vṛddhi(ṛ) + -am guna(ṛ) + -am^[p]	-āram -aram	dāt·ā́r·am	svás·ār·am	pit·ár·am	dhātṛ́
Ins	-ā		-ā	dātr·ā́	svásr·ā	pitr·ā́	dhātṛ́·ṇ·ā
Dat	-e		-e	dātr·é	svásr·e	pitr·é	dhātṛ́·ṇ·e
Abl, Gen	-as	-as -ur	-ur	dāt·úr	svás·ur	pit·úr	dhātṛ́·ṇ·as
Loc	-i	guna(ṛ) + -i	-ari	dāt·ár·i	svás·ar·i	pit·ár·i	dhātṛ́·ṇ·i
Voc ^[j]	-Ø	guna(ṛ)	-ar	dā́t·ar	svás·ar	pít·ar	dhā́tṛ, dhā́tar
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dātṛ́-	svásṛ-	pitṛ́-	dhātṛ́
N.A.V	-au	vṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -au	-ārau / -arau	dāt·ā́r·au	svás·ār·au	pit·ár·au	dhātṛ́·ṇ·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	–	-bhyām	dātṛ́·bhyām	svásṛ·bhyām	pitṛ́·bhyām	dhātṛ́·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	ṛ + -os	-ros	dātr·ós	svásr·os	pitr·ós	dhātṛ́·ṇ·os
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	dātṛ́-	svásṛ-	pitṛ́-	dhātṛ́
N.V	-as	vṛddhi/guna(ṛ) + -as	-āras / -aras	dāt·ār·as	svás·ār·as	pit·ar·as	dhātṝ́́·ṇ·i
Acc	-as	as -ṝn (-ṝṅs)	-ṝn (-ṝṅs ^[k])	dāt·ṝ́n	svás·ṝn	pit·ṝ́n	dhātṝ́́·ṇ·i
Ins	-bhis	–	-bhis	dātṛ́·bhis	svásṛ·bhis	pitṛ́·bhis	dhātṛ́·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	–	-bhyas	dātṛ́·bhyas	svásṛ·bhyas	pitṛ́·bhyas	dhātṛ́·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ṛ/ṝ + -n- ām	-ṛ/ṝṇām ^[ξ]	dāt·ṝṇā́m	svás·ṝṇām	pit·ṝṇā́m	dhāt·ṝṇā́m
Loc	-su	–	-su	dātṛ́·ṣu	svásṛ·ṣu	pitṛ́·ṣu	dhātṛ́·ṣu

A single irregular i-stem noun,^[32] sakhi ^[R][q], has a stem in -i but declines similarly to the above – simply with y i ī taking the place of r ṛ ṝ:

	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nom	sákh·ā	sákh·āy·au	sákh·āy·as
Acc	sákh·āy·am		sákh·īn
Ins	sákhy·ā	sákhi·bhyām	sákhi·bhis
Dat	sákhy·e		sákhi·bhy·as
Abl	sákh·ay·ur
Gen		sákhy·os	sákh·īnām
Loc	sákhy·au, sákh·ay·i		sákhi·ṣu
Voc	sákh·e	sákh·āy·au	sákh·āy·as

ā, ī- and ū-stems

This category is made of ā-, ī- and ū-stems, almost entirely feminine, polysyllabic derivative nouns.^[33]

ā-stems

A few forms deviate from the standard in many of which an interspersed -y- can be observed. The vocative also undergoes the usual accent shift.^[34][35]

ā-stem fem

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	sénā-^[S]	kanyā̀-^[T]
Nom	-s	-s	-ā	sénā	kanyā̀
Acc	-am		-ām	sénā·m	kanyā̀·m
Ins	-ā	-ā e + -ā	-ayā	sén·ay·ā	kany·ày·ā
Dat	-e	-ā + y +vṛddhi(e)	-āyai	sénā·yai	kanyā̀·yai
Abl, Gen	-as	-ā + y + vṛddhi(a)s	-āyās	sénā·yās	kanyā̀·yās
Loc	-i	-i -ā + yām	-āyām	sénā·yām	kanyā̀·yām
Voc ^[j]	-Ø	-e	-e	sén·e	kány·e
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	sénā-	kanyà-
N.A.V	-au	-au -e	-e	sé·ne	kany·è
I.D.A	-bhyām		-bhyām	sénā·bhyām	kanyā̀·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os	e + -os	-ayos	sén·ay·os	kany·ày·os
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	sénā-	kanyā̀-
Nom, Voc	-as	-ā + as	-ās	sénā·s	kanyā̀·s
Acc	-as	-ā + as	-ās	sénā·s	kanyā̀·s
Ins	-bhis		-bhis	sénā·bhis	kanyā̀·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas		-bhyas	sénā·bhyas	kanyā̀·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-ā + -n- + -ām	-ānām	sénā·nām	kanyā̀·nām
Loc	-su		-su	sénā·su	kanyā̀·su

ī- and ū-stems

Again most ī- and ū-stem nouns are feminine.^[36][37] ī- and ū-stem adjectives also belong here.^[38]

ī- and ū-stems fem

Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	devī́-^[U]	vadhū́-^[V]^[a]
Nom	-s	-s	^[r]	devī́	vadhū́·s
Acc	-am	-a	-īm, -ūm	devī́·m	vadhū́·m
Ins	-ā		-ā	devy·ā̀	vadhv·ā̀
Dat	-e	vṛddhi(e)	-ai	devy·aì	vadhv·aì
Abl, Gen	-as	vṛddhi(a)s	-ās	devy·ā̀s	vadhv·ā̀s
Loc	-i	-i -ām	-ām	devy·ā̀m	vadhv·ā̀m
Voc ^[j]	-Ø		^[s]	dévi	vádhu
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	devī-	vadhū-
N.A.V	-au		-au	devy·aù	vadhv·aù
I.D.A	-bhyām		-bhyām	devī́·bhyām	vadhū́·bhyām
Gen, Loc	-os		-os	devy·òs	vadhv·òs
Case	Std Ending	Treatment	Ending	devī-	vadhū-
Nom, Voc	-as		-as	devy·às	vadhv·às
Acc	-as	as -īs, -ūs	-īs, -ūs	devī́·s	vadhū́·s
Ins	-bhis		-bhis	devī́·bhis	vadhū́·bhis
Dat, Abl	-bhyas		-bhyas	devī́·bhyas	vadhū́·bhyas
Gen	-ām	-n- + -ām	-nām	devī́·nām	vadhū́·nām
Loc	-su		-su	devī́·ṣu	vadhū́·ṣu

Diphthong stems

Stems ending in Sanskrit diphthongs (e, ai, o, au) follow a fairly regular pattern, whilst subject to sandhi rules as usual.^[39][40]

Case	Std Ending	se	raí^[W]^[t]	gó^[X]^[a]	naú^[Y]^[u]
Nom	-s	se·s	rā́·s	gaú·s	naú·s
Acc	-am	say·am	rā́y·am	gā́·m	nā́v·am
Ins	-ā	say·ā	rāy·ā́	gáv·ā	nāv·ā́
Dat	-e	say·e	rāy·é	gáv·e	nāv·é
Abl, Gen	-as	se·s	rāy·ás	gó·s	nāv·ás
Loc	-i	say·i	rāy·í	gáv·i	nāv·í
Voc	-Ø	se	rā́·s	gaú·s	naú·s
Case	Std Ending	se	raí	gó	naú
N.A.V	-au	say·au	rā́y·au	gā́v·au	nā́v·au
I.D.A	-bhyām	se·bhyām	rā·bhyā́m	gó·bhyām	nau·bhyā́m
Gen, Loc	-os	say·os	rāy·ós	gáv·os	nāv·ós
Case	Std Ending	se	raí	gó	naú
Nom, Voc	-as	say·as	rā́y·as	gā́v·as	nā́v·as
Acc	-as	say·as	rā́y·as	gā́·s	nā́v·as
Ins	-bhis	se·bhis	rā·bhís	gó·bhis	nau·bhís
Dat, Abl	-bhyas	se·bhyas	rā·bhyás	gó·bhyas	nau·bhyás
Gen	-ām	say·ām	rāy·ā́m	gáv·ām	nāv·ā́m
Loc	-su	se·ṣu	rā·sú	gó·ṣu	nau·ṣú

Bare-consonant and as/us/is-stem nouns

Consonant stem nouns may have up to 3 different stems, as well as two special forms:

1. A special lengthened form for the masculine/feminine nominative singular
2. A special lengthened and/or nasalized form for the neuter nom/acc. plural
3. A strong stem^[ο] used for masc./fem. sing. acc., dual nom./acc. and plur. nom.
4. A medium stem ^[π] used with oblique cases with consonant endings, as well as the neuter nom./acc. sing.
5. A weak stem ^[ρ] used everywhere else.

One or more of these stems may be identical for some words, but this is generally not regularly predictable from either the nominative singular or the citation form stem. While the stem ending may undergo expected internal sandhi changes as normal, the endings themselves are gracefully regular.^[41][42]

Consonant stems

Case	Ending	marút m.^[Z]	trivṛ́t n.^[AA]		mánas n. ^[AB]^[a]	havís n. ^[AC]
Nom	-s various	marút	trivṛ́t		mánas	havís
Acc	-am	marút·am
Ins	-ā	marút·ā	trivṛ́t·ā		mánas·ā	havíṣ·ā
Dat	-e	marút·e	trivṛ́t·e		mánas·e	havíṣ·e
Abl, gen	-as	marút·as	trivṛ́t·as		mánas·as	havíṣ·as
Loc	-i	marút·i	trivṛ́t·i		mánas·i	havíṣ·i
Voc	-Ø	márut	trívṛt		mánas	hávis
Case	Ending	marút	trivṛ́t		mánas	havís
N.A.V	-au, -ī	marút·au	trivṛ́t·au		mánas·ī	havíṣ·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	marúd·bhyām	trivṛ́d·bhyām		máno·bhyām	havír·bhyām
Gen, loc	-os	marút·os	trivṛ́t·os		mánas·os	havíṣ·os
Case	Ending	marút	trivṛ́t		mánas	havís
Nom, voc	-as, -āni, etc	marút·as	trivṛ́nti		mánāṅsi	havī́ṅṣi
Acc	-as, -āni, etc	marút·as
Ins	-bhis	marúd·bhis	trivṛ́d·bhis		máno·bhis	havír·bhis
Dat, abl	-bhyas	marúd·bhyas	trivṛ́d·bhyas		máno·bhyas	havír·bhyas
Gen	-ām	marút·ām	trivṛ́t·ām		mánas·ām	havíṣ·ām
Loc	-su	marút·su	trivṛ́t·su		mánaḥ·su	havíḥ·su

an-stem nouns and in-stem adjectives

an-stem nouns and in-stem adjectives (occurring prolifically in masc. and neu.) show very similar behavior and can be grouped together:^[43]

Consonant stems

Case	Ending	rā́jan^[AD]	ātmán^[AE]	nāman^[AF]^[a]		balín^[AG] m.n.	yogín^[AH] m.n.
Nom	-s	rā́jā	ātmā́	nā́ma		balī́, balí	yogī́, yogí
Acc	-am	rā́jān·am	ātmā́n·am	nā́ma		balín·am, balí	yogín·am, yogí
Ins	-ā	rā́jñ·ā	ātmán·ā	nā́mn·ā		balín·ā	yogín·ā
Dat	-e	rā́jñ·e	ātmán·e	nā́mn·e		balín·e	yogín·e
Abl, gen	-as	rā́jñ·as	ātmán·as	nā́mn·as		balín·as	yogín·as
Loc	-i	rā́jn·i, rā́jan·i	ātmán·i	nā́mn·i, nā́man·i		balín.i	yogín·i
Voc ^[j]	-Ø	rā́jan	ā́tman	nā́man, nā́ma		bálin, báli	yógin, yógi
Case	Ending	rā́jan	ātmán	nā́man		balín	yogín
N.A.V	-au	rā́jān·au	ātmán·au	nā́mn·ī, nā́man·ī		balín·au, balín·ī	yogín·au, yogín·ī
I.D.A	-bhyām	rā́ja·bhyām	ātmá·bhyām	nā́ma·bhyām		balí·bhyām	yogí·bhyām
Gen, loc	-os	rā́jṇ·os	ātmán·os	nā́mn·os		balín·os	yogín·os
Case	Std Ending	rā́jan	ātmán	nā́man		balín	yogín
Nom, voc	-as	rā́jān·as	ātmā́n·as	nā́m·āni		balín·as, balín·i	yogín·as, yogín·i
Acc	-as	rā́jñ·as	ātmán·as	nā́m·āni		balín·as	yogín·as
Ins	-bhis	rā́ja·bhis	ātmá·bhis	nā́ma·bhis		balí·bhis	yogí·bhis
Dat, abl	-bhyas	rā́ja·bhyas	ātmá·bhyas	nā́ma·bhyas		balí·bhyas	yogí·bhyas
Gen	-ām	rā́jñ·ām	ātmán·ām	nā́mn·ām		balín·ām	yogín·ām
Loc	-su	rā́ja·su	ātmá·su	nā́ma·su		balí·ṣu	yogí·ṣu

ant-, mant- and vant-stem adjectives

Participial forms in -ant/-at decline as below, with some stem variation with the -n-.^[44]. Possessives in -mant and vant- display similar behavior, the difference that stands out is the nom. sing. masc. -mān & -vān.^[45] Forms not mentioned fit the existing pattern with full regularity:

Consonant stems singular

Case	Ending	bháv·ant-^[AI] m.n.	ad·ánt-^[AJ] m.n.	júhv·at-^[AK] m.n.		paśu·mánt-^[AL] m.n.	bhága·vant-^[AM]^[v] m.n.
Nom	-s	bháv·an, bháv·at	ad·án, adát	júhv·an, júhv·at		paśu·mā́n, paśu·mát	bhága·vān, bhága·vat
Acc	-am	bháv·ant·am, bháv·at	ad·ánt·am, ad·át	júhv·at·am, júhv·at		paśu·mánt·am, -mát	bhága·vant·am, -vat
Ins	-ā	bháv·at·ā	ad·at·ā́	júhv·at·ā		pasu·mát·ā	bhága·vat·ā
etc						etc
Voc ^[j]	-Ø	bháv·an, bháv·at	ád·an, ád·at	júhv·an, júhv·at		páśu·man, -mat	bhág·avan, -vat
Dual
N.A.V	-au, -ī	bháv·ant·au, -ant·ī	ad·ánt·au, ad·at·ī́	júhv·at·au, júhv·at·ī		paśu·mánt·au, -mát·ī	bhága·vant·au, -vat·ī
Plural
N.V	-as, -i	bháv·ant·as, -ant·i	ad·ánt·as, ad·ánt·i	júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i		paśu·mánt·as, -mánti	bhága·vant·as, -vant·i
Acc	-as	bháv·at·as, -ant·i	ad·át·as, ad·ánt·i	júhv·at·as, júhv·at·i		paśu·mát·as, -mánt·i	bhága·vat·as, -vant·i
Ins	-bhis	bháv·ad·bhis	ad·ád·bhis	júhv·ad·bhis		paśu·mád·bhis	bhága·vad·bhis

vāṅs-stem perfect participles

These forms exhibit similarities with the -vant stems illustrated above, with the main exception that in the weakest forms, before vowel endings, -vāṅs is zero-graded alongside the disappearance of the -ṅ-.^[46][47]

Case	Ending	vidvā́ṅs-^[AN] m.n.	babhūváṅs-^[AO] m.n.
Nom	-s	vid·vā́n, vid·vát	babhū·vā́n, babhū·vát
Acc	-am	vid·vā́ṅs·am, -vát	babhū·vā́ṅs·am, -vát
Ins	-ā	vid·úṣ·ā	babhū·vúṣ·ā
etc		etc
Voc ^[j]	-Ø	víd·van, víd·vat	bábhū·van, bábhu·vat
Dual
N.A.V	-au, -ī	vid·vā́ṅs·au, vid·úṣ·ī	babhū·vāṅs·au, babhū·vúṣ·ī
Plural
N.V	-as, -i	vid·vāṅs·as, vid·vā́ṅs·i	babhū·vā́ṅs·as, babhū·vúṣ·i
Acc	-as	vid·úṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i	babhū·vúṣ·as, -vā́ṅs·i
Ins	-bhis	vid·vád·bhis	babhū·vád·bhis

Comparatives and superlatives

Primary derivation

A small closed class of comparatives and superlatives are directly formed on adjectival roots, after dropping the original stem suffix. The comparative takes the suffix -īyān (yāṃsas), yasī, yas, which declines as a consonant- and ī-stem adjective; the superlative takes -iṣṭhas, ā, am. The root is strengthened to the guṇa grade.

• from mahān ^[AP][w], root mah-, is formed mahīyān, mahiṣṭhas;

• from sthiras ^[AQ], root sthi-, is formed stheyān, stheṣṭhas.

In some adjectives the original form of the root has been obscured by internal sandhi, making the outcome somewhat irregular. Thus:

• from gur-us ^[AR][x], originally g(w)ṛ-us, comes garīyān, gariṣṭhas;

• from dīrgh-as ^[AS][a], originally dṝgh- < dṛHgh- (where H denotes a laryngeal), a guṇa placed in the second possible slot ^[σ] gives draHgh- > drāgh-, whence drāghīyān, drāghiṣṭhas;

Secondary derivation

The secondary suffixes of comparison are -taras, ā, am for comparative and -tamas, ā, am for superlative. They are appended to the inflectional base, with no modification of the stem. Usually, the pada stem is used for consonant-stem adjectives, but those in a simple -n sometimes retain it.

• priyatara-, priyatama- from priya-;
• vṛṣatara-, vṛṣatama- from vṛṣan-, but vṛṣantama- is also attested.

Numerals

Cardinal numbers

The numbers^[48][49] from one to ten, along with cognates in closely related languages, are:

Numerals

Sanskrit	Latin	Proto-Indo-European
éka-	ūn-	*Hoi-no-, *Hoi-k(ʷ)o-
dvá-	duo	*d(u)wo-
trí-	trēs, tria	*trei-, *tri-
catúr-	quattuor	*kʷetwor-, *kʷetur-
páñca-	quīnque	*penkʷe
ṣáṣ-	sex	*s(w)eḱs
saptá-, sápta-	septem	*septm̥
aṣṭá-, áṣṭa-	octō	*oḱtō
náva-	novem	*newn̥
dáśa-	decem	*deḱm̥(t)

All numbers in Sanskrit can be declined in all the cases. From one to four, the cardinal numerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, gender and case; from 5 to 19, in number and case, with only one form for all genders; from 20 onwards in case only.^[50]

Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined as below:^[51]

	Three			Four
	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine
Nominative	tráyas	trī́ṇi	tisrás	catvā́ras	catvā́ri	cátasras
Accusative	trīn	trī́ṇi	tisrás	catúras	catvā́ri	cátasras
Instrumental	tribhís		tisṛ́bhis	catúrbhis		catasṛ́bhis
Dative	tribhyás		tisṛ́bhyas	catúrbhyas		catasṛ́bhyas
Ablative	tribhyás		tisṛ́bhyas	catúrbhyas		catasṛ́bhyas
Genitive	trayāṇā́m		tisṛṇā́m	caturṇā́m		catasṛṇā́m
Locative	triṣú		tisṛ́ṣu	catúrṣu		catasṛ́ṣu

The numbers from 11 to 19 are:

ékādaśam, dvā́daśam, tráyodaśam, cáturdaśam, páñcadaśam, ṣóḍaśam, saptádaśam, aṣṭā́daśam, návadaśam.

The tens from 20 to 90 are:

(d)viṃśatí, triṃśát, catvāriṃśát, pañcāśát, ṣaṣṭí, saptatí, aśītí, navatí.

The joint numbers:

21 – ékaviṃśati, 22 – dvā́viṃśati, 23 – trayóviṃśati, ..., 26 – ṣáḍviṃśati, ..., but 82 – dvā́śīti, 83 – trayā́śīti, 88 – aṣṭā́śīti.

The hundreds are:

śatam, dvai śatai, trīṇi śatāni / tri śatam, etc.

The larger numbers:

1000	sahásra
10,000	ayúta
100,000	lakṣá
1,000,000	prayúta
10,000,000	kóṭi
10^8	arbudá
10^9	mahā́rbuda
10^10	kharvá
10^11	nikharvá^[52]^[y]
10^140	asaṅkhyeya!

Compounding numbers

All the numerals may be compounded attributively in their stem form:^[53]

Compound	Meaning
dvi-pāda-	two-footed
śata-mukha-	hundred-mouthed
daśa-kumāra-carita-	ten-youth-tale, i.e., the story of the ten princes

Ordinal numbers

The ordinal numbers from one to ten are:

1. prathamás, -ā́
2. dvitī́yas, -ā
3. tṛtī́yas, -ā
4. caturthás, -ī́
5. pañcamás, -ī́
6. ṣaṣṭhás, -ī
7. saptamás, -ī́
8. aṣṭamás, -ī́
9. navamás, -ī́
10. daśamás, -ī́

Other numbers:

11. – ekādaśás, ... 20. – viṃśatitamás (viṃśás), 30. – triṃśattamás (triṃśás), 40. – catvāriṃśattamás, 50. – pañcāśattamás, 60. – ṣaṣtitamás, 70. – saptatitamás, 80. – aśītitamás, 90. – navatitamás, 100. – śatatamás, 1000. – sahasratamás.

Pronouns and determiners

Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their declension largely like other declinable classes such as nouns, adjectives and numerals, so that they can all be classed together under nominals. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes.^[54][55]

Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: person.^[56]

Pronouns^[τ] are declined for case^[υ], number^[φ], and gender^[χ]. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.

The official list of Sanskrit pronouns is: sarva, viśva, ubha, ubhaya, utara, utama, anya, anyatara, tvat, tva, nema, sama, sima, pūrva, para, avara, dakṣiṇa, uttara, apara, adhara, sva, antara; tyad, tad, yad, etad, idam, adam; eka, dvi, yuṣmad, asmad, and kim.^[57]

First- and second-person pronouns

Sanskrit pronouns in the first^[ψ] and second^[ω] person are theoretically termed asmad and yuṣmad respectively.

They resemble one another in how they are declined, and similarly do not mark gender. These pronouns have shortened, enclitic forms in the accusative, dative, and genitive cases (parenthesized in the table below).^[58][59]

sing., dual, plu.

Case	asmad	yuṣmad
N.	ahám	tvám
A.	mā́m (mā)	tvā́m (tvā)
I.	máyā	tváyā
D.	máhyam (me)	túbhyam (te)
Ab.	mát	tvát
G.	máma (me)	táva (te)
L.	máy·i	tváy·i
Case	asmad	yuṣmad
N.A.V	āvā́m	yuvā́m
I.D.Ab.	āvā́·bhyām	yuvā́·bhyām
G.L.	āváy·os	yuváy·os
& A.D.G.	(nau)	(vām)
Case	asmad	yuṣmad
N.	vayám	yūyám
A.	asmā́n (nas)	yuṣmā́n (vas)
I.	asmā́·bhis	yuṣmā́·bhis
D.	asmá·bhyam (nas)	yuṣmá·bhyam (vas)
Ab.	asmát	yuṣmát
G.	asmā́kam (nas)	yuṣmā́kam (vas)
L.	asmā́·su	yuṣmā́·su

The forms mad, asmad, tvad and yuṣmad can be used in derivation and composition: mát·kṛta, mát·sakhi, tvát·pitṛ, etc.^[60]

Demonstratives

Sanskrit does not have true third person pronouns, but its demonstratives play this role when they stand independently of a substantive. The four different demonstratives in Sanskrit^[z] are:

• tad, adas
• idam, etad

Both tad and adas are used for objects of reference that are far away, the latter being more emphatic. Both are translated by the English distal demonstrative that.

By contrast, idam and etad are used for nearby objects, and, again, the latter is more emphatic and has a strong deictic meaning. These two pronouns are translated by the English proximal demonstrative this.^[61]

The masculine singular nominative form of tad, sas exhibits irregular sandhi behaviour — before consonants saḥ becomes sa, giving, for instance, sa gajaḥ ^[AT] rather than the expected *so gajaḥ.^[62][aa]

etad, is declined almost identically to tad. Its paradigm is obtained by prefixing e- to all the forms of tat. Consequently ^[ab] the masculine and feminine nominative singular forms of this pronoun are eṣas and eṣā.^[65]

The declension of idam is somewhat irregular because it is formed from two different stems, i- and a-.^[ac] The nominative and accusative forms, except the three singular nominatives, are regularly formed with the stem im-, and the remaining forms from a-; an extra -n- is infixed should the ending start with a vowel.

Most of the forms for adas are regularly formed using the stem u- the same way as if it were a-, with the combination *ui- becoming ī- in the plural. The nominative dual and instrumental singular are formed like u-stem nouns.^[67][68][69]

sing., dual, plu.

Case	tad m.n.	idam m.n	adas m.n		tad f	idam f	adas f
N.	sás, tát	ayám, idám	asaú, adás		sā	iyám	asaú
A.	tám, tát	imám, idám	amúm, adás		tā́m	imā́m	amū́m
I.	téna	anéna	amúnā		táyā	anáyā	amúyā
D.	tásmai	asmaí	amúṣmai		tásyai	asyaí	amúṣyai
Ab.	tásmāt	asmā́t	amúṣmāt		tásyās	asyā́s	amúṣyās
G.	tásya	asyá	amúṣya		tásyās	asyā́s	amúṣyās
L.	tásmin	asmín	amúṣmin		tásyām	asyā́m	amúṣyām
Case	tad	idam	adas		tad	idam	adas
N.A.V	taú, té	imaú, imé	amū́		té	imé	amū́
I.D.Ab.	tā́bhyām	ābhyā́m	amū́bhyām		tā́bhyām	ā́bhyām	amū́bhyām
G.L.	táyos	anáyos	amúyos		táyos	anáyos	amúyos
Case	tad	idam	adas		tad	idam	adas
N.	te, tā́ni	imé, imā́ni	amī́, amū́ni		tās	imā́s	amū́s
A.	tā́n, tā́ni	imā́n, imā́ni	amū́n, amū́ni		tā́s	imā́s	amū́s
I.	taís	ebhís	amī́bhis		tā́bhis	ābhís	amū́bhis
D. Ab.	tébhyas	ebhyás	amī́bhyas		tā́bhyas	ābhyás	amū́bhyas
G.	téṣām	eṣā́m	amī́ṣām		tā́sām	āsā́m	amū́ṣām
L.	téṣu	eṣú	amī́ṣu		tā́su	āsú	amū́ṣu

Possessive pronouns

asmad allows the following forms of possessive pronouns:

• madīya-, māmaka-, māmakīna-
• asmadīya-, asmāka-, asmākīna-

The feminines are in -ā.

yuṣmad has these:

• tvadīya-, tāvaka-, tāvakīna-
• yuṣmadīya-, yauṣmāka-, yauṣmākīṇa-

tad and etad have tadīya- and etadīya- respectively.

The feminines are again in -ā, except the -aka forms where it is -akī. These are all conjugated like regular a-, ā and ī-stem forms.^[70][71]

Polite pronoun

Technically a noun, bhavant ^[ad] literally means 'Your Honour' and is treated like a third-person subject. It carries, however, a second person meaning and connotes politeness. This is declined very much like any vant-stem adjective.

This use of bhavant is common enough to suggest that the word should be treated as a polite variant of the second person pronoun, rather than as a more elaborate honorific construction. Bhavant declines like all stems ending in -ant.

In talking of someone not present, one may use tatrabhavant, and conversely for someone present, atrabhavant, whether being addressed or not.^[72]

Enclitic pronouns

The enclitic pronoun enam is found only in a few oblique cases and numbers. It is unemphatic and mostly refers to persons.^[73]

	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masc.	Neu.	Fem.	Masc.	Neu.	Fem.	Masc.	Neu.	Fem.
Accusative	enam	enat	enām	enau	ene		enān	enāni	enāḥ
Instrumental	enena
Genitive/locative				enayos

The k-y-t series of interrogative, relative, and correlative pronouns

In Sanskrit, interrogative and relative pronouns are formed analogously to tat. The interrogative pronoun kim is declined like tat, replacing the initial t or s with k. The only exception to this rule is the neuter nominative/accusative singular form, which is kim rather than the expected *kat. The relative pronoun yat is declined like tat, without exception replacing the initial t or s with y.^[74]

The demonstrative tat functions as a correlative pronoun when used in "independent clauses that 'complete' relative clauses to form complex sentences"—unlike in English (where one can say, for example, "The girl with whom you were speaking is my sister"), relative pronouns must be accompanied by correlative pronouns (which, if applied to the previous example, would be: "The girl with whom you are speaking, she is my sister").^[75]

For a Sanskrit example of a complex sentence using corresponding relative and correlative pronouns, consider: yasmin vane vasati rāmas tasmin vane na vidyante rākṣasāḥ ('In the forest where Rāma lives, there are no demons'). In that example, the pronouns are alike in gender, number, and case, but matching relative–correlative pronouns need not be alike in case—for example: yena puruṣeṇa saha bhāṣate nṛpaḥ sa muniḥ ('The man with whom the king is speaking is a sage').^[76]

Indefinite and absolute negative phrases

Aside from their primary uses, the interrogative and relative pronouns are also used to form indefinite phrases. The two ways of forming indefinite phrases are:

• placing a relative pronoun before its corresponding interrogative pronoun, which in turn is followed by the particle api (for example: yat kim api, which means 'something or another'), and
• placing one of api, cana, or cit after the interrogative pronoun (for example: kiṃcit, which means 'something').

As is evident in the examples, the first method of indicating indefiniteness is stronger, while the latter is more subtle and can simply be translated by an indefinite article in English. ^[77]

The absolute negative, semantically functioning as the negation of existential quantification, is formed by negating an indefinite phrase.^[78]

Reflexive pronouns

There are a number of words in Sanskrit that function as reflexive pronouns. The indeclinable svayam can indicate reflexivity pertaining to subjects of any person or number, and—since subjects in Sanskrit can appear in the nominative, instrumental, or genitive cases—it can have the sense of any of these cases. The noun ātman ('self') and adjective svaḥ ('own'; cf. Latin suus) decline so as to express reflexivity in any case, person, and number. The former is always in the masculine, even when used in relation to a female subject, but the latter declines for gender.^[79]

Pronominal adjectives

Several adjectives in Sanskrit are declined pronominally. That is, their declension differs from ordinary adjectival declension of a-stems and instead follows the declension of tat in certain respects.

• anya ('other'), anyatara ('either'), itara ('other'), katara ('which of two?'), katama ('which of many?'), and ekatama ('one of many') all follow the tat paradigm exactly.
• sarva ('every', 'all'), ubhaya ('both'), eka ('one'), and ekatara ('either') follow the tat paradigm except in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -m rather than -t.
• pūrva ('prior', 'east'), avara ('posterior', 'west'), adhara ('inferior', 'west'), uttara ('subsequent', 'north'), dakṣiṇa ('south'), para ('subsequent', 'other', 'opposite'), apara ('other', 'inferior'), antara ('outer'), and sva ('own') follow the tat paradigm except (1) in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -am rather than -at; (2) in the masculine/neuter ablative and locative singular, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āt and -e rather than -asmāt and -asmin; and (3) in the masculine nominative plural, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āḥ rather than -e.
• ardha ('half'), alpa ('little'), katipaya ('some'), prathama ('first'), carama ('last'), and dvaya/dvitaya ('twofold') generally follow the regular adjective declension for a-stems but sometimes (though not necessarily) follow tat in the masculine nominative plural, ending in -e rather than -āḥ.
• dvitīya ('second') and tṛtīya ('third') optionally follow the declension of tat in the forms of the oblique cases in the singular.

Note that when any of these adjectives are at the end of a compound, they decline exactly like ordinary a-stem adjectives.^[80]

Nominal derivation

Derivation or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types:^[81][82]

1. Primary derivation – suffixes directly appended to roots^[αα]
2. Secondary derivation – suffixes appended to derivative stems^[αβ]
3. Word-compounding – combining one more word stems

Primary derivatives

The root usually undergoes some change of form first, typically to first-grade, or in some cases second-grade, strengthening. A final -n or -m may sometimes be lost, a short vowel may be first followed by a -t, a final palatal or h may revert to the corresponding guttural, and so on.^[83][84]

a-suffix derivatives

A very large number of derivatives are formed under this category, with several semantic outcomes and with varying treatment of the root, including gradation, reduplication and no change.^[85]

1. With guṇa-grading, wherever possible
   • Action nouns
     • √grah- ⇒ gráha- ^[AU]
     • √i- ⇒ áya- ^[AV]
     • √vid- ⇒ véda- ^[AW]
     • √tṝ- ⇒ tára- ^[AX]
     • √sṛj- ⇒ sárga- ^[AY]
   • Agent nouns
     • √jīv- ⇒ jīvá- ^[AZ]
     • √sṛ- ⇒ sará- ^[BA]
     • √sṛp- ⇒ sarpá- ^[BB][a]
     • √kṣam- ⇒ kṣamá- ^[BC]
2. With vṛddhi-grading, where the final outcome has an ā
   • Action nouns
     • √kam- ⇒ kā́ma- ^[BD]
     • √bhaj- ⇒ bhā́ga- ^[BE]
     • √tṝ- ⇒ tā́ra- ^[BF][ae]
   • Agent nouns
     • √gṛh- ⇒ grābhá- ^[BG][a]
     • √vah- ⇒ vāhá- ^[BH]
     • √ni- ⇒ nāyá- ^[BI]

ti-suffix derivatives

Another large class, mostly feminine action nouns, with some masculine agent nouns and adjectives. The root remains in zero-grade form, largely like past passive participles in -tá.^[86]

• √bhaj- ⇒ bhaktí- ^[BJ]
• √stu- ⇒ stutí- ^[BK]
• √pṝ- ⇒ pūrtí- ^[BL][a]
• √gam- ⇒ gáti- ^[BM]
• √man- ⇒ matí- ^[BN]
• √dṛś- ⇒ dṛ́ṣṭi- ^[BO]
• √vac- ⇒ úkti- ^[BP]
• √vṛdh- ⇒ vṛ́ddhi- ^[BQ]

man-suffix derivatives

This is another productive category (PIE *-men), mostly of action-noun formations.^[87]

• √kṛ- ⇒ kárman- ^[BR]
• √dhṛ- ⇒ dhárman- ^[BS]
• √vṛt- ⇒ vártman- ^[BT][af]
• nā́man- ^[BU][ag][a]
• bráhman- ^[BV]
• brahmán- ^[BW]
• áśman- ^[BX][ah]

tar-suffix derivatives

tṛ- or tar-suffix derivatives, mostly agent nouns (PIE *-tor, English -er).^[88]

• √kṛ- ⇒ kártṛ ^[BY]
• √dā- ⇒ dātṛ ^[BZ][ai]
• √gam- ⇒ gantṛ ^[CA]
• √hu- ⇒ hotṛ ^[CB]

Several basic kinship nouns are classed under here.

• √pā- ⇒ pitṛ́ ^[CC][a]
• mātṛ́ ^[CD][a]
• bhrā́tṛ ^[CE][a]
• √duh- ⇒ duhitṛ́ ^[CF][a]

tra-suffix derivatives

Typically nouns expressing the means of doing something.^[89]

• √pā- ⇒ pā́tra- ^[CG]
• √man- ⇒ mántra- ^[CH]
• √vas- ⇒ vástra- ^[CI]
• √rāj- ⇒ rāṣṭrá- ^[CJ]

Secondary derivatives

This is used primarily to form words of adjectival meaning, and with the first vowel usually undergoing vṛddhi-grade strengthening.^[90]

a-suffix derivatives

A very productive class, nouns or adjectives that denote a relationship. Patronymics are also derived in this manner.^[91]

• mánas- ⇒ mānasá- ^[CK][a]
• bráhman- ⇒ brāhmaṇá- ^[CL]
• Marút- ⇒ mā́ruta- ^[CM]
• Mánus- ⇒ mā́nuṣa- ^[CN][a]

ya-suffix derivatives

Another very productive class. Closely related are -iya- and -īya- formations.^[92]

• devá- ⇒ daívya- ^[CO][a]
• loká- ⇒ laúkya- ^[CP]
• púṃs- ⇒ paúṃsya- ^[CQ]
• gó- ⇒ gávya- ^[CR][a]
• sánt- ⇒ satyá- ^[CS][a]

-iya- is used after a consonant cluster:^[93]

• kṣatrá- ⇒ kṣatríya- ^[CT]
• yajñá- ⇒ yajñíya- ^[CU]
• índra- ⇒ indriyá- ^[CV]
• kṣétra- ⇒ kṣetriyá- ^[CW]

tā and tva-suffix derivatives

These suffixes denote the quality of being, analogous to '-ness' and '-hood' in English. Cf Lat -tas (-ty), Slavic *-ьstvo. Coupled with the prefix a- 'un-', the sense of '-lessness' is derived.^[94]

• devá·tā ^[CX][a]
• nagná·tā ^[CY][a]
• a·gó·tā ^[CZ][a]
• a·paśú·tā ^[DA][aj]
• a·mṛta·tvá ^[DB][a]
• bhrātṛ·tvá ^[DC][a]
• śatru·tvá ^[DD]

Compounds

Main article: Sanskrit compounds

See also

• Sanskrit verbs
• Sanskrit grammar
• Vedic Sanskrit grammar
• Proto-Indo-Aryan
• Proto-Indo-Iranian
• Proto-Indo-European

Notes

1. also cognate
2. 'actors'
3. 'agent'
4. 'deed'/'object'
5. 'instrument'
6. 'bestowal'
7. lit. 'take off'
8. 'location'
9. cognate with Latin 'deus'; 'deity' & 'divine'
10. accent shift away from ending
11. the historical form resurfaces in certain environments, e.g., dev·āṅs·ca, seemingly, and misleadingly, as if it were a sandhi rule^[25]
12. cognate with Latin igni- ⇒ ignition
13. fem either form
14. a common feature for i-, u- and ṛ-stem neuters
15. In the neuter
16. most kinship nouns take the guṇa form, while agental nouns always take the vṛddhi form
17. cognate with Lat. socius ⇒ 'social, society', etc.
18. s-dropping ī-stem only
19. short end vowel
20. compare cognates in Slavic *ràjь , Russian рай – 'paradise, heaven', Latin rēs, 'thing'
21. cognate with Latin nāus
22. compare Slavic bogъ, bogatъ., 'god', 'wealthy'
23. cognate with Lat. magno-, Gk. mega-
24. cognate with Lat. gravis
25. The series has been carried to great lengths, particularly among the Jains and Buddhists – Burrow
26. cited in their theoretical form
27. This phonological irregularity does not carry over to pronouns analogous to tat such as etat, kim, and yat.
28. as a result of a general sandhi rule requiring the retroflexion of s in certain environments,^[63][64]
29. both of these also form proximal pro-adverbs, for example, atra and iha both mean "here", and atas and itas both mean "in this way"^[66]
30. probably deriving from bhagavant
31. cf avatāra-
32. cf Russian времен- vremen-
33. cf Latin nōmen
34. cf Russian ка́мень kaḿen
35. cf Lat. dator
36. lit. and cognate with im·pecu·nity

Glossary

1. a god
2. love
3. yoke
4. a fruit
5. fire
6. gait
7. water
8. enemy
9. cow
10. honey, mead
11. many
12. pure
13. giver, donor
14. father
15. mother
16. sister
17. lit. putter, placer
18. friend
19. army
20. girl
21. goddess
22. bride, wed(ded)
23. wealth
24. cow
25. ship
26. wind, wind-god
27. three-fold
28. mind
29. pouring, oblation
30. king
31. self
32. name
33. strong
34. connected with, possessed of, accompanied by
35. being
36. eating
37. pouring, sacrificing
38. cattle-having, 'pecunious'
39. god, wealthy
40. knowing, knowledgeable
41. having been
42. great, mega-
43. stable
44. heavy
45. long
46. that elephant
47. seize ⇒ seizure
48. go ⇒ movement
49. know ⇒ knowledge
50. cross ⇒ a crossing
51. emit ⇒ emission
52. live ⇒ living
53. flow ⇒ brook
54. creep ⇒ serpent
55. endure ⇒ patient
56. wish ⇒ love
57. deal/divide ⇒ share
58. cross ⇒ a crossing
59. take ⇒ a grab
60. carry ⇒ carrying
61. lead ⇒ leading
62. divide ⇒ division
63. praise ⇒ a praise
64. fill ⇒ fulfilment
65. go ⇒ gait
66. think ⇒ a thought
67. see ⇒ sight
68. speak ⇒ speech/utterance
69. grow ⇒ growth
70. do ⇒ deed
71. hold ⇒ rule
72. turn ⇒ track
73. name
74. worship
75. worshiper
76. stone
77. do ⇒ doer
78. give ⇒ giver
79. go ⇒ goer
80. offer ⇒ sacrificer
81. protect ⇒ father
82. mother
83. brother
84. milk, suckle ⇒ daughter
85. drink ⇒ cup
86. think ⇒ thought
87. clothe ⇒ clothing
88. rule ⇒ reign, kingdom
89. mind ⇒ mental
90. worship ⇒ priest
91. Maruts, wind-gods ⇒ of the wind-gods
92. Manu(s), man ⇒ descendant of Manu
93. a god ⇒ divine
94. world ⇒ worldly
95. male ⇒ manly
96. cow ⇒ bovine
97. is, essence ⇒ truth
98. might ⇒ mighty
99. offering, worship ⇒ reverend
100. Indra ⇒ Indran
101. field ⇒ of the field
102. deity, divinity
103. nudity
104. poverty in cattle, lit. cowlessness
105. cattlelessness
106. immortality
107. brotherhood, fraternity
108. enmity

Traditional glossary and notes

1. called sup or sub·anta by Pāṇini
2. vacana
3. eka·vacana
4. dvi·vacana
5. bahu·vacana
6. liṅga
7. puṃ·liṅga
8. strī·liṅga
9. napuṃsaka·liṅga
10. vibhakti
11. prātipadika – when any declinable has not yet been declined
12. "su·au·jas am·auṭ·śas ṭā·bʰyām·bʰis ṅe·bʰyām·bʰyas ṅasi·bʰyām·bʰyas ṅas·os·ām ṅi·os·sup" – Pāṇini IV 1.2. ^[14]
13. "iko'ci vibʰaktau" – Pāṇini VII 1.73
14. "nṛ ca" – Pāṇini VI 4.6
15. aṅga
16. pada
17. bha
18. 'saṃprasāraṇam'
19. sarva·nāman
20. vibhakti
21. vacana
22. liṅga
23. uttama·puruṣa
24. madhyama·puruṣa
25. kṛt
26. taddhita

References

1. Burrow, §4.1.
2. Fortson, §10.46.
3. Burrow, §5.2.
4. Bucknell, p. 11.
5. Bucknell, p. 12-16.
6. Whitney, §261–266.
7. Burrow, §4.2
8. Fortson, §6.43.
9. Burrow, §4.3
10. Fortson, §6.
11. "CSI: Man3". Chass.utoronto.ca. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
12. Scharfe, Hartmut (1977). Grammatical literature. History of Indian literature. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. p. 94. ISBN 978-3447017060.
13. S.C. Vasu, The Astadhyayi of Pāṇini
14. Kale, §56
15. MacDonell, III.71, p. 33.
16. Whitney, §164–179.
17. Whitney, §321–322.
18. Fortson, §10.46.
19. Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
20. Whitney, §326–331.
21. Bucknell, p. 19-22.
22. MM-W, p. 271, 492, 716,846.
23. Burrow, §4.3–4.4.
24. Whitney, §332.
25. Whitney, §208–209.
26. Whitney, §335–339.
27. Bucknell, p. 19-23.
28. Whitney, §335–342.
29. Bucknell, p. 19-24.
30. Whitney, §344.
31. Whitney, §369–373
32. Whitney, §343.
33. Whitney, §347, §362.
34. Whitney, §362–364.
35. Burrow, §5.8.
36. Whitney, §362–364.
37. Burrow, §5.8.
38. Whitney, §362.
39. Kale, §85–86.
40. Whitney, §360-361.
41. Whitney, §377–434.
42. Burrow, §5.
43. Whitney, §420–440.
44. Whitney, §443–447.
45. Whitney, §452–453.
46. Whitney, §458–461.
47. Bucknell, p. 22.
48. Whitney, ch. 5.
49. Burrow, ch.6.1.
50. Coulson, p. 178.
51. Bucknell, p. 106.
52. Burrow, p. 262.
53. Coulson, p. 178.
54. Whitney, §490.
55. Bucknell, p. 11.
56. Bucknell, p. 32.
57. Kale, §132.
58. Goldman & Goldman, §4.46, pp. 71 – 3.
59. Whitney, §491.
60. Whitney, §494.
61. Coulson, pp. 62–3, 76–7.
62. Coulson, p. 46
63. Coulson, pp. 65 – 6.
64. Goldman & Goldman, §3.58, p. 43.
65. Coulson, pp. 62 – 3.
66. Coulson, p. 76.
67. Whitney, §495–503.
68. Kale, §135.
69. Bucknell, tb 13–14.
70. Whitney, §515
71. Kale, §146.
72. Coulson, ch. 9, pp. 116 – 7.
73. Coulson, p. 151.
74. Goldman & Goldman, §6.14, p. 103.
75. Goldman & Goldman, §6.3, pp. 97 – 8.
76. Goldman & Goldman, §6.15, pp. 103 – 4.
77. Goldman & Goldman, §§6.17 – 6.19, p. 105.
78. Goldman & Goldman, §6.20, p. 105.
79. MacDonell, III.115, p. 79
80. MacDonell, III.120, pp. 81 – 2.
81. Whitney, §1138.
82. Kale, §179, 337.
83. Whitney, §1143.
84. Bucknell, pp. 152–206.
85. Whitney, §1148.
86. Whitney, §1157.
87. Whitney, §1168.
88. Whitney, §1182.
89. Whitney, §1185.
90. Whitney, §1202.
91. Whitney, §1208.
92. Whitney, §1211.
93. Whitney, §1214.
94. Whitney, §1237–1239.

Bibliography

• Fortson, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8895-1.
• Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language (2001 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
• Whitney, William Dwight (January 2008). Sanskrit Grammar (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0620-7.
• W. D. Whitney, The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)
• Coulson, Michael. Teach Yourself Sanskrit. Oxford: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986. (ISBN 0-340-32389-2)
• Coulson, Michael (2003). Sanskrit (2003 ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-340-85990-3.
• Bucknell, Roderick S (January 2010). Sanskrit Grammar (2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1188-1.
• Kale, M R (1969). A Higher Sanskrit Grammar (2002 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0177-6.
• Macdonell, A. A. A Sanskrit Grammar for Students. London: Oxford UP, 1927. (ISBN 81-246-0094-5)
• Delbrück, B. Altindische Tempuslehre (1876) [1]
• Goldman, Robert P. & Sally J. Devavāṇīpraveśikā. Berkeley: Center for South Asian Studies, 2004. (ISBN 0-944613-40-3)
• Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.
  • vol. I. phonology [2] Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
  • vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905) [3]
  • vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
  • vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)